DIGITAL SYSTEMS AND COMPUTER

ARCHITECTURE
Unit-01: Fundamentals of
Electronic Circuits
 Session 1.1: Focus

⚫ Current, Voltage, Power: Definitions

◦ System of Units (SI)
◦ What is an Electrical Circuit?
◦ Current flow and Electric Charge
◦ Electric Potential
◦ Energy and Power
⚫ Resistivity and Resistance
◦ Resistors and Ohm’s Law
◦ Resistor Color Codes
◦ Power Ratings of Resistors
 Electric and Electronics Circuits

⚫ This module will introduce you to both Electrical and Electronic

Circuits.
◦ The interconnection between various electrical components to form a
closed path is called an electrical circuit.
◦ Electronic circuits are made of electronic components which are
constructed using semiconductor materials.
⚫ Electrical and Electronic circuits are used to solve important
problems to the society.
⚫ They are widely used in Information Technology (IT) for
◦ Storing, retrieving and sending information.
⚫ Engineers of all disciplines need to be thorough with the concepts
of electrical and electronic circuits.
System of Units (SI)
 System of Units

⚫ The system of units we use is the International System of Units.

◦ Normally referred to as SI standard system.
⚫ The SI system is also called the metric system.
⚫ SI include the basic units for:
◦ Length: meter (m)
◦ Mass: kilogram (kg)
◦ Time: second (s)
◦ Current: ampere (A)
◦ Temperature: kelvin (K)
 Standard SI Prefixes & Engineering Units

10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 1 103 106 109 1012

pico (p) nano (n) micro (µ) milli (m) kilo (k) mega (M) giga (G) tera (T)

� These are the standard prefixes employed in the study of

engineering.
� Commonly numbers are expressed in “engineering units.”
� In engineering notation, any quantity is represented by a number
between 1 and 999 and an appropriate metric unit using a power
divisible by 3.
� 0.056 g
� 56 x 10-3 g � 56 mg
� 2.3 x 10 A
-4
� 230 x 10-2 x 10-4 A � 230 µA
� 13000 m
� 13 x 103 m � 13 km
Current Flow and
Electric Charges
 What is an Electrical Circuit?
Switch

⚫ An electrical circuit is an
interconnection of electrical Bulb
+
components. Battery
⚫ Electric charge is the most
-
elementary quantity in electric
circuits.
⚫ We are interested in the effect of Current
charge in motion (current) within a
circuit.
⚫ An electrical circuit facilitates
+
transfer of charge from one point
to another within a closed path. -
 Current Flow and Electric Charge

Current
Direction of Conventional
Current flow
Electrons Conductor
(not to scale) +
- - - -
- -

Direction of flow of Electrons

⚫ Motion of electrons results in current flow in metallic conductors.

⚫ The conventional current flow is the reverse of the direction of flow
of electrons, which is universally adopted.
⚫ A single electron has a charge (Q) of −1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb.
 Definition of Electric Current

⚫ An electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge through a

point or a region.

⚫ i(t) and q(t) represent instantaneous current and instantaneous

charge respectively.
⚫ Lowercase letters represent time dependent quantities.
⚫ Capital letters are reserved for constant quantities.
⚫ The basic unit of current is the ampere (A).
⚫ A current of 1 A refers to the flow of 1 coulomb of charges per
second.
⚫ Note: One electron has a negative charge of 1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb.
 Current Flow: Electric Charge
⚫ A single electron has a negative charge of 1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb.
⚫ Thus, 6.24 x 1018 electrons would constitute 1 C of –ve charge.
⚫ i.e., 1/ 1.602 × 10−19 🡪 6.24 x 1018
⚫ Assume, Ia = 3 A of current is flowing through the conductor.

Ia = 3 A

⚫ Then, how many electrons are flowing in one second from right to
left?
⚫ 3 * 6.24 x 1018 electrons are flowing in one second.
 Negative Current Flow

� Notice that the value of

Ib = - 5 A Ib is given as a negative
because Ib is shown to be
- - - flowing from left to right,
in the same direction of
- - electron flow.

⚫ The direction of movement of electrons in the above figure is left to

right.
⚫ How many electrons are flowing in a second?
⚫ 5 * 6.24 x 1018 electrons flow in a second.
Electric Potential
 Voltage or Potential Difference

A
+
A general two-terminal
v
circuit element
B
-

⚫ Voltage across a terminal pair is a measure of the work required to move

an unit of charge through the element.
⚫ The unit of voltage is the volt.
⚫ 1 volt is defined as 1 joule per coulomb.
⚫ Voltage is represented by V or v.

Note: Work or energy, is measured in joules

(J);
 Voltage or Potential Difference
A
+ A general two-terminal
v circuit element
B -
⚫ Assume, a Direct Current (DC) is sent into the terminal A, through a
circuit element, and it comes out through terminal B.
⚫ Direct current (DC) is the one directional or unidirectional flow of
electric charge.
⚫ Pushing of charges through the element requires an expenditure of
energy.
⚫ The energy spent is defined as an electrical voltage (or a potential
difference) that exists between the two terminals.
⚫ There is a voltage “across” the element.
 Example: Voltage or Potential Difference

A
+
V1 = 4 V Terminal A is 4 V positive
- with respect to terminal B
B

⚫ The variable (V1) represents the voltage between points A and B and
that point A is assumed to be at a higher potential than point B.
⚫ If V1 = 4 V then the difference in potential of points A and B is 4 V and
point A is at a higher potential compared to point B.
 Example: Voltage or Potential Difference

A
+
V1 = 5 Terminal A is 5 V positive
V with respect to terminal B
B -

⚫ If a unit positive charge is moved from point A through the circuit to

point B.
⚫ It will give up energy to the circuit and have 5 Joules less energy when it
reaches point B.
⚫ It means that the voltage source is delivering energy to the circuit
element connected to the points A and B.
⚫ Or the circuit elements are said to absorb energy from the voltage
source.
 Example: Voltage or Potential Difference

A A
Terminal A is 2 V + -
with respect V1 = 2 V V1 = -2 V
to terminal B - +
B B

⚫ V1 = 2 V means that the potential between points A and B is 2 V and

point A is at the higher potential.
⚫ The same can also be represented as V1 = -2 V, with point A at a higher
potential with respect to B.
⚫ Notice the changes to the signs on the terminals A and B.
⚫ Hence, whenever either current or voltage is defined, it is mandatory
that both the magnitude and direction or polarities are specified.
Power and Energy
 Power and Energy
I=3A
A Power absorbed by the element
+ = Voltage * Current
V1 = 5 V =5*3
-
= 15 watts
B
⚫ Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical energy is
transferred by an electric circuit.
⚫ Energy is the capacity of doing work. SI unit of Energy is joule.
⚫ The SI unit of power is watt, which is one joule per second.
⚫ Power absorbed by an element = Voltage across it * Current
passing through it.
⚫ Power = P = Work done per unit of time = V * I
⚫ Electric power is usually produced by electric generators, but can also be
supplied by sources such as electric batteries.

Source: Definition: Electric power | Open Energy Information.

https://openei.org/wiki/Definition:Electric_power
Resistors
 Resistivity and Resistance

� Resistivity and Resistance

� Resistors
� Ohm’s Law
� Resistor Colour Codes
� Power Rating of Resistors
 Resistivity and Resistance

� Resistivity (ρ) is an inherent property of materials, which is a measure of the ease with
which electrons can travel through them.

� Materials that are good electrical insulators have a high value of resistivity.
● Air, plastic, glass, rubber and wood are good examples of insulators.
� Materials that are good conductors of electric current have low values of resistivity.
● Copper, aluminum, gold and silver are good examples of conductors.
� Resistance (R) is determined by
● Inherent resistivity of the material and
● The geometry of the resistor.
� Thus, resistance of resistors depends on the material used to construct them and the
dimensions (length and area) of the resistor.
2
4
 Relationship between Resistivity and
Resistance

� Assume a resistor having a physical dimensions of:

● Cross-sectional area : A m2 Resistor

● Length: L meters
� Then Resistance is defined by: A = area

● R = ρ * (L / A)
L = length
� ρ is the resistivity of the material the resistor is made of.
� Resistance is indirectly proportional to the Area and it is directly
proportional to the Length, of the resistor.
� SI unit of Resistance is Ohms (Ω).
� SI unit of Resistivity is Ohms-meter (Ωm).
2
5
 Resistors

R
� Symbol for Resistor is:
� Resistance is normally considered to be a positive
quantity. v(t)

� Resistors can be easily manufactured and they are

relatively cheaper too. i(t)

� Relationship between the voltage across a resistor

Linear Resistor
and the current passing through it is normally linear.
� Though ideal resistors are considered to be linear, it
becomes non-linear with changes in temperature.

2
6
 Ohm’s Law

� Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a material is directly

proportional to the current flowing through the it.
● V I I

● The constant of proportionality R is called the Resistance. +

V R
● V = R * I where R is >= 0 -

● R=V/I
2
● Unit of R is Volt/Ampere which is Ohms (Ω) A
+
� Find the value of Resistor if the voltage across R1 is 10 V 10 R1
V
and the current passing through it is 2 A. -
● R1 = V / I = 10 / 2 = 5 Ohms.
 Resistor Colour Codes

22 4.7kΩ,
% 10%
No band: 20
%

Silver 68kΩ,
Gold 5%

Multiplier Tolerance

� Keep the lead to your left where the

colour band is closer to the lead, while
reading the colour codes.
Gray
� The tolerance band which is larger than
the rest will be to your right.

Mnemonic: B.B. ROY of Great Britain Had a Very Good Wine.

Power Ratings of
Resistors
 Power Absorbed by Resistor
+ v
i
-
R

� The current (i) passing through R and voltage (v) across it are given in
passive sign convention.
� Current entering through the positive terminal indicates that the
element is absorbing the power.
� The product of v and i gives power absorbed by the Resistor.
● PR = V * I in watts.
� The absorbed power is always positive and it appears physically as
heat or light.
� A resistor is a passive element that cannot deliver power or store
energy.
3
0
 Power Ratings of Resistor

+ v
i
-
R

� Alternative expressions for the absorbed power by a resistor are:

● P = vi = i2 R = v2 / R
� Every resistor along with its Resistance value (Ohm) also has the maximum
power that it can withstand.
� Which is called the power rating of the resistor.
� For example: Let us assume a Resistor of 100 Ω with power rating of 2
W, is connected across 200 V of DC source by mistake. i
+
● Compute the current (i) flowing through R. 100
200 V R
Ω
● i = v / R = 200/100 = 2 A ; Using Ohm’s law - 2W
● Power dissipated by R = i2 R = (2)2 * 100 = 400 W.
● This value is much above the rated power, resulting in fire and smoke!!! 3
1
 Session 1.1: Summary

⚫ Current, Voltage, Power: Definitions

◦ System of Units (SI)
◦ What is an Electrical Circuit?
◦ Current flow and Electric Charge
◦ Electric Potential
◦ Energy and Power
⚫ Resistivity and Resistance
◦ Resistors and Ohm’s Law
◦ Resistor Colour Codes
◦ Power Ratings of Resistors
 Session 1.2 : Sensors,
Active/Passive Elements
 Session 1.2: Focus

⚫ Introduction to Sensors
◦ Types of Sensors
◦ Use of Resistors in Sensors
⚫ Quiz
⚫ Simple Circuit Elements
◦ Active and Passive Elements
⚫ Independent Voltage Source
⚫ Independent Current Source
⚫ Problem 1
Sensors
 Introduction to Sensors

⚫ We live in analog world and we try to sense and control it using

digital computers and products.
⚫ We need some mechanism to convert analog signals into electrical
signals which we can process using computers
⚫ Sensor is a device that provides usable output in response to a
specified quantity which is being measured.
⚫ Sensors detect changes to the physical stimulus provided to it and
gives out corresponding output signal that can be measured and/or
recorded for further processing.
Ultrasonic Sensors
PIR sensors
 Types of Sensors

⚫ Thermal or Temperature Sensors:

◦ It senses the amount of heat energy or
coldness that is generated by an object or
a system.
◦ Sensors: Thermistor, Bi-metallic
Thermostat, etc Thermometers
⚫ Acoustic Pressure Sensors:
◦ Because acoustic waves are mechanical
pressure waves, acoustic sensors
measure the pressure to generate output.
◦ Sensors: Resistive and Piezoelectric types
◦ Product: Microphone
 Types of Sensors … contd.

⚫ Optical Sensors:
◦ Optical sensors convert light rays into an
electric signal, which measures quantity
of light falling on it.
◦ Example: Photovoltaic cells, Photodiodes,
Solar panels, etc.
◦ Products: Solar cells, X-Rays and radiation
detectors, etc.
⚫ Electrical Current Sensors:
◦ It measures current passing through a
small, sense resistor, generating a
equivalent voltage.
◦ Example: Sense resistor
◦ Products: Ammeter, Multi-meter, etc

Sense resistor: A small resistor (milliohm) through which current passes

generating a small voltage drop which is measured to get the current value.
 Resistors in Sensors

⚫ There are sensors whose resistance value

changes with the physical signals being
measured.
⚫ The symbol used to depict a varying resistor is
given here.
⚫ Resistance value of the sensor could either
increase or decrease with respect to the
physical quantity being measured.
◦ Thermistor: Resistance decreases with the
increase in Temperature.
◦ Potentiometer or Rheostat: Resistance varies
with the position.
◦ Pressure gauge: Resistance decreases with the
increase in Pressure.
 Potentiometers

⚫ A potentiometer is a three-terminal device with a rotating contact that

forms an adjustable voltage divider.
⚫ The resistance value across the terminals A and B always remains
constant.
⚫ The terminal C moves as the potentiometer is rotated, which is results in
change in the resistance across C and B.
⚫ Example:
◦ A 100k Ω potentiometer will have 100k of resistance across A and B.
◦ Resistance across C and B may vary from 0 to 100 k ohms, based on the
position of the shaft
Quiz
 Quiz 1

Max power
dissipated by R = V2 / R
= 102 / 20
2 V to 10 +
- R = 20 Ω = 5W
V

⚫ Choose all the resistor (R) values that are suitable for the circuit above.
A. 20 Ω with a power rating of 1 W
B. 20 Ω with a power rating of 2 W
C. 20 Ω with a power rating of 3 W ANS: D
D. None of the above
 Quiz 2
A
o
oB 5Ω

10 V + R = 20 Ω
-

A
⚫ Should this power supply have a short circuit protection or not?
◦ Assume that the switch can be either in the position A or B.

ANS: Yes. Can you give a reason for

it?
Reason: It is possible to make the total resistance across the potentiometer
to zero when the switch is in the position B, then the voltage source will be short circuited.
So, short circuit protection, especially in this circuit, is a must.
Simple Circuit Elements
 Simple Circuit Elements
⚫ A simple circuit element is a
mathematical model of a two-
terminal electrical device.
⚫ Particular model of a real device is
derived based on the experimental
data or experience.
⚫ Circuit elements are completely
characterized by its voltage-current
(V-I) relationship.
⚫ Such simple elements cannot be
subdivided further into other two- Make a note of the signs
across the elements
terminal devices.
 Active and Passive Elements: Example
⚫ There are two main types of circuit elements.
◦ Active and passive elements.
⚫ Active elements or components that supply
energy to an electric circuit.
⚫ Passive elements can only receive or dissipate or
absorb energy, but it cannot generate energy.
⚫ As per passive sign convention, current flows
into the +ve terminal of passive elements,
whereas current leaves the +ve terminal of active
elements.
⚫ In the circuit here, based on the direction of the
current i, identify the passive and active
elements.
◦ Active elements:1 and 3 Passive element: 2
Active and Passive Elements: Example

Images
Independent Voltage Sources
 Independent Voltage Sources
⚫ An independent voltage source is characterized by a terminal voltage
which is completely independent of the current or power supplied by
it.
⚫ An independent voltage source is an ideal source and it does not
represent exactly any real physical device.
Independent Voltage Sources: Symbols

a) DC Voltage source
b) A Battery
c) AC Voltage source
 Current Supplied by a Voltage Source

5A
1.5A rating
rating

⚫ Current drawn from a voltage source depends on the load connected to it.
⚫ Practical voltage source cannot supply infinite current like an ideal voltage
source
⚫ The voltage sources are designed for a maximum current that it can supply
Independent Current
Sources
 Independent Current Source

⚫ An independent current source is characterized by a terminal current

which is completely independent of the voltage across it.
⚫ An independent current source is an ideal source and does not
represent exactly any real physical device.
Voltage Across Independent Current Source

⚫ It is a common mistake to view an independent current source as

having zero voltage across its terminals while it provides a fixed
current.
⚫ In fact, we do not know a priori what the voltage across a current
source would be.
◦ It depends entirely on the circuit to which it is connected to.
 Problem 1
� Compute vR and voltage across the current source (vS):

vR = (2 mA * 500) = 1 V

vS = vR = 1 V

Ans: 1
V
Session 1.2: Summary

⚫ Introduction to Sensors
◦ Types of Sensors
◦ Use of Resistors in Sensors
⚫ Quiz
⚫ Simple Circuit Elements
◦ Active and Passive Elements
⚫ Independent Voltage Source
⚫ Independent Current Source
⚫ Problem 1
 Unit-01: Kirchhoff’s Laws,
Resistors in Series and Parallel
 Session 1.3: Focus

⚫ Conservation of Energy
⚫ Kirchhoff’s Current Law
⚫ Kirchhoff’s Current Law
⚫ Resistors in Series and Parallel
 Conservation of Energy

⚫ The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an

isolated system remains constant; it is said to be conserved over time.
◦ Total power supplied + Total power absorbed = 0
◦ PS + PA = 0

PA = (i2 * R) = ((10 * 10-3)2 * 500) = 50 mW

PS = - (v * i) = - (5 * 10 * 10-3) = - 50 mW

PS + PA = - 50 mW + 50 mW = 0
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
⚫ The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero.
⚫ If we trace out a closed path, the algebraic sum of the voltages
across the individual elements around it must be zero.

v 1 + v2 + v3 + … + vn = 0
⚫ Algebraic sum means that the polarity of the
voltages seen while traversing the path is taken A + vb - C
care of while adding them up. b
⚫ For example, the algebraic sum of the voltages + -
i
of the given circuit, starting from B, in the va a c vc
clockwise direction, is written as: - +
⚫ -va + vb – vc = 0
B
⚫ Thus, va = vb – vc
 Proof: KVL

⚫ There is a single unique value for any VA + vb - C

voltage in a circuit. A b
⚫ Thus, the energy required to move an unit + -
charge from any point B to any other point A i
va a c vc
in a circuit, must have a value independent of - +
the path chosen to move from B to A.
B

⚫ Potential at A with respect to B through element a = VA = -va

⚫ Potential at A with respect to B through elements c and b = VA
⚫ = vc - vb
⚫ If we equate them, we get: -va = vc – vb 🡪 va = vb – vc
◦ Thus, we get the same value that we got when we did algebraic sum of
voltages around the closed path.
 Example 1: Applying KVL to a Circuit
⚫ One method that leads to least error while writing the KVL
equation is the following:
⚫ Moving mentally around the closed path in a clockwise direction
and writing down directly the voltages of each element whose (+)
terminal is entered, and
⚫ Writing down the negative of every voltage first met at the (−)
terminal is entered.

+ vb - - vc + D Start from B and move

A C
c in the clockwise direction
b
-
va a
i
+
d vd
va + v b – vc + v d = 0
+ -
It can be written as:
B vc = va + vb + vd
 Problem 1: KVL
⚫ Find i and Power Supplied (Ps) by voltage source:

Start from the node A and move in

i the clockwise direction till reaching A again.

+ - 5 + (i * 500) = 0 : KVL and Ohm’s law

5 V +- 500 Ω va
-
i = 5 / 500 = 10 mA

A Note: By convention power supplied

is a negative quantity.

PS = - (v * i) = - (5 * 10 * 10-3) = - 50 mW
Ans: 10 mA and - 50 mW
 Problem 2: KVL

⚫ Find va and ia : Start from the node A and move in

the clockwise direction till reaching A again.
3
V - 2 - 3 + va = 0 :Applying KVL
+
-

ia +
va = 5 V
2 + 100 va
-
V Ω -
ia = va / 100 = 5 / 100

A ia = 50 mA

Ans: 5 V and 50 mA
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
⚫ KCL states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering any node
is zero.

I1 + I2 - IT = 0

i1 + i2 + i3 + … + in = 0 in

⚫ This mathematical statement proves the fact that charges cannot

accumulate at a node.
⚫ A node is not a circuit element, and it certainly cannot store, destroy,
or generate charge.
⚫ Hence, the currents must sum to zero at any node in the circuit
 KCL: Algebraic Sums

iC Node A iB

iF
iD
iE

⚫ The algebraic sum of the four currents entering the node must be
zero:

iC + iE + (- iD ) + (- iF ) + (- iB ) = 0
⚫ Similarly, this law could equally be well applied to the algebraic sum
of the currents leaving the node:

iD + iF + iB + (- iC ) + (- iE ) = 0
 Example: KCL

iC Node A iB

iF
iD
iE

Current entering the node A = Current leaving the node A

iC + i E = iB + iD + iF
 Problem 3: KCL

⚫ Find the current i: R A R

1 2
4 i
2 R A + 5V
-
A 3

⚫ The total current entering the node A = 2 + i

⚫ The total current leaving the node A = 4 A
⚫ As per KCL, total current entering a node is equal to the total current
leaving the node.
⚫ Thus, 2 + i = 4, then i = 2 A
Give VA in terms of circuit
ANS: i = 2 A elements
VA = 4 * R3 VA = - i R2 + 5
 Combining of Resistors
R R3 R4 R6 R7 R9
1
ix
+
5 vx R R5 R8 + 4V
-
A - 2

⚫ It is often possible to replace relatively complicated resistor

combinations with a single equivalent resistor.
⚫ This is useful when we are not specifically interested in the
current, voltage, or power associated with any of the individual
resistors in the combinations.
⚫ All the current, voltage, and power relationships in the remainder
of the circuit will be unchanged.
 Derivation: Resistors in Series
ix R1 R2 R3 Rn ix ix

+ v1 + v2 + v3 + vn
vx + - - - - vx +- Requ
-

⚫ The current ix flowing through all the resistors in series is the

same.
⚫ Applying KVL we get:
◦ vx = v 1 + v 2 + v 3 … + v n
⚫ Using Ohm’s law:
◦ vx = ix R1 + ix R2 + ix R3 … + ix Rn = ix (R1 + R2 + R3 ... + Rn)
◦ vx = ix Requ

⚫ Requ = R1 + R2 + R3 … + Rn
 Problem 4: Resistors in Series
⚫ Use source and resistor combinations to find i:
i Ans: 500 mA
10 Ω 60 Ω 30 Ω

+
-
40 V 50 = i * 100
20 V +- + 10 V
-

i 10 Ω 60 Ω 30 Ω i
+
+

-
-

40 V 10 V +
20 V +- 50 V - 100 Ω
 Resistors in Parallel

i1 i2 in
+
ix R1 R2 Rn ix vx Requ
-

( )
 Resistors in Parallel
Conductance (G)

⚫ The Requ can be written as well:

Ω

⚫ In terms of Conductance:

Gequ = G1 + G2 + … + Gn

⚫ A parallel combination is also indicated by the following

shorthand notation:
Requ = R1 || R2 || … || Rn
 Two Resistors in Parallel

⚫ The special case of only two parallel resistors is encountered

fairly often, and is given by
1
Requ = R1 || R2 Requ =

⚫ Or, more simply,

Requ =

⚫ The above equation is worth remembering, although it is a

common error to attempt to generalize this to more than two
resistors, which is incorrect. Requ
x=
 Problem 5: Resistors in Parallel

⚫ Find v : 60 V Combine the current sources:

i=3–4+6= 5A
+
Combine the parallel resistors:
3 v 20 Ω 4 30 Ω 6
A - A A Requ = = 600 / 50

Requ = 12 Ω
v = 5 * 12 = 60 V

+ +
3 v 4 6 20 Ω 30 Ω i=5A v Requ = 12 Ω
A - A A -
 Session 1.3: Summary

⚫ Conservation of Energy
⚫ Kirchhoff’s Current Law
⚫ Kirchhoff’s Current Law
⚫ Resistors in Series and Parallel
 References
Ref 1 Ref 2