BSI BS*KLAAL PART*K205 Ab I1 b 2 4 b b î 0004707 9

BS 1881 : Part 205 : I986

UDC 666.972.017:691.32:620.1

0 British Standards Institution. No part of this publication may be photocopied or otherwise reproduced without the prior permission in writing of BSI

British Standard
o I esting concrete
Part 205. Recommendationsfor
radiography of concrete

Essais du béton
Partie 205. Recommandations relatives à la radiographie du béton

Prüfverfahren für Beton

Teil 205. Empfehlungen zur Untersuchung von Beton mittels Röntgenstrahlen

British Standards Institution

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BS 1881 : Part 205 : 1986

Foreword O
This Part of BS 1881 has been prepared under the direction
of the Cement, Gypsum, Aggregates and Quarry Products
Standards Committee. It supersedes BS 4408 : Part 3 :
1970, which i s withdrawn. All aspects of testing concrete
are being included as Parts of BS 1881, from sampling fresh
concrete to assessing concrete in structures. BS 1881 :
Part 201 gives general guidance on the choice of non-
destructive test methods and should be consulted for advice
on methods which can be used to complement radiographic
examination.
The use of gamma rays and high energy X-rays for the
location and identification of steel and voids in structural
concrete makes it desirable to give guidance on the
procedures to be used. It is hoped that a more unified
practice will result amongst experienced radiographers
working in this field. The recommendations are based upon
current good practice and are designed to provide methods
applicable to the investigation of concrete where radiography
O
is suitable.
It i s emphasized that the radiography of concrete falls
within the scope of the Factories Acts and is controlled by
the lonising Radiations Regulations 1985. Detailed guidance
on the application of these regulations and on general
safety procedures i s given in the 'Approved Code of
Practice. The protection of persons against ionising
radiation arising from any work activity' published under
the authority of the Health and Safety Commission in 1985.
The recommendations do not lay down standards of
radiographic image quality, which need t o be agreed
between the parties for each investigation. The examples of
imperfections given in appendix B are to enable interpreta-
tion of radiographs to be understood and are not intended
as criteria of severity of imperfections.
Where applicable, these recommendations follow those
given in BS 2600 and BS 2910.
The photographs forming figure 7 are reproduced by kind
permission of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy O
Author ity.
Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself
confer immunity from legal obligations.

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BS 1881 : Part 205 : 1986

O Contents

Page
Foreword Inside front cover
Committees responsible Back cover

Recommendations
1 Scope 2
2 Definitions 2
3 Applications 2
4 Image quality 2
5 Equipment 2
6 Procedure 2
7 Precautions 4
8 Report 4

Appendices
A Explanatory notes on the radiographic technique 5
B Radiographic examples 6

Tables
1 Suitable sources of radiation 2
2 Thicknesses of lead intensifying screens 2
3 Source-to-filmdistances 3
.-
Figures
Typical arrangement for gamma radiography 6
Radiograph of ungrouted prestressed concrete
duct and partially grouted prestressed concrete
duct 7
Grouting fault and i t s radiographic representation 8
Grouting void and i t s radiographic representation 9
Radiograph of poorly compacted concrete 10
Joint defects and their radiographic representation 11
Typical layout for Linac radiography 12

*
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BS 1881 : Part 205 : 1986

Recommendations

1 Scope
I Table 1. Suitable sources of radiation
I
This Part of BS 1881 gives recommendations for the
radiographic inspection of concrete. Up t o approximately
500 mm thick, gamma ray sources are usually employed;
Source
I Approximate thickness of concrete
I
Minimum Maximum
above this thickness the use of high-energy X-rays is more
appropriate. Recommendationsare given on the factors mm mm
which govern the quality of the radiographic image, 60 Cobalt 125 500
namely the source characteristic, the arrangement of source, 192 Iridium 25 250
object and film in space, the film speed, the use of screens,
Linac, 8 MeV X-rays 500 1600
the exposure time and the film development technique.
This standard is for the guidance of radiographers and the
The thicknesses are those which in practice can be radio-
information of others involved.
graphed in a reasonable amount of time with sources
NOTE 1. By law, radiography has to be carried out under the
supervision of qualified personnel.
currently available.
NOTE. The physical sizes of gamma ray sources are specified in
NOTE 2. ExplaiTatory notes on the radiographic technique are given
In appendix A, and radiographic examples are given in appendix B.
BS 5288.
NOTE 3. The titles of the publications referred to in this standard
are listed on the inside back cover. 5.2 Type of film
The film should generally be of the medium speed or fast
direct-type X-ray for use with lead screens or without
2 Definitions screens. The manufacturers provide data sheets that relate
film speed, exposure and radiation source to the material
For the purposes of this Part of BS 1881 the definitions under investigation.
given in BS 3683 : Part 3 apply.
5.3 Lead intensifying screens
The thicknesses of lead foil screens used should be in
3 Applications accordance with table 2 (see also A.2).

Radiography i s used to determine the presence of reinforce- Table 2, Thicknesses of lead intensifying screens
ment and i t s approximate location and size, to observe the
Source Thickness of Thickness of
general condition of concrete, e.g. lack of compaction, front screen back screen
and to locate voids in specific cases, such as grouting ducts.

0.12 to 1.20
4 Image quality
0.5 to 1.0
The required image quality in terms of the definition and
contrast of the image depônds upon the purpose of the
investigation and should be the subject of mutual agreement 5.4 Cassettes
between the contracting parties. The assessment can be The film and intensifying screens should be enclosed in a
based either on the use of trial exposures to provide an flat, rigid, metal or plastics light-tight cassette having
acceptable image quality or on the use of image quality sufficient compression to ensure adequate filmscreen
indicators of a mutually acceptable type. contact.

5 Equipment 6 Procedure

5.1 Radiation sources 6.1 Marking out

Suitable sources for the examination of concrete are listed In general, permanent markings on the test piece should
in table 1; the source appropriate to the thickness of provide reference points for the accurate relocation of the
concrete to be investigated should be chosen. position of each radiograph.

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BS 1881 : Part 205 : 1986

6.2 Specimen-to-film distance 6.6 Processing

The distance between the film and the adjacent concrete The film should be processed in accordance with recognized
should be as small as possible. good practice. A recognized type of X-ray film developer
Where a gap between the concrete and film exists, should be used and the processing solutions should be
the minimum source-to-filmdistances derived in accordance maintained in good working condition. Either the film or
with 6.5 should be increased in the ratio a t 6:a, where a is the processing solution or both should be agitated during
the thickness of the concrete and b is the width of the gap. development. The development time and temperature
should be in accordance with the film manufacturer's
6.3 Alignment of the beam recommendations.
The beam of radiation should be directed to the middle The radiographs should be free from imperfections due to
of the section under examination and should be normal processing, pressure marks or other artefacts which would
to the material surface a t that point, except in a special interfere with interpretation. Any such marks should be
examination for certain imperfections which it is known indicated by the radiographer in the report.
would be best reveeled by a different alignment of the
beam, e.g. examination of multiple grouting ducts, whose 6.7 Density of radiograph
images would otherwise overlap. In the image of the concrete examined, the film density
corresponding to the sound material should not be less
6.4 Overlap of film than 1.5 nor greater than 3.0.These values are inclusive
Where it i s necessary to overlap film, the overlap should not of a fog density, which should not be greater than 0.3.
be less than 10 % o f the film length or width, and film (See also A.5.)
marking should demonstrate continuity of examination on
both front and rear faces of the concrete. 6.8 Viewing
A viewer designed for the purpose should be used.
6.5 Source-to-filmdistance The radiograph should be examined by diffused light in a
The geometric unsharpness (see A.6) should not be greater darkened room and the illuminated area should be masked
than 0.75 mm. The minimum source-to-filmdistance, f, to the minimum required for viewing the radiographic
in millimetres, is calculated from the following equation. image.
( d + 0.75)t The luminance (or brightness) of the radiograph of mutually
f= agreed density should be such that it can be satisfactorily
0.75
interpreted; it should not be less than 10 candelas per
where square metre (IOcd/m2) and should preferably be greater
d i s the source diameter (in mm); than 1O0 cd/m2. (See also A.4.)
t i s the object-to-film distance (in mm). Guidance on spurious effects, such as processing imperfec-
Where the object-to-film distance is unknown, then t can be tions, that could be misinterpreted may be found in the
taken as half the concrete thickness, T, from which f can be appropriate film manufacturers data sheets.
calculated using the following equation.

f = (y) T
6.9 Identification of the radiograph
Each concrete element examined should have symbols
affixed to identify:
Table 3 gives source-to-filmdistances for various sizes of (a) the part being radiographed;
source. (b) the position of the radiographic film.

1 Table 3. Source-to-filmdistances
I The symbols, consisting of lead letters, numerals or
geometric shapes,.should in general be placed on the film
I Sourcediameter I Distance I side of the concrete, care being taken to reverse numbers
and letters to ensure that the film reproduces the symbols
the right way round.
mm mm
2 3.67 x t An accurate record of exposure geometry should be kept,
3 5.00 x t with the time and date of exposure.
4 6.33 x t
6.10 Identification and location of reinforcement and
6 9.00 x t
defects
When neither the size nor position of reinforcement or
The source-to-filmdistance can be reduced by mutual
defect i s known, stereoscopic radiographs should be taken,
agreement between the contracting parties if a greater
A photogrammetric technique* shourd then be used to
geometrical unsharpness can be tolerated, bearing in mind
obtain this information from the radiograph.
the related factors of exposure time and size of film irradiated.

*A suitable technique is described by W. Watson i n Wiltshire, W.J., ed, 'A further handbook of industrial radiology>- d 957,___,

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O
7 Precautions 8 Report
7.1 Protection 8.2 General
As exposure of any part of the human body to ionizing The report should affirm that the radiographic inspection
radiation can be highly injurious, it is essential that wherever was carried out in accordance with this Part of BS 1881.
radioactive sources are in use, adequate precautions should
be taken to protect the radiographer and others in the 8.2 Information t o be included in the test report
vicinity. Such precautions should involve the careful
The following information should be included in the test
regulation and supervision of operating conditions and report:
procedures, including, for example, the provision of
adequate shielding and the use of barriers, warning notices (a) date, time and place of investigation;
and sufficiently large areas of restricted access. (b) identification of work piece and the position of the
NOTE. Further information on the risks associated with the use of radiograph on the structure;
sealed radioactive sources in industry are dealt with in ‘Ionizing (c) technique used;
Radlations: Precautions for Industrial Users’, New Series No. 13,
HMSO. By law, dosemeters, suitably calibrated, have to be used t o (d) symbols used t o identify radiographs;
measure the amount of radiation and establish the area dangerous
to personnel (see figure 1).
(e) object-to-film distance or concrete thickness;
(f) type and diameter of source used;
O
7.2 Interception of scattered radiation (9) source-to-film distance;
Scattered radiation can arise from structures adjacent to or (h) name of film;
behind the concrete being examined. It is essential that (i)exposure in becquerel hours for gamma sources or in
sufficient lead screening, whose position can be determined grays a t 1 m for high voltage sources;
experimentally, be provided to offset this.
(i) sketch of exposure geometry, indicating position of
source with reference t o film and object;
(k) indication of any processing or pressure marks, etc.

. .

4 Standards
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BS 1881 : Part 205 : 1986

Appendices

Appendix A. Explanatory notes on the A.5 Density of radiograph

radiographic technique
NOTE. See 6.7.
Optical density is expressed as loglo of the ratio of the
A.1 General intensity of the incident light to the intensity of the
emergent light (see BS 1384). With films of density 1.O
The techniques represent a balance between many factors. or 2.0 the transmitted light has an intensity of 1/10
or 1/100 of i t s original value respectively. Densitometers
While some latitude may be permissible in the techniques are available commercially for density measurement;
recommended, it will be found that an alteration in any one alternatively, a visual comparison can be made using a
factor will, in general, involve changes in other factors such calibrated density step-wedge.
that the overall result may be worse than before.
The fog density of the film should not be greater than 0.3.
With direct-type film the contrast increases with film
density up to the highest densities.
A.2 Lead intensifyingscreens
A density of 3.0 represents the usual limit of most film
NOTE. See 5.3. viewing equipment, but higher densities can be used with
advantage where the viewing light i s sufficiently bright to
Although X-ray films are sensitive to gamma rays, and can, permit adequate interpretation.
therefore, be used alone to record the image, it i s usual to
expose them between intensifying screens, as these usually
reduce the exposure required. A.6 Source-to-filmdistance
Metal-foil intensifying screens consist of thin sheets of
metal, usually lead, and usually mounted on thin card. NOTE. See 6.5.
They are used in pairs, one being in contact with each side
To obtain the best definition, the geometric unsharpness
of the X-ray film. The closeness of contact between screen
should be as small as possible, but in any case it is desirable
and emulsion, and the cleanliness of the screen and freedom
that it should not exceed the inherent unsharpness of the
from scratches and other surface marks, are important
points to which attention should be paid. film-screen combination.
Metal screens emit electrons under irradiation and the An improvement in sharpness may result from the use of
action of these electrons on the film contributes to larger source-to-filmdistances than those calculated in
producing a chosen density of radiograph with a shorter accordance with 6.5.
exposure time than if no screens were used. The front The geometric unsharpness should be calculated using the
screen also helps to reduce the amount of scattered radiation following equation.
generated in the material and reaching the film.
In general, the thickness of lead intensifying screens to
be employed i s not critical. A thicker front screen tends
Geometric unsharpness = d
(k)
where
to absorb more scattered radiation but gives a smaller
intensifying factor. This additional filtration i s sometimes d i s the source diameter (in mm);
employed with advantage on material of irregular section. t i s the maximum object-to-film distance (in mm);
The thickness of the back screen, also, i s not critical, f i s the source-to-filmdistance (in mm).
provided it exceeds 0.12 mrn. The use of a greater source-to-filmdistance than the
recommended minimum may often be more convenient,
as a larger area can thereby be examined in one exposure.
A.3 Continuous examination On the other hand, the total time of examination can often
be appreciably reduced by examining shorter lengths of
For continuous examination the source may have to be concrete a t each exposure, and using a correspondingly
moved to cover adjacent areas. Attention should be paid shorter source-to-filmdistance, bearing in mind the
to the geometry to ensure that no section is left unexamined. variation in film density.
In this case, complete coverage can be shown by placing The application of the recommended minimum distance
markers on the source side of the concrete. depends on the knowledge of the effective size of the
source of radiation, which should be taken as the greatest
projection dimension.
A.4 Viewing

-
A.7 Exposuretime
NOTE. See 6.8.
The exposure time is proportional to a function of the
To achieve a value of 10 cd/m2 in viewing a radiograph of
density 3.0, the luminance (or brightness) of the illuminator concrete thickness. It is also proportional to the film speed,
needs t o be 10 O00 cd/m2. For critical viewing, complete the square of the source-to-filmdistance, and the inverse of
darkening of the viewing room is essential. the source strength. Exposure time may extend over a
period of hours.

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Appendix B. Radiographic examples B.3 Joimts between concrete units

Figure 6(a) shows radiographically the defects in the joint
B.1 Grouting flaws illustrated photographically in figure 6(b).

In post-tensioned prestressed concrete the prestressing wires

are contained in ducts which are usually preformed by a B A Heavy sectiom concrete
duct lining. The duct i s subsequently grouted and the grout
should completely fill the duct. Imperfections in this duct The photograph in figure 7(a) shows the general layout for
can take the form of settlement, which leaves a gap a t the the investigation of a road bridge using high energy X-rays
top of the duct (which may be filled with air or water) as from a Linac. The bridge was especially closed for the
shown in figure 2, or an air or water pocket entrapped in occasion and the work consequently undertaken a t night
the grout, as shown in figure 3, or a void near the anchorage to minimize dislocation of traffic. Figure 7(b) shows the
of prestressing wire as shown in figure 4. placing in position of a recording film underneath the
bridge.

B.2 Compaction
Incomplete compaction or honeycombing is shown in
figure 5.

Figure 1. Typical arrangement for gamma radiography

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 Ungrouted
duct
-
Extent of void in
grouting duct

Prest ress,ing
wire
-
Duct lining-
- - - -J

Figure 2. Radiograph of ungrouted prestressed concrete duct and

partially grouted prestressed concrete duet

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 (a) Radiograph of part of the prestressed beam section shown in (bl

iI
!
i1

(b) Sectioned beams with grouting fault exposed

Figure 3. Grouting fault and i t s radiographic representat@n

Ø- 7

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BS 188’1 : Part205 : lg86

(a) Radiograph of the anchorage of a prestressed concrete beam shown in (b)

I--- -~
-

(b) Sawn section of prestressed beam end

Figure 4.Grouting void and its radiographic representation

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9
 Reinforcement bars

Honeycombing

Figure 5. Radiograph of poorly compacted concrete

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 BS% B % * L B B L PART%i<2615 86 LbZbibb9 0 0 8 4 3 3 7 5
BS 1881 : Part205 : 1986

..
.f
....
..-. ..

Lack o
compaction
in joint-
between
concrete units

Ungrouted
prestressing+
duct

(a) Radiograph of the joint defects shown in (b)

(b) Joint defects

Figure 6. Joint defec%sand their radiographic representation

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 (b)
Figure 7. Typical layout for Linac radiography

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Publications referred to
BS 1384 Photographic density measurements
BS 1881 Testing concrete
Part 201 Guide t o the use of nondestructive met Jds of test for hardened concrete
BS 2600* Radiographic examination of fusion welded butt joints in steel
BS 2910* Methods for radiographic examination of fusion welded circumferential butt joints in steel pipes
BS 3683 Glossary of terms used in non-destructive testing
Part 3 Radiological flaw detection
BS 5288 Sealed radioactive sources
Wiltshire, W.J., ed, 'A further handbook of industrial radiology', Arnold, 1957
'Approved Code of Practice. The protection of persons against ionising radiation arising from any work activity' Health and Safety
Commissiont
'Ionizing Radiations: Precautions for Industrial Users', New Series No. 13, HMSOt

*Referred to in the foreword only.

tAvailable from HMSO, 49 High Holborn, London WCI.

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BS 1881 : Part 205 : 1986
This British Standard, having been prepared under the direction of standard, of necessary details such as symbols and size, type or
the Cement, Gypsum, Aggregates and Quarry Products Standards grade designations. Enquiries should be addressed to the
Committee, was published under the authority of the Board of BSI Publications Manager, British Standards Institution, Linford Wood,
and comes into effect on 28 November 1986. Milton Keynes MK14 6LE. The number for telephone enquiries is
0908 320033 and for telex 825777.
O British Standards Institution, 1986
Contract requirements
ISBN O 580 15392 4
A British Standard does not purport t o include all the necessary
British Standards Institution provisions of a contract. Users of British Standards are responsible
Incorporated by Royal Charter, BSI is the independent national for their correct application.
body for the preparation of British Standards. It is the UK member Revision of British Sfandards
of the International Organization for Standardization and UK British Standards are revised, when necessary, by the issue either
sponsor of the British National Committee of the international of amendments or of revised editions. It is important that users of
Electrotechnical Commission, British Standards should ascertain that they are in possession of
Beyond the production of standards, BSI offers specialist services t h e latest amendments or editions. Information on all BSI
including the provision of information through the BSJ Library and publications is in the BSl Catalogue, supplemented each month by
Standardline Database, Technical Help to Exporters, and other BSI News which i s available to subscribing members of the
services. Advice can be obtained from the Enquiry Section, BSI, Institution and gives details of new publications, revisions,
Milton Keynes MK14 6LE, Telephone 0908 320066. amendments and withdrawn standards. Any person who, when
Copyright making use of a British Standard, encounters an inaccuracy or
Users of British Standards are reminded that copyright subsists in ambiguity, is requested to notify BSI without delay in order that
the matter may be investigated and appropriate action taken.
all BSI publications, No part of this publication may be reproduced
in any form without the prior permission in writing of BSI. This The foliowing BSi references relate to the work on this standard:
does not preclude the free use, in the course of implementing the Committee reference CAB/4 Draft for comment 85/14013 DC

Committees responsible for this British Standard

The Preparation of this British Standard wes entrusted by the Department of Transport (Highways)
Cement, Gypsum, Aggregates and Quarry Products Standards Department of Transport (Transport and Road Research Laboretory)
Committee (CAB/-) t o Technical Committee CAB/4, upon which Electricity Supply industry in England and Wales
the following bodies were represented: Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors
Association of Lightweight Aggregate Manufacturers Greater London Council
Association of Metropolitan Authorities Institute of Concrete Technology
British Aggregate Construction Materials industries Institution of Civil Engineers
British Civil EngineeringTest Equipment Manufacturers' Association Institution of Highways and Transportation
British Precast Concrete Federation Institution of Structural Engineers
Brltlsh Ready Mixed Concrete Assoclation Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists
Building Employers' Confederation Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
Cement Admixtures Association Sand and Gravel Association
Cement and Concrete Assoclatlon Society of Chemical Industry
Cement Makers' Federation
Concrete Society The following bodies were also represented in the drafting of the
County Surveyors' Society standard, through subcommittees and panels:
Department of the Environment (Building Research Establishment) British Nuclear Fuels Limited
Department of the Environment (Property Sewices Agency) United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority

A
Amendments issued since publication 00
00
Amd, No. Date of issue Text affected ..
2

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