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Lin Qiu, Yanhui Feng
Thermal Engineering
De Gruyter Textbook
Lin Qiu, Yanhui Feng

Thermal
Engineering

Engineering Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Authors
Lin Qiu
University of Science and Technology Beijing
30 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District
Beijing 100083, China
[email protected]

Yanhui Feng
University of Science and Technology Beijing
30 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District
Beijing 100083, China
[email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-132969-7
e-ISBN (E-BOOK) 978-3-11-132970-3
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-132975-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2023950573

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2024 China Science Publishing & Media Ltd. and Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Cover image: Kannikaistock2499/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
Preface
To meet the needs of talent training in the new era, this textbook combines the classi-
cal content of engineering thermodynamics and heat transfer with modern research
advances, and expands the scope of knowledge about thermal engineering. We have
selected appropriate exercises, which can cultivate students’ ability to think indepen-
dently and solve problems and meet the needs of professional talent training in depth
and breadth.
The book consists of 13 chapters, which is categorized into two parts. The first
part is composed of eight chapters, that is, Chapters 1–8. Chapter 1, as an introduction,
introduces the classification and definition of different energy forms and outlines the
research content of this book. Chapter 2 elaborates some basic concepts of engineer-
ing thermodynamics, such as thermodynamic system, thermodynamic state, state pa-
rameters, and thermodynamic cycle. Chapter 3 introduces the physical essence and
mathematical expression for the first law of thermodynamics for open system and
closed system and their applications. Chapter 4 presents the properties and the ther-
mal processes of ideal gas. Chapter 5 focuses on the second law of thermodynamics,
the Carnot cycle, and the entropy. Chapter 6 elaborates the thermal process and prop-
erties of water vapor and wet air. Chapter 7 introduces the power cycle of steam and
gas and the piston internal combustion engine cycle. Chapter 8 introduces the refrig-
eration equipment and the efficiency calculation method. The second part focuses on
the heat transfer, which consists of five chapters, that is, Chapters 9–13. Chapter 9 in-
troduces the basic ways of heat transfer and important definitions. Chapter 10 elabo-
rates on the theoretical basis of heat conduction and the relevant knowledge of
steady-state heat conduction. Chapter 11 introduces the basic theory of thermal con-
vection, that is, Newton’s cooling law, and the influencing factors on heat transfer.
Chapter 12 introduces the basic concept of thermal radiation, the basic law of black-
body radiation, the emission characteristics of actual objects, atmospheric greenhouse
effect, and greenhouse effect. Chapter 13 describes the heat transfer process and heat
exchangers, as well as the enhanced and weakened heat transfer approaches.
This book is of particular use to thermodynamic engineers, mechanical engineers,
electrical engineers, and low carbon practitioners worldwide, as well as to academics
and researchers in the fields of thermal management, energy engineering, and mate-
rial science.
This book was financially supported by the textbook construction fund of the Uni-
versity of Science and Technology Beijing and the Academic Affairs Office of Univer-
sity of Science and Technology Beijing.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111329703-202
Acknowledgments
As the editor of this book, I am very grateful for the financial support from the plan-
ning textbook construction funds of the University of Science and Technology Beijing
(no. JC2022YB013). The authors of each chapter also provided great help. I would like
to express my sincere gratitude to the authors Yiling Liu, Xin Wang, Yijie Yang, Zhaoyi
Wang, Yuxin Ouyang, Guangpeng Feng, and Zihan Liu. In addition, I also express my
gratitude to the books cited. Most of the contents of this book are collected from vari-
ous related journals and works. Finally, I would like to thank all the readers of this
book. It is your support and affirmation that gave the motivation to publish. Owing to
the relatively short writing time, omissions and even errors in the book are inevitable.
We will listen carefully to readers’ criticisms and correction.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111329703-203
Contents
Preface V

Acknowledgments VII

Part 1: Engineering thermodynamics

Chapter 1
Introduction 3
1.1 Energy 3
1.2 Energy source 5
1.3 Conversion and utilization of energy 16
1.4 Research contents of fundamentals of thermal engineering 18
Exercises 19
Answers 20

Chapter 2
Basic concepts 21
2.1 Review: introduction 21
2.2 Introduction to the basic concept 21
2.3 Thermodynamic system 21
2.4 Equilibrium state and state parameters 23
2.5 Equation of state and state parameter coordinate diagram 26
2.6 Quasi-static process and reversible process 27
2.7 Work and heat 31
2.8 Summary 35
Exercises 36
Answers 37

Chapter 3
First law of thermodynamics 39
3.1 Review: basic concepts 39
3.2 Introduction to the first law of thermodynamics 39
3.3 Storage energy of thermal system 39
3.4 The essence of the first law of thermodynamics 40
3.5 The expression of the first law of thermodynamics for closed
system 41
3.6 Stable flow energy equation of open system 44
3.7 The application of stable flow energy equation 50
X Contents

3.8 Summary 57
Exercises 60
Answers 61

Chapter 4
Property and process of the ideal gas 63
4.1 Review: first law of thermodynamics 63
4.2 Introduction to property and process of the ideal gas 63
4.3 Ideal gas state equation 63
4.4 Thermal capacity, thermodynamic energy, entropy, and enthalpy of
ideal gases 65
4.5 Thermodynamics, entropy, and enthalpy of ideal gases 70
4.6 Ideal gas mixture 72
4.7 Purpose of thermal process of ideal gas 76
4.8 Summary 91
Exercises 93
Answers 94

Chapter 5
Second law of thermodynamics 99
5.1 Review: the first law of thermodynamics 99
5.2 Introduction to the second law of thermodynamics 99
5.3 The direction of spontaneous process and the expression of the
second law of thermodynamics 99
5.4 Carnot cycle and Carnot theorem 104
5.5 Entropy 111
5.6 Summary 118
Exercises 118
Answers 119

Chapter 6
Water vapor and wet air 121
6.1 Review: gaseous working medium 121
6.2 Review: water vapor 121
6.3 Water vapor generation process 121
6.4 State parameters of water vapor 126
6.5 Basic thermal process of water vapor 131
6.6 The nature of wet air 134
6.7 Summary 136
Exercises 137
Answers 137
 Contents XI

Chapter 7
Steam and gas power cycles 141
7.1 Review: power cycle 141
7.2 Steam power plant cycles 141
7.3 Piston internal combustion engine cycle 151
7.4 Ideal cycle of gas turbine plant 153
7.5 Summary 156
Exercises 156
Answers 157

Chapter 8
Refrigeration equipment and cycle 161
8.1 Refrigeration 161
8.2 Air compression refrigeration cycle 161
8.3 Vapor compression refrigeration cycle 164
8.4 Absorption refrigeration cycle 166
8.5 Heat pump 168
Exercises 169
Answers 169

Part 2: Heat transfer

Chapter 9
Basic ways of heat transfer 177
9.1 Thermal conduction 178
9.2 Thermal convection 181
9.3 Thermal radiation 184
9.4 Heat transfer process 186
9.5 Summary 190
Exercises 190
Answers 191

Chapter 10
Thermal conduction 193
10.1 The theoretical basis of thermal conduction 194
10.2 Steady-state heat conduction 203
10.3 Summary 209
Exercises 209
Answers 210
XII Contents

Chapter 11
Convection heat transfer 213
11.1 Convective heat transfer 213
11.2 Newton’s cooling law 214
11.3 Influence factors on convective heat transfer 217
11.4 Summary 220
Exercises 220
Answers 222

Chapter 12
Radiative heat transfer 225
12.1 Basic concepts of thermal radiation 225
12.2 The basic law of blackbody radiation 231
12.3 Emission characteristics of actual objects 234
12.4 Atmospheric greenhouse effect and greenhouse effect 236
Exercises 238
Answers 239

Chapter 13
Heat transfer process and heat exchanger 241
13.1 Heat transfer process 241
13.2 Heat exchanger 247
13.3 Enhancing and weakening of heat transfer 256
13.4 Summary 259
Exercises 259
Answers 259

Appendix Table A1: Saturated and unsaturated vapor (by temperature) 261

Appendix Table A2: Saturated and unsaturated vapor (by pressure) 265

Appendix Table A3: Unsaturated water and superheated water vapor 269

References 277

Index 279
Part 1: Engineering thermodynamics
Chapter 1
Introduction

Energy is the engine of social development because humans need various forms of
energy in their daily lives. With the development of society, the cognition and utiliza-
tion of energy are constantly improving. With the development of science and tech-
nology, the efficiency of energy utilization has been greatly improved, and our society
has been developed into the Industry 4.0 era.

1.1 Energy

1.1.1 Definition of energy

The world is made up of matter. All matter is in motion. Energy is a measure of mat-
ter in motion. All matter has energy, which means that the world would be in station-
ary state without energy, and lives would be nowhere to be found. Corresponding to
various forms of motion of matter, there are also various forms of energy, which can
be converted to each other, but the total amount remains the same. Heat energy can
be converted into electricity, which can be further converted into light energy. How-
ever, the total amount of energy is a constant.

1.1.2 Main forms of energy

Energy exists in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, elec-
trical, magnetic, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy (E) of a sys-
tem. There are six main forms of energy that are recognized and utilized nowadays:
1. Thermal energy: This is the sum of the kinetic energy of the thermal motion of
molecules and the potential energy due to the intermolecular interaction. Tem-
perature reflects the intensity of thermal motion of molecules, which means that
it is also the macroscopic reflection of substances’ thermal energy. Thermal en-
ergy is widely used by human being at early times, such as previous drilling
wood for cooking fire and the internal combustion engine now. As shown in
Fig. 1.1(a), ice will melt and become water when it absorbs thermal energy from
human hands.
2. Electric energy: This is the energy related to the movement and the accumula-
tion of electric charge. It is one of the extensively used energy forms. As shown in
Fig. 1.1(b), electric energy can turn into lighting.
3. Mechanical energy: Mechanical energy is the first recognized and utilized en-
ergy, which consists of kinetic energy and potential energy of an object such as

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111329703-001
4 Chapter 1 Introduction

the water wheel during ancient times and the wind power engine at present. As
shown in Fig. 1.1(c), the ball’s kinetic and potential energy can convert to each
other.
4. Radiant energy: This is the energy emitted by an object in the form of electro-
magnetic waves. Radiant energy is usually converted from other forms of energy.
As shown in Fig. 1.1(d), the Sun’s radiation energy can burn through an aluminum
plate.
5. Nuclear energy: Nuclear energy refers to the energy generated by nuclear reac-
tion. It is of great importance in the future for electricity production. Fig. 1.1(e) is
a picture of a model of nuclear power plant.
6. Chemical energy: Chemical energy refers to the energy released through chemi-
cal reactions. Various fuels, including coal, gas, and oil, are common examples of
the sources of chemical energy. As shown in Fig. 1.1(f), wood contains chemical
energy, which will be released by combustion.

Thermal
Energy

a b c

Fig. 1.1: Six representative energy forms: (a) thermal energy, (b) electric energy, (c) mechanical energy,
(d) radiant energy, (e) nuclear energy, and (f) chemical energy.

1.1.3 Properties of energy

1.1.3.1 Quantitative attribute: first law of thermodynamics

All kinds of energy are equal and have additive property, with no distinction of its
quantity.
The first law of thermodynamics shows that energy can either be created or de-
stroyed, suggesting the conservation of energy during its transfer and transformation
process, which is one of the fundamentals of thermodynamic analysis.
 1.2 Energy source 5

1.1.3.2 Qualitative attribute: second law of thermodynamics

The quality of energy can only go from high to low, and it is impossible to go from
low to high spontaneously.
The second law of thermodynamics reveals the direction, conditions, and limits of
all thermal processes in nature.

1.2 Energy source

1.2.1 Definition of energy sources

Energy source refers to material resources that can provide energy directly or indirectly.
Energy source is what human society relies on for survival and development. There are
various forms of energy resources on the Earth, which are classified according to the
original source, development steps, utilization, and whether they can be recycled.

1.2.2 Classification of energy sources

There are many classification criteria for energy source, generally including the following
ways:
According to the initial source, energy source can be produced by extraterrestrial
bodies, the Earth’s interaction with other celestial bodies and the Earth itself. Energy
produced from extraterrestrial bodies is mainly solar energy. Fossil fuels (coal, oil,
and natural gas) are essentially solar energy fixed by ancient organisms. In addition,
water energy, wind energy, and wave energy are also converted from solar energy.
Energy from the Earth’s interaction with other celestial bodies includes tidal energy.
Energy from the Earth itself includes nuclear energy and geothermal energy.
According to the socioeconomic status, it can be classified into conventional energy
and new energy. Conventional energy is the energy with long exploitation time, mature
technology, and wide usage. New energy is the energy that has not been developed and
utilized on a large scale due to immature technology and short exploitation time.
According to the development steps, it can be classified into primary energy
source and secondary energy source. Primary energy source exists in pristine form in
nature, which can be directly exploited and utilized. Secondary energy source is the
energy directly or indirectly converted from primary energy.
According to whether the energy source can be regenerated or not, it can be clas-
sified into renewable energy source and non-renewable energy source. Renewable en-
ergy source would not be significantly reduced by exploitation and have a natural
resilience. Non-renewable energy source has limited reserves, and its amount de-
creases with the development and utilization. Eventually, it will be exhausted.
6 Chapter 1 Introduction

According to the environmental pollution in the process of development and utili-

zation, it can be classified into clean energy source and non-clean energy source.
Clean energy source has no or little pollution to the environment. Non-clean energy
source would cause great pollution to the environment.
The most common energy forms in nature are shown in Fig. 1.2; most of which be-
long to thermal energy and mechanical energy category. Thermal energy occupies the
dominant status. Mechanical energy mainly includes hydraulic energy, wind energy,
and tidal energy. According to the type of energy release reaction, thermal energy can
be released by combustion and fission (or fusion), where chemical energy can be re-
leased by combustion, such as coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass, while nuclear energy,
solar energy, and geothermal energy can be released by fission and fusion.

Hydraulic
energy
Wind energy
Tidal energy
Com
bus
ion

Coal
Fis

Oil
sio

Nuclear fuel
Natural gas
n(

Solar energy
fus

Geothermal energy Biomass

ion

(Chemical energy)
)

Fig. 1.2: Energy forms and their share in the nature.

With the development of human society, there are five major issues of global concern:
energy, population, food, environment, and resource. Simultaneously, 3E problem is
also proposed. 3E problem refers to energy, environment, and economy. Therefore,
energy construction is one of the strategic emphases worldwide.
According to BP Statistical Yearbook of World Energy 2021 [1], COVID-19 has
exerted a huge impact on energy markets, with primary energy and carbon emissions
decreasing at the highest pace since World War II. Among this, the global primary
energy consumption has dropped by 4.5% in 2020, with oil accounting for three-
quarters roughly, which is the biggest drop since 1945. In spite of this, the demand for
renewable energy like wind energy, solar energy, and hydroelectric power continues
growing, with solar energy making history. On a country-by-country basis, the United
States, India, and Russia saw the biggest drops in energy consumption. China, with
the largest increase (2.1%), was one of the few countries whose energy demand in-
creased in last year. We will elaborate the status of world energy as follows:
 1.2 Energy source 7

Carbon emission: Carbon emission due to energy use has dropped by 6.3%, which is
the lowest since 2011. In terms of primary energy, it was also the biggest drop since
the end of World War II.

Fossil oil: The largest regional oil demand reduction occurred in the United States (de-
crease by 2.3 million barrels/day (b/d)), followed by the European Union (decrease by
1.5 million b/d) and India (decrease by 480,000 b/d). In fact, China is the only country
that renders an increase in oil consumption (220,000 b/d). Global oil production has de-
creased by 6.6 million b/d, with OPEC accounting for two-thirds of the decline. Libya (de-
crease by 920,000 b/d) and Saudi Arabia (decrease by 790,000 b/d) had the largest
declines among OPEC members. Moreover, among non-OPEC members, Russia (decrease
by 1 million b/d) and the United States (down 0.6 million b/d) saw the largest declines.

Natural gas: Natural gas consumption has decreased by 81 billion cubic meters (BCM),
or 2.3%. In contrast, the proportion of natural gas in primary energy continued to
rise, reaching a record of 24.7%. Russia (decrease by 33 BCM) and the United States
(down 17 BCM) are the countries with the biggest decline in gas demand in 2020,
while China (22 BCM) and Iran (10 BCM) saw the biggest increase.

Coal: Coal consumption has decreased by 6.2 EJ, or 4.2%, with the United States (decrease
by 2.1 EJ) and India (decrease by 1.1 EJ) decreasing the most. China and Malaysia were two
notable exceptions, with coal consumption increasing by 0.5 EJ and 0.2 EJ, respectively.

Renewable energy, hydropower, and nuclear power: Renewable energy including bio-
fuels but excluding hydropower has increased by 9.7%, slower than the average of the
past decade (13.4% per year), but the increase in energy (2.9 EJ) was similar to that in
2017, 2018, and 2019. Solar power has increased by 1.3 EJ (20%), making a new record,
with wind power accounting for the largest increase in renewable energy (1.5 EJ). The
installed solar capacity has increased by 127 GW. Wind capacity has increased by 111
GW, which is almost twice of the largest increase in previous years. China had the
largest increase in renewable energy (1.0 EJ), followed by the United States (0.4 EJ).
European Union has increased by 0.7 EJ. Hydropower has increased by 1.0%, of which
China has increased the most (0.4 EJ). Nuclear power has decreased by 4.1%, with the
biggest decline in France (−0.4 EJ), the United States (−0.2 EJ), and Japan (−0.2 EJ).

Electric power: Global electricity production has dropped by 0.9%, surpassing the
0.5% decline in 2009, which is the only decrease in records since 1985. The proportion
of renewable energy generation increased from 10.3% to 11.7%. Meanwhile, the pro-
portion of coal generation has dropped by 1.3–35.1%, which is BP’s lowest record.

Important minerals: Global lithium production has dropped by 4.6% due to capacity
reduction in Australia. Cobalt production in the Democratic Republic of Congo de-
clines in 2019, but increases by 2.9% in 2020 as the country’s capacity partially re-
stores. Influenced by substantial growth in Australia and the United States, the
production of rare earth metals has increased by 23.2%.
8 Chapter 1 Introduction

Figure 1.3 illustrates the proportion of primary energy consumption for different re-
gions in the world in 2020, where China’s share is 27.2%.

Central and South America

Asia-pacific

North America 19.4%

4.7%
European
Cis countris 13.9%
Middle East
Africa
6.7%

6.5%

Fig. 1.3: Percentage of global primary energy consumption for different regions in year 2020.

As shown in Fig. 1.4, in 2020, energy producers overcome the negative impact of COVID-
19 and actively promote the resumption of work and production, with a total energy pro-
duction of 4.08 billion tce (tons of standard coal equivalent) and a year-on-year increase
of 2.8%. Among them, raw coal output is 3.9 billion tons, with an increase of 1.4% year
on year. Crude oil production is 19.4769 million tons, with an increase of 1.6% year
on year. Natural gas production is 192.5 billion m3, with an increase of 9.8% year on year.
Power generation is 7,779.06 billion kW · h, with an increase of 3.7% year on year.
As shown in Fig. 1.5, with the recovery of China’s economy and social order, energy
consumption has also showed a gradual recovery trend. In 2020, the total energy con-
sumption was 4.98 billion tce, with an increase of 2.2% over the previous year, among
which coal has increased by 0.6%, crude oil by 3.3%, natural gas by 7.2%, and electricity
by 3.1%.
Besides, energy production and the consumption structure continued to get im-
proved, as shown in Fig. 1.6. Driven by a series of policies and measures such as deep-
ening energy supply-side structural reform and giving priority to the development of
non-fossil energy, China’s clean energy continues to develop rapidly. The proportion
of clean energy has further increased, and the energy structure has been optimized
continuously. In the past decade, the proportion of different types of energy has dif-
ferent trends. The share of raw coal and crude oil production continues to decline,
while the share of natural gas production does not change much. The proportion of
clean electricity production, including hydropower, nuclear power, wind power, and
solar power, has increased significantly. In 2020, clean electricity production accounts
for 28.8% of the total electricity generation.
The energy consumption structure in China is shown in Fig. 1.7. Similarly, the pro-
portion of coal consumption shows a declining trend, accounting for 56.8% of the total
 1.2 Energy source 9

45 10
Total energy production (Tons of standard coal)

Total energy production (Tons of standard coal)

40 8
Growth rate(%)
35
6
30

Growth rate(%)
4
25
2
20
0
15
–2
10

5 –4

0 –6
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Fig. 1.4: Total energy production and its growth rate.

60 8
Total energy consumption
7
Total energy production

50 growth rate
(Tons of standard coal)

6
Growth rate (%)

40
5
30 4
3
20
2
10
1
0 0
14
12

15
13

20
16

18
19
11

17
20
20

20
20

20

20

20
20
20

20

Fig. 1.5: Total energy consumption and its growth rate.

energy consumption in 2020, but it is still the main energy source in China in short
term. The share of clean energy consumption, including natural gas, hydropower, nu-
clear power, and wind power, in total energy consumption has increased from 13% in
2011 to 24.3% in 2020. In general, coal plays a dominant role in China’s energy struc-
ture, oil and natural gas are highly dependent on the import from foreign countries,
and the proportion of clean energy consumption increases continuously.
 10

Fossil oil Natural gas

Crude oil Natural gas

Raw carbon Hydro, nuclear, wind power Carbon

Primary power and other
100 100
11.2 11.8 13.5 14.5 16.7 11.2 11.8 11.8 8.4 9.7 10.2 11.3 12 13 13.6 14.5 15.3
9.6
4.1 4.1 4.4 4.7 4.8 5.2 4.6 4.8 5.3 5.6 5.8 6.1
80 5.4 5.4 5.7 80 6.9 7.6 8.1
8.5 8.4 16.8
8.5 8.3 8.5 8.3 7.6 17 17.1
7.2 6.9 17.3 18.4 18.7 18.9 18.9 18.9
60 60
Chapter 1 Introduction

76.2 75.4 73.5 72.2 69.8 69.6 69.2 68.6 70.2 68.5 67.4 65.8 63.8 62.2 60.6 59 57.7
77.8
40 40

20 20

0 0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.6: (a) Energy production structure and (b) energy consumption structure in 2011–2019.
 1.2 Energy source 11

Clean energy
Fossil oil
Coal 24.3%

56.8%

18.9%

Fig. 1.7: Energy consumption structure in 2020.

Moreover, the energy efficiency level continues to improve. In recent years, China has
made efforts to save energy and reduce carbon emissions to realize clean and efficient
use of energy. Energy consumption and carbon emissions continue to decline. Energy
imports have maintained rapid growth, especially for oil and gas resources. Renewable
energy has been developed rapidly. The total installed capacity of renewable energy
power generation in China has reached 930 million kW · h, with an increase of about
17.5% year by year and 15.7% compared to year 2011, accounting for 42.4% of the total
installed capacity. Renewable energy generation has reached 220 million kW · h, with
an increase of about 8.4% year by year, which quadruples the current growth rate of
total energy consumption.
There are many challenges and difficulties in China’s energy development. The
first is the low per capita energy resources, which is 62% of the world average level in
coal and 7% in fossil oil and natural gas. The second is that energy security is difficult
to ensure. From 1.6% in 1993 to 72% in 2019, the oil’s dependence on foreign countries
has been increasing, and the crude oil import source is still intensive. Similarly, natu-
ral gas import has increased rapidly, and the dependence on foreign countries has
reached 42.8% in 2019. Besides, the priority to set prices for oil, natural gas, and other
products is still in the control of developed countries. Although the energy import
channel has been gradually improved, there are still some risks. There is still a long
way to go forward for the development of new energy.
In order to keep sustainable development of energy construction in China, Outline of
the national medium- and long-term plan for science and technology development was is-
sued, which claims that we should adhere to the priority of energy saving and energy
consumption reduction, promote the diversification of energy structure, promote clean
and efficient utilization of coal and reduce environmental pollution, strengthen the diges-
tion, absorption, and re-innovation of imported technology of energy equipment, and
improve the technical ability of regional optimal allocation of energy. In a word, for
sustainable development of energy construction, we can find methods from reducing
expenditure, broadening sources, saving energy, and reducing emissions.
12 Chapter 1 Introduction

New energy refers to new kind of energy and new energy technology. New energy
technology is the study hot spot for engineers. Five elements of new energy technol-
ogy are:
– High efficiency: significant improvement in thermal efficiency
– Environment friendly: zero emission, no vibration, low noise technology
– Industrial scale
– Life cycle analysis of the feasibility of energy
– Economic feasibility

Some new energy technologies have been widely used in practice and achieved good
results in energy conservation and emission reduction.

1.2.3 Hydrogen energy and fuel cell technology

According to the study in 2021 [2], a fuel cell is an energy conversion device essentially
consisting of an anode, electrolyte, and a cathode, which can directly convert chemi-
cal energy into electrical energy with higher efficiency and lower emissions.
Hydrogen is quite abundant in nature. There is no carbon dioxide or air pollu-
tants’ by-product emission but water when hydrogen is electrochemically oxidized in
a fuel cell system, making hydrogen a clean energy. Hence, hydrogen can be used in
many fields, such as transportation, power generation, and militarized equipment [3].
According to the type of electrolyte, fuel cells can be classified as alkaline fuel
cells (AFCs), proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), phosphoric AFCs, molten
carbonate fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel cells. PEMFC stands out from all types of fuel
cell due to its unique advantages of rapid start-up time, wild range of operating tem-
perature (−40 to 90 °C), and high specific energy. PEMFC has PEM directly affecting its
performance, which has functions of conducting protons, separating fuel oxidizer,
and insulating protons. It provides a channel for the migration and transport of pro-
tons so that protons can pass through the membrane from the anode to the cathode
and form a circuit with the electron transfer of the external circuit to provide the ex-
ternal current. It plays a very important role in the performance of the fuel cell, and
its quality directly affects the service life of the battery [4].
Figure 1.8 depicts the working principle of a fuel cell, which occurs when oxygen
and hydrogen are used to produce water, electrical power, and heat [3, 4]. There are
various designs available for fuel cells, whose difference mainly origins from the differ-
ence in the chemical characteristics of the electrolyte [5]. It is to be noted that they all
operate with the same basic principles and generate electricity and heat through elec-
trochemical reaction.
 1.2 Energy source 13

e– e– e–
Electrical Circuit

Cathode
Polymer H+ Anode
H+ Electrolyte
H2 e– H+ e– O2
Membrane
H+
H+
H+
Fuel From Air

Exhaust

Fig. 1.8: Schematic diagram of the working principle of a fuel cell.

1.2.4 Advanced coal to chemicals industry (ACCI)

According to a study in 2021 [6], the advanced coal to chemicals industry (ACCI) is an
important approach to use coal in a clean, highly efficient, and low carbon manner,
with the purpose to solve China’s coal-dominated energy structures, excessive im-
ported oil and natural gas, and strict environmental constraints. The 12th Five-Year
Plan saw constantly improved technologies and equipment. However, there are sev-
eral challenges as well, such as insufficient strategic understanding, severe external
constraints, and immature technology.
The industrialized technology routes of ACCI include preparing gas and liquid
fuels and chemicals. Generally, it uses coal as the feedstock to synthesize natural gas
and conventional oil-based products, such as gasoline, diesel, olefins, aromatics, and
ethylene glycol, which is conducted via pyrolysis, gasification [7], liquefaction, and
downstream processes, and thus partly replaces oil and natural gas. Compared with
the processes used in the traditional coal chemical industry, ACCI utilizes advanced
conversion technology and thus has long and complex processes. Figure 1.9 illustrates
that the gasification approach starts from coal gasification technology, and then uses
syngas as an intermediate product to produce methanol, Fischer–Tropsch oil (e.g.,
naphtha, gasoline, diesel oil, liquefied petroleum gas, etc.), synthetic natural gas, and
ethylene glycol. Methanol can be further converted into olefins, gasoline, and aro-
matics. The liquefaction approach refers to the direct coal liquefaction process, whose
main products are diesel and jet fuel. The pyrolysis approach is the deep processing
of coal tar produced via medium- and low-temperature pyrolysis.
14 Chapter 1 Introduction

Ligurfraction Refined oil

Coal tar
Pyrolysis hydrogenation

Coal F-T synthesis

Methanol to
gasoline

Sythetic natural
Methanation
gas

Methanol to
Olefins
olefins

Methanol to
Aromatics
aromatics

Ethylene glycol
Gasification Ethylene glycol
synthesis

Fig. 1.9: Technology routes for ACCI in China.

1.2.5 Solar photovoltaic technology

According to a study in 2017 [7], photovoltaic (PV) cells, which is also known as solar
cells, are made from the same semiconductor materials used in electronics and com-
puter chips. The diversity of PV materials, different potential characteristics, and low-
cost, versatile fabrication technologies are the merits of this energy conversion sys-
tem. Solar cells are essentially composed of large-area PN junctions, which are made
of the combination of a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor to form a
junction. Asymmetric doping of the p-type and n-type semiconductor creates a poten-
tial barrier to the major charge flow between the regions. This results in a depletion
region where the flow of electrons and holes ceases in equilibrium state, and the
chemical forces of diffusion are exactly balanced by the electrostatic forces of the cre-
ated electric field. The concentration gradient provides a necessary electronic asym-
metrical condition for PV cells.
Figure 1.10 illustrates the operational principle of a solar cell [7]. When light is
illuminated onto a piece of solar cell, photons of different wavelengths hit the semi-
conductor surface. Only a fraction of photons are converted into electrical energy as
only photons with energy higher than energy band gap of the semiconductor can be
absorbed. Photon absorption leads to generation of electron–hole pair (EHP). The ma-
jority carrier concentrations (the total number of electrons in an n-type semiconduc-
 1.2 Energy source 15

tor or the total number of holes in a p-type semiconductor) are not affected by contribu-
tions from the additional photons because concentrations that EHPs generate are insig-
nificant compared to the majority carrier concentrations. However, minority carrier
concentrations (the total number of electrons in a p-type semiconductor or the total
number of holes in an n-type semiconductor) are affected significantly and experience
an increase. This change upsets the equilibrium condition between the diffusion force
and electrostatic force. Electrons originated from the p region eventually diffuse into the
depletion region, where the potential energy barrier at the junction is lowered, allowing
current to flow and establish a voltage at the external terminals. Holes created in the
n-doped region travel in the opposite direction to the p-doped side. Solar cells are
based on the movement of charges in the above manner, which will finally produce
electrical current.

Metallic
Solar Radiation
Conducting Strips
(Photon-light) i

Electron Flow
Approx
Glass
Lens
V 0.58 VDC

N-type Silicon
Depletion Layer
–ve Electrons
P-type Silicon
Substrate Base
+ve Holes

Fig. 1.10: Working principle of solar photovoltaic devices.

1.2.6 Distributed energy supply technology

The distributed energy source is a comprehensive energy utilization system which is

close to the client. In the transmission and utilization of energy, it is arranged in
pieces to reduce the loss of long-distance transmission of energy, and effectively im-
prove the safety and flexibility of energy utilization.
Distributed energy supply technology refers to technology with the following
characteristics: (1) the primary energy is mainly composed of gas fuel, supplemented
by renewable energy; (2) the secondary energy mainly consists of heat, power, and
cooling cogeneration distributed at the user end, supplemented by other central en-
ergy supply systems, so as to realize the graded utilization of energy that directly
meets the various needs of users. Distributed energy systems utilize a variety of en-
16 Chapter 1 Introduction

ergy sources, including natural gas, biomass, wind, solar, and geothermal energy. In
addition, it can be coupled with other energy forms such as waste heat, pressure, and
gas. Because of the different energy forms, distributed energy systems differ in forms
and structures. It mainly includes cogeneration of heat and power, renewable energy,
energy storage, and fuel cell. The technical block diagram is shown in Fig. 1.11.

Steam turbine

Gas turbine

Cogeneration
Reciprocating internal combustion engine

Stirling engine

Wind energy
Distributed energy Renewable energy
Supply technology Biomass energy

Solar energy

Physical

Energy storage Electrical

Thermal

Fuel cells

Fig. 1.11: Classification of distributed energy supply technologies.

1.3 Conversion and utilization of energy

As shown in Fig. 1.12, wind energy and hydraulic energy can turn into mechanical en-
ergy through mechanical devices, and mechanical energy can turn into electrical energy
through generators. The chemical energy in hydrogen and alcohol can be converted di-
rectly into electricity by fuel cells. Geothermal energy can be used directly for heating.
Solar energy can be converted into biomass energy and thermal energy through photo-
synthesis and solar collectors, respectively. In addition, other energies, such as chemical
energy in coal, oil, and gas and nuclear energy, are usually converted into thermal en-
ergy directly or indirectly through combustion or nuclear reactions.
According to statistics, the energy utilized by thermal energy accounts for more
than 90% of the total energy utilization in China and more than 85% for the other coun-
tries in the world. Therefore, in the process of energy conversion and utilization, ther-
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 A CHILD’S REASONING.
She was ironing dolly’s new gown,
Maid Marian, four years old,
With her brows puckered down
In a painstaking frown
Under her tresses of gold.

’Twas Sunday, and nurse coming in

Exclaimed in a tone of surprise:
“Don’t you know it’s a sin
Any work to begin
On the day that the Lord sanctifies?”

Then, lifting her face like a rose,

Thus answered this wise little tot:
“Now, don’t you suppose
The good Lord He knows
This little iron ain’t hot?”

A SWELL DINNER.
A plain, grave man once grew quite celebrated;
Dame Grundy met him with her blandest smile,
And Mrs. Shoddy, finding him much feted,
Gave him a dinner in her swellest style.

Her dining-table was a blaze of glory;

Soft light from many colored candles fell
Upon the young, the middle aged, and hoary—
On beauty and on those who “made up” well.

Her china was a miracle of beauty—

No service like it ever had been sold,
And, being unsmuggled, with the price and duty,
Was nearly worth its weight in gold.

The flowers were wonderful—I think that maybe

Only another world has flowers more fair;
Each rose was big enough to brain a baby,
And there were several bushels of them there.

The serving was the acme of perfection;

Waiters were many, silent, deft, and fleet;
Their manners seemed a reverent affection
And oh! what stacks of things there were to eat!

And yet the man, for all this honor singled,

Would have exchanged it with the greatest joy
For one plain meal of pork and cabbage mingled,
Cooked by his mother when he was a boy.

LITTLE JACK.
He wore a pair of tattered pants,
A ragged roundabout,
And through the torn crown of his hat
A lock of hair stuck out;
He had no shoes upon his feet,
No shirt upon his back;
His home was on the friendless street,
His name was “Little Jack.”

One day a toddling baby-boy

With head of curly hair
Escaped his loving mother’s eyes,
Who, busy with her care,
Forgot the little one, that crept
Upon the railroad near
To play with the bright pebbles there,
Without a thought of fear.
But see! around the curve there comes
A swiftly flying train—
It rattles, roars! the whistle shrieks
With all its might and main;
The mother sees her child, but stands
Transfixed with sudden fright!
The baby clasps his little hands
And laughs with low delight.

Look! look! a tattered figure flies

Adown the railroad track!
His hat is gone, his feet are bare!
’Tis ragged “Little Jack!”
He grasps the child, and from the track
The babe is safely tossed—
A slip! a cry! the train rolls by—
Brave “Little Jack” is lost.

They found his mangled body there,

Just where he slipped and fell,
And strong men wept who never cared
For him when he was well.
If there be starry crowns in heaven
For little ones to wear,
The star in “Little Jack’s” shall shine
As bright as any there!

Eugene J. Hall.

A STORY OF AN APPLE.
Little Tommy and Peter and Archy and Bob
Were walking one day, when they found
An apple; ’twas mellow and rosy and red,
And lying alone on the ground.

Said Tommy: “I’ll have it.” Said Peter: “’Tis mine.”

 Said Archy: “I’ve got it; so there!”
Said Bobby: “Now let us divide in four parts,
And each of us boys have a share.”

“No, no!” shouted Tommy, “I’ll have it myself.”

Said Peter: “I want it, I say.”
Said Archy: “I’ve got it, and I’ll have it all;
I won’t give a morsel away.”

Then Tommy, he snatched it, and Peter, he fought,

(’Tis sad and distressing to tell!)
And Archy held on with his might and his main,
Till out of his fingers it fell.

Away from the quarrelsome urchins it flew,

And then down a green little hill
That apple it rolled, and it rolled, and it rolled
As if it would never be still.

A lazy old brindle was nipping the grass

And switching her tail at the flies,
When all of a sudden the apple rolled down
And stopped just in front of her eyes.

She gave but a bite and a swallow or two—

That apple was seen nevermore!
“I wish,” whimpered Archy and Peter and Tom,
“We’d kept it and cut it in four.”

Sydney Dayre.

IDLE BEN.
Idle Ben was a naughty boy;
(If you please, this story’s true;)
He caused his teachers great annoy,
And his worthy parents, too.
Idle Ben, in a boastful way,
To his anxious parents told,
That, while he was young, he thought he’d play,
And he’d learn when he grew old.

“Ah, Ben!” said his mother, and dropped a tear,

“You’ll be sorry for this by-and-by.”
Says Ben, “To me, that’s not very clear,
But at any rate I’ll try.”

So Idle Ben, he refused to learn,

Thinking that he could wait;
But, when he had his living to earn,
He found it was just too late.

Little girls, little boys, don’t delay your work;

Some day you’ll be women and men:
Whenever your task you’re inclined to shirk,
Take warning by Idle Ben.

BABY ALICE’S RAIN.

The drouth had been long—oh, very long—
The whole long month of blithesome May;
The rain-clouds seemed to have wandered wrong,
From the pinched, brown land so far away:
Leaves fell; and the blue-birds hushed their song,
As field and forest grew dim and gray.

Then one night the clouds had gathered: the wind

Came in from the east; but it needed trust
To believe that the soft rain lurked behind,
To cool the fierce heat and to lay the dust:
So soon we forget that God is kind!
So easily cease to hope and to trust!

But it rained at morning: oh, welcome fall

Of the drops from heaven, that had such need!
Those drops that have fallen alike on all,
Of the kindly thought and the cruel deed,
Since the plant of life was so tiny and small
When the Mighty Hand had just dropped the seed.

Did we wonder, to see it come at last—

This coveted blessing?—wee Alice did not,
As quick to the window all dimpled she passed,
Springing up in glee from her little cot,
And bearing a love so holy and vast
In such limited space—dear baby tot!

“Look, mamma! look, papa!—oh yes, it yanes!

“I tought dere ood be some ’ittle showers!
“Detoration Day—Dod take such pains!
“Don’t ’u see Dod’s waterin’ de soldiers’ f’owers?”
Oh, lips of the children!—there’s something remains
Yet, of Eden’s prime, in this world of ours.

John Hay Furness.

GIVE US LITTLE BOYS A CHANCE.

Here we are! don’t leave us out,
Just because we’re little boys!
Though we’re not so bold and stout,
In the world we’ll make a noise.
You are many a year ahead,
But we’ll step by step advance;
All the world’s before you spread—
Give us little boys a chance!

Never slight us in our play;

You were once as small as we;
We’ll be big, like you, some day,
Then perhaps our power you’ll see.
We will meet you, when we’re grown
 With a brave and fearless glance;
Don’t think all this world’s your own—
Give us little boys a chance!

Little hands will soon be strong

For the work that they must do;
Little lips will sing their song
When these early days are through.
So, you big folks, if we’re small,
On our toes you needn’t dance;
There is room enough for all—
Give us little boys a chance!

PUSS IN THE OVEN.

While sitting at our breakfast rather late
One winter’s morn a little after eight,
We heard a noise;
But from the shuffling of feet and legs,
Of drinking coffee and of eating eggs,
We girls and boys
Thought little of it, but looked at one another;
Fred looked at Polly—Polly at her brother.
Just then we heard a feeble cry, so wee,
Where could it come from—and what could it be?
“It’s puss,” cried one, “she must be in the ‘aery.’”
And so we went with footsteps soft and wary.
But, no; Puss in the aery was not found,
And once again we heard the plaintive sound,
“M-e-o-w, M-e-w,”
What could we do?

We looked again and Clara searched the house;

Was pussy in the coal-hole, with a mouse?
“M-e-w, M-e-o-w,”
Much louder now.
“She’s in the cupboard,” so, we search the shelves,
But find no pussy. Have some fairy elves
Been imitating puss? But once again
Poor pussy gives a cry as if in pain;
The drawers are searched; in every little nook
Where puss could hide we take a hasty look.

“M-e-w, M-e-o-w,”
Still louder now,
We all look frightened, so while one declares
That pussy’s hidden underneath the stairs;
And while we stood upon the kitchen rug,
Wondering where pussy was so nice and snug,
The oven door was opened just a bit
To warm some toast, when out jumped little Kit!
And as she shook her furry brindled form,
She seemed to say, “My bed was rather warm.”

WHAT WAS IT?

Guess what he had in his pocket.
Marbles and tops and sundry toys
Such as always belong to boys,
A bitter apple, a leathern ball?—
Not at all.

What did he have in his pocket?

A bubble-pipe, and a rusty screw,
A brassy watch-key, broken in two.
A fish-hook in a tangle of string?—
No such thing.

What did he have in his pocket?

Ginger-bread crumbs, a whistle he made,
Buttons, a knife with a broken blade,
A nail or two and a rubber gun?—
Neither one.
What did he have in his pocket?
Before he knew it slyly crept
Under the treasures carefully kept,
And away they all of them quickly stole—
’Twas a hole!

Sidney Dayre.

THE COBBLER’S SECRET.

A waggish cobbler once in Rome,
Put forth this proclamation,
That he was willing to disclose
For due consideration,
A secret which the cobbling world
Could ill afford to lose;
The way to make in one short day
A hundred pairs of shoes.
From every quarter soon there came
A crowd of eager fellows;
Tanners, cobblers, bootmen, shoemen,
Jolly leather sellers,
All redolent of beef and smoke,
And cobbler’s wax and hides;
Each fellow paid his thirty pence
And called it cheap besides.
Silence! The cobbler enters
And casts around his eyes,
Then curls his lips—the rogue!—then frowns
And looks most wondrous wise;
“My friends,” he says, “’tis simple quite,
The plan that I propose;
And every man of you, I think,
Might learn it if he chose.
A good sharp knife is all you need
In carrying out my plan;
So easy is it none can fail
 Let him be child or man,
To make a hundred pairs of shoes,
Just go back to your shops,
And take a hundred pairs of boots
And cut off all their tops!”

A SAD CASE.
I’m a poor little kitty,
And alas! when born, so pretty,
That the morning I was found,
Instead of being drowned,
I was saved to be the toy
Of a dreadful baby-boy,
Who pinches and who pokes me,
Holds me by my throat and chokes me,
And when I could vainly try
From his cruel clutch to fly,
Grabs my tail, and pulls so hard
That some day, upon my word!
I am sure ’twill broken be,
And then everybody’ll see
Such a looking Kitty!

That baby has no pity!

Thinks I’m “only a kitty”—
I won’t stand it, nor would you!
’Tis no use to cry out m-e-w!
Listen! Some day I shall scratch,
And he’ll find he’s met his match;
That within my little paws
There are ever so many claws!
And it won’t be very long,
If this sort of thing goes on,
Till there’ll be a kitten row
Such as has not been till now;
Then, my lad, there will be found,
 Left upon that battle-ground,
Such a looking Baby!

Clara D. Bates.

THE HEIR APPARENT.

A small boy who can adopt the air and demeanor of the
“afflicted parent” will make this soliloquy very amusing.
A Baby! Yes—a baby—a real, definite, unquestionable baby! What of
it? do you ask. Well, that’s queer. Don’t know what a baby is? I’m
sorry for you. My advice is—go and get one.
Heigho! I’m weighted down with my responsibility. Solferino in color
—no hair on its head—kicks—yowls—mews—whines-sneezes—squints
—makes up mouths—it’s a singular circumstance—that baby is, and—
but never mind.
Cross? I guess that’s a beginning of the truth, so far as it’s
concerned, but, why did it happen along just at the moment when
muslin, linen and white flannel were the highest they had been since
Adam built a hen-house for Mrs. Eve’s chickens? when the doctors
charge two dollars a squint, four dollars a grunt, and, on account of
the scarcity in the country, take what is left in a man’s pocket, no
discount for cash, and send bill for balance, Jan. 1st? Queer, isn’t it?
(A pause.)
A queer little thing is that baby; a speck of a nose like a wart, head
as bald as a squash, and no place to hitch a waterfall; a mouth just
situated to come the gum-game and chew milk. Oh! you should hear
her sing. I have stuffed my fur cap down its throat, given it the
smoothing-iron to play with; but that little red lump that looks as if it
couldn’t hold blood enough to keep a musketo from fainting, persists
to swallow its fists, and the other day they dropped down its throat, to
the crook in its elbows. That stopped its music, and I was happy for
one and a half minutes.
 It is a pleasant thing to have a baby in the house—one of your achy
kind. Think of the pleasures of a father in his night costume, trembling
in the midnight hour, with his warm feet upon a square yard of
oilcloth, dropping paregoric in a teaspoon, by moonlight, the nurse
thumping at the door, and the wife of your bosom crying “hurray,” and
the baby yelling till the fresco drops from the ceiling. It’s a nice time
to think of dress coats, pants, ties, and white kids.
Its mother says the darling is troubled with—oh, don’t mention it. I
have got to get up in the cold and shiver while the milk warms—it
uses the bottle. I tried to stop its growth the other night; it was no go.
I rocked so hard that I missed stays, and sent it slap clear across the
room, upsetting the flower-stand. It didn’t make any noise then! Oh,
no! I was a happy man. Oh, yes. (A pause.) That baby’s mother says
only wait until it gets bleached (it’s been vaccinated) and old enough
to crawl about and feed on pins. Yes, I’m going to wait. Won’t it be
delightful?
John, run for the doctor; it’s fallen into the slop pail; it’s choking
with a peach-skin; or it has fallen down stairs; or has swallowed the
tack-hammer; or shows signs of the mumps, croup, whooping cough,
small pox, cholera infantum, or some other curious thing to let the
doctor take the money laid by for my winter’s donation to the poor.
Shampooing, curling my hair, wearing nice clothes, going to parties?
Oh, no more of that! No—more—of—that. A baby—oh! I’m an old
fellow now. Adieu, vain world!

AN EGG A CHICKEN.
“An egg a chicken! Don’t tell me!
For didn’t I break an egg to see?
There was nothing inside but a yellow ball,
With a bit of mucillage round it all—
Neither beak nor bill,
Nor toe nor quill,
Not even a feather
To hold it together;
Not a sign of life could any one see.
An egg a chicken? You can’t fool me!

“An egg a chicken! Didn’t I pick

Up the very shell that had held the chick—
So they said?—and didn’t I work half a day
To pack him in where he couldn’t stay?
Let me try as I please,
With squeeze upon squeeze,
There is scarce space to meet
His head and his feet.
No room for any of the rest of him—so
That egg never held that chicken I know.”

Mamma heard the logic of her little man,

Felt his trouble, and helped him, as mothers can!
Took an egg from the nest—it was smooth and round:
“Now, my boy, can you tell me what makes this sound?”
Faint and low, tap, tap;
Soft and slow, rap, rap;
Sharp and quick,
Like a prisoner’s pick.
“Hear it peep, inside there!” cried Tom, with a shout;
“How did it get in, and how can it get out?”

Tom was eager to help—he could break the shell.

Mamma smiled and said, “All’s well that ends well.
Be patient awhile yet my boy.” Click, click,
And out popped the bill of a dear little chick.
No room had it lacked.
Though snug it was packed,
There it was, all complete,
From its head to its feet.
The softest of down and the brightest of eyes,
And so big—why, the shell wasn’t half its size.

Tom gave a long whistle, “Mamma, now I see

That an egg is a chicken—though the how beats me,
An egg isn’t a chicken, that I know and declare;
Yet an egg isn’t a chicken—see the proof of it there.
Nobody can tell
 How it came in that shell;
Once out all in vain
Would I pack it again.
I think ’tis a miracle, mamma mine,
As much as that of the water and wine.”

ONE OF GOD’S LITTLE HEROES.

The patter of feet was on the stair,
As the Editor turned in his sanctum chair,
And said—for weary the day had been—
“Don’t let another intruder in.”

But scarce had he uttered the words, before

A face peered in at the half-closed door,
And a child sobbed out—“Sir, mother said
I should come and tell you that Dan is dead.”

“And pray who is ‘Dan’?” The streaming eyes

Looked questioning up, with a strange surprise:
“Not know him?—Why, sir, all day he sold
The papers you print, through wet and cold.

“The newsboys say that they could not tell

The reason his stock went off so well:
I knew!—with a voice so weak and low,
Could any one bear to say him ‘No?’

“And the money he made, whatever it be,

He carried straight home to mother and me:
No matter about his rags, he said,
If only he kept us clothed and fed.

“And he did it, sir—trudging through rain and cold,

Nor stopped till the last of his sheets was sold;
But he’s dead—he’s dead! and we miss him so!
And mother—she thought you might like to know!”
In the paper, next morning, as “leader,” ran
A paragraph thus: “The newsboy Dan,
One of God’s little heroes, who
Did nobly the duty he had to do—
For mother and sister earning bread,
By patient endurance and toil—is dead.”

Margaret J. Preston.

WHAT THE COWS WERE DOING.

Little Rosie, walking slowly
Past the verdant meadow, sees
Many cows, and some are standing,
Others lying ’neath the trees.

In the road stands little Rosie,

Caring not for dust or mud,
While her eyes are bent upon them
As they calmly chew their cud.

Great surprise her face expresses,

For awhile her lips are dumb;
Then she cries out, “Mamma! Mamma!
All the cows are chewing gum!”

MAMMA’S HELP.
“Yes, Bridget has gone to the city,
And papa is sick, as you see,
And mamma has no one to help her
But two-year old Lawrence and me.

“You’d like to know what I am good for,

 ’Cept to make work and tumble things down;
I guess there aren’t no little girlies
At your house at home, Dr. Brown.

“I’ve brushed all the crumbs from the table,

And dusted the sofa and chairs,
I’ve polished the hearthstone and fender,
And swept off the area stairs.

“I’ve wiped all the silver and china,

And just dropped one piece on the floor,
Yes, Doctor, it broke in the middle,
But I ’spect it was cracked before.

“And the steps that I saved precious mamma!

You’d be s’prised, Doctor Brown, if you knew.
She says if it wasn’t for Bessie
She couldn’t exist the day through!

“It’s ‘Bessie, bring papa some water!’

And ‘Bessie dear, run to the door!’
And ‘Bessie love, pick up the playthings
The baby has dropped on the floor!’

“Yes, Doctor, I’m ’siderably tired,

I’ve been on my feet all the day;
Good-bye! well, perhaps I will help you
When your old Bridget ‘goes off to stay!’”

HOW TWO BIRDIES KEPT HOUSE.

The morning was sunshiny, lovely, and clear,
And two little wrens were both hovering near,
Chirping and warbling with wonderful zest,
Looking for some place to build them a nest.

They searched the veranda, examined the trees,

But never a place could they find that would please;
Till Mabel, whose eyes were as blue as the sky,
And very observing, their trouble did spy.

Then, quick as the thought darted through her wee head,

“I’ll help you, dear birdies,” she lispingly said;
“You just wait a minute, I’ll give you my shoe;
’Twill make you a nice nest—as good as if new.”

With much toil and trouble she undid the knot,

Took off the small shoe, and picked out a spot
Behind a large pillar: there tucked it away;
And soon she forgot it in innocent play.

But the wrens chirped, “Why, here’s a nest ready-made,

In the very best place, too, and quite in the shade!”
They went to work quickly, without more ado,
To keep house like the woman “that lived in a shoe.”

When evening shades came, at the close of the day,

And dear little Mable was tired of play,
She thought of the birdies, and went off alone,
To see, if she could, what the birdies had done,

With heads under their wings the wrens were asleep;

Side by side, in the shoe, they were cuddled down deep,
Then, clapping her hands, Mable said, “Keep my shoe;
My new ones I’ll wear, and this one’s for you.”

WHY HE WOULDN’T DIE.

Listen, my boy, and you shall know
A thing that happened a long time ago,
When I was a boy not as large as you,
And the youngest of all the children, too.
I laugh even now as I think it o’er,
And the more I think I laugh the more.
’Twas the chilly eve of an autumn day;
We were all in the kitchen, cheery and gay;
 The fire burned bright on the old brick hearth,
And its cheerful light gave zest to our mirth.
My elder sister, addressing me,
“To-morrow’s Thanksgiving, you know,” said she;
“We must kill the chickens to-night, you see.
Now light the lantern and come with me;
I will wring their necks until they are dead,
And have them all dressed ere we go to bed.”

My sister, unused to sights of blood,

And, pale with excitement, trembling stood;
But summoning courage, she laid her plans,
And seized the old rooster with both her hands,
And, with triumph written all over her face,
Her victim bore to the open space.
Then she wrung and wrung with might and main,
And wrung and twisted and wrung again,
’Till, sure that the spark of life had fled,
She threw him down on the ground for dead.

But the rooster would not consent to die,

And be made up into chicken-pie,
So he sprang away with a cackle and bound,
Almost as soon as he touched the ground,
And hiding away from the candle’s light,
Escaped the slaughter of that dark night.
My sister, thus brought to sudden stand,
And looking at what she held in her hand,
Soon saw why the rooster was not dead—
She had wrung off his tail instead of his head!

THE SICK DOLLY.

It needs a cute little girl who can make appropriate
gestures to recite this piece.
My dolly is very sick!
 I don’t know what to do;
Her little forehead it scowls quite horrid,
Her lips are turning blue.

She’s got a dreadful pain,

I know it from her face;
I’ll fetch a pellet and make her smell it,
From mamma’s medicine-case.

There, there, my child, lie still;

That’s sure to do you good.
Now don’t be ugly, I’ll wrap you snugly
All in your scarlet hood.

I know what made her sick!

She’s had too much to eat!
A piece of cheese, six blackberries
And a little bit of meat!

That’s too much for a doll,

(Hush, Baby dear, don’t cry!)
All those blackberries, besides stewed cherries,
And huckleberry pie.

I ought to be ashamed
(That’s just what mamma said)
To let my dolly commit such folly,
And get a pain in her head.

Some gruel would do her good;

What fun ’twill be to make it!
Just flour and water, and then, my daughter,
You’ll have to wake and take it!

I’d like to be a cook!

How nice the gruel does smell!
Oh, there it goes all over her nose!
Now dolly has got well.
 DAYS OF THE WEEK.
For seven little boys and girls. Teacher or some large boy
or girl should speak.
The days of the week once talking together
About their housekeeping, their friends and the weather,
Agreed in their talk it would be a nice thing
For all to march, and dance, and sing;
So they all stood up in a very straight row,
And this is the way they decided to go:

(Let seven children stand up, and as day of week is

called, take places, each one equipped with
the things the speaker mentions.)

First came little Sunday, so sweet and good,

With a book in her hand, at the head she stood.
Monday skipped in with soap and a tub,
Scrubbing away with a rub-a-dub-dub;
With board and iron comes Tuesday bright,
Talking to Monday in great delight.
Then Wednesday—the dear little cook—came in,
Riding cock horse on his rolling-pin.
Thursday followed, with broom and brush,
Her hair in a towel, and she in a rush.
Friday appeared, gayly tripping along;
He scoured the knives and then he was gone.
Saturday last, with a great big tub,
Into which we all jump for a very good rub.

(The children march and sing to the tune of

“Good Morning, Merry Sunshine.”)

Children of the week are we,

Happy, busy, full of glee.
Often do we come this way,
And you meet us every day.
Hand in hand we trip along,
Singing, as we go, a song.
Each one may a duty bring,
Though it be a little thing.

(All bow, and, taking up the articles, retire from

the stage in order, Sunday, Monday etc.)

Mary Ely Page.

POPPING CORN.
And there they sat, a popping corn,
John Styles and Susan Cutter—
John Styles as fat as any ox
And Susan fat as butter.

And there they sat and shelled the corn,

And raked and stirred the fire,
And talked of different kinds of care
And hitched their chairs up nigher.

Then Susan she the popper shook,

Then John he shook the popper,
Till both their faces grew as red
As saucepans made of copper.

And then they shelled, and popped and ate,

All kinds of fun a-poking,
While he haw-hawed at her remarks,
And she laughed at his joking.

And still they popped, and still they ate—

John’s mouth was like a hopper—
And stirred the fire and sprinkled salt,
And shook and shook the popper.

The clock struck nine—the clock struck ten,

And still the corn kept popping;
It struck eleven, and then struck twelve,
And still no signs of stopping.
 And John he ate, and Sue she thought—
The corn did pop and patter—
Till John cried out, “The corn’s afire!
Why, Susan, what’s the matter?”

Said she, “John Styles, it’s one o’clock;

You’ll die of indigestion;
I’m sick of all this popping corn—
Why don’t you pop the question?”

HOW THE FARMER WORKS.

For Several Boys.

This is the way the happy farmer(1)

Plows his piece of ground,
That from the little seeds he sows
A large crop may abound.

This is the way he sows the seed,(2)

Dropping with careful hand,
In all the furrows well prepared
Upon the fertile land.

This is the way he cuts the grain(3)

When bending with its weight;
And thus he bundles it in sheaves,(4)
Working long and late.

And then the grain he threshes thus,(5)

And stores away to keep;
And thus he stands contentedly(6)
And views the plenteous heap.

1. Arms extended forward as though holding a plow. 2. A motion as

of taking seed out of a bag or basket, and scattering with the right
hand. 3. Motion as of cutting with a scythe. 4. Arms curved and
extended forward. 5. Hands as though grasping a flail. Strike with
some force. 6. Erect position arms folded, or hands on the hips.

THE BIRDS’ PICNIC.

The birds gave a picnic, the morning was fine,
They all came in couples, to chat and to dine;
Miss Robin, Miss Wren and the two Misses Jay,
Were dressed in a manner decidedly gay.

And Bluebird, who looks like a handful of sky,

Dropped in with her spouse as the morning wore by;
The yellow-birds, too, wee bundles of sun,
With brave chickadees, came along to the fun.

Miss Phœbe was there, in her prim suit of brown;

In fact, all the birds in the fair leafy town.
The neighbors, of course, were politely invited;
Not even the ants and the crickets were slighted.

The grasshoppers came, some in gray, some in green,

And covered with dust, hardly fit to be seen:
Miss Miller flew in, with her gown white as milk;
And Lady Bug flourished a new crimson silk.

The bees turned out lively, the young and the old,
And proud as could be, in their spencers of gold.
But Miss Caterpillar, how funny of her,
She hurried along in her mantle of fur.

There were big bugs in plenty, and gnats great and small—
A very hard matter to mention them all.
And what did they do? Why, they sported and sang,
Till all the green wood with their melody rang.

Whoe’er gave a picnic so grand and so gay?

They hadn’t a shower, I’m happy to say.
And when the sun fell, like a cherry-ripe red,
 The fire-flies lighted them all home to bed.

A VERY SMART DOG.

For a boy eight or ten years old.

I have a pretty little dog, he’s just about so high,(1)

And sometimes you would think he knew as much as you(2) or I;(3)
When e’er a letter I would write, he jumps around in glee,(4)
For then he knows that he can take it to the mail for me,(5)

I hold a stick out in my hands,(6) o’er it he jumps in joy—

He shoulders(7) arms as soberly as any soldier boy—
He jumps on table, box(8) or chair, which e’er I tell him to.
I think he is the smartest dog—now, really do not you?

My little dog will sit up straight(9) and open wide his eyes,
And hold his pretty paws just so,(10) and look so very wise.
If e’er to him I crossly speak(11) I very soon regret,
And just as soon my little dog my anger will forget.

He says bow-wow-wow-wow-wow-wow,
No word but this alone,
And yet he is the smartest dog that ever I have known.

At place marked 1 hold right hand out, palm downwards,

as if measuring height. At place marked 2, point to
audience. At 3, the reciter points to himself. At 4, downward
motion of hand. At 5, point to right. At 6, hold out both
hands, as if holding stick. At 7, double up right arm, with
hand in front of shoulder. At 8, point to left. At 9, hold head
up very straight. At 10, cross hands on breast. At 11, hold
out right hand, with finger pointed, as if in command.
 OPPORTUNITY.
ADDRESSED TO THE BOYS OF AMERICA.
A judgeship is vacant, the ermine awaits
The shoulder of youth, brave, honest and true,
Some one will be standing by fame’s open gates,
I wonder, my boys, will it be one of you?

The president’s chair of a great railroad maze,

Is empty to-day, for death claimed his due,
The directors are choosing a man for his place,
I wonder, my boys—Will it be one of you?

A pulpit is waiting for some one to fill,

Of eloquent men there are only a few,
The man who can fill it must have power to thrill;
The best will be chosen—Will it be one of you?

The great men about us will pass to their rest,

The places be filled by the boys who pursue
The search for the highest, the noblest—the best,
I wonder who’ll fill them; I hope ’twill be you.

THE LITTLE LEAVES’ JOURNEY.

A motion exercise for six little girls.

Some little leaves one autumn day

From maple(1) branches high,
Looked down(2) upon the lovely world
And upward(3) at the sky;
Then each one sighed, “Had I(4) but wings,
 (5)Away, away I’d fly.”

At last the wind(6) aweary grew

Of hearing them complain,
He(7) shook the sturdy maple boughs
With all his might and main;
He shook(8) the little leaflets all,
And down(9) they fell like rain.

They huddled(10) close in little heaps

To keep all snug and warm,
When Nature(11) came, a tender nurse,
With bed(12) clothes on her arm;
She tucked(13) them ’neath soft snowy folds
And hid(14) them from the storm.

1. Motion upward with right hand. 2. Look downward. 3. Look

upward. 4. Wave hands back and forth. 5. Extend right arm. 6. Close
eyes, faces expressive of weariness. 7. Double the hands up, moving
them quickly backwards and forwards. 8. Same as 7. 9. Move hands
downward. 10. Put palms of hands together. 11. Look toward right.
12. Extend right arm, looking at same. 13. Downward motion with
right hand. 14. Motion toward the north.

THE BROOM DRILL.

Marches and drills by the little folks are always very
attractive and entertaining. The preparation for these
benefits young people by requiring them to move the body
quickly and gracefully, assuming an erect attitude, then
other positions at the word of command. Such exercises also
aid in forming a habit of strict attention.
 The Broom Drill is one of the most entertaining, and can
readily be learned. It should be practiced until it can be
performed promptly and without any mistakes. Twelve or
sixteen girls—in fact, any even number, according to the size
of the stage—may take part in it.
All should be dressed alike, in blouse waist of Turkey red
chintz, sleeves and collar trimmed with white braid; skirt
made of white cheese cloth, trimmed above the hem with
band of red chintz, four or five inches wide; a red cap
completes the costume.
During the marching there should be music, and the notes
of the piano should be struck sharply. Any good march will
answer for the music. The following exercises conform very
nearly to the “Manual of Arms” used in the army. The cuts
will be found very serviceable in showing the different
positions.

Standing in rank near the front side of the stage, the

teacher gives the command to “present arms,” “carry arms,”
“trail arms,” etc. Each command consists of two words: the
first is to indicate what the pupil is to do, and on the second
word the movement is made, all acting in concert.
The following exercises are suitable for this drill, and
always prove very entertaining to the audience.
Carry—Arms!—The broom is held in the right hand, handle
upward, with the hand clasping the handle where it joins the
brush. The left hand hangs at the side. (Fig. 1.)
 Fig. 1.

Present—Arms!—Place the broom with the right

hand in front of the centre of the body, clasping the
handle with the left hand above the right. Hold the
broom perfectly perpendicular. (Fig. 2.)

Fig. 2.
 Order—Arms!—Let go the handle with the left
hand, and carry the broom to the side with the right
hand; then drop the broom to the floor. (Fig. 3.)

Fig. 3.

In place—Rest!—Grasp the handle with both

hands, the left above the right, and place both hands
in front of the lower part of the breast. (Fig. 4.)
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