Nuclear Engineering and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Nuclear Engineering and Technology

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Original Article

Impacts of Saudi Arabian fly ash on the structural, physical, and radiation
shielding properties of clay bricks rich vermiculite mineral
Aljawhara H. Almuqrin a, Abd Allh M. Abd El-Hamid b, *, M.I. Sayyed c, d, K.A. Mahmoud b, e
a
Department of Physics, College of Science, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O.Box 84428, Riyadh, 11671, Saudi Arabia
b
Nuclear Materials Authority, P.O. Box 530, El-Maadi, Cairo, Egypt
c
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Isra University, Amman, Jordan
d
Renewable Energy and Environmental Technology Center, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, 47913, Saudi Arabia
e
Ural Federal University, Mira St., 19, 62002, Yekaterinburg, Russia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The current study investigated Saudi Arabian oil fly ash impacts on Egyptian clay bricks’ structural and radiation
Clay bricks shielding properties. To produce the required bricks, crushed clay minerals from the Hafafit area were mixed
Vermiculite mineral with 0, 10, 20, 30, and 40 % wt.% Saudi Arabian oil fly ash and pressed at a pressure rate of 68.55 MPa.
Fly ash
Identification of the minerals in the chosen clay was achieved via X-ray diffraction. Additionally, the material’s
Gamma-ray
Radiation shielding
morphology and chemical composition were determined through scanning electron microscope and energy-
dispersive X-ray. The fabricated bricks’ density was reduced by 36.3 % through increasing the concentration
of fly ash from 0 to 40 wt%. Then, the fly ash addition’s influence on the fabricated clay bricks’ γ-ray shielding
properties was investigated by Monte Carlo simulation, which found a reduction in the fabricated bricks’ linear
attenuation coefficient (LAC) by 41.2, 36.0, 33.8, and 33.8 % at the 0.059, 0.103, 0.662, and 1.252 MeV γ-ray
energies, respectively. The LAC reduction caused an increase in the fabricated bricks’ half-value thickness,
transmission factor, and the equivalent thickness of the lead. Moreover, the thicker fabricated sample thicknesses
were found to have high γ-ray shielding capacity and can thus be used in radiation shielding applications.

1. Introduction no environmental impact. The brick’s remarkable solidity means that

little upkeep and repair work is necessary. Brick is mostly formed of clay
Ionizing radiations used in power production, illness diagnosis and minerals found in nature; however, minerals and additive materials may
treatment, and petroleum exploration (e.g. gamma- and X-rays, and be added to improve the material’s physical durability. This increases
neutrons), may have a severe influence on the environment and human the brick’s strength and radiation shielding capabilities [7].
health [1]. Therefore, safeguarding humans and the natural surround­ For uses in neutron and gamma ray shielding, various brick com­
ings against radiation’s detrimental impacts is critical, and it acts as a posites have recently been reported in the literature. Bricks’ radiation
potent deterrent to its deadly consequences [2,3]. Controlling the period shielding characteristics when comprised of varied fly ash were exam­
of exposure, distance between the source and people, and shielding ined at low and intermediate gamma-photon energies in the
materials was often used to ensure the safety of people and the envi­ 0.059–1.332 MeV range. According to the study, fly ash-reinforced
ronment. Concrete is frequently utilized as the main load-bearing bricks have adequate medium-energy photon shielding characteristics,
component of structures, including containments for nuclear reactor proving that fly ash may be used for many purposes [8]. Furthermore,
units, as radiation protection, assuring the buildings’ high strength. clay bricks and a thicker wall made of halloysite clay mineral both
Besides, bricks are sometimes used as building materials [4–6]. significantly reduce the activity concentration and effective dose rate
Walls constructed from brick offer more effective insulation than the released from radioactive waste storages in terms of intermediate
majority of other construction materials, and they are also lower in gamma ray energy [9–12].
price. Brick walls are strong and might survive for many generations Boiler ash is produced by electric power plants employing the fuel
since they are composed of clean, natural materials that impose little-to- source of heavy oil, with such ash representing a solid residue that sticks

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.A.M. Abd El-Hamid).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.net.2024.01.043
Received 27 October 2023; Received in revised form 7 January 2024; Accepted 28 January 2024
1738-5733/© 2024 Korean Nuclear Society, Published by Elsevier Korea LLC. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Aljawhara H. Almuqrin et al., Nuclear Engineering and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.net.2024.01.043
A.H. Almuqrin et al. Nuclear Engineering and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. (a) A flowchart for the brick’s fabrication process and (b) The simulation geometry as presented in the MCNP-5’s input file.

to the exterior surface of the boiler, whereas fly ash is a solid residue of a alteration [18]. Located in Egypt’s south-eastern desert, the Hafafit area
powdery nature that builds up on walls of the chimney. There are a lot of is a complex Precambrian terrain with asbestos, chromite, corundum
heavy metals in petroleum ash, especially oxides of nickel and vana­ emerald, Nb–Ta, and vermiculite mineralization. The formation of the
dium. Petroleum ash also contains extremely high amounts of residual region was through magmatism and metamorphism associated with the
carbon. Actually, because petroleum ash contains elements that are subduction–collision of the Neoproterozoic Pan-African event [19].
harmful and carcinogenic, it has a negative environmental affect [13]. The current study is notable for the development of a unique brick
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is experiencing an increasing need for for radiation shielding applications employing Saudi Arabian fly ash and
electrical generation and utilities to desalinate water, due to the coun­ clay minerals from the El Hafafit area of Egypt. The effects of Saudi
try’s rapidly growing population, infrastructure expansion, and the ris­ Arabian fly ash on the physical and radiation-shielding characteristics of
ing number of facilities for industry. However, Saudi Arabia’s larger developed bricks were investigated.
power plants are typically oil-fueled, an uncommon medium in the
global context due in part to fluctuations in oil prices [14]. An increasing 2. Materials and methods
volume of oil fuel fly ash (FFA) will be produced by the Kingdom
through power plants that burn crude and heavy fuel oils, leading to 2.1. Fabrication and characterizations
challenges in terms of FFA disposal [15]. Oil-rich nations are thus
experiencing significant issues in terms of fly ash. For example, in order The utilized clay sample was collected from El Hafafit, situated
to power its thermal power and seawater desalination plants, Saudi within the 34 20′ to 34 50′ E longitude and 24 20′ to 24 50′ N latitude
Arabia consumes over 40 million metric tons of heavy fuel and crude oil, area. The clay sample was then ground manually to establish a fine
respectively [16], with landfill sites used to dispose of the resulting FFA, powder with grain size − 200 mesh. Additionally, petroleum fly ash was
thus increasing the environmental burden. Consequently, there is a sourced in the western region of the Kingdom from the Shuaiba Water
pressing need to identify opportunities for the utilization of FFA. Desalination Plant. Clay samples from El Hafafit were placed in a thin
In fact, the term clay refers to a rock, particle size, and an earthy fine- slurry suspension on a glass slide, allowed to air dry at room tempera­
grained natural material that, when mixed with a small amount of water, ture, and then analyzed via X-ray diffraction (XRD) using a diffrac­
transforms into plasticity. Clays, on the other hand, are widely distrib­ tometer (PW 223320) equipped with a Ni filter and an XRD tube
uted throughout Egypt’s geological Phanerozoic. From a geological operated at 40 kV and 30 mV. The XRD analysis was performed on the
standpoint, layers of a sufficient thickness should be confined by natural bulk (disoriented sample) and its clay fractions (<2 μm) as well as the fly
barriers, as seen in the case of clay-containing sediments. Furthermore, ash. The identification of the minerals was accomplished in accordance
in terms of long-term operational viability and safety, the most critical with the PDF-2 cards released in 2020, (Powder diffraction files cards).
parameters are the landfill site’s metal adsorption capacity and perme­ Furthermore, an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM)
ability. Due to the small size of the grain, digenetic processes (causing (Thermo Scientific Prisma E, USA) was employed for the examination of
high natural density), and specific surface area, as well as their capacity the morphology of the clay and fly ash samples. The chemical compo­
to close the cracks and fissures that may create locality pathways, clay sition of the materials under study, namely clay and fly ash, was
sediments are excellent natural barriers. Furthermore, the reactivity of analyzed using an EDX unit in conjunction with an LVD detector to
their chemicals enable important contaminants to be immobilized capture the scanning electron microscope (SEM) images (accelerating
environmentally [17]. A class of clay minerals with exchangeable cat­ voltage: 1–2 mm beam diameter; counting time: 60–120 s; analytical
ions is known as vermiculite. They resemble micas in that they have conditions: 10–30 Kv). The quantitative result’s relative accuracy ranges
lower layer charges and, to varying degrees, exchangeable, hydrated, from 2 to 10 % for elements Z > 9 and from 10 % to 20 % for light el­
frequently divalent cations replace the K+ in their interlayer. Most ements. The minimum concentration of detectable weight is between
often, vermiculite is a clay that forms in the soil, but deposits of coarsely 0.1 and 1 %.
crystalline vermiculite are created when igneous rocks undergo After that, the Saudi Arabian fly ash was mixed with the clay sample

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A.H. Almuqrin et al. Nuclear Engineering and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 2. XRD pattern of the sediments from El Hafafit.

from El-Hafafit area with various ratios 0, 10, 20, 30, and 40 wt% for positioned within a lead collimator inside the outer lead cylinder in
samples HA-0 %, HA-10 %, HA-20 %, HA-30 %, and HA-40 %, respec­ order to create a narrow photon beam incident perpendicularly on the
tively. Additionally, 10 ml of epoxy (6.66 ml epoxy resin+3.33 ml curing constructed glasses. A disk-shaped source with a 2 cm diameter may be
agent) was added and mixed well with clay and fly ash materials. The found on the source card of the input file. The radioactive source emits a
mixing process was performed using a vertical blender operating at beam of γ-photons (PAR = 2) with a wide energy spectrum in the
15,000 RPM (round per minute). The well-mixed mixtures were formed 0.030–2.506 MeV range introduced to the input file’s SDEF card. The
in a cylindrical shape (diameter: 2.1 cm) under 68.55 MPa pressure source is configured to emit the aforementioned photons over a long Z
using a 15-ton hydraulic press (SD0821ROSSVIK, Yekaterinburg, axis (AXIS = 0 0 1). Moreover, the fabricated bricks’ chemical compo­
Russia). The molded pressed samples were kept over the night to be sition, as proved by EDX spectroscopy, and the measured density for the
solidified. A flowchart for the fabrication process as well as a picture of fabricated bricks were included in the input file’s material card. Addi­
fabricated samples were illustrated in Fig. 1a. An MH-300 A density tionally, in the input file’s tally card, the F4 tally was utilized to assess
meter (Guangdong, China) was employed to experimentally measure the the flux over the fabricated bricks cell. The simulation ran out following
fabricated samples’ density. In terms of the density measurements pro­ the emission of 108 historical, forcing the interaction to end. In the
duced by the device, uncertainty reached 0.001 g/cm3. In the density automatically created output file, the recorded relative error of the ATL
meter, tap water was utilized as an immersing liquid, with the Archi­ simulation is 1 %. Based on the aforementioned recorded ATL, the linear
medes’ principle (Eq. (1)) employed to measure the fabricated samples’ attenuation coefficient (LAC) (μ, cm− 1) is computed, as per Eq. (2)
density [20,21]. where Io and It are the photon flux before and after using the fabricated
( g ) (W − W ) clay bricks [23,24].
(1)
a L
Density ρ, 3 = ρL
cm Wa It = Io e− μx
(2)
The Wa and WL describe the weight of the fabricated samples air and The half-value layer (Δ0.5, cm) is defined as a layer of the manu­
immersing liquid respectively. Additionally, the ρL represent the factured fly ash-clay brick samples that must be able to attenuate or
immersing liquid density where ρL ≈ 1 g/cm3 . absorb 50 % of the photons initially emitted by the radioactive source.
Expression of the calculated Δ0.5 values can use the simulated μ values
shown in Eq. (3) for the fabricated bricks [25,26].
2.2. Gamma ray shielding investigations
ln 2
Δ0.5 (cm) = (3)
μ
This investigation utilized the Monte Carlo N-Particle transport code
(MCNP-5) [22] to study the fabricated clay bricks’ radiation shielding Furthermore, the radiation protection efficiency (RPE, %) represents
capabilities using the γ-ray energy range of 0.030–2.506 MeV. The ra­ the ratio of photons absorbed (Ia ) within the material to the total number
diation shielding parameters were primarily evaluated by simulating the (Io ) released by the radioactive source. On the other hand, the trans­
average track length (ATL) for the γ-photons that penetrated the clay mission factor (TF, %) indicates the percentage of emitted photons that
bricks under study. The nuclear database ENDF/B-VI.8 was employed may travel through the fabricated fly ash-clay bricks’ thickness. Equa­
for the simulation, which provides γ-ray cross-sections. Furthermore, the tions (4) and (5) demonstrate that RPE and TF calculated values were
MCNP-5 code requires an input file before simulating the ATL of depending on both It and Io values.
-photons.
Ia (Io − It )
All of the details on the source, detector, and fabricated clay brick RPE (%) = = × 100 (4)
Io Io
samples are contained in the aforementioned input file. The input file’s
detailed information is shown in Fig. 1b where a cylinder composed of It
pure lead with a 5 cm thick, 25 cm diameter, and 35 cm height encircled TF (%) = × 100 (5)
Io
the radioactive sources, fabricated clay bricks, detector, and collimators,
as shown in Fig. 1b. The lead cylinder served as a barrier between the
background radiation and the detector. The radioactive source was

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A.H. Almuqrin et al. Nuclear Engineering and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Semi-quantitative ESEM-EDX analyses for El Hafafit Sediments and oil fuel fly ash.

Fig. 4. Impacts of the Saudi Arabia’s fly ash concentration on the fabricated Fig. 5. Variation of the linear attenuation coefficient versus the applied
samples’ density. γ-ray energies.

3. Results and discussion reduced density of the fabricated samples is attributed to a partial
replacement for clay mineral (ρ = 1.995 g/cm3) with a light density fly
Based on the XRD analysis in Fig. 2, the main clay mineral discovered ash (i.e., Saudi Arabia’s fly ash, ρ < 1 g/cm3).
in the El Hafafit sediment sample is the vermiculite clay mineral, along The fabricated fly ash reinforced clay bricks’ LAC was examined in
with carbonates (7 %), feldspars (6 %), quartz (23 %), and other min­ the 0.0300–1.3322 MeV energy interval. The μ value variation versus
erals (such as iron oxides 17 %). The primary known deposit in the the Eγ quantities applied is illustrated in Fig. 5, where reduced μ values
Arabian-Nubian Shield rocks in Egypt is hafafit vermiculite, which are were noted for all the fabricated samples. The aforementioned μ value
situated at the metapelite–serpentinite rock intersection with the Hafafit reduction is linked to the photoelectric (PE) and Compton scattering
uplift’s gneisses and pegmatites. Mica interstratification is evident [27]. (CS) interactions. The current study’s optimum μ values were recorded
Additionally, the SEM and EDX in Fig. 3a showed that the studied clay at Eγ of 0.03 MeV, where they reach 2.924, 2.676, 2.274, 1.898, and
sample is distinguished by a moderate percentage of Si, Mg, Fe, Al, and 1.483 cm− 1 for the fabricated samples HA-0 %, HA-10 %, HA-20 %, HA-
Ca with concentrations of 20.7, 12.8, 8, 4.5, and 3.3 wt%, respectively. 30 %, and HA-40 %, respectively. In the 0.030–0.103 MeV Eγ interval, a
Moreover, SEM and EDX analysis (Fig. 3b), show that the studied Saudi high reduction was recorded for all fabricated samples’ μ values under
Arabian fly ash has high contents of C, O, and Si with concentrations of the PE cross-section effect. The μ values decreased by 87.9, 87.4, 86.8,
76.85, 7.70 %, 12.32 wt%, while the it also contains minor concentra­ 86.1, and 85.4 % for fabricated samples HA-0 %, HA-10 %, HA-20 %,
tions of calcium, magnesium, iron, vanadium, nickel. HA-30 %, and HA-40 % by raising the Eγ quantities between 0.030 and
Fig. 4 illustrates the impact of the addition of Saudi Arabian fly ash 1.332 MeV, respectively. Then, under the CS interaction cross-section in
concentration on the fabricated samples’ density. There was a 1.995 to the 0.244–1.332 MeV Eγ interval, the μ quantities for all fabricated clay
1.246 g/cm3 reduction in the fabricated samples’ density, with the reinforced fly ash decreased by ≈ 53 % [28,29]. As presented in Fig. 5,
concentration of fly ash increasing respectively from 0 to 40 wt%. The there was a decrease in the μ values from 0.228 to 0.107 cm− 1 (HA-0 %),

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A.H. Almuqrin et al. Nuclear Engineering and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 6. Comparison between the linear attenuation coefficient of the fabricated bricks and the linear attenuation coefficient of some previously reported clay bricks.

0.150, 0.145, 0.130, 0.115, and 0.096 cm− 1, recorded for HA-0 %,
HA-10 %, HA-20 %, HA-30 %, and HA-40 %, respectively. From the first
look at Fig. 6, the previously reported samples CB40, CSS40, KG20,
KG30, KG40, KG50, KG20B, KG30B, KG40B, and KG50B have high μ
values compared to the fabricated Saudi Arabian fly ash doped-clay
bricks, where their μ values reach 0.165, 0.159, 0.158, 0.163, 0.167,
0.170, 0.158, 0.162, 0.166, and 0.168 cm− 1, respectively. The compared
materials’ high μ values are attributed to the dense doping materials
utilized, where the samples in literature doped with various concen­
trations of basalt, steel slag, barite powder, and granites. On the other
hand, the designed Saudi Arabian fly ash doped-clay bricks especially
HA-0 % and HA-10 % samples have μ values higher than those reported
for samples 7.62 MPa, 22.84 MPa, 45.70 MPa, 68.55 MPa, 91.40 MPa,
114.22 MPa, Brick, Clay, CF10, CF20, CF30, CF40, and CF50 with μ
values of 0.066, 0.071, 0.095, 0.099, 0.115, 0.119, 0.114, 0.138, 0.131,
0.127, 0.125, 0.121, and 0.117 cm− 1, respectively.
Additionally, the present works’ samples HA-0 % and HA-10 % have
μ values close to that reported previously for samples KG00, KG10,
KG00B, and KG10B with μ values of 0.146, 0.152, 0.146, and 0.152
cm− 1, respectively.
Fig. 7. Variation of the half value thickness versus the applied γ-photon energy.
The calculation of the Δ0.5 values was also through the μ value
simulations, with Fig. 7 illustrating the Δ0.5 values’ dependence on the
from 0.220 to 0.103 cm− 1 (HA-10 %), from 0.197 to 0.092 cm− 1 (HA-20 applied γ-photon energies. With increased γ-photon energy the Δ0.5
%), from 0.174 to 0.082 cm− 1 (HA-30 %), and from 0.145 to 0.068 cm− 1 values raised, which is related to the μ and Δ0.5 values’ reverse pro­
(HA-40 %), by increasing the Eγ values in the 0.244–1.332 MeV range. portionality. There was a reduction in the Δ0.5 values from 0.24 to 6.50
Furthermore, Fig. 5 shows a matching between the MCNP-5 simulated cm (HA-0 %), from 0.26 to 6.74 cm (HA-10 %), from 0.30 to 7.50 cm
results and calculated XCOM’μ values. Then, as shown as in Table S1, via (HA-20 %), from 0.37 to 8.47 cm (HA-30 %), and from 0.47 to 10.18 cm
the μ value simulations, it was possible to calculate and compare the μm (HA-40 %), with the Eγ values raised in the 0.030–1.332 MeV range. This
values to those calculated through XCOM, where it can be seen that the reduction is attributable to the reduced cross-section of the γ-ray inter­
difference between the XCOM’s calculated and the MCNP-5’s simulated action with increased Eγ values, whereby the latter’s reduction is
μm values is in the ±1 % range. alongside a reduction in the photon electron interactions probability,
To validate the attenuation capacity of the designed Saudi Arabian which increases the transmitted photon number It photons compared to
fly ash doped-clay bricks, a comparison was made at 0.662 MeV of the the total emitted photons Io . Hence, there is a requirement for thicker
prepared samples’ μ values to those reported for similar composite- Δ0.5 values for a reduction in the It photons through raised Eγ values.
based clay bricks in the literature [30–35] (see Fig. 6). The μ values at The lead’s equivalent to 1 cm of the pure lead (Δeq, cm) is calculated
0.662 MeV for the designed Saudi Arabian fly ash doped-clay bricks are for the fabricated sample. The applied γ-photon energy’s impacts on the

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HA-0 %, HA-10 %, HA-20 %, HA-30 %, and HA-40 %, respectively. The

aforementioned high Δeq values are attributed to the edge of lead’s K-
absorption, whereby the lead’s μ values reach high values in the afore­
mentioned Eγ interval in comparison to the fabricated samples’ μ values.
Consequently, in order to achieve the same shielding capabilities as a 1
cm thickness of pure Pb at the specified energy interval, larger thick­
nesses from the fabricated samples are essential. Then, in the
0.244–1.332 MeV energy interval, the Δeq values reduced gradually due
to the reduction in μ values for both lead and fabricated composites,
where the lead’s μ values reduced by 91 % while the fabricated samples’
μ values reduced by 53.3, 53.2, 53.2, 53.1, and 53.0 % for HA-0 %, HA-
10 %, HA-20 %, HA-30 %, and HA-40 % samples, respectively. The Δeq
values reduced from 117.1 to 5.9 cm (HA-0 %), from 127.9 to 6.2 cm
(HA-10 %), from 150.6 to 6.9 cm (HA-20 %), from 180.4 to 7.8 cm (HA-
30 %), and from 230.8 to 9.3 cm (HA-40 %) through increasing the Eγ
values over the studied interval between 0.03 MeV and 1.332 MeV.
The fabricated composites’ TF (%) and RPE (%) were determined
and are displayed against the Eγ values in Fig. 9. Fig. 9a and b, where
they demonstrate a rise in the fabricated samples’ TF values, alongside
Fig. 8. Dependence of the Lead’s equivalent thickness (Δeq, cm) against the decreased RPE values when the Eγ values are raised. The mentioned
applied γ-photon energy. behaviors are attributable to the fabricated composites’ μ values, where
increased Eγ values lead to a reduction in the fabricated composites’ μ
Δeq values are presented in Fig. 8, where reduced Δeq values can be values. Therefore, in comparison to the initially emitted photons Io , the
observed by increasing the Eγ values over the studied interval between number of It photons increased while the Ia photons decreased within
0.03 and 1.332 MeV. The Δeq values start high at 0.03 MeV where their the fabricated composites. As a result, the ratio of (It /Io ) increased
values reach 117.1, 127.9, 150.6, 180.4, and 230.8 cm for samples HA-0 while the (Ia /Io ) ratio decreased, which caused increased TF values and
%, HA-10 %, HA-20 %, HA-30 %, and HA-40 %, respectively. These high reduced RPE values. For instance, increasing the Eγ values over the
values were related to the high shielding capacity of pure lead in the PE selected energy interval of 0.030–1.332 MeV results in increased TF
interaction interval. Next, increasing the released photons energy leads values from 0 % for all fabricated composite to reach 58.69, 59.81,
to reduced Δeq values, where they dropped to 60.4, 63.7, 72.2, 83.1, and 63.01, 66.43, and 71.15 %, respectively for 5 cm thickness of the
101.9 cm for HA-0 %, HA-10 %, HA-20 %, HA-30 %, and HA-40 %, fabricated samples HA-0 %, HA-10 %, HA-20 %, HA-30 %, and HA-40 %.
respectively, at 0.08 MeV. These reduced μ values are associated with Simultaneously, the increase in Eγ values leads to reduced RPE values
the PE interaction for both Pb and fabricated samples, where increasing from ≈100 % for all samples at 0.03 MeV to 41.31, 40.19, 36.99, 33.57,
the photon energy between 0.03 and 0.103 MeV, the Pb’s μ value and 28.85 % for 5 cm thickness of the fabricated sample HA-0 %, HA-10
reduced by 83 % while the fabricated samples μ values were reduced by %, HA-20 %, HA-30 %, and HA-40 %, respectively.
87.9, 87.4, 86.8, 86.1, and 85.4 % for samples HA-0 %, HA-10 %, HA-20 As seen in Figs. 10–12, the fabricated samples’ chemical composition
%, HA-30 %, and HA-40 %, respectively. Then, in the 0.8–0.103 MeV (fly ash content) affected the radiation shielding parameters. Fig. 10
energy interval, the highest Δeq values were recorded, where the Δeq illustrates the μ and Δ0.5 values’ dependence on the Saudi Arabia’s fly
values reached 164.1, 172.0, 193.6, 221.2, and 268.8 cm for samples ash concentration at certain fixed Eγ values (0.662 and 1.252 MeV). The

Fig. 9. Influence of γ-photon energy on (a) transmission factor (TF, %), (b) radiation protection efficiency (RPE, %).

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A.H. Almuqrin et al. Nuclear Engineering and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 10. Influence of the fly ash concentration on [a] linear attenuation coef­ Fig. 12. Influence of the fly ash concentration on [a] transmission factor TF
ficient (μ, cm− 1) and [b] half value thickness (Δ0.5, cm) at Eγ of 0.662 and (%) and [b] radiation protection efficiency (RPE, %) at Eγ of 0.662 and
1.252 MeV. 1.252 MeV.

33.7 % at Eγ of 0.662 and 1.252 MeV, respectively. Simultaneously,

there was an increase in the Δ0.5 values from 4.62 to 7.24 cm (at 0.662
MeV) and from 6.50 to 10.18 cm (at 1.252 MeV). As Fig. 11 illustrates,
the Δeq values were also affected by the concentration of Saudi Arabian
fly ash added. The Δeq values increased by 83.0, 56.6, and 56.5 %
respectively at the Eγ values of 0.059, 0.662, and 1.252 MeV. The
fabricated samples’ reduced μ values in comparison to those of the lead
is the primary rationale for the increased Δeq mentioned in Fig. 11.
The effect of the fly ash concentrations on the TF and RPE values is
illustrated in Fig. 12, where the increase in fly ash addition is accom­
panied by increased TF values, while the RPE values reduced at all
studied Eγ values. The reduced γ-ray interaction cross-section through
raised fly ash concentrations is the main reason for the early mentioned
behaviors for both TF and RPE. The reduced γ-ray interaction cross-
section occurs alongside reduced electron–photon interaction in the
fabricated clay-bricks sample, leading to an increased It photons and IIot
(Io − It )
ratio (i.e., TF value increased) while the (Io-It) photons Io ratio
reduced (i.e., RPE reduced). For example, increasing the concentration
Fig. 11. Impacts of the fly ash concentration on the lead’s equivalent thickness of fly ash between 0 and 40 wt% increases the fabricated clay compos­
(Δeq, cm) of the fabricated bricks at Eγ values of 0.59 MeV, 0.662 MeV, and ites’ TF value from 47.3 to 62.0 % at Eγ of 0.662 MeV, while increasing
1.252 MeV. from 57.7 to 70.4 % at Eγ of 1.252 MeV, respectively. On the other hand,
there is a reduction in the RPE from 51.5 to 38.0 % at Eγ of 0.662 MeV,
fabricated samples’ reduced μ values were accompanied with increased and from 42.3 to 29.6 % at Eγ of 1.252 MeV.
Δ0.5 values, elevating the Saudi Arabian fly ash concentration from 0 to
40 wt%. Due to the low concentration of the Saudi Arabian fly ash which 4. Conclusion
is lower than 1 g/cm3, the addition of the Saudi Arabian fly ash to the
clay materials reduces the fabricated samples’ effective atomic number In the current work, five brick samples were fabricated as a mixture
(Zeff) and density, as listed in Table S5. For example, raising the fly ash of Egyptian sediment and Saudi Arabian fly ash. As proved by the XRD
content between 0 and 40 wt% decreases the Zeff values between technique, the Egyptian sediment is classified as clay rich vermiculite,
16.72–16.11 (at 0.15 MeV), 11.9–9.32 (at 0.1 MeV), 10.39–8.59 (at 0.6 feldspar, quartz, and iron oxides mineral. The EDX spectrometry shows
MeV), and 10.38–8.58 (at 1.5 MeV). The decrease in Zeff values for the that the clay samples rich Si (20.7 %), Mg (12.8 %), Al (4.5 %), Fe (8 %),
fabricated bricks is attributed to the reduction in both electronic and and Ca (3.3 %) while the fly ash rich with C (76.86 %), O (7.7 %), and Si
atomic cross-sections, as presented in Tables S2 and S3, where the in­ (12.32 %). There was a 1.955 to 1.246 g/cm3 decrease in the fabricated
crease in the fly ash concentration decreases the atomic cross-section brick samples’ density by increasing the fly ash concentration from 0 to
between 1.79E-24 and 1.48E-24 cm2/g, while the fabricated bricks’ 40 wt%. This reduced density of the fabricated bricks affected their
electronic cross-section is approximately constant at 1.72E-25 cm2/g, at shielding properties, where raising the fly ash concentration between
1.5 MeV. Since the cross-sections of PE and CS are proportionate to Z4− 5 0 and 40 wt% reduced the LAC values between 0.150 and 0.096 cm− 1,
eff
respectively, at Eγ of 0.662 MeV. As a result, there was an increase in the
and Zeff , there was a reduction in the μ values with increased concen­
fabricated bricks’ equivalent thickness of lead and half value thickness
tration of fly ash, which is linked to the decreased PE and CS cross-
with raising the fly ash concentrations. Additionally, raising of the
sections that fell with the reduction of the fabricated samples’ Zeff.
fabricated bricks thickness enhances the fabricated bricks’ radiation
The reduced μ values were accompanied with elevated Δ0.5 values. For
shielding properties, where a 30 cm thickness of the fabricated bricks
example, increasing the Saudi Arabian fly ash concentration in the
has RPE values of 98.9, 98.7, 98.0, 96.8, and 94.3 %, respectively for the
fabricated samples from 0 to 40 wt% reduces the μ values by 33.8 and
fabricated samples HA-0 %, HA-10 %, HA-20 %, HA-30 %, and HA-40 %.

7
A.H. Almuqrin et al. Nuclear Engineering and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

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