ELASTICITY

CONTENT
• Definitions
• Some Properties of metals
• Hooke’s law
• Modulus of elasticity, rigidity(shear) and bulk
• Energy stored in a strain
• Poisson ratio
• Solved problems
Objectives: After completion of this
module, you should be able to:
• Demonstrate your understanding of
elasticity, elastic limit, stress, strain, and
ultimate strength.
• Write and apply formulas for calculating
Young’s modulus, shear modulus, and
bulk modulus.
• Solve problems involving each of the
parameters in the above objectives.
 Introduction
• When an external force is applied to a solid it produces a change in
shape, size or volume of the solid. This change in shape produced on
the solid is known as deformation.
• Some deformation could be temporal –that is when the applied force is
removed the solid returns to its original shape and size.
• The ability of the solid (material) to regain its original shape and size
after the deforming force is removed is known as elasticity.
• The type of deformation in this case is called elastic deformation.
• When the solid(material) remains permanently deformed after the
removal of the external force it is the referred to as plastic deformation.
• Two types of plastic deformations are: Dislocation and fracture.
Definition
• Deformation- it is the change in shape and size of a material produced
as a result of application of an external force on the material.
• Elasticity is the ability of a material to regain its original shape and
size after removal of the deforming force.
• Plasticity is when a material remain permanently deformed even
when the deforming force is removed.
Some properties of Metals
• Hardness- property of a metal to resist cutting action, penetration
• Brittleness -property of a metal to allow little bending or deformation
• Malleability- property of a metal to allow it to be hammered, rolled
• Ductility- property of a metal that permits it to be permanently bent
• Elasticity- property of a metal that enable it to return it its original shape
• Density- it is the mass per unit volume of a material
• Fusibility- ability of a metal to become liquid by application of heat
• Conductivity- property of a metal that enables it to conduct heat
and electricity.
 An Elastic Spring
A spring is an example of an elastic body that
can be deformed by stretching.

AArestoring
restoringforce,
force,F,
F, acts
acts
in
inthe
thedirection
directionopposite
opposite
the
thedisplacement
displacementofofthe
the
F oscillating
oscillatingbody.
body.
x
FF==-kx
-kx
 Hooke’s Law
When a spring is stretched, there is a restoring force that is
proportional to the displacement. It states that provided the elastic
(proportional) limit is not exceeded the force applied on a material is
directly proportional to the change in length or extension
F = -kx
x
k  F
The spring constant
F k is a property of the
m spring given by: x

The
The spring
spring constant
constant kk isis aa measure
measure
of
of the
the elasticity
elasticity of
of the
the spring.
spring.
Elasticity; Stress and Strain
This proportionality holds until the force reaches the proportional limit. Beyond that,
the object will still return to its original shape up to the elastic limit. Beyond the
elastic limit, the material is permanently deformed, and it breaks at the breaking point
(i) Proportional Limit
It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the stress-strain ratio
gives us a proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph represents
the proportional limit.
(ii) Elastic Limit
It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the load
acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original
position, and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it.
(iii) Yield Point
The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically. After the
yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs. There are two yield points (i) upper yield
point (ii) lower yield point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress Point
It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before failure. Beyond this
point, failure occurs.
(v) Fracture or Breaking Point
It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place.
Key points about a stress-strain graph:

• Elastic Region: The initial linear portion of the curve where the material returns to
its original shape when stress is removed, following Hooke's Law.
• Yield Point: The point where the material starts to deform plastically, meaning it will
not fully return to its original shape after stress is removed.
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: The maximum stress a material can withstand before
failure.
• Fracture Point: The point where the material breaks.

How to interpret a stress-strain graph:

• Slope of the curve: The slope in the elastic region represents the Young's modulus,
a measure of the material's stiffness.

• Area under the curve: Represents the energy absorbed by the material before
failure.
 9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain © 2014
Pearson
Education,
Inc.
The change in length of a stretched object depends not only on the applied force,
but also on its length and cross-sectional area, and the material from which it is
made.

The material factor is called Young’s modulus, and it has been measured for many materials.
The Young’s modulus is then the stress divided by the strain.
 Stress and Strain
Stress refers to the cause of a deformation, and
strain refers to the effect of the deformation.

The downward force F

causes the displacement x.

F Thus, the stress is the force;

x
the strain is the elongation.
 Types of Stress
F
tensile stress occurs when
equal and opposite forces are W
directed away from each other.
Tension

compressive stress occurs W

when equal and opposite
forces are directed toward F
each other. Compression
 Summary of Definitions
Stress is the ratio of an applied force F to the
area A over which it acts:
lb
Stress  F N
Units : Pa  2 or
A m in.2

Strain is the relative change in the dimensions or

shape of a body as the result of an applied stress:

Examples:
Examples: Change
Changein
in length
length per
per unit
unit length;
length;
change
changein
involume
volumeper perunit
unitvolume.
volume.
Longitudinal Stress and Strain
• For wires, rods, and bars, there is a longitudin
stress F/A that produces a change in length per
unit length. In such cases:
F
A
A

Stress  F Strain  L
A L
Example 1. A steel wire 10 m long and
2 mm in diameter is attached to the
ceiling and a 200-N weight is attached to
the end. What is the applied stress?
First find area of wire:
A
 D2  (0.002 m)2

A
A F 4 4
A = 3.14 x 10-6 m2

Stress
6.37 x 107 Pa
Example 1 (Cont.) A 10 m steel wire
stretches 3.08 mm due to the 200 N
load. What is the longitudinal strain?
Given: L = 10 m; L = 3.08 mm
L 0.00308 m
Strain  
L 10 m
Longitudinal Strain
3.08 x 10-4
 The Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the maximum stress a body can
experience without becoming permanently deformed.

F 2m

Okay
W W Beyond limit
Stress  F
A W
If the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the final
length will be longer than the original 2 m.
 The Ultimate Strength
The ultimate strength is the greatest stress a body can
experience without breaking or rupturing.

W W W
Stress  F
A W W
If the stress exceeds the ultimate strength,
the string breaks!
Example 2. The elastic limit for steel is
2.48 x 108 Pa. What is the maximum
weight that can be supported without
exceeding the elastic limit?
Recall: A = 3.14 x 10-6 m2

A Stress  F  2.48 x 108Pa

A F A
F = (2.48 x 108 Pa) A

F = (2.48 x 108 Pa)(3.14 x 10-6 m2) FF==779

779NN
Example 2(Cont.) The ultimate strength
for steel is 4.89 x 108 Pa. What is the
maximum weight that can be
supported without breaking the wire?
Recall: A = 3.14 x 10-6 m2

A Stress  F  4.89 x 108 Pa

A F A
F = (4.89 x 108 Pa) A

F = (4.89 x 108 Pa)(3.14 x 10-6 m2) FF==1536

1536NN
 Types of elasticity
Three types of elasticity:
There are three types of strain, therefore we have three types of
elasticity.
(1) Linear elasticity called Young’s modulus, corresponding to linear
strain.
(2)Elasticity of shape or shear modulus or Modulus of Rigidity,
corresponding to shear strain.
(3) Elasticity of volume or Bulk modulus, corresponding to volume
strain.
 The Modulus of Elasticity
Young's modulus, also known as the modulus of elasticity, is a material property
that describes the stiffness of a material under tensile or compressive stress. It is
named after the British scientist Thomas Young, who first introduced the concept.
Young's modulus is denoted by the symbol E, and it is defined as the ratio of stress
(σ) to strain (ε) within the elastic (linear) region of deformation. The formula is
expressed as:
Tensile or compressive stress 
Young modulus  E
Tensile or compressive strain 
Provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded, an elastic deformation (strain) is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the applied force per unit area (stress).

The units of Young's modulus are typically measured in pascals (Pa) or

gigapascals (GPa) in the International System of Units (SI).
 Young Modulus
• When the deforming force is applied to the body only along a
particular direction, the change per unit length in that direction is
called longitudinal, linear or elongation strain.
• The force applied per unit area of cross section is called longitudinal
or linear stress.
• The ratio of longitudinal stress to linear strain, within the elastic
limit, is called Young’s modulus.
• It is denoted by Y
 Young’s Modulus
For materials whose length is much greater than the
width or thickness, we are concerned with the
longitudinal modulus of elasticity, or Young’s
Modulus (Y).

Young ' s modulus  longitudinal stress

longitudinal strain

F / A FL lb
Y  Units : Pa or
L /L AL in.2
Example 3. In our previous example,
the stress applied to the steel wire was
6.37 x 107 Pa and the strain was 3.08 x 10-4.
Find the modulus of elasticity for steel.

Stress 6.37 x 107 Pa

Modulus  
Strain 3.08 x 10-4

Modulus
Modulus== 207
207 xx 10
1099Pa
Pa

This
Thislongitudinal
longitudinalmodulus
modulusof ofelasticity
elasticityisis called
called
Young’s
Young’sModulus
Modulusandandisisdenoted
denotedby
bythe
thesymbol
symbolY.Y.
Example 4: Young’s modulus
for brass is 8.96 x 1011Pa. A
120-N weight is attached to an 8 m
8-m length of brass wire; find
the increase in length. The
diameter is 1.5 mm. L
120 N
First find area of wire:
 D2  (0.0015 m)2
A  A = 1.77 x 10-6 m2
4 4
FL or L  FL
Y
AL AY
 Example 4: (Continued)

Y = 8.96 x 1011 Pa; F = 120 N;

8m
L = 8 m; A = 1.77 x 10-6 m2
F = 120 N; L = ?
L
FL
Y or L  FL 120 N
AL AY
FL (120 N)(8.00 m)
L  
AY (1.77 x 10-6 m2 )(8.96 x 1011Pa)

Increase in length: L
L== 0.605
0.605 mm
mm
 SHEAR MODULUS or Modulus of Rigidity
The shear modulus, denoted by the symbol S,G or η, is a material
property that describes the ability of a material to resist deformation
under shear stress. Shear stress occurs when a force is applied parallel to
one surface of an object or material, causing the material to deform by
sliding or shifting its internal layers without changing its volume. The
shear modulus is a measure of the material's stiffness in response to
shear stress.
shear stress 
shear modulus  G 
shear strain 
The units of shear modulus are typically in pascals (Pa) or gigapascals
(GPa) in the International System of Units (SI).
 Shear stress
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting
tangentially across the resisting section, as a result of which the body
tends to shear off across the section, then this tangential force is
termed as shear force and the stress induced is called shear stress.

Shear stress = Shear force/ Shear area

Shear strain
Shear strain =Transverse displacement/ Distance from the fixed base
 Shear Modulus
A shearing stress alters only the shape of the body,
leaving the volume unchanged. For example,
consider equal and opposite shearing forces F
acting on the cube below:
A
d
l  F
F

The shearing force F produces a shearing

angle  The angle  is the strain and the
stress is given by F/A as before.
 Calculating Shear Modulus
d A
Stress is F
F force per Stress 
F l  A
unit area:
The strain is the angle
Strain    d
expressed in radians: l
The shear modulus S is defined as the ratio of the
shearing stress F/A to the shearing strain :

The
Theshear
shear modulus:
modulus: SF A
Units
Unitsare
arein
inPascals.
Pascals. 
 Shear Modulus
The shear modulus is an important parameter in material science and
engineering, particularly in the analysis of materials' behavior under
various types of loads. It is one of the elastic moduli along with
Young's modulus (which describes the material's response to tensile
stress) and bulk modulus (which describes the material's response to
changes in volume under hydrostatic pressure). Together, these
moduli provide a comprehensive understanding of a material's
mechanical properties.
Example 5. A steel stud (S = 8.27 x 1010Pa)
1 cm in diameter projects 4 cm from the wall. A
36,000 N shearing force is applied to the end.
What is the defection d of the stud?
A
 D2  (0.01 m)2

l
4 4
d
Area: A = 7.85 x 10-5 m2
F

S F A  F A  Fl ; d Fl
 d l Ad AS
(36, 000 N)(0.04 m)
d dd== 0.222
0.222 mm
mm
(7.85 x 10-5m2 )(8.27 x 1010Pa)
 Bulk Modulus
The bulk modulus (K) is a material property that describes the material's response
to changes in volume under hydrostatic pressure. It measures the relative change
in volume with respect to a change in pressure. The bulk modulus is particularly
relevant when studying the compressibility of a material. It is defined as the ratio
of the normal stress to the volume strain.
The bulk modulus is also known as the coefficient of cubical elasticity.
Mathematically, the bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of the change in pressure
(ΔP) to the resulting fractional change in volume (ΔV/V​) within the elastic
(linear) region of deformation. The formula is expressed as:
K = −V(ΔP/ΔV​)
The negative sign is included because an increase in pressure typically leads to a
decrease in volume, and vice versa. The units of bulk modulus are typically
measured in pascals (Pa) or gigapascals (GPa) in the International System of
Units (SI).
Bulk Stress, Strain, and Modulus

When you dive into water, you feel a force pressing on every part of your body from
all directions. What you are experiencing then is bulk stress, or in other words,
pressure. Bulk stress always tends to decrease the volume enclosed by the surface
of a submerged object. The forces of this “squeezing” are always perpendicular to
the submerged surface Figure. The effect of these forces is to decrease the volume
of the submerged object by an amount ΔV
compared with the volume V0 of the object in the absence of bulk stress. This kind of
deformation is called bulk strain and is described by a change in volume relative to
the original volume:
 Volume Elasticity
Not all deformations are linear. Sometimes an applied
stress F/A results in a decrease of volume. In such
cases, there is a bulk modulus B of elasticity.

K  Volume stress  F A
Volume strain V V

The
Thebulk
bulkmodulus
modulusisisnegative
negative
because
becauseofofdecrease
decreaseininVV
..
 The Bulk Modulus
K  Volume stress  F A
Volume strain V V

Since F/A is generally pressure P, we may write:

P  PV Units remain in Pascals (Pa)

K
V /V V since the strain is unitless.

The reciprocal of the bulk modulus of a material is called compressibility C

i.e. 1/K.
Example 7. A hydrostatic press contains 5
liters of oil. Find the decrease in volume of
the oil if it is subjected to a pressure of
3000 kPa. (Assume that B = 1700 MPa.)
P  PV
B
V /V V
PV (3 x 106Pa)(5 L)
V  
B (1.70 x 109Pa)

Decrease in V;
milliliters (mL): V
V== -8.82
-8.82 mL
mL
 Summary: Elastic and Inelastic
An
An elastic
elasticbody
bodyisisone
onethat
thatreturns
returnsto
toits
itsoriginal
original
shape
shapeafter
afteraadeformation.
deformation.
An elastic collision loses no energy. The deform-
ation on collision is fully restored.

An
An inelastic
inelasticbody
bodyisisone
onethat
thatdoes
doesnot
notreturn
returnto
toits
its
original
originalshape
shapeafter
afteraadeformation.
deformation.

In an inelastic collision, energy is lost and the

deformation may be permanent.
 Summary
Types of Stress F
A tensile stress occurs when
equal and opposite forces are W
directed away from each other. Tension

A compressive stress occurs W

when equal and opposite
forces are directed toward F
each other. Compression
 Summary of Definitions
Stress is the ratio of an applied force F to the
area A over which it acts:
lb
Stress  F N
Units : Pa  2 or
A m in.2

Strain is the relative change in the dimensions or

shape of a body as the result of an applied stress:

Examples:
Examples: Change
Changein
in length
length per
per unit
unit length;
length;
change
changein
involume
volumeper perunit
unitvolume.
volume.
Longitudinal Stress and Strain
• For wires, rods, and bars, there is a longitudin
stress F/A that produces a change in length pe
L A unit length. In such cases:
A F

L

Stress  F Strain  L
A L
 The Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the maximum stress a body can
experience without becoming permanently deformed.

The Ultimate Strength

The ultimate strength is the greatest stress a body can
experience without breaking or rupturing.
 Young’s Modulus
For materials whose length is much greater than the
width or thickness, we are concerned with the
longitudinal modulus of elasticity, or Young’s
Modulus Y.

Young ' s modulus  longitudinal stress

longitudinal strain

F / A FL lb
Y  Units : Pa or
L /L AL in.2
 The Shear Modulus
d A
Stress is
F force per Stress  F
F l  A
unit area:
The strain is the angle
Strain    d
expressed in radians: l
The shear modulus S is defined as the ratio of the
shearing stress F/A to the shearing strain :

The
The shear
shear modulus:
modulus: SF A
Units
Unitsare
arein
inPascals.
Pascals. 
 The Bulk Modulus
B  Volume stress  F A
Volume strain V V

Since F/A is generally pressure P, we may write:

P  PV
B
V /V V

Units remain in Pascals (Pa)

since the strain is unitless.
9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain
Hooke’s law: the change in length is proportional to the applied force.

(9-3)

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain
In tensile stress, forces tend to stretch the object.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain
Compressional stress is exactly the opposite of tensional stress. These
columns are under compression.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain
Shear stress tends to deform an object:

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

 ENERGY STORED
• When a solid material is stretched or compressed, energy is stored in it.
This energy is released when the applied force is removed and provided the
elastic limit is not exceeded.
x
YA
• The work done W   Fdx where F (x)  x
0 lo
x x
YA YA 2 YA
W   Fdx   xdx  x where k 
0
l
0 o
2lo lo
1 2
Hence, W  kx  P.E
2
• Thus, work is stored as potential energy in an elastic material.
• The energy per unit E E
 
YA 2 YA
x 
1 x
x 
V Al 2lAl l A l
E 1
  stress  strain
V 2
 Relation connecting the Elastic Constants

The above equation gives the relation connecting the three elastic constants Y, K and η.
 Poisson's ratio
When we stretch a wire, it becomes longer but thinner. The increase in its length is always
accompanied with decrease in its cross section.
• The strain produced along the direction of the applied force is called primary or
linear or tangential strain (α) and strain produced at right angle to the applied force is called
secondary or lateral strain (β).
• Within the elastic limit, the lateral strain (β) is proportional to the linear strain (α) and the
ratio between them is a constant, called Poisson’s ratio (σ).
•

Poisson's ratio σ is the ratio of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain in
the direction of stretching force.
 Poisson's ratio: relation to elastic moduli

• Poisson's ratio is related to elastic moduli, B as the bulk modulus; S as the

shear modulus; and Y, Young's modulus.
• σ = (3B – 2S)/(6B + 2S)
Y = 2S( 1 + σ)
Y = 3B(1 - 2 σ)
Example
A load of 50 N attached to a spring hanging vertically
stretches the spring 5.0 cm. The spring is now
placed horizontally on a table and stretched 11.0
cm. What force is required to stretch the spring this
amount?
Fs  kx Fs  kx
50  k(0.05) Fs  (1000)(0.11)
k 1000 N/m Fs  110 N
Example
A slingshot consists of a light leather cup, containing a stone, that is pulled back against 2
rubber bands. It takes a force of 30 N to stretch the bands 1.0 cm (a) What is the
potential energy stored in the bands when a 50.0 g stone is placed in the cup and
pulled back 0.20 m from the equilibrium position? (b) With what speed does it leave
the slingshot?

a) Fs  kx 30  k(0.01) k  3000 N/m

b) U s  1
2 kx 2
 1
2  3000  0.2 2
 60 J 60 J

c )  EB  E A
U s  K .E
60  12 mv 2  12  0.05  v 2 v  49 m/s
60  2
v  49m / s
0.05
Example 1
An aluminium ( B  7 0  1 0 9 N / m ) ball with a radius of 0.5m falls to the bottom of the sea where the
pressure is 150atm.
(a) What is the original volume of the ball (b) what is the change in volume (c) what is the new volume of the ball
(d) what is the bulk stress (e) Calculate the bulk strain in the ball.
Solution
(a) V  4r
3
(c) V  V f Vo
3
V f  V  Vo
4(0.5)3
V V f  1.137 10 4  0.5236
3
V f  0.5236m 3
V  0.5236m3
F
(b) PVo (d) Bulk Stress =  Pressure  1.52107 Nm2
V  A
B
Bulk Strain = V  1.13710  2.1710 4
4
P  150atm  150101,325  1.52107 pa (e)
Vo 0.5236
1.52107  0.5236
V 
70109
V  1.137 104 m3
Example 2
A steel wire 10m long and 2mm in diameter is attached to the ceiling and a 200N weight is attached to the end.
What is attached to the end. What is the applied stress. What is the strain if the wire is strained 3.08 mm
Solution
D 2  0.002
A   3.1410 6 m 2
4 4
F
Stress 
A
200
Stress  6
 6.37 107 pa
3.1410
L 0.00308
(b)Strain    3.0810 4 longitudinalstrain
Lo 10

Example 3
The elastic limit for steel of diameter 2mm is 2.48108 pa. (a) What is the maximum weight that can be supported
without exceeding the elastic limit. (b) If the ultimate strength is 4089108 pa. What is the maximum weight that can be
supported without breaking the wire?
Solution
F
(a) A  3.14106 m2 (b) Stress   4089108 pa
F A
Stress   2.48108 pa F  4089108  3.1410 6 N
A
F  2.48108 3.14106 N F  1536N
F  779N
Example 4
The modulus of elasticity and rigidity (shear) of a material are 200GPa and 80GPa respectively. Find the poisson ratio and
Bulk Modulus
Solution
9Bn
Y  2n(1 )  3B(1 2) 
3B  n
Y 200
 1  1  0.25
2n 280
Y 200
B   133.33GPa
3(1 2) 3(1 2(0.25))
Example 5
The Young’s modulus of a metal is 2 X 1011 N/m2 and its breaking stress is
1.078 X 109 N/m2. Calculate the maximum amount of energy per unit volume
which can be stored in the metal when stretched.
 Example 6
Find the work done in stretching a wire of 1 sq. mm cross section and 2 m long through 0.1
mm. Given Y = 2 X 1011 N/m2.
EXERCISE
• 1. A copper wire of length 3m and 1mm diameter is subjected to a tension
of 5N. Calculate the elongation produced, if the young’s modulus of copper
is 120GPa.
A. 15m
B. 1800m
C. 0.125 ×10-3 m
D.15.9mm

• 2. The formula we use to find stress is

A. area/force
B. force/area
C. force + area
D. Force × area
3. The unit of strain is
A. newton
B. joule
C. pascal
D. no unit

4. A comparison of such a change caused by the stress with the original shape, volume or length is
called
A. stress
B. strain
C. density
D. Elasticity

5.The property of a body to restore its original size and shape as the deforming force ceases to act
is called
A. energy
B. floating
C. elasticity
D. density
• 6 If stress produces a change in the length of an object then the strain
is termed as
A. zero strain
B. constant strain
C. former strain
D. tensile strain

• 7. The modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio of the wire are 2.87 ×
1010 N/m2 and 0.379 respectively. What is the value of young’s
modulus of the material of the wire.
A. 1.08773 × 1010 N/m2
B. 7.915 × 1010 N/m2
C. 7.5725 × 1010 N/m2
D. 0.1403 × 1010 N/m2
• 8. What is the effect of hammering on elasticity of materials?
A. Has no effect on elasticity
B. Decreases the elasticity
C. Increases the elasticity
D. Breaks the material

• 9. Calculate the Young’s modulus in the cantilever depression method. The length
is 1m which is suspended with a load of 150gm. The depression is found to be
4cm. The thickness of the beam is 5mm and breadth is 3cm.
A. 3.92 × 1010 N/m2
B. 9000 × 1010 N/m2
C. 4000 × 1010 N/m2
D. 1.245 ×1010 N/m2

10. A thick wire is suspended from a rigid support and no load is

attached to its free end but the wire is under stress.
A. True
B. False