SOLAR POWERED VEHICLES

PROF. T N RAVAL
 CONTENT
• Introduction
• Solar cells
• Storage batteries
• Layout of solar powered automobiles
• Advantages and limitations
• Autonomous solar electric vehicle- Futuristic and upcoming trends
in Automobile Technology
 ENERGY FLOW DIAGRAM
PRIMARY
PRIMARY ENERGY
ENERGY COAL, OIL, SOLAR, GAS

ENERGY CONVERSION FACILITY

POWER PLANTS, REFINERIES

SECONDARY
SECONDARY ENERGY
ENERGY REFINED OIL, ELECTRICITY

TRANSMISSON & DISTN. SYSTEMS RAILWAYS, TRUCKS, PIPELINES

FINAL ENERGY WHAT CONSUMED BY DILIVERED

ENERGY
ENERGY UTILISATION EQUIP. & SYSTEMS AUTOMOBILE, LAMP,MOTOR,
STOVE
USEFUL ENERGY MOTIVE POWER, RADIENT ENERGY
END USE ACTIVITY DISTANCE TRAVELLED, ILLUMINATION,
COOKED FOOD, ETC.
World renewable energy generation by energy source, excluding wind and hydropower, 2007–2035 (billion kWh)
Source wise Estimated Potential of Renewable Power in INDIA
 SOLAR ENERGY
• Solar energy is the most readily available and free source of energy
since prehistoric times.
• It is estimated that solar energy equivalent to over 15,000 times the
world's annual commercial energy consumption reaches the earth
every year.
• India receives solar energy in the region of 5 to 7 kWh/m2 for 300 to
330 days in a year.
• This energy is sufficient to set up 20 MW solar power plant per square
kilometer land area.
RADIATION AT EARTH’S SURFACE:
SOLAR RADIATION TYPES:

Solar
Radiation

Beam Diffuse
Radiation Radiation
• Solar energy can be utilized through two different routes:
• solar thermal route
• solar electric (solar photovoltaic) routes

• Solar thermal route uses the sun's heat to produce hot water or air, cook
food, drying materials etc.
• Solar photovoltaic uses sun's heat to produce electricity for lighting
home and building, running motors, pumps, electric appliances, and
lighting.
 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV)
• Photovoltaic is the technical term for solar electric. Photo means "light" and voltaic
means "electric".
• PV cells are usually made of silicon, an element that naturally releases electrons
when exposed to light.
• Amount of electrons released from silicon cells depend upon intensity of light
incident on it.
• The silicon cell is covered with a grid of metal that directs the electrons to flow in a
path to create an electric current.
• This current is guided into a wire that is connected to a battery or DC appliance.
• Typically, one cell produces about 1.5 watts of power. Individual cells are connected
together to form a solar panel or module, capable of producing 3 to 110 Watts
power.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
 SOLAR CELL TYPES
1. Crystalline Silicon Cells
• Around 90% of solar cells are made from crystalline silicon (c-Si) wafers

• Single crystals are used to create monocrystalline solar panels and cells (mono-Si), while multiple crystals are used for polycrystalline panels and cells (multi-Si
or poly c-Si).

• Monocrystalline solar panels have black-colored solar cells made of a single silicon crystal, and they usually have a higher efficiency. However, these panels often
come at a higher price.

• Polycrystalline solar panels have blue-colored cells made of multiple silicon crystals melted together. These panels are often a bit less efficient, but are more
affordable.

2. Thin Film Solar Cells ( Non-Crystalline)

• Non -Crystalline silicon cells - just a fraction of a millimeter deep (around 200 micrometers, 200μm),

• These thin film solar panels and cells are made from amorphous silicon (a-Si), in which the atoms are randomly arranged rather than in an ordered crystalline
structure.

• Also can be Made from cadmium-telluride (Cd-Te), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) or organic PV materials (PET – polyethylene terephthalate,
ITO – indium tin oxide, PEDOT:PSS – poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), active layer (usually a polymer:fullerene blend), Al – aluminium.)

• The cheapest option for producing solar panels.

• Can be laminated onto windows, skylights, roofing tiles and other substrates, including glass, metals and polymers.

• However, despite this flexibility, they are not as efficient as regular crystalline silicon cells. Where crystalline silicon cells can produce upto 30%
efficiency, these thin film cells only reach around 7% efficiency. Even the very best CIGS cells barely reach 12% efficiency.
SOLAR STREET LIGHT
SOLAR PARK (SOLAR POWER PLANT) ASIA’S LARGEST
590 MW CAPACITY
 PV CELL EFFICIENCY
• The efficiency of a PV cell known as conversion efficiency is simply the amount of
electrical power coming out of the cell compared to the energy from the light shining
on it, which indicates how effective the cell is at converting energy from one form to
the other.
• Concentration PV (CPV) focuses sunlight onto a solar cell by using a mirror or lens.
• By focusing sunlight onto a small area, less PV material is required. PV materials
become more efficient as the light becomes more concentrated, so the highest overall
efficiencies are obtained with CPV cells and modules.
• However, more expensive materials, manufacturing techniques, and ability to track the
movement of the sun are required.
• FACTORS AFFECTING CONVERSION EFFICIENCY – Wavelength, Temperature,
Reflection
• The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power which is converted to
electricity and is defined as
𝐏𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝛈=
𝐏𝐢𝐧

𝐏𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐕𝐎𝐂 𝐈𝐒𝐂 𝐅𝐅

• Where,
Voc is the open-circuit voltage;
Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor and
η is the efficiency.
Example - The input power for efficiency calculations is 1 kW/m2 or 100 mW/cm2. Thus the input
power for a 100 × 100 mm2 cell is 10 W and for a 156 × 156 mm2 cell is 24.3 W
• The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage
are the maximum current and voltage respectively from
a solar cell.
• The "fill factor (FF)”, is a parameter which, in
conjunction with Voc and Isc, determines the maximum
power from a solar cell.
• The FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power
from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc so that
𝐏𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝐅𝐅 =
𝐕𝐨𝐜 𝐈𝐒𝐂
• The FF is a measure of the "squareness" of the solar cell
and is also the area of the largest rectangle which will fit
in the I-V curve. A solar cell with a higher voltage has a
larger possible FF since the "rounded" portion of the IV
curve takes up less area.
 WHY EFFICIENCY?
• Increased efficiency generally means a solar panel will pay back the embodied energy (energy
used to extract the raw materials and manufacture the solar panel) in less time.
• Based on detailed lifecycle analysis, most silicon-based solar panels already repay the embodied
energy within 2 years, depending on the location. However, as panel efficiency has increased
beyond 20%, payback time has reduced to less than 1.5 years in many locations.
• Increased efficiency also means a solar system will generate more electricity over the average 20+
year life of a solar panel and repay the upfront cost sooner, meaning the return on investment
(ROI) will be improved further.
• The factors which have the most significant impact on panel efficiency in real-world use are
irradiance, shading, orientation and temperature.
• Efficiency Vs Temperature - i.e in sunny day in winter more power output (sometimes even more
than rated max power of the panel)
• STC = Standard test conditions - 25°C
• NOCT = Nominal operating cell temperature -
45°C
• High cell temp = Typical cell temperature
during hot summer weather - 65°C
• Maximum operating temp = Maximum panel
operating temperature during extremely high
temperatures mounted on a dark coloured
rooftop - 85°C
• Cell temperature is generally 20°C higher than
the ambient air temperature which equates to a
5-8% reduction in power output at NOCT.
However, cell temperature can rise as high as
85°C when mounted on a dark coloured
rooftop during very hot 45°C, windless days
which is generally considered the maximum
operating temperature of a solar panel.
• The efficiency of different solar PV cell types • Common Solar panel sizes
• Polycrystalline - 15 to 18% • 60 cell panel (120 HC) : Approx width 0.98m x length 1.65m
• Monocrystalline - 16.5 to 19% • 72 cell panel (144 HC) : Approx width 1.0m x length 2.0m
• Polycrystalline PERC (Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell.) - 17 to 19.5% • 96/104 cell panel: Approx width 1.05m x length 1.60m
• Monocrystalline PERC - 17.5 to 20% • 66 cell panel (132 HC) - Approx width 1.10m x length 1.80m
• Monocrystalline N-type - 19 to 20.5% • 78 cell panel (156 HC): Approx width 1.30m x length 2.4m
• Monocrystalline N-type HJT (Heterojunction technology) - 19 to 21.7% • HC = half-cut cells
• Monocrystalline N-type IBC (Interdigitated Back Contact) - 20 to 22.8%

PERC
screen printed silver paste to form the
contacts
– Anti Reflective Coating
– phosphorous diffused, boron doped
silicon wafers that form the
P-N junction
– aluminum Back Surface Field (Al-
BSF)
– screen printed aluminum paste
 ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
• No chemical reactions • Efficiency is major issue.
• Don’t require fuel • Range from 20 % (Domestic) to
• No moving parts like electric generators 40% (Commercial)
• Widely used in space, including for satellites and • Low efficiencies mean that larger arrays required-
space stations and wide scopes in transportation higher investment costs
vehicles
• First solar cells, built in the 1950s, had efficiencies
• Many consumer products, including toys, calculators of less than 4% - Technological advancements
and radios. These solar cells can also use artificial
• No continues power generation
light as well as sunlight for power
• Performance can be improved but requires various
• Offers independence from the utility grid and
systems like cleaning, tracking systems
protection during extended power failures
• Found to be economical especially in the hilly and
far flung areas where conventional grid power
supply will be expensive to reach
• PV tracking systems is an alternative to the fixed, stationary PV panels. PV tracking systems
are mounted and provided with tracking mechanisms to follow the sun as it moves through the
sky. These tracking systems run entirely on their own power and can increase output by 40%.

• Back-up systems are necessary since PV systems only generate electricity when the sun is
shining – generally day time.

• The two most common methods of backing up solar electric systems are connecting the
system to the utility grid or storing excess electricity in batteries for use at night or on cloudy
days.

• Solar PV cells are widely used as a renewable source of energy in scales ranging from the
smallest handheld devices right up to powering entire communities.

• Very much effective to move towards achieving net zero carbon emissions.
 WHY STORAGE BATTERIES ?
• Only produce electricity when the sun is shining. But, peak energy demand tends to come in the
evenings, coinciding with decreased solar generation and causing a supply and demand issue.
• Solar panels often pump out more than enough energy during those lower demand hours when
the sun is shining to meet peak demand later in the day.
• Balancing electric loads. - Energy storage allows surplus generation to be banked for peak-
use.
• Simply put, energy storage allows an energy reservoir to be charged when generation is high
and demand is low, then released when generation diminishes and demand grows.
• Continues power - Even Short-term solar energy storage allows for consistent energy flow
during brief disruptions in generators, such as passing clouds or routine maintenance.
• Useful in emergency - Solar energy storage creates a protective bubble during disruptive
events by decentralizing (shut down-power grid failure etc) where we get our energy from.
 SELECTION OF STORAGE BATTERIES
• Storage batteries can be selected by looking battery’s capacity & power ratings, depth of
discharge (DoD), round-trip efficiency.
• Capacity & power rating :
• Capacity is the total amount of electricity that a solar battery can store, measured in kilowatt-
hours (kWh).
• While capacity tells you how big your battery is, it doesn’t tell you how much electricity a
battery can provide at a given moment. To get the full picture, you also need to consider the
battery’s power rating. In the context of solar batteries, a power rating is the amount of
electricity that a battery can deliver at one time. It is measured in kilowatts (kW).
• Example - A battery with a high capacity and a low power rating would deliver a low amount of
electricity (enough to run a few crucial appliances) for a long time. A battery with low capacity
and a high power rating could run your entire home, but only for a few hours.
• Depth of discharge (DoD) :
• Most solar batteries need to retain some charge at all times due to their chemical composition. If
you use 100 percent of a battery’s charge, its useful life will be significantly shortened.
• The depth of discharge (DoD) of a battery refers to the amount of a battery’s capacity that can be
used. Most manufacturers will specify a maximum DoD for optimal performance.
• Round-trip efficiency:
• A battery’s round-trip efficiency represents the amount of energy that can be used as a
percentage of the amount of energy that it took to store it. For example, if you feed five kWh of
electricity into your battery and can only get four kWh of useful electricity back, the battery has
80 percent round-trip efficiency (4 kWh / 5 kWh = 80%). Generally speaking, a higher round-trip
efficiency means you will get more economic value out of your battery.
• Lead acid (FLA - Flooded lead-acid & SLA- Sealed Lid Acid Batteries)
• Lithium ion (Li batteries)
• Saltwater
• Lithium-ion batteries are most commonly used in solar applications.
• Lithium-ion batteries charge and discharge from a chemical reaction that moves electrons from
one part of the battery to the other.
• Safety characteristics of Li-ion batteries are ultimately determined by the attributes of system
design, including mechanical and thermal characteristics, electronics and communications, and
control algorithms – regardless of electrochemistry.

• How lithium batteries work ? – Role of BMS in lithium iron batteries-

• Introduction to Alternate Fuels for Transportation\Solar\New folder\Lithium-ion-battery-
How-does-it-work-YouTube.mp4
• Lithium-ion battery technology is superior to lead-acid due to its reliability and efficiency
• In cases of small off-grid storage systems that aren’t used regularly, less expensive lead-acid
battery options can be preferable.
• Lithium ion batteries are costlier as compared to same size/capacity of lead acid batteries.
• More energy can be stored in a lithium-ion battery using the same physical space compared to
lead acid batteries. (Lithium is the lightest metal on earth, one kg of lithium contains 29 times
more atoms than lead)
• Most lithium-ion batteries are 95% efficient or more while lead acid batteries can up to hardly
80%.
• Batteries are also similar to solar panels in that they degrade over time and become less
effective as they age. Lithium-ion batteries generally last for several times the number of cycles
as lead acid batteries, leading to a longer effective lifespan.
• Lead acid battery can’t be discharged below 50% of its full capacity (to improve its life cycle)
while 100% can be utilized in lithium ion batteries. (DoD)
• Despite having higher upfront costs, lithium-ion batteries are usually more valuable than lead-
acid options.
• One case where lead-acid batteries may be the better decision is in a scenario with an off-grid
solar installation that isn’t used very frequently.
• For example, keeping a lead-acid battery on a boat/ship (RV) as a backup power source that is
only used every month or so is a less expensive option than lithium-ion, and due to the lower
usage rate, you’ll avoid many of the drawbacks of lead-acid technology, such as their shorter
lifespan.
• Charging time of lead acid batteries are notoriously slow.
• At cold temp. charging if Lithium batteries is very poor as compared to lead acid batteries.
• Installation of lead acid batteries are little bit difficult due to possibility of leakage problem
while in lithium both cells are individually packed so no leakage possibilities.
Comparison of lead acid and lithium iron batteries-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1LGP3F1vgAA
Autonomous solar
electric vehicle-
Futuristic and
upcoming trends
in Automobile
Technology
 REFERENCES

• Power Sonic (PS – USA)

• US Department of energy – https://www.energy.gov
• https://www.pveducation.org/
• Clean Energy Reviews - https://www.cleanenergyreviews
• Reference books on Alternative fuels- syllabus