ANR Publication 8550 | November 2015

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DROUGHT TIP
Managing Salts by Leaching
Leaching for Salt Management

I
MICHAEL CAHN, University
rrigating crops can often cause salts to build up in the soil profile.
of California Cooperative
A Irrigation water applied to crops may contain a significant amount Extension Irrigation and Water
of dissolved salts. For example, applying 1 acre-foot of water with a Resources Farm Advisor,
total dissolved salt concentration of about 735 ppm, or an electrical Monterey, Santa Cruz and San
conductivity (EC) of 1.15 dS/m, would potentially add 1 ton of salt to Benito Counties; and KHALED
BALI, University of California
1 acre of cropped land. Salts accumulate in the soil because crop roots
Cooperative Extension Water
take up water during transpiration but exclude most salts. Salt also Management Farm Advisor
accumulates near or at the soil surface because water evaporating from and County Director,
B the soil leaves behind dissolved salt. These accumulated salts can damage Imperial County
crops if they are not leached below the root zone.
Leaching is the process of percolating water through the soil profile to move salts below the root zone, the region of the
soil where crop roots normally grow. During the growing season, leaching can be accomplished by applying extra water so
that the amount exceeds the evapotranspiration requirement of the crop. Leaching can also be done by irrigating a field before
planting a crop or by irrigating before permanent crops leaf out in the spring. Salts can also be leached after harvest or by
winter rainfall if sufficient.
Leaching is beneficial for removing salts only if the soil has adequate drainage. Compacted layers that impede water
movement can prevent leached salts from moving below the root zone. Practices such as deep tillage, incorporation of soil
C amendments such as compost or gypsum, and rotating with deep-rooted cover crops such as cereals can increase the volume
of macropores in the soil and improve drainage (fig. 1). Subsurface drainage systems are also commonly used to improve
Figure 1. Drainage can be improved drainage from fields with shallow or perched water tables.
using cover crops (A), compost
amendments (B), and deep tillage (C) to
increase the macropore structure of soils
Photos: M. Cahn, A and B; J. Mitchell, C.
 ANR Publication 8550 | Managing Salts by Leaching | November 2015 | 2

Though leaching is beneficial for removing salts from the crop The leaching requirement and leaching fraction are frequently
root zone, leached salts can contribute to a number of environmental expressed as a percentage by multiplying the result of the above
problems. Nutrients including nitrate and in some cases equation by 100.
orthophosphate as well as some pesticides can leach into subsurface
drainage systems and contribute to degraded water quality in lakes Estimating Applied Water for a Desired Leaching
and rivers. Concentrated salts from subsurface drainage systems Requirement
also impact the quality of surface water bodies. Leached nitrate can To determine how much water to apply to meet crop ET demands
contaminate groundwater to the point that it is unsafe for human and the leaching requirement, use the following equation:
consumption.
AW = ETc ÷ [1 – (LR ÷ 100)]
Nutrient losses can be reduced by not leaching immediately
following fertilizer applications or when the soil has a high where AW is applied water depth in inches, ETc is crop
concentration of nitrate. Also, using best management practices evapotranspiration in inches, and LR is the leaching requirement (%).
for irrigation and nutrient management can minimize losses of For example, if a leaching requirement of 30% is desired and crop ET
nitrate and phosphorus. In addition, using an appropriate amount is estimated to be 0.7 inches, 1 inch of water must be applied:
of leaching to achieve desired soil salinity levels minimizes drainage AW = 0.7 in ÷ [1 – (30 ÷ 100)]
and nutrient losses. AW = 1 in
Under drought conditions, when the supply of water is limited,
Note that 43% more water than ETc (143% of ETc) was applied
using an appropriate leaching strategy can optimize water use and
to attain a 30% leaching fraction. To attain a 50% leaching fraction,
yield.
twice as much water as ETc (0.7 inches ÷ 0.5 = 1.4 inches) must
Leaching Requirement and Leaching Fraction be applied. As an alternative to the above equation, use Table 1 to
determine the amount of applied water expressed as a percentage of
The leaching requirement (LR) is defined as the amount of water crop ET to attain a desired leaching fraction.
that is needed to maintain crop productivity. It depends on the
salinity of irrigation water, soil salinity, salt crop tolerance, irrigation Table 1. Applied water, expressed as
management, and other factors. The leaching fraction (LF) is the percentage of crop ET, need to attain a
amount of leaching that has occurred in a field; it is defined as the desired leaching fraction
fraction of the applied water (irrigation plus rainfall minus surface Leaching fraction Applied water as a
(%) percentage of crop ET
runoff) that drains below the root zone: 5 105
LF = D ÷ AW 10 111
15 118
where D is the depth of water draining below the root zone and AW 20 125
is the depth of water applied (irrigation plus rainfall) that infiltrates 25 133
the soil. A high leaching fraction (> 0.5) reduces salt accumulation 30 143
in the root zone more than does a low leaching fraction (< 0.1). 35 154
40 167
50 200
60 250
 ANR Publication 8550 | Managing Salts by Leaching | November 2015 | 3

Determining the Leaching Requirement for a Crop Table 2. Soil salinity thresholds determined from saturated
soil paste extracts (ECe) that cause yield loss in
Using an appropriate leaching requirement when irrigating can agronomic and horticultural crops
prevent salts from building up in the root zone of crops and can Crop ECe (dS/m) Salt tolerance
minimize loading of nutrients, such as nitrate, and other salts to Agronomic crops
ground and surface water. A small LR may be used when a crop alfalfa 2.0 moderately sensitive
is tolerant to salts or when the irrigation water has a low salinity barley 8.0 tolerant
content, and a large LR may be needed for a salt-sensitive crop or corn 1.7 sensitive
when the irrigation water is high in salts. To determine the LR, use cotton 7.7 tolerant
the following steps. dry bean 1.0 sensitive
rice 3.0 moderately sensitive
Step 1. Determine the soil salinity (ECe) threshold that causes
sorghum 6.8 tolerant
yield loss for a crop type (see Ayers and Westcott 1985). These wheat 6.0 tolerant
values are published more extensively in ANR Publication 8554, Vegetable crops
Use of Saline Drain Water for Crop Production (Grismer and Bali, broccoli 2.8 moderately sensitive
in process). Soil salinity thresholds for some common crops are cabbage 1.8 moderately sensitive
summarized in table 2. carrot 1.0 sensitive
celery 1.8 moderately sensitive
Step 2. Determine the average salinity of the water used to garlic 3.0 sensitive
irrigate the crop. Most water suitability tests report salinity lettuce 1.3 moderately sensitive
concentration either in units of electrical conductivity (dS/m, µS/ onion 1.2 sensitive
cm, or mmhos/cm) or in units corresponding to concentration pepper 1.5 moderately sensitive
(ppm or mg/L). Salinity values in units of dS/m are needed for potato 1.7 moderately sensitive
calculating the LR in the next step. Conversions to dS/m are: spinach 2.0 moderately sensitive
squash 4.7 moderately tolerant
1 dS/m = 1 mmhos/cm tomato 2.5 moderately sensitive
1 dS/m = 1000 µS/cm Perennial crops
1 dS/m = 640 ppm = 640 mg/L almond 1.5 sensitive
apricot 1.6 sensitive
Step 3. The final step is to use the equation below to estimate the blackberry 1.5 sensitive
leaching requirement: grape 1.5 tolerant
orange 1.7 tolerant
LR = (ECw × 100) ÷ [(ECe × 5) – ECw] peach 1.7 tolerant
plum (prune) 1.5 moderately sensitive
where ECw is the salinity of the irrigation water and ECe is the soil strawberry 1.0 sensitive
salinity threshold in the root zone above which crop yield is reduced Source: Ayers and Westcott 1985.
(from table 2). Alternatively, use table 3 to estimate a leaching
requirement by finding the intersection of the ECw value of the
irrigation water and the ECe threshold of the crop.
 ANR Publication 8550 | Managing Salts by Leaching | November 2015 | 4

Table 3. Leaching requirement (LR), expressed as percentage, to achieve a desired soil salinity concentration (ECe) in the
crop root zone using irrigation water of varying salinity concentrations (ECw). The intersection between the ECw and ECe
values correspond to the appropriate LR.
Soil salinity (ECe), Salinity of irrigation water (ECw), dS/m
dS/m 0.2 0.5 0.7 1 1.3 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7
0.5 9 25 39 67 108 — — — — — — — —
1 4 11 16 25 35 43 67 100 — — — — —
1.5 3 7 10 15 21 25 36 50 67 114 — — —
2 2 5 8 11 15 18 25 33 43 67 100 — —
2.5 2 4 6 9 12 14 19 25 32 47 67 92 —
3 1 3 5 7 9 11 15 20 25 36 50 67 88
3.5 1 3 4 6 8 9 13 17 21 30 40 52 67
4 1 3 4 5 7 8 11 14 18 25 33 43 54
4.5 1 2 3 5 6 7 10 13 15 22 29 36 45
5 1 2 3 4 5 6 9 11 14 19 25 32 39
5.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 17 22 28 34
6 1 2 2 3 5 5 7 9 11 15 20 25 30
6.5 1 2 2 3 4 5 7 8 10 14 18 23 27
7 1 1 2 3 4 4 6 8 9 13 17 21 25

Example: Tomato has a soil salinity threshold of 2.5 dS/m (table If the water extraction of a crop deviates significantly from this
2). If the salinity of the irrigation water is 1.5 dS/m, what is the pattern, a different leaching requirement maybe needed. For example,
appropriate leaching requirement (percent)? The answer can be a higher leaching requirement may be needed if a higher portion
calculated directly using the above equation or by using table 3: of the water extraction is near the soil surface. For irrigation water
with an ECw equal to 1 dS/m, a water extraction pattern of 50-30-
LR = (1.5 dS/m × 100) ÷ [(5 × 2.5 dS/m) – 1.5 dS/m] 15-5 would result in an ECe in the soil profile averaging 1.8 dS/m for
LR = 14% a 15% leaching fraction. For the same irrigation water salinity and
leaching fraction, a water extraction pattern of 40-30-20-10 would
The above estimate of leaching requirement assumes that water
result in an ECe in the soil profile averaging 1.6 dS/m. Under the
extracted by the crop to meet ET demand is proportional to the root
shallower rooting pattern, an 18% leaching fraction would be needed
distribution in the soil profile and follows a 40-30-20-10 extraction
to achieve a similar average soil salinity as a 40-30-20-10 extraction
pattern. If the root zone of the crop were divided into 4 equal layers
pattern. The higher average ECe for the shallow rooting pattern is
of depth, 40% of the roots would be distributed in the upper layer of
caused by more salt accumulation near the soil surface. Hence, water
the root zone, 30% of the roots would be distributed in the second
draining from the uppermost soil layer would have a higher salinity
layer, 20% of the roots would be distributed in the third layer, and
than for a crop with proportionally more deep roots.
10% of the roots would be distributed in the deepest layer of the
root zone. Although the depth of the root zone varies among crops, Leaching requirements under microirrigation (drip and
this equation provides a good approximation of LR because the microsprinklers) may also differ from conventional methods such
distribution pattern of roots and water extraction in the soil profile as overhead sprinklers and flood irrigation. Crops are usually
is relatively consistent among crop types. irrigated more frequently under drip and microsprinklers than
 ANR Publication 8550 | Managing Salts by Leaching | November 2015 | 5

under conventional methods, so a consistently higher soil moisture Factoring Irrigation System Uniformity into the Leaching
content may minimize the detrimental effects of salt accumulation on Requirement
crop growth. Also, because the roots of crops grown under drip and Because no irrigation system applies water perfectly uniformly, extra
microsprinklers tend to concentrate in the zone where water is applied, water is needed to assure that the driest area of a field will receive
leaching of salts from the root zone may be more effective than using sufficient water to meet ETc requirements, and that sufficient water
conventional irrigation methods. For example, in vegetables grown on drains below the root zone to minimize the buildup of salts. The
raised beds, much of the leaching under sprinklers is in the furrows, distribution uniformity (DU) of an irrigation system can be used
where the root density and salt accumulation is low. Note that because to estimate the applied water needed to meet crop ET, leaching
soil moisture moves laterally under drip, salts may also move laterally requirements, and overcome low DU.
and accumulate at the edges of wetted zones.
AW = (ETC × 100 ÷ DU) ÷ [1 – (LR ÷ 100)]
Since it is difficult to know the exact water extraction pattern of
a crop and where salts are accumulating in the soil profile, especially where AW is applied water in inches, ETc is crop evapotranspiration
under drip irrigation, periodically assessing whether leaching is in inches, and LR is percent leaching requirement.
adequate by analyzing the soil salinity is recommended. The DU of a perfectly uniform irrigation system is 100%.
As indicated in table 3, small leaching fractions are needed when An irrigation system with a poor DU would be less than 70%,
using low-salinity irrigation water (ECw < 1 dS/m) to irrigate crops with meaning that the average application depth measured in locations
salt tolerance thresholds greater than 1.5 dS/m. Much of the surface representing the driest 25% of an area of a field equals 70% of
water used for irrigation in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys has the average application depth of water applied to the entire field.
salinity levels less than 0.5 dS/m, and most groundwater frequently used The area representing the driest 25% of a field is referred to as the
for agricultural irrigation has a salinity of less than 1 dS/m. Salinity of “lowest quarter.” Table 5 lists the applied water volumes, expressed
drainage water and recycled water is often more than 1 dS/m. Table 4 as a percentage of ETc, that would be necessary to achieve a 5%
lists leaching requirements of selected crops grown in the San Joaquin leaching fraction in the driest area of a field under irrigation systems
Valley using water with an average EC of 0.5 dS/m. of different uniformities. An irrigation systems with a high DU
theoretically requires less water to satisfy the crop water needs and
leach salts.
Table 4. Estimated leaching requirement for
selected San Joaquin Valley crops irrigated with
water of an EC of 0.5 dS/m Table 5. Applied water volume, expressed as a percentage of crop
ET, needed to achieve a 5% leaching fraction under irrigation
Crop Leaching requirement (%)
systems with different distribution uniformities (DU)
almond 7 Applied water % of
Irrigation method DU
barley 1 crop ET

broccoli 4 solid set sprinklers 75 140

corn 6 linear move sprinklers 80 124

cotton 1 drip 85 111

dry beans 11
lettuce 8
 ANR Publication 8550 | Managing Salts by Leaching | November 2015 | 6

The effects of an overhead sprinkler system with a low DU

on leaching of salts can often be overcome if leaching is split over
several irrigations. By moving sprinkler lines over by 10 to 20 feet
between irrigations, areas that received less water in the previous
irrigation may be compensated with higher volumes during the
next irrigation. Also, if wind was a factor in creating dry areas of a
field, different wind conditions during subsequent irrigations may
compensate dry areas with extra water.

Assessing whether Leaching Is Adequate

An efficient method to assess whether leaching is effective is to
measure soil salinity in the root zone of a crop.
Step 1. Sample soil from three to four equal-depth intervals in the
root zone. Each depth should be a composite of soil sampled from
8 or more locations within a field. Figure 2. Soil salinity distribution in the root zone of a
crop with adequate leaching.
Step 2. Analyze a saturated pasted extract of the soil sample from
each layer for electrical conductivity (ECe).

Step 3. Compare salinity values among different depths. Salt

concentration should increase with depth if leaching is effective
(fig. 2). If salinity is higher at the surface than deeper in the soil
profile (fig. 3), leaching is not sufficient for reducing salts.

Step 4. Finally, assess the effectiveness of a leaching strategy by comparing

the average EC of the root zone with the EC of the applied water
using the leaching requirement equation presented above:

LR = (ECw × 100) ÷ [(ECe × 5) – ECw]

Example: The ECe measured in the root zone of a tomato crop is 2, 2.5, 4,
and 6 dS/m for depths at 1, 2, 3, and 4 feet. The EC of the irrigation
water is 1.5 dS/m. Find the average ECe of the root zone:

(2 dS/m + 2.5 dS/m +4 dS/m + 6.5 dS/m) ÷ 4 = 3.75 dS/m. Figure 3. Soil salinity distribution in the root zone of a
crop with inadequate leaching. Compare the average
soil salinity in the root zone with the EC threshold
for the yield loss of the crop. If the soil salinity is
significantly higher than the yield threshold, more
leaching may be needed.
 ANR Publication 8550 | Managing Salts by Leaching | November 2015 | 7

• Leaching requirements may be less under deficit irrigation

The threshold for yield loss in tomato is 2.5 dS/m. Since
because the actual ETc will be less than under normal
the average root zone EC is higher than the EC threshold
irrigation conditions, and therefore a greater portion of the
for tomato, the leaching fraction used was probably not
applied water will percolate below the root zone.
sufficient to prevent some yield loss. Calculate the actual
leaching fraction (LF) used: • Irrigating with highly efficient methods such as drip
or very uniform sprinklers may help leach salts using
LF = (ECw × 100) ÷ [(ECe × 5) – ECw] less water. With drip, irrigating frequently with small
LF = (1.5 dS/m × 100) ÷ [(3.75 dS/m × 5) – 1.5 dS/m] applications of water can avoid excessive depletions of soil
LF = 8.7% moisture and help crops avoid salinity stress.
In the above example, a 9% leaching fraction was • Avoid applying high rates of fertilizers or salt containing
insufficient to reduce the average salinity in the root zone to amendments, such as manures, which may increase the
2.5 dS/m. As estimated in the earlier example, a 14% leaching salinity in the root zone of young crops.
requirement would be more likely to decrease the soil salinity • Planting crops that are more salt tolerant may also be an
in the root zone to a level that would minimize yield loss. effective option depending on economic considerations.
• Using alternative sources of water, such as treated
Leaching under Drought Conditions
wastewater, recycled water, or groundwater, may be useful
• Under drought conditions, water may be in short supply for salt control but may require higher leaching fractions
and it may not be possible to optimize leaching for salinity than are needed for higher-quality surface water.
management.
• Some growers will need to deficit irrigate, which is applying References
less water than potential evapotranspiration, in order to Ayers, R. S., and D. W. Westcott. 1985. Water quality for
keep crops alive. The combination of less than normal agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29.
winter rainfall and deficit irrigation may contribute to FAO website, http://www.fao.org/DOCReP/003/T0234e/
higher than normal salinity levels in the root zone of a T0234E03.htm.
crop. Growers should consider using every strategy possible
Grismer, M., and K. Bali. 2015. Use of saline drain water
to efficiently leach salts when the supply of water is limited.
for crop production. Oakland: University of California
• Monitoring soil and water salinity can be useful to Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources
determine whether leaching is effective. By evaluating Publication 8554. See the ANR online catalog,
soil salinity several times during the season, management http://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/.
changes can be made before crops are harmed. Targeting
postseason leaching to areas that have the highest salinity Hanson, B., S. R. Grattan, and A. Fulton. 1993.
may reduce the leaching requirement needed to optimize Agricultural salinity and drainage: A handbook for
crop growth during the production season. water managers. Oakland: University of California
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources
Publication 3375.
 ANR Publication 8550 | Managing Salts by Leaching | November 2015 | 8

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