RUTHERFORD’S -RAY SCATTERING EXPERIMENT:

DISCOVERY OF ATOMIC NUCLEUS

It is an important experiment, which led Rutherford to the discovery of atomic nucleus.
An alpha particle is helium nucleus containing 2 Protons and 2 neutrons. Therefore, an alpha particle has
4 units of mass and two units of positive charge. Many radioactive elements emit alpha particles. The
experimental set up used by Rutherford and his collaborators, Geiger and Marsden is shown in figure.

S is a speck of a radioactive source contained in a lead cavity. The alpha particles emitted by the source
are collimated into a narrow beam with the help of a lead slit (collimator). The collimated beam is
allowed to fall on a thin gold foil of thickness of the order of 2.1107 m. The  - particles scattered in
different directions are observed through a rotatable detector consisting of a zinc sulphide screen and a
microscope. The alpha particles produce bright flashes or scintillations on the ZnS screen. These are
observed in the microscope and counted at different angle from the direction of incidence of the beam.
The angle  of deviation of an alpha particle from its original direction is called its scattering angle .
Observations. A graph is plotted between the scattering angle  and the number of -particles N(),
scattered at  for a very large number of -particles. This is shown in figure

The dots in this figure represent the data points of the actual experiment. The solid curve is the theoretical
prediction based on the assumption that atom has a small, dense, positively charged nucleus. We find that

(i) most of the alpha particles pass straight through the gold foil. It means they do not suffer
any collision with gold atoms.
(ii) Only about 0.14% of incident  particles scatter by more than 1.
(iii) About one  particle in every 8000  particles deflect by more than 90.
Explanation:
The scattering of  particles is due to Coulombian interaction of -particles with positive charges and
electrons in every atom of the gold foil. If positive charges and electrons were distributed uniformly in an
atom (as per Thomson model), the scattering angle  would be very small.
An  Particle is over 7000 times more massive than an electron, and in this experiment,  particle is
traveling at a high speed; therefore, very strong forces alone could have deflected them through large
angles.
This led Rutherford to postulate that the entire positive charge of the atom must be concentrated in a tiny
central core of the atom. This tiny central core of each atom was called atomic nucleus.
As the gold foil is very thin, it can be assumed that  particles will suffer not more than one scattering
during their passage through it. An  particle carries two units of positive charge and has mass of a
helium atom. Charge on gold nucleus = Ze, where atomic number of gold, Z=79. As gold nucleus is
about 50 times heavier than an -particle we assume that it would remain stationary in the scattering
process. Therefore, the trajectory of -particle can be computed using Newton’s second law of motion
and coulomb force of repulsion between -particle and gold nucleus, i.e.,
1  Ze  2e 
F
4 0 r2
Where r is distance of -particle from the centre of the nucleus. The magnitude and direction of the force
on an -particle changes continuously as it approaches the nucleus first and then recedes away from it.
An shown in figure….. an alpha particle (1), tending to collide head on with the nucleus, slows
down due to repulsive force of the nucleus, finally stops and is then repelled back. This  particle,
therefore, retraces its path, scattering through 180.
Alpha particles 2,2' tending to hit the nucleus at its periphery, experience strong repulsive forces and get
scattered through large angles (  90)
The alpha particles 3,3' which pass at a distance from the nucleus experience small repulsive forces and
get scattered through small angles. The  particles which pass at still larger distances from the nucleus
go almost undeviated.

DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH (SIZE OF NUCLEUS)

To calculate the nuclear dimensions from the scattering experiment, Rutherford assumed the following.
(i) The atomic nucleus is so heavy that its motion during the impact is disregarded.
(ii) The nucleus and the alpha particle both are taken as point charges having no dimensions.
(iii) The scattering is due to elastic collision between nucleus and -particle.
Suppose an -particle with initial kinetic energy E is directed towards the centre of the nucleus of an
atom. On account of Coulomb’s repulsive force between nucleus and alpha particle, kinetic energy of
alpha particle goes on decreasing and in turn, electric potential energy of the particle goes on
increasing. At a certain distance r0 from the nucleus, K.E. of -particle reduces to zero. The particle
stops and it cannot go closer to the nucleus. It is repelled by the nucleus and therefore it retraces its
path, turning through 180. Therefore, the distance r0 is known as the distance of closest approach.
At this distance, the entire K.E. of -particle is converted into electric potential energy.
Now, charge on -particle, q1  2e
Charge on nucleus, q2   Ze
Where Z is the atomic number of material of the foil and +e is charge on a proton.
Electric potential at distance r0 due to the nucleus
Ze
 ...(1)
4 0 r0
where  1  9 109 Nm 2C 2 ,
4 0
Potential energy of alpha particle at this distance  r0  from the nucleus
= potential X charge
Ze Ze(2e)
  (2e)  ...(2)
4 0 r0 4 0 r0
Kinetic energy of alpha particle of mass m moving with velocity  is
1
E m 2 ...(3)
2
If we neglect the loss of energy due to interaction of -particle with the electrons, then at the distance of closest
approach, as K.E. P.E.
1 Ze(2e)
m 2 
2 4 0 r0
Ze(2e)
r0  … (4)
1 
4 0  m 2 
2 
Obviously, the radius of the nucleus must be smaller than the calculated value of r0 , as an alpha particle cannot
touch the periphery of the nucleus on account of strong repulsion.
In the original experiment,
1
K. E. of -particle E  m 2  7.7 MeV
2
 7.7 1.6 1013 joule i.e. E  1 2 1012 joule
Z = 79 for gold and e  1.6 1019 coulomb
9 109  79  2 1.6 1019 
2

From (4), r0  1 ( Ze)(2e) r0 

4 0 1 m 2 1.2 1012
2
9  79  2 1.6 1.6 1029
r0  r0  3.0 1014 m.  30 fermi
1.2 1012
This value is considerably larger than the sum of radii of gold nucleus and -particle. Thus -particle reverses its
motion without ever actually touching the gold nucleus.
Note . We can show that number of -particle. Thus -particle reverses its motion without ever actually touching
the gold nucleus.
1
N ( ) 
sin 4 ( / 2)
IMPACT PARAMETER
Impact parameter is defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the alpha particle from the
central line of the nucleus, when the particle is far away from the nucleus of the atom. The impact parameter b and
scattering angle  are also shown in the diagram.

For large impact parameters, force experienced by the alpha particle is weak, because F varies as 1/(distance) 2 .
Therefore, when impact parameter is large, an alpha particle will deviate through a much smaller angle. However,
when impact parameter is small, force experienced is large and hence the alpha particle will scatter through a larger
angle. For the case of head on collision, impact parameter b tends to zero.
Rutherford calculated analytically, the relation between the impact parameter b and scattering angle , which is
given by
1 Ze2 cot  / 2
b
4 0 E
where E  1 m 2 is kinetic energy of alpha particle, when it is far away from the atom.
2
Equation (5) shows that an alpha particle close to the nucleus (small impact parameter b) will have a large
deflection () whereas an alpha particle far away from the nucleus (large impact parameter b) will have a small
deflection (). Also, if the kinetic energy E of the alpha particle is large, impact parameter b can be small for the
same deflection.
RUTHERFORD’S ATOM MODEL
The essential feature of Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom or planetary model of the atom are as follows:
Every atom consists of a tiny central core, called the atomic nucleus, in which the entire positive charge and almost
entire mass of the atom are concentrated.
The size of nucleus is of the order of 10 15 m, which is very small as compared to the size of the atom which is of
the order of 10 10 m.
The atomic nucleus is surrounded by certain number of electrons. As atom on the whole is electrically neutral, the
total negative charge of electrons surrounding the nucleus is equal to total positive charge on the nucleus.
These electrons revolve around the nucleus in various circular orbits as do the planets around the sun. The
centripetal force required by electron for revolution is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the
electrons and the nucleus.
ELECTRON ORBITS
If Fc = centripetal force required to keep a revolving electron in orbit,
Fe = electrostatic force of attraction between the revolving electron and the nucleus, then
for a dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom,
Fc  Fe
2 (e)(e) e2
m  ..(6) r ..(7)
r 4 0 r 2 4 0 m 2
1
K. E. of electron in the orbit, E  m 2
2
e2
Using (6), K 
8 0 r
Potential energy of electron in orbit
(e)(e) e 2
U 
4 0 r 4 0 r
Negative sign indicates that revolving electron is bound to the positive nucleus.
Total energy of electron in hydrogen atom
e2 e2 e2
E  K U   E …(8)
8 0 r 4 0 r 8 0 r
Therefore, total energy of electron in orbit of hydrogen atom is negative. Hence, the electron is bound to the
nucleus.
BOHR MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM
Following are the three basic postulates of this model:
1.Every atom consists of a central core called nucleus, in which entire positive charge and almost entire mass of the
atom are concentrated. A suitable number of electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits. The centripetal
force required for revolution is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the electron and the
nucleus.
This postulate stresses that an electron in an atom can revolve in certain stable orbits only without the emission of
radiant energy. Thus, each atomic exist only in certain definite stable states with definite total energy. These are
called stationary states of the atom.
If m is the mass of electron moving with a velocity  in a circular orbit of radius r, then the necessary centripetal
force is
m 2
F
r
Also, the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus of charge (+ Ze) and electron of charge (-e) is
1 ( Ze)(e) KZe2
F  2 where K  1
4 0 r 2 r 4 0

m 2 KZe2
  2 ..(9)
r2 r
2. Bohr’s second postulate defines stable orbits.
According to Bohr, electron can revolve only in certain discrete non-radiating orbits, called stationary
orbits, for which total angular momentum of the evolving electron is an integral multiple of h/r , where h is
Planck’s constant.
Thus the angular momentum of the orbiting electron is quantized.
As angular momentum of electron =mr,
 for any permitted (stationary) orbit
nh ..(10)
m r 
2
where n is any positive integer, 1,2,3…….
It is called principal quantum number. The electron, while revolving in such orbits, shall not lose energy i.e., its
energy would stay constant.
3.The emission / absorption of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one of its specified non-radiating
orbit to another. The difference in the total energy of electron in the two permitted orbits is absorbed when the
electron jumps from inner to the outer orbit, and emitted when electron jumps from outer to the inner orbit.
If E1 is total energy of electron in an inner stationary orbit and E2 is its total energy in an outer stationary orbit,
then frequency  of radiation emitted on jumpting from outer to inner orbit is given by
hv  E2  E1 ..(11)
Radii of Bohr’s stationary orbits
nh nh
From (10), m r  , or 
2 2 mr
m n2h2 KZe 2 n2 h2
Put in (9),  2 or r 2 ..(12)
r 4 2 m2 r 2 r 4 mKZe2
for hydrogen atom, Z = 1
n2 h2
 r 2 ..(13)
4 mKe2
This shows that r n 2

i.e. radii of stationary orbits are in the ratio

12 : 22 : 32 : and so on i.e. 1:4:9. Clearly, the stationary orbits are not equally spaced.
Putting
h  6.6 1034 joule  sec.
m  9.11031 kg.
K  9 109 Nm2C 2 ,
e  1.6 1019 C
we get from eqn. (13)
r  n 2  5.29 1011 m
For example, size of 1st orbit (n = 1) of hydrogen atom is  r  1 5.29 1011 m  0  529 Å .
Velocity Of Electron In Bohr’s Stationary Orbit
KZe2 nh
From (9), r  From (10), r
m 2 2 m
KZe2 nh 2 KZe2
  or  ...(15)
m 2
2 m nh
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1
2 KZe2
  ...(16)
nh

Calculations show that in the first orbit (n = 1) of hydrogen atom, orbital velocity of electron is
2.2 106 m / s which is roughly 1 of the velocity of light in vacuum.
137
Further, the orbital velocity of electron in outer orbits is smaller as compared to its value in the inner orbits.
Frequency of electron in Bohr’s Stationary Orbit
It is the number of revolutions completed per second by the electron in a stationary orbit, around the nucleus. It is
represented by 
From   r  r (2 v)
 2 KZe2 KZe2 KZe2
v   i.e. v …using (15)
2 r nh  2 r nhr nhr
In the first orbit of hydrogen atom,
n  1, r  0  53 1010 m
Using K  9 109 Nm2C 2 , Z  1, h  6.6 1034 j s e  1.6 1019 C , we.get
9 109 1 (1 6 1019 ) 2
v v  6  57 1015 rps
 6  6 1034    0  53 1010 
~

TOTAL ENERGY OF ELECTRON IN BOHR’S STATIONARY ORBIT

The energy of electron revolving in a stationary orbit is of two types: Kinetic energy, which is due to velocity and
potential energy which is due to position of electron. From the first postulate of Bohr’s atom model,
 m 2 KZe 2 1 2 1 KZe2
 2  m  “
r r 2 2 r
2
i.e. K.E. of electron  1 m 2  KZe …(17)
2 2r
Potential due to the nucleus, in the orbit in which electron is revolving KZe 2

r
Potential energy of electron
KZe(e)  KZe
= potential  charge   …(18)
r r
Total energy of electron in the orbit
1 KZe2 KZe2 KZe2
E = K.E. + P.E.   
2 r r 2r
2 2 mK 2 Z 2e4
2 2
nh
Putting r  from (12), we get, E  …(19)
4 2 mKZe2 n2 h2
Substituting the standard values, we get
21 76Z 2 21 76 1019 Z 2
E 1019 joule  2 eV
n 1.6 1019
2
n
13  6Z 2
E eV …(20)
n2
13  6
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1,  E eV …(21)
n2
Eqn. (21) shows that total energy of electron in a stationary orbit is negative, which means the electron is bound to
the nucleus and is not free to leave it.
The energy of the atom is least (= largest negative value) when n = 1, i.e., when electron is revolving in an orbit
closest to the nucleus. This state of lowest energy of the atom is called ground state. The energy of this state is
13  6
E 
1 eV  13.6eV . Therefore, the minimum energy required to free the electron from the ground state of
12
hydrogen atom is 13.6eV . This is called ionization energy of hydrogen atom.
As n increases, value of negative energy decreases, i.e., energy is progressively larger in the outer orbits.
Note. that stationary orbits of electrons are not equally spaced. Their radii are in the ratio 12 : 22 : 32 : ……In outer
stationary orbits, velocity of electrons and their frequency of revolution decrease. Total energy of electron in outer
or orbits is more than that in inner orbits.
Origin of spectral lines
At room temperature, most of the hydrogen atoms are in ground state. When a hydrogen atom receives energy by
processes such as electron collisions or heat, the atom may acquire sufficient energy to raise the electron to higher
energy states, i.e., from n = 1 to n = 2,3, ….The atom is then said to be in an excited state. From these excited
states, the electron can fall back to a state of lower energy-emitting thereby a photon of particular energy (=
difference in energies of the two states).
Suppose E1  total energy of electron in the inner  n1th  orbit.
E2  total energy of electron in the outer  n2th  orbit.
When an electron jumps from an outer to an inner orbit, the energy of radiation emitted, according to Bohr’s third
postulate, is hv  E2  E1
 2 2 mK 2 Z 2e4 2 2 mK 2 Z 2e4
hv   
n2 2 h 2 n12 h 2
hc 2 2 mK 2e4 Z 2 1 1
  2  2
 h2  n1 n2 

1 2 2 mK 2e4 Z 2  1 1
  2  2 …(22)
 ch 3
 n1 n2 
1
Now,  v , the wave number of radiation emitted i.e., number of complete waves in unit length.

2 mK 2e4
2
 R, a constant called Rydberg constant
ch3
Putting the values of various terms in the above relation, we get the value of Rydberg constant
R  1.097 107 m1
1 1 1 1
 From (22), v  RZ 
2
 2 For hydrogen, Z = 1 v  R 2  2  …(23)
 n1 n2 
2
 n1 n2 
Eqn. (23) is called Rydberg formula for the spectrum of hydrogen atom. Clearly, wavelengths / frequencies / wave
numbers of radiations emitted by the excited hydrogen atom are not continuous. They have specific values
depending upon the values of n1 and n2 .
BOHR’S EXPLANATION OF SPECTRAL SERIES OF HYDROGEN ATOM
Long before Bohr gave his theory of hydrogen atom, various scientists had observed experimentally, the spectral
series o hydrogen atom as detailed in Art. 8(a).9. Bohr offered a theoretical explanation of these spectral series as
follows:
Lyman Series
Bohr postulated that Lyman series is obtained when an electron jumps to the first orbit ( n1 = 1) from any outer
orbit ( n2 = 2, 3, 4………..).
Wave numbers of spectral lines of Lyman series were calculated using eqn. (23), i.e.
1 1 
v  R 2  2 , where k = 2, 3, 4…..
1 k 
These values of v lie in the ultra violet region of the spectrum and agree will with the values of v observed
experimentally by Lyman.
Balmer Series
According to Bohr, Balmer series is obtained when an electron jumps to the second orbit ( n1 = 2) from any outer
orbit ( n2 = 3, 4, 5……..).
Wave numbers of these spectral lines were calculated using eqn. (23), i.e.
1 1 
v  R 2  2 , where k = 3, 4, 5…..
1 k 
This set of spectral lines lie in the visible part of the spectrum.
Paschen Series
According to Bohr, Paschen series is obtained when an electron jumps to the 3 rd orbit ( n1 = 3) from any outer orbit
( n2 = 4, 5, 6....). Bohr calculated the wave numbers of spectral lines of Paschen series from the relation:
 1 1
v  R 2  2 , where k = 4, 5, 6....
3 k 
These values of v lie in the infra red region of the spectrum and agree well with values of v observed
experimentally by Paschen.
Bohr also predicted two new series in the infra red region of the spectrum, which were observed later by Brackett
and Pfund.
Brackett Series
According to Bohr, Brackett series is obtained when an electron jumps to the 4th orbit ( n1 = 4 ) from any outer orbit
( n2 = 5, 6, 7…..).
Pfund Series
According to Bohr, Pfund series is obtained when an electron jumps to the 5 th orbit ( n1 = 5 ) from any outer orbit
( n2 = 6, 7, 8....).

The various spectral series of hydrogen atom are represented in figure.

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM
A diagram which represents the total energies of electron in different stationary orbits of an atom is called the
energy level diagram of that atom. In this diagram, total energies of electron in various stationary orbits are
represented by parallel horizontal lines drawn according to some suitable energy scale.
The vertical line connecting any two states represents the transition of the electron from one to the other of these
states. Difference of energies of two states gives the amount of energy emitted / absorbed according as the electron
goes from higher to lower energy state or from lower to higher energy level, in an atom.
Total energy of electron in nth orbit of hydrogen atom is
2 2 mK 2e4
E …(24)
n2 h2
On substituting the standard values, we get
13  6
E   2 eV …(25)
n
Putting n = 1, 2, 3…..we get the energies of electrons in various stationary orbits as :
13  6 13  6
E1   13.6eV E5    0  54eV
12 52
13  6 13  6
E2   2  3.4eV E6   2  0  37eV
2 6
 13  6 13  6
E3   1  51eV E7    0  28eV
32 72
13  6
E4    0  85eV
42
Clearly, as n increases, En becomes less negative until at n  , En  0.
The energy levels of hydrogen atom are represented in energy level diagram figure…….The principal quantum
number (n) labels the stationary states in ascending order of energy. The highest energy state corresponds to n = 
and has energy E   13  6  0eV . This is the energy of the atom, when the electron is completely removed  r   
2
from the nucleus and the electron is at rest. An n increases, energies of the excited states come closer and closer
together as shown in figure……..
Note that an electron can have any total energy above E = 0 eV. In such a situation, the electron is free. And there
is a continuum of energy states above E = 0 eV.
The various spectral series of hydrogen atom have also been drawn in figure ……..from this diagram, we can
calculate the energy, frequency, wave number etc. of any line of spectral series of hydrogen atom.