The History of Algebra

1. Egyptian Algebra • Earliest finding from the Rhind Papyrus – written approx. 1650 B.C. • Solve
algebra problems equivalent to linear equations and 1 unknown • Algebra was rhetorical – use of
no symbols • Problems were stated and solved verbally • Cairo Papyrus (300 B.C.) – solve
systems of 2 degree equations
2. Babylonian Algebra • Babylonians were more advanced than Egyptians • Like Egyptians,
algebra was also rhetorical • Could solve quadratic equations • Method of solving problems was
rhetorical, taught through examples • No explanations to findings were given • Recognized on
positive rational numbers
3. Greek Algebra • The Greeks originally learned algebra from Egypt as indicated in their writings
of the 6th century BCE. Later they learned Mesopotamian geometric algebra from the Persians.
They studied number theory, beginning with Pythagoras (ca 500 BCE), continuing with Euclid (ca
300 BCE) and Nicomachus (ca 100 CE). The culmination of Greek algebra is the work of
Diophantus in the 3rd century CE.
4. Fundamental Limitations of Greek Algebra:
• Negative and complex solutions of equations were rejected as “absurd” or “impossible”.
• They realized that irrational numbers existed but refused to consider them as numbers.
They went to great lengths to avoid them.
• They did geometric algebra Mesopotamian style. That is, a given algebraic problem is
translated into a geometric one which is solved by a geometric construction. This limits the variety of
algebraic problems studied. Note that this method does not deal with specific numbers thereby
avoiding irrational numbers.
• They gave specific examples with rational solutions to illustrate general procedures.
5. Diophantine Algebra • Represents the end of a movement among Greeks away from
geometrical algebra to a system of algebra that did not depend on geometry
• Diophantus – Greek mathematician from Alexandria • Often considered the “father of
Algebra”
Wrote series of books “Arithmetica” – features work on solutions of algebraic equations
to theory of numbers • 189 problems in “Arithmetica” were all solved by a different method
• Some of his writings from this series are still lost
• No general method to his solutions • Accepted only positive rational roots
• Diophantus was the first Greek mathematician to recognize fractions as numbers
• His discoveries led to what we know today as “Diophantine Equations” and “Diophantine
Approximations”
• Furthermore, he introduced the syncopated & symbolic styles of writing
Interesting Fact
• We know essentially nothing of his life and are uncertain about the date at which he lived
(200-284).
• The only know detail of his age was a phrase written by Metrodorus which stated:
“his boyhood lasted 1/6th of his life, he married after 1/7th more, his beard grew after
1/12th more, and his son was born 5 years later, the son lived to half his father’s age and the father
died 4 years after the son” • Translates to: he married at 26 son died at 42, so Diophantus died at 84.
6. Hindu Algebra • Records in mathematics dates back to approx. 800 B.C. • Most mathematics
was motivated by astronomy & astrology • Introduced negative numbers to represent debt
When solving problems they only stated steps – no proof or reasoning was provided •
First to recognize that quadratic equations have two roots • Known for invention of decimal system
which we use today
 7. Arabic Algebra • Al-Khwarizmi wrote “al-jabrw’al-muqabala” translation “restoration and
compensation”(source of the word algebra – mistranslation from ‘Al-jabr’ to Latin ‘Algebra’)
• Quadratic equations, practical geometry, simple linear equations, and application of mathematics to
solve inheritance problems
• Algebra was entirely rhetorical
• Could solve quadratic equations
• Abu Kamil (born 850) forms an important link in the development of algebra between al-
Khwarizmi and al-Karaji. Despite not using symbols, but writing powers of x in words, he had begun
to understand what we would write in symbols as xn.xm = xm+n. • Remark: symbols did not appear in
Arabic mathematics until much later.
• Al-Karaji (born 953) is seen by many as the first person to completely free algebra from
geometrical operations and to replace them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the
core of algebra today. He was first to define the monomials x, x2, x3, ... and 1/x, 1/x2, 1/x3, ... and to
give rules for products of any two of these. He started a school of algebra which flourished for several
hundreds of years.
• Omar Khayyam (born 1048) gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric
solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections.
• Khayyam also wrote that he hoped to give a full description of the algebraic solution of cubic
equations in a later work:
• If the opportunity arises and I can succeed, I shall give all these fourteen forms with all their
branches and cases, and how to distinguish whatever is possible or impossible so that a paper,
containing elements which are greatly useful in this art will be prepared.
8. European Algebra • Algebra was still largely rhetorical, slightly syncopated • Solution to cubic
and quartic equations • Negative numbers were known, but not fully accepted • No one could
solve 5th degree equation • Algebraists were called “cossists” and algebra was called “cossic
art”
Major Breakthrough – 16th Century
• Viete (1540-1603) – lawyer, French mathematician, astronomer, & advisor to King Henri III & IV
• Often called the father of “modern algebra” • Focused on algebraic equations in his mathematical
writings
Introduced letters for both constants and unknowns
• First algebraic notations were introduced in his book “In artem analyticam isagoge”
• Translates to “Introduction to the analytic art”
Now mathematicians were able to write equations with more than one unknown • Thomas Harriot
(1620’s) • 5aaa + 7bb • Pierre Herigone (1634) • 5a3 + 7b2 • James Hume (1636) • 5aⁱⁱⁱ +7bⁱⁱ • Rene
Descartes (1637) • 5a³ + 7b²
Descartes • Symbolic algebra reached full maturity • Used lowercase letters from end of alphabet as
unknowns • Used lowercase letters from beginning of alphabet for constants • Introduced ax + by=c,
still use today to describe equation of line • Work led to introduction of reciprocals, roots of powers,
limits of roots of powers, and exponents.

Stages of Algebra • The development of algebra progressed through 3 stages: • Rhetorical – no use
of symbols, verbal only • Syncopated – abbreviated words • Symbolic – use of symbols, used today
 •Rhetorical Algebra • 1650 BCE-200 CE • Early Babylonian and Egyptian algebras were both
rhetorical • In Greece, the wording was more geometric but was still rhetorical. • The Chinese also
started with rhetorical algebra and used it longer.
•Syncopated Algebra • 200 CE-1500 CE • Started with Diophantus who used syncopated algebra
in his Arithmetica (250 CE) and lasted until 17th Century BCE. • However, in most parts of the
world other than Greece and India, rhetorical algebra persisted for a longer period (in W. Europe
until 15th Century CE).
Aryabhata& Brahmagupta • Ist century CE from India • Developed a syncopated
algebra • Ya stood for the main unknown and their words for colors stood for other unknowns
•Symbolic Algebra • Began to develop around 1500 but did not fully replace rhetorical and
syncopated algebra until the 17th century • Symbols evolved many times as mathematicians
strived for compact and efficient notation • Over time the symbols became more useable and
standardized
Types of Algebra
• Algebra is divided into two types:
• Classical algebra – equation solving
• Abstract/Modern algebra – study of groups
• Classical algebra has been developed over a period of 4,000 years, while abstract algebra
has only appeared in the last 200 years.
Classical Algebra • Finding solutions to equations or systems of equations • i.e. finding roots or
values of unknowns • Uses symbols instead of specific numbers • Uses arithmetic operations to
establish procedures for manipulating symbols
Abstract Algebra • In the 19th century algebra was no longer restricted to ordinary number
systems. Algebra expanded to the study of algebraic structures such as: • Groups • Rings • Fields
• Modules • Vector spaces

By Megan Bell & Tonya Willis