Solid State Physics | Electronics for M.Sc. Entrance HIT-JAM | JNU | TIFR | BHU | ISM | JNCASR | DU CAREER ENDEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS has taken due cere in collecting the data and providing the solutions, before Publishing this book. Inspiteof ths, fany inaccuracy or priling errarsare there, CAREER ENDEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS ones 0 responsibilty. CAREER ENDEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS will bo gratcful 'T you could point out any such error. Your suggestions willbe highly appreciated Gall right reserved by CAREER ENDEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS. No part of this book may be reproduced or uilized in any form without the written permissionsfrom the publisher, | T CAREER ENDEAVOUR Publications Regd. Office: 28-A/11, Jia Sarai, New Delhi-16, Ph: 011-26851008, 26861009 E:info@careerendeavourin, W: www.careerendeavour.inCONTENTS Chapter 1: Crystal Structure 01-32 Chapter 2: Reciprocal Lattice & X-ray Diffraction 33-53 Chapter 3: Miscalleneous Topics (For TIFR, JEST, JNU, DU, BHU, and Other M.Sc. Entrance Exam) 54-84 Chapter 4: Semiconductor Devices 85-145 Chapter 5: OP-AMP, Single Stage Amplifiers & Oscillators 146-185 Chapter 6: Digital Electronics 186-210Chapter 1 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE Solids: The solids are the forms of matter in which atoms and molecules are strongly bound and maintain definite volume and shape unless changed by applying external forces. Solid state physies: The solid state physics is the study of the physical properties of the ator matter in the solid state. These physical properties include crystal structure, bonding, thermal, ekctrical and magnetic properties. Classification of solids: Solids are classified into two categories: (i) crystalline solids {i)non-enetaline sods (amorphous). Crystalline solids: ‘This crystalline solidsare defined as an ordered periodic arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions. Properties of crystalline solids: (1) The internal arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules of crystalline solid is inadefin (2) The crystalline solids have a sharp melting point. (3) Below the temperature of crystallization, the crystalline materials are in a stable state. As the stable state is the state of minimum energy, materials acquirea state of minimum energy on crystallization, @) The orderly arrangement ofatoims, ions and molecules ina crystal is extended over a large volume ofthe crystal, indicating a long rage Ostler by the atéing; ong and molecules: (5) Crystalline solids ere anisotropic. This implies that physical propeities such as reffactive index, conductiv- ity, thermal properties such as éxpansion etc. are different in different directions. This isdue to orderly arrangement of the constituents. (6) Crystalline solids have uniform chemical composition throughout. Examples: Diamond, Fe, Ag, Au, Salt, Sugar and Mica ete. order. Non-erystalline solids: ‘Solids in which constituents (atoms, ions or molecules) are arranged in irregular or random manner are called amorphous solids or non-crystalline solid. Properties of non-crystalline solids: (1) The constituents are arranged in irregular manner. 2) They do not have sharp melting point because the bonds between the atoms are not equally strong, (3) Theyare isotropic in nature. (4) Amorphous solids are regarded as supercooled liquids or pseudo solids. Single crystalline solids: ‘When the periodicity of the pattern extends throughout a certain piece of solid material, itis called single crystalline solids. Example: Diamond. Ina single crystal, same symmetry exists everywhere throughout the crystal.Crystal Structure Polycrystalline solids: When a large number of small crystal sections (called grains) of various shapes and sizes are packed to one another separated by the interfaces (called grain boundaries) so that the periodicity is interruptedat the grain boundaries, though the structure may be more stable, the solid is called polycrystalline. Crystallography: The science which deals with the structure of erystalline solids is called crystallography. Crystal structure: The atomic arrangement in acrystal is called crystal structure. Innature, most of the solids exit in crystalline form because crystalline form is more stable as compared to amorphous form of solids. The energy released during the formation of crystalline solids is morethan the energy released during the formation of amorphous solids. As more released during the formation, the crystal will have lessenergy, thus the crystal will be more stable. In order to describe crystal structure in detail, first we will discuss the following terms: Crystal translation vectors, symmetry operations, crystal lattices and basis. Crystal translation vector A crystal is regular arrangement of atoms, We can imagine points in space about which these atoms are located. These pointsare called as lattice points. Thus an ideal crystal isa body composed of atoms arranged ona lattice defined by three fundamental translation vectors a, b, @ such that the atomic arrangement looks the same in every respect when viewed fiom any point 7 as when viewed from the point 7” Thus, 7? =F +P => PaFtndtnb tne od where n,, 7, and n, arcarbitrary integers and 7 is called lattice translation operation or crystal translation vector TThe crystal translation operation is defined as the displacement 6fcrystal parallelto itself bya crystal translation vector nat myb + (i) ‘In two dimensional lattice, the vector 7 connects any two points, as shown in figure and given by the following relation Pand+nb oii) defined as parallel net like arrangement of points provided the environment about any point Latti Alat isidentical with environment about any other point... ‘The figure shown below isan array of points in tivo dimeiisions, i called the planc lattice. Ifwe extend this array of points in three dimensions then the &iray of points is Called space lattice. veg Basis: In order to get a crystal structure, an atom or group of atoms must be placed on each lattice point in regular manner. Such an atom or group of atoms is called the basis and acts as a building-block or unit for the crystal structure, . Mathematically, crystal structure can be expressed as [Space lattice + Basis = Crystal structure| eee eee é eee Lattice Basis. Crystal structureCrystal Structure a Unit cell: The parallelograms formed by the translation vectorsare regarded as building blocks for construct ing the complete lattice and are called as unit cells of the lattice. In three dimensions, this unitcell willbe a parallelopiped. Therefore, a unit cell is defined as the smallest unit oflattice points which on repetition produces the complete lattice. There are two types of unit cells: (@ Primitive unit cell (P): The lattice points (atoms) belonging to pr effective number of lattice points ina primitive unit cell is one, (id Non-primitive unit cell (NP): The lattice points (atoms) belonging to non-primitive cel Hie at corners as well as other locations. The effective number of lattice points in a non-primitive unit cellis greater than one. c unit cell lie at its comers. The Tage ob. Wigner-Seitz cell: ‘Amethod for the construction of unit cel from the lattice points was given by Wigner-Seitz. The procedure of the construction isas follows: (1) connect a given lattice point to all the nearby lattice points (2) draw normalsat the midpoints of lines connecting the lattice points. ‘The smallest volume enclosed by the nortials is the required primitive cell. ‘The cell constructed by this procedure is known as Wigner-Seitz cell In the figure, a two dimensional oblique lattice is constructed by this procedure and a hexagon is the resut. ‘Similarly, fora three dimensional BCC lattice, it isa truncated octahedron and for a FCC lattice, itis a rhombic dodecahedron, respectively. Construction of Wigner-Seitz primitive cell ‘Crystal symmetry: The operations that leaves the crystal and its environment inve ‘There are four symmetry operations: (i) Translational symmetry: A crystal translation is already defined in equations (i) and (ii). Translation operations repeat the lattice infinite number of times along a given direction and leaves it unchanged. ‘ant are called symmetry operations.Crystal Structure (Gi) Rotational symmetry: IFafter rotation ofa lattice about an axis (ora point in two dimensional lattice) by some angle g,, the body appears as it did prior to rotation, the lattice is said to possess rotational symmetry. Axis of symmetry may thus be defined as a line such that the crystal assumes a congruent position (sel coincidence), forevery rotation off | The value of n decide the fold ofthe axis. Only one, two, three, four and six-fold rotation axes of symmetry alone are possible in single crystal The fact that 5-fold rotation axis is not compatible with translation symmetry operation is proved as follows: Consider a lattice row XPQY. Pe R 3 g Let the lattice translation be a andthe lattice have m-fold rotation axis of symmetry. Lot usrotate the vectors PX and Q¥ through an angle ( 360 ™ ] in clockwise and anticlockwise directions respectively. The tips of the veetors P’ and Q' {old rotation axis of symmetry. Asper definition, rotation operation must be the lattice invariant. Clearly P’Q' must be parallelto PQ and must be equal to an integral multiple ofthe lattice translationa, P'Q =ma where m isan integer. in the new position must be lattice points ifthe lattice possessn- Thus, cos 4, = and PIR2PP’cos 4, = «'cos¢,- and SQ’ =acos},, = P'Q’=PR+RS+SQ N > cog, (25 2 = PQ a cosy, +a= ma = 1+2c0sg,=m => 2cos¢, = m— we NIN? [cosd,| 4 [NV 2] = [_-1 [180 [2 1} -W/2 | -W/2 | 120° | 3 of of 0 [mf] . 1 1/2 1/2 | 60° | 6 2 i I 360° | | Hence, the permissible values ofr are2, 3, 4,6, 1. Thus we conclude that 5-fold rotation is not permissible because its not compatible with lattice translation symmetzy. Similarly, we can say that other rotations such as 7-fold rotation are also not permissible. i) Reflection symmetry : A lattice possess reflection symmetry ifthere exist a plane (or aline into two dimensions) inthe lattice which divides it into two identical halves which are mirror image of each other. Examples ofthis symmetry are shown in following figures,Crystal Structure | —a ae eS (©) Inversion symmetry :Thisis a point operation which applicable o thee- dimensional lattices only. This Sommety element implies that each point located et # relative to lattice point hasan identical point located at ~F relative to the same lattice point. Tint group : Symmetry operations performed about apoint ora line are called point group. There are total 16 point groups in two dimensional latices and 32 point groupsinthree-dimensiowal lacie Pace group : Symmetty operations performed by translation aswell are called space group. There are total 17 space groups n two dimensional aticgs and 230 space groups a three-dimensional bat ‘Types of lattices : LUNES i (i) Two-dimensional lattices ‘The four crystal systems of two dimensional lattices are given in following, table, fee Conventional unit cell / Sr. No. | Crystal system | Bravais lattice Seated Unit cell parameters Oblique Oblique Parallelogram ab, y 250° (a) Rectangular primitive 2 Rectangular . | @ Rectangular primi Rectangle a #b, 7 =90° () Rectangular centered 3___ [Square Square Square a=, 7 =90° 4, Hexagonal Hexagonal 60° Rhombus a= 6, y =120° {{) Mhree-dimensional tatties : There ere 32 crystal structures besed on geometical considerations (i.e, symmetry and internal str ‘Common practice 1 divieall crystal systems into seven groups oc b ‘crystal systems are shown in table with decreasing or ‘der of symmetry. ‘The erystallogrephicaxes <5 and & determines the size and shope ofthe unit cel The angles o, f and 7& Crystal Structure represent the angles between the vectors 5 and @, @ and @ and @ and b respectively. These or, f; and a,b, ¢ are collectively knowns lattice parameters. stall Lattic Latti sr.no.| Ct attice | Bravaistattice |“ | Examples system | parameters symbol Simple P| Cu,Ag.Fe, L Cubie Body-centered } 1 | Na, NaCl, Face-centered F CsC! Simple P 2. 2 1-Sn, TiO, ‘Tetragonal posyeentaed | 1 | PSUTIO Simple P bee Body-centered 1 Ga, Fe,C 3. | Orthorhombic | “* eer Pee End-centeted | C | (cementite) Face-centered i R bohedral Pesta (reseoeteet Simple P >| As, Sb, Bi or Trigonal Mg, Zn, Cd, s. | Hexagonal Simpl P 5. jexagonal imple au Simpl P| CaSO, 21,0 pats pEvaee imple 80, 21, End-centered. c (gypsum) azbee 1. ‘Trieli Simple P. K,Cr,0, cine Jae pry 290° E i Miller indices: eee . . Crystal lattice may be regarded as made up of an-agdrepate of'a set of parallel equidistant planes passing through the lattice points. These equidistant planes are called as lattice planes. The scheme to represent the orientation of lattice planes was given by Miller (a British crystallographer). He has given some indices to represent a set of planes, The indices of planes are known as Miler indices. Fora general set of planes, Miller indices are writen as (hk). ‘The steps involved in calculation of Mil (i Determine the coordinates ofthe intercepts made by the plane along the three crystallographic axes 3. zaxes). 1 indices is given below. roy oz pa qb 2a 36 (suppose) = p=2,g=3andr=1 Gi) Express the intercepts as multiples ofthe unit cell dimensions or lattice parameter along the axesi-e. 2a 3b a 6 203Crystal Structure (iv) Reduce these reciprocals to tie smallest set of integral numbers and enclose them in bracket with comma. 6xt 6x4 xt 2 3 GB 2 6 ‘Thus the Miller indices of the planes is (3 2 6). Thus, Miller indices may be defined as the reciprocals ofthe intercepts made by plane on the cyrstallographic axes when reduces to smallest numbers. hikit=—-; 2 A OB OC where, a, b and c are lattice parameters along x-,y- and z-axes respectively. OA, OB and OC are intercepts on a-, b- and c-axis respectively. Relation between interplanar spacing and laitice parameters : Ifthe plane have (/r k/) miller indices then its intercepts can be calculated as follows: Now, if we draw a perpendicular (normal) from origin (©) to the plane (hk /) at P. Then OP will be the interplanar spacing (d) between two plaries which are parallel to (1 7) and also passes through O. ce 4 =0P =Scosa=2 0s B= cosy i where a, and y represent the angles between the normal and the axes d, b and & respectively and cos cos B and cos y represent the direction cosines of the normal tothe plane (rk /). Cosine rule: cos’ a +cos* 2 + cos? y = 1 (hehCrystal Structure ‘There is another way to show this relation, Let #1 be the unit vector inthe direction OP d=ht r= (d) Number of atoms per unit cell: The number dfeffective lattice points (atoms) per unit celts Try Be 28 where, 1, is the number oflattice points (atoms) completely inside the cell and 7 and 1, represent the lattice ne points occupying face center and corner positions ofthe cell, respectively. 1 1 For BCC structure, », =1,n, =0,and 7, =8, Ny =1x 1+ 5 x0 ex8=2, x volume ofeach atom] (e) Atomic packing fraction: App =| “f° " volume of unit cell For BCC structure, ty =2 2x iar 3 aCrystal Structure APF% =68% (f) Type of packing: Body centered cubic structur (g) Examples: Li, Na, K, Mo ete. Face-centered cubie structure FCC): In FCC structure, one atom lies at each corner of the cube in addition to one atom at the center ofeach face. ‘This isalso a non-primitive unit cell structure of cubic crystal system. a loose-packed structure, Conventional uniceelt Of FOC suuetue oeooe Plane view of FCC structure (a) Number of nearest neighbours: Ifwe take, one of the face centered lattice point (atom) of unit o|,,-S, £0), 2.2! i 22 Bh) (ae8 2} (008-2 (0-82) 2. 2 2 2.2. 22 2 aa (0-8. “3 will be nearest neighbours to this face centered atom. These atoms will lie at corners of the cellas awa aia origin then allthe 12 comer atomsat coordinates | +5++5,9 |, | +>. =378 | three faces inx, yand z-axes passing through the reference atom. Hence, total number ofneatest neighbours (ie. coordination number) will be 12. The distance of these nearest neighbours from reference lattice point is Sia “2 (b) Number of second nearest neighbours: There ‘re’6 second nearest neighbours at ng =n tha f 208 ‘where, 7, is thenumber of lattice points (atoms) completely inside the cell and 1, and n, represent the lattice points occupying face center and comer positions of the cell, respectively. For FCC structure, 1, =0,, = 6and n, =8, ity H1x0+dx6+ bx b=341=4, x volume of each at (©) Atomic packing fraction : app =| "a * Volume of each atom volume of unit cell For PCC structure, My =4a Crystal Structure vcter ode) FA, passer lssaeeqanenan 4) an 0.74 o a 6 APE% = 74% (f) Type of packing: Face-centered ciibic strucutre is a close-packed structure. (g) Examples: Cu, Au, Ag, Alete. Hexagonal close packed strueture (HCP): ‘The specific hexagonal structure formed by Magnesium is shown in figure. The unit cell contains oneatom at ‘each comer, one atom at the centre of each hexagonal faces and three more atoms within the body of the cell. (a) Number of nearest neighbours: Each atom touches six atoms in its plane, three atoms in the layer below its plane, and three atoms in the layer above. Hence the coordination number of this structure is 12, Further the atoms touch each other along the edge of the hexagon, Thus, a=2r. The top layer contains seven atoms. Each ‘corner atoms shared by 6 surrounding hexagon cells and the centre atom is shared by two adjacent cells, The three atoms within the body of the cellare fully contributing to the cell. 2) Conventional nit ell of HCP steugtare,: (b) Number of atoms per unit gell: Th this stitictie, there aré 12 atoms at 12 comers of the hexagonal unit ‘cell, wo atomsat the center of top and boitom hexagons and three atoms inside the unit cell Thus, the effective ‘number ofatoms in a unit cellis te 12+ bx 2413-6 (6) Caleuiation of c/a) ratio for an ideal HCP structure : Let cbe the height ofthe unit cell anda equilat- eral-triangles at the top or base of the hexagonal cell. These three atoms just rest on the three atoms at the coniers ofthe triangles. am r= (a) Number of atoms per unit cel: ny a 8+txoraes (© Atomic packing fraction : APF =| Za Volume of each atom volume of-unit cell &xim wW3 Be APF= 8 NSF 934 @ “Fxtx8 16 APF% = 34%, () Type of packing: Diamond cubic'is’a odse-packed structare! (g) Example : Carbon, sli Zine Blendestructure (ZnS) : Zinc blende structure is almost identical to.the diamond structure except thet the two interpenetrating FCC sublattices are of different atoms and displaced from each other by one-quarter ofthe body diagonal mn, germmahiam ete: © Zrratom occupying tetrahedral site © S-atoms occupying FCC position ‘The unit cell of Zine blende (ZnS) structureCrystal Structure = The cubic zinc sulphide structure results when Zn-atoms are placed on one FCC lattice and S-atoms on the other FCC lattice as shown in figure. The conventional cell of this structure is a cube. There are four molecules per conventional cell. For each atom, thereare four equally distant atoms of opposite kind arranged at aregular tetrahedron, ‘The ZaS isnot an atomic structure. It isa molecular structure. For this structure, nearest neighbour distance Imm +15. Ina unit cell of ZnS, there will be 4 Zn-atoms and 4 S-atoms, (@) Atomic radius: @ & (n+%) x volume of each ator volume of unit cell () Atomic packing fraction: APF = (©) Examples: The compounds which have cubie zine sulphide structure are CuCl, ZnS, InSb and CdS. Sodium chloride structure: In sodium chloride, sodium loses its outer electron and acquires an excess of positive charge whilethe chlorine ‘atom accepts one electron from Sodium and becomes a negative ion. Now, due to the electrostatic forces between the excess charges, the two ions attract each other. Further, due to the strong forces of repulsion as their outer electron shells conf@ ite close proxirhity te tive ions caitnot approach each other to within less than certain distance. When attraction‘and repulsion balance, equilib ‘obtained, The Bravais lattice isa face contred cube, with a basis of one Nat ioit anid 6iié CF ion separated by one-halfthe body diagonal of the unit cell, There are four molecules of NaCl in a unitcell, with ions in the posi fe Nat ocr “Tae” Unit cell of sodium chloride structurea Crystal Structure (a) Number of nearest neighbours (coordination number): Nearest neighbours of Na’ ionsare 6 Cl ions. Similarly nearest neighbours of CF ions ions are 6 Na* ions. Therefore, the co-ordination number of NaCl @ structure is 6. The distance ofnearest neighbour is 7, + re, (b) Second nearest neighbours: There are 12 second nearest neighbours for each Na’ and Clr ionsat E distance. 1 (©) Number of atoms per unit cell: Totatnumber of Cions =8%= + 6x ‘Total number of Na" ions + 12+1=341=4 ‘Thisis also molecular crystal structure. x volume of each aton ‘volume of unit cell (@) Atomic packing fraction: APF = ax(4 APF =— a Bn em) 3 (tm) 3 7 aa sr Tic) Fa, (e) Examples : Representative crystals having NaCl structure are KCl, KBr, MgO, AgBr, ete. Cesium chloride structure: The space lattice of cesium chloride (CsC) structure s simple cubic. The basis has one Cs*ionat (0, 0,0) and ie 1 bee * z nati one Cr ion at ( 3) Each ion is at the.centré ofa cube of ions of te opposite kind, the coordination number is thus eight. Obviously, the lattice joiits 6fCSCI are two. nferpenctrating simple cubic lattices, the corner of one sublattice isthe body centre of the other. One sublattice is occupied by Cs" ions and the other by Ch ions, ‘The unit cell of CsC! structure is shown in the figure shown below. The unit call of Ca chloride strveture (a) Number of nearest neighbours: There are 8 nearest neighbour lattice points (atoms) at distance (fe. ) = re, +1 | in CSCI structure, For Cs jon nearest neighbours are 8 CF ions. Similarly, for Cl ion nearest neighbours are 8 Cs" ions,Crystal Structure (b) Second nearest neighbours: There are 6 second nearest neighbours at distancea, (¢) Number of atoms per unit cell : There are two ions (one Cs* and another Cr) per unit cell ive. one molecule of CsCl (A) Atomie packing fraction: yy X Volume of cach atom APP eee volume of unit cell (c) Examples: CsCl, RbCl, Lig ete. Graphene: Graphite structure is made up of graphene layers graphene has honeycomb structure ie., carbon atoms are arranged in the honeycomb structure. In2-dimensions one C-atom is shared by 3 nearby C-atoms, Thisis the 2-dimensional. In 3-dimensions, one C-atom is shared by 6 nearby C-atoms, tor ati nit -Connesting B-B nearby atoms for Bravais lattice Graphite: Graphite is conductor because there is one electron fie per carbonatom, consider lattice point on each atom position then it will not form a basis because surroundings of A and Bare different. Only A-A atoms or B-B atoms can form basis as they have same surroun So either connect nearby A-A atoms or B-B atoms. This hexagon (red) is the unit cell of graphene. Q) This unit cell is non-primitive. (2) Number of atoms per unit cell: 1 Comersatoms=3 x 6=2 Inside atoms= |x 4=4 ‘Therefore, total numbers ofatoms/unit cell=6 ‘The side of unit cell lattice parameter a. All the sides of this structure will be same. B|.7 = 120° Let lattice parameters is a. Thus. 3) Nearest neighbour distance: 2r = a& Crystal Structure a2 From figure, cos 30° = 3B 2 a 7 2a sci Primitive unit ell 3B (4) Number of nearest neighbours = 3. In 2-dimensions, there will be close packing ifnnumber of nearest neighbours re 6 but here 3 so packing willbe loose. (5) Second nearest neighbour distance=a (6) Number of second nearest neighbour: (8) Area of primitive unit cell = x area ofunit cel (9) Number ofatoms per primitive unit cell= 1 +1 =2 Therefore, 2 atoms of graphene inside the primitive cell. ‘Thus, graphene has 2 atom basis (i.e., one atom of A type and one of B-type) (10) Number of atoms per unit area: Number ofatoms per unit area= (11) Atomie radius (12) Type of packing: loose (13) Example : Graphene (14) Atomic Packing Fraction (APF): 12m area of the atoms in unit iz 3V3 x 4x3xr APF = 58 area of unit cell {a=2V5r and area of the atoms = 7°} Therefore, APF = 60 % Graphite : Graphite isa form of carbon and crystalises in simple hexagonal structure. It contains 4 atoms per primitive unit cell,x12+hx32341=4 3 Crystal Structure Nearest neighbour distance implies 2 ~ a , ais lattice parameter Number of nearest neighbour = 3. One C-atom can make covalent bond with 3 nearby atoms, C-atoms of one layer can not make bond with C- atom of second layer. That’s why graphite sheets slides on each other. Therefore, graphite is softbecause layer do not have bonding Since, semiconductor are not condusting at 7 =0 K and metals are conducting at T= 0K Graphite isa semi-metal Relation between lattice constant and density: Let the lattice parameter ofthe unit cell isa: Therefore, the volume ofthe unit cell is If p be the density ofthe unit cell then the mass of each unit cell= ap (1) If Mis the molecular weight and Wis the Avogadro number. Mass of each molecule = “ Asif is the number of molecules per unit cell, then the mass in each tit cell = 17x a = Q) From equiations (1) and (2), we get Atomic density: The number of atoms per unit area ofa lattice plane is called as atomic density. Atomic density (9)= —, where ¥ = volume of unit cell and » is the number ofatoms in it and dis the interplanar spacing, a Ifn=1 > p=— a ee abe Planes in different crystals: 1. Simple eubie structure : Plane analysis in semiconductor First consider (1 0.0) plane In planes (0 1 0), (0 1), (1 0.0), the properties are same,0 [a Crystal Structure Nuniber ofatoms on (1.0 0)type plane = Lx 4=1 oon a Areaofplane= a? eee \ ‘Therefore, atomic density= number of atoms per unit area = > = Fora plane, consider atoms (110) plan as disc (in two dimension) Et 1 Number ofat ==x4el. lumber ofatoms = i Area = Ja? (Since, shape is rectangular) , 19 ‘Therefore, atomic density =. 1 eae (111) plane: 1 1 ‘Number ofatoms = e 355 B a rherefe density => Therefore, atomic density Bat Example: Which plane in simple cubic is closed pack plane ? In, Plane having (I 0 0) largest atomic density will be closed packed plane. Example: Which direction is cldsést pack in simple cubic tttic’ 2 In. In one dimensions, atom is considered as a line “i In 2 dimensions, atom is considered as a dise In three dimensions, atom is considered as a sphere Directions having largest line density willbe closest pack Simple cubic structure: ‘Among planes (1.00), (110), (111), (IT 0), line density of(1 0 0) is largest ‘Therefore, (1 00) isthe closest pack direction. [In distance athere are | atom e s }. (ie. line density= 1/a) Body Centred Cubic Structure (BCC): (1.00) plane: Number of atoms= | (no new atom on faces) Area Planar densityCrystal Structure Line density a (110) plane: Number ofatoms=2 Area = Va" B Planner density 1 Line densit a YE (111) plane: 1 Number of atoms => (Body centered atom will not contribute to (1 1 1) plane) 3a? Area 2 5 Planner density = Line density =e 1 2 vba? * For BCC closest pack plaie is (1 1 0). Face Centred Cubie Structure (FCC): (100) plane: Number ofatoms = 230447 Planner density Line density = (110) plane: = Line density = (111) plane: Number ofatoms = x34 inde? 6 Planner density = z a Line density I 3a For FCC closest pack plane is (1.11).2) iS Crystal Structure Boa ey Ina single layer of graphite, called graphene, the carbon atoms from a hexagonal lattice (see figure). How many carbon atoms are there in a unit cell of the lattice? [JNU 2010] {a)one (b) two (six In. Each atom is shared by three unit cells. ‘Therefore, number of atoms/unit ce Correct option is (b) Helium atomsat low temperatures make a perfect closed packstnicture of hexagonal lattice with parameters a=0.36 nm andc=0.59 nm. The density ofthe crystal is approximately: [JNU 2012} (2) 2000 kg/m? (b) 100 kg/m® (©) 123 kghie (4) 200 kfm? «In, In.a conventional cell of hexagonal structure umber of atoms. present (N) = ‘Volume of conventional unit cell (V) = om N N66 4 jumber density (n) = == Bas Gee Mass density = Mass of one heliuim ek number density: 4x10? * 3x (0.36)? «0.59 = 4% 167 x 107 200.88 kg/m? Correct option is (d) Consider a regular arrangement of identical spheres in a face-centred cubie (fee) structure in which the centres of the respective spheres are located at each of the eight corners and the centres of the six surfaces ofa unit cube. The ffaction of each cubie unit cell occupied by the spheres in the close-pack configuration is [JNU 2013] (a) 0.50 (b) 0.62 (0.74 (4) 0.88 4xtar F sin, Appa Number of atomxvolume of sphere _ 473 volume a > 4 axd “+Ga) ) =A nor Correct answeris (¢)4, Soin, Soin. Soln, The density of copper, witich hasa face-centred cubic (fe) latice structure, s 8.9 gm/eny, Given that the ‘molar mass of copper is 63.55, the length of aside of the cubic cell is {JNU 2015] (2) 0.45 nm (b) 0.57 am (©)0.291m @O23Hm — ()0.36nm We know that, pret e } “at ee) = 0.36 nm Na Nxp 6.023 10** x 8900 Correct answer is (¢) A flat surface is covered with non-overlapping disks of same size. What isthe largest fraction of the area that can be covered ? z @ (b) a © $ @ (JEST-2013) 23 Let the radius of the circular disk isa. Then, area ofthe circular disk = rr? gear dem | Therefore, packing fraction of the triangular lattice = = = |= - sa? VBx(Qry | WS 4 ‘Therefore, the fractional ereaSt thé fat surface tht ai i coveted bythese circular dises oy 3 Hence, correct option is (d). ~ ‘A meal suffers a structural phase transition from face-centered cubic (FCC) tothe simple cubie (SC) struc- ture. [tis observed that this phase transition doésnot involve any change of volume, The nearest neighbour distances dj. and d, for the FCC and the SC structures respectively are inthe ratio (d,,d,) (Given: 2 = 1.26] @ 1.029 (& 1.122 © 1374 @ 1.130 (EST-2013] For FCC crystal strucutre, the neatest neighbour ance, dpe = EOy. oD) For SC erystal strucutre, the nearest neighbour distance, d.. = a, oi) Since, volume does not change in this phase transformation fiom FCC to SC structure. Therefore, density of FCC structure = density of SC structure Spe egy — gyn a = ey (iil)Crystal Structure ol, oln, oln, Hence, correct option is (b)- Circular dises of radius | meach are placed ona plane so as to form a closely packed triangular lattice. The number of discs per unit area is approximately equal to (@) 0.86 m? (b) 0.43 m? (© 0.29 m? (@ 0.14 m2 [JEST2014] Given, radius of circular diser= 1m ‘The circular discs will forma equilateral triangular lattice of side a = 2r = 2x1 m= 2m, whererris the radius ofthe circular dises. Now, area ofthe triangular lattices = 8 ° Sony = V3? =V30% = V3 m*, Number ofcircular discs inside the triangular lattice atx 3505. “Therefore, numberof dsesfarea = 22. B Hence, correct option is (¢). The total number of Na* and CF ions per unit cell of NaCl is, (JEST 2015] (@)2 4 @6 Gs The total number of Na* and Cl-ions per unit cell of NaClis 8. Correct option is () “The inumber of different Bravaislattices possible intwo dimension is + » @2 3 5 Tae [JEST-2016) ‘The humber of different Bravais lattices possible in two dimension is 5. The lattices are oblique (a # b, y # 90°), square( = 90°), primitive rectangular (a b, y = 90°), non-pri and hexagonal (a= b, y =120°) Hence; correct option is (c). ive rectangular (a* b, 7 =90°) Inasimple citbic lattice of lattice constant 0.287 nm, the number of atoms per mir? along the 111 plane is (a) 2.11 108 (b) 1.73 « 10° © 1.29 x 10 (@ 1.21 * 10° (TIFR 2016] Given: Lattice parameter, a= 0,287 nm =2.87*10%m 1 ‘Number of atomson (111) plane, = 3x—=0.5 ‘Area of the (11) place in simple cubic lattice 2x1 .732x(2.87 x10" 4 4 4 ‘Therefore, number ofatoms per ma? Vi(Vie) ix? 7.133% 107% m? = 7.133107" mCrystal Structure a : Gs Soin, Soln. Soln. a5 10! = 0.710" atoms/mm? number of atoms on (111) plane ‘area of the (111) plane No option is matehed. Ifthe molecular weight and density of rock salt (NaCI) with fee structure are 60 and 2160 ke/ir?, respectively, the lattice constant in A isabout: [DU 2014] (@ 6.78 & 5.09 @451 @ 3.10 Molecular weight (1) = 60, density (¢) = 2160 kg/m? 1M 4x60 aA ROP = 0.01845 «10° m? = 184.5 10? m? Np 6.023%10" «2160 Now, a’ = a=5.69x10"%m => a=569A Hence, correct option is (b). Packing fraction of an fee lattice is [BHU 2012] @ 0.52 (b) 0.32 ©.0.74 © 0.62 Packing fraction ofan fec lattice is 0.74 Hence, correct option is (c). Ina simple cubic lattice a=2 A, then planar atomic density of (1, 0, 0) plane is [BHU 2012] @ 10% atomsfem? (b) 2.5 10 atoms/om? (©) 5* 10! atoms/e (© 7.5% 10% atoms/em* a=2A, the planar atomic density of (100) plane is d,,/a” ——{ atoms/m? Qx1o"y *10 stomsim? = 225008 ssinfem 5x10" atoms/em?. Hence, correct option is (b). ‘The crystal structure of diamond is [BHU 2012] {@) fee with two atom basis of(000)and $(7+j+8) (6) simple eubie with two atom basisof(00 0) and $(7+j+£) (© fee with two atom basis of (0.0.0) and $ i+j+k) (@ bee with one atom basis The crystal structure diamond is ee with two atom basis of(0 0 0)and (i+) +e) Hence, correct option is (a).Ee Foran FCC lattice the ratio of digg : day doy 18 [BHU 2013] @ B:V6v2 1:2 :Ve ©) 1:2:3 @ Ve: 2 In. yyy :dyyy $ yyy = om 2p V¥27+074+0? ¥2?+27+0? ¥2?+27+2? a a aa RET DE 7g ON? Hence, correct option is (4). 8 Crystal Structure Magnesium has h.c.p. structure, The radius of magnesium atom is 0.1605 nm, The volume of unit cell of magnesium is [BHU 2013) @ 07x10%m? — (b) 28x10 mm?) 14x10 md) 0.35 x10 m? =2x0.1605m=0.321 nm and £= 7 =0.1605m, For foe, a 6x V3a? xe _ 6x y3 x (0.321)? x (0.5342) ‘Thus, volume of the unit cell 7 = = 1077 m? 4 4 = 0.141077 m? = 154% 107° m’*, Hence, correct option is (c). The spacing ,,, ofthe planes (Akd) in a tetragonal crystal is {BHU 2013} woe Py” mae PT" @ o|-*e 4(Wa+hkrk?) PPO Ola _J* dn. Fortetragonalcrystal, a= b#¢, a ‘The spacing d,,, of the planes (kl) in a tetragonal crystal a |e e ] ae Hence, correct option is (b). Diamond has the following crystal structure [BHU 2013] @) hexagonal (0) simple cubic (©) face-centered cubic @ body-cented cubie : ‘In, Diamond has foc crystal structure. Hence, correct option is (c). A crystal system whose unit cells specified by abc, 2 = 7 = 90 B isknown as [BHU 2013] (@) monoclinic () thombohedral—(@) tetragonal (@ orthorhombic In, The crystal system whose uniteell is specified by a# bc, a = 7 =90° + B isknown as monoclinic crystal Hence, correct opCrystal Structure 20. Soln, 21. Soln, Soin, Soin. 24. Soln, Se For hexagonal close-packed structure, the ratio of lattice parametersaand ¢, @ ay © @y © (y" © #3)" [BHU 2013) For HCP structure, the ratio ofa and eis c/a is given by £ = £ a e., ela isgiven by Hence, correct option is (c). ‘The number of ions in the unt cell of CsCl erystal is [BHU 2013] @t (b) 2 © 3 @4 ‘The total number ofions in the unit cell of CsClerystal is 2. Hence, correct option is (b). ‘The Miller indices of the plane parallel to the and y axes are [BHU 2013] (@) (100) (b) (HIE) (©) (001) @ (010) Let the miller indices are (Ik). Thus, i: a “o. als + hkl=0:0:1 Therefore, miller indices are (001). Hence, correct option is (c). ‘The number of tice points in a primitive ells [BHU 2013] @2 3 1 @4 The number offattice points ina primitive eels 1. Hence, correct option is (¢).. If isthe number of atoms in the unit cell ofthe cubic system, Vand M are the Avogadro's numberand atomic ‘weight respectively and p isthe density ofthe element, then the lattice constant ais given by Moy ue we we @ [2] © [4] Lo ® [2] @ [2] [BHU 2013] nM For unit cellofeubic system, the density is given by P= Hence, correct option is (b). ABABA...... represents an arrangement oflayers called [BHU 2014] (@) hexagonal closed packing (b) cubie closed packing (©) body centered cubic packing @ Aourite close packing ABABA...... represents an arrangement of layers called hexagonal closed packing. Hence, correct option is (a). In diamond the coordination number ofcarbon is : [BHU 2014] (@) 4and its unit cellhas8 carbon atoms (b) 4 and its unit cell has 6 carbon atoms (©) Gand its unit cellhas4 carbon atoms (4) 4 and its unit cell has 4 carbon atoms Coordination number of carbon in diamond cubic lattice is 4 and its unit cell has 8 carbon atoms, Hence, correct option is (a).Crystal Structure ‘A compound formed by elements A and B crystallizes in cubie structure, in which atoms ofA are at the comers while that of Bare at the face center. The formula ofthe compound is “(BHU 2014) (@) AB, (b) AB © AB, @AB In, {fatomsofelement A lies at the comers and atoms of elements B are at the comers, then there will be total one atom of element A and three atoms of element B per unit cell. Thus, the formula of compound formed by elements A and B will be AB, Hence, correct option is (a). For agiven cubic crystal lattice parameter ais 3.18 A. The d spacing for a (111) plane (@) 2.254 (b) 1.844 (©) 3.18, (4) 3.90A ([BHU2014] 318A _ 3.18 In. Since, day = => dy ap Ania MOG eer) Veer ar Hence, correct option is (b). Fora simple cubic lattice, the ratio of dy !dhio yy iS [BHU 2015] @) V2:3:v6 (0) V6 -v3:y2 © V2:V6 8 @ V3:v2:V6 In. dey :dyod < s = Ves0+0 WPsreo \Psrar a 2 6 v2. Viv Hence, correct option is (b). Given that the cube edge of diamond is 0.356 nm. The number of atoms per metre cube is (a) 0.8810" (b) 5.3110” © 2.77 x10”. @) 1.7710” [BHU 2015) an, Cube edge of diamond (a) =0.356.nm. n : i ‘The number atoms per metre cube =", where n is number ofatoms per unit cel, a B55 177.3 x10 457710 ators? (0.356107) beasteed Hence, correct option is (d). Sodium chloride has the following erystalstructure [BHU 2015} (a) hexagonal (©) face-centered cubic (©) simple cubie (@) body-centered cubic ‘In, Sodium chloride (NaC) has the face-centered cubic crystal structure. Hence, correct option is (b). “The spacing dy, of the planes (nk) in hexagonal erystal is _ [BHU 2015) 4(ehkee) PT” 7 @ [(e)-4] © ofr se sry” ae I o\F © vn, For (ikl) planes, the lattice spacing (d,, is given byCrystal Structure 4( WP +hk+e age a Et @ }: Hence, correet option is (a). 33. Acerystal system whose unit cell is specified by a=) ¢, « = B= y ~90 isknownas [BHU2013] (@ simplecubic __(b) hexagonal (©) monoclinic (@ tetragonal Soin. The lattice parameters a,b, and a, B,y givenby a=b #¢, a = 6 =y =90° are characterizing the tet- agonal lattice, Hence, correct option is (d). 34, The Miller indices ofa set of parallel planes which makes intercepts in the ratio of + + is given by (@ (21) (& (124) © (122) @ (142) [BHU 2015) Sola. Intercepts OA : OB :OC= Aik :l=—:— =:2:4 OA OB (hkl) = (124). Hence, correct option is (b): 35. ‘Thenumber ofions in the unit cell of NaClerystal is (BAU 2015] @! 2 o4 ws Soln, The total number ofions in the unit cell ofNaClrystal is 8, Hence, correct option is (d), 36. Thenumber oflattice points ina BCC unit cells. [BHU 2015} @ i (2 ©3 : a4 Soln, The number of lattice points ih aBCC unit éellis 2. an Hence, correet option is (b). 70) Crystal Structure (Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)): ‘The coordination number ofa simple cubic (sc) structure is (a4 (b) 6 8 (a 12 ‘The coordination number of a bee structure is @4 (b)6 ©8 @i2 The coordination number ofa fee structure is (a4 (6) 6 (8 @12 ‘The coordination number of hep structure is @3 (b)6 9 @n ‘The number oftwo dimensional lattices are @3 ()5 ©7 @9 ‘The number ofmacroscopic symmetry elements ina cube is @13 (b) 31 ©)23 @32 ‘The number of identical sphere arranged in simple cubie form of side ais a cae va Ba @ 5 OTR OF Or ‘The number of molecules per unit Gell of NaCI structure is (a) (b)2 @4 8 The radius ofidentical sphetés arranged in bee form of side ais @ aa, Ba Ba 5 OTR os os ‘The radius of identical spheres arranged in fec form of side ais a ae: 3a. @> 0) Tp oy ‘The pure rotational symmetry which isnot possible in crystalline solid is (a) 2-fold (b) 3-fold (©) 4-fold (6) 5-fold [£0.28 1imis the interionic distance in NaCl crystal, the lattice parameter is (a) 0.14nm (b) 0.56 nm. (6) 0.08 nm (6) 0.28 nm The maximum radius of the interstitial sphere that can just fit into the void between the body centred atom of boe structure is @ [28-1] @-[(8/2)-1) [8-1] @ [2-1] Magnesium crystallizes in hep structure, Ifthe lattice constant is 0.32 nm, the nearest neighbour distance in magnesium is (a) 0.32nm (6) 0.16nm (©) 0.64 nm (6) none of theseCrystal Structure 15. ‘The miller indices of the shaded plane Zz are x (a) (001) (b) (002) (Multiple Select Questions (MSQ)): Indicate the INCORRECT statement(s) about the simple cubic structure (@ Atoms/lattice points per unit cell is one. (0) Ifris the radius of atom, the volume of unit cell is equal to 8°. (©) The packing fiaction of simple cubic structure is 68%. (@) Ina simple cubic lattice'there is one atom at éachcentre and one at body centre, For closed-packed structure, the correct statement(s) is/are (@) the packing fraction should be less than 74%. (©) the packing fraction should be larger than of équal to 74% (©) the coordination number should 'be 12. (@) the coordination number should be 8: For NaCl structure, the coiréet statement(s) is/are (2) each ion is surrounded by six nearest neighbours of the opposite kind, (b) the coordination number is six. (©) representative crystals having NaCl structure ere KCl, KBr, MgO, AgBr. (@) There are four molecules-of NaCl in one unit cel. (a) the space lattice of dimaond is fcc with a basis of two carbon atoms assocaited with each lattice point, (b) The number ofatoms per unit cel is 4. (©) the packing fraction is 34% (d) the lattice parameter (a) and radius (r) are related as a Indicate the INCORRECT statement(s) about the hexagonal close packed structure & ce (@) the ratio ofheight(c) to lattice parameter (a) is (b) the total number of atoms in a unit cell is 3 Vare 3 (©) the volume of unit cell is equal to =~ (@ The coordination number is 8.Crystal Structure (Numerical Answer Type (NAT): Lead is a fec centred cubic with an atomic radius of 0.1746 nm. The spacing of (220) planes (in units of nm) is Ifthe lattice constant of bcc lattice structure is 0.32 nm. The nearest neighbour distance (in nm) in the structure is A metal crystallizes into two cubic phases fec and bec, whose unit cell parameters arc 3.5A and 3.0A, respectively. The ratio of their densities is__ Sodium has bee structure whose atomic weight is 23. Its density is 0.96%10° kg/m?. The lattice param- eter (in A) Silver crystallizes into fee structure, where the distance between the nearest neighbour silver atoms is 2.87A. The atomic weight of silver is 107.88. The density (in units of kg/m?) is, x10 7 ANSWER KEY . ‘Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ, ‘Questions: 7 2 3 4 6 ‘Answers o € d d 6 © ‘Questions: 7 8 9 10 7 12 ‘Answers a ¢ 4 b d b ‘Questions ‘Answers ‘Questions “Answers od ‘Questions: T “Answers 0.0873Chapter 2 RECIPROCAL LATTICE & X-RAY DIFFRACTION Reciprocal lattice: Every crystal has two lattices associated with it, the crystal lattice (or direct space latice) and the reciprocal lattice. ‘The concept of reciprocal latice was introduced for the purpose of tabulating two important proper- ties of crystal planes : their slope and their interplanar spacing, Each set of parallel planes in a direct lattice can be represented by a normal to these planes having length equal to the reciprocal ofthe interplanar spacing. The normals are drawn with reference to any arbitrary origin and points are marked at their ends. These points forma regular arrangement which is called reciprocal lattice. Thuseach point in areciprocal lattice is a representative point of particular set of parallel planes. Itis easier to deal with such points than to déal with set of pkines. That's why we use reciprocal lattice. Thus reciprocal lattice vector isa vector whose magnitude is qual to the reciprocal of the interplanar | _ and direction is parallel to the normal to (hk) plane. dour spacing ie, Why reciprocal lattice is so named? The reciprocal lattice is 30 named because the length assigned to each normal representing the reciprocal latice is proportional to the reciprocal of the interplanar spacing of that plane in ordinary space. Primitive translation veetors of féciprocal lattice: 3% Let a, 5, bethe primitive translation vectors ofa direet space lattice fora crystal forming a primitive unit cell The volume oftthis unit cell is given by =n é(axb) are knownas reciprocal lattice vectors or primitive translation vectors of reciprocal lattice. The vectorsg A= 21, Ab =0 and Az =0 = Ba=0, Bb =20 and B, => Ca=0, Cb =0 and C8=20 Choosing A, Band C as the primitive translation vectors of the reciprocal lattice (also known as reciprocal axes) we can construct the reciprocal lattice points or reciprocal lattice vectors given by G=hA+kB+IC where h, k, Fare intergers and define the coordinate of the point in the reciprocal space.Reciprocal Lattice & X-ray Diffraction The crystal lattice isa lattice in real or ordinary space whereas reciprocal lattice isa lattice in the reciprocal space or associated & -space or Fourier space. The wave vector & is always drawn in Fourier space. Vectors in the crystal lattice have dimensions of length i.e.[ L'] and vectors in the reejprocal lattice have dimensions of e,, {L"4. engi) * Properties of reciprocal lattice: () The direct lattice isthe reciprocal lattice to its own reciprocal lattice. Simple cubic lattices selfreciprocal wherees BCC and FCC lattices are reciprocal of each other. (ii) Each point ina reciprocal lattice corresponds to a particular set of parallel planes ofthe direct lat The distance ofa reciprocal lattice point from an arbitrarily fixed origin is inversely propertional to the interplanar spacing of the corresponding parallel planes of the direct lattice. (iv) The unit cell of the reciprocal lattice is not necessarily a paralletopiped. We deal with the Wigner Seitz cell ofthe reciprocal lattice which constitutes the Brillouin zone. (0) The volume of a unit cell ofthe reciprocal lattice is inversely proportional to the volume of the corresponding unit cell ofthe direct lattice. Reciprocal lattice of simple cubic lattice: Let the primitive translation vectors ofa simple cubic cell be 4b and & . We can write the vectors as 3 G=ai,b =a andé=ak E ‘The primitive translation vectors of the reciprocal of SC lattice are given by ay( dee) an; and (2x Simple cubic lattice has side @ and its reciprocal lattice has side a 2x Reciprocal of simple cubic lattice is also a simple cubic lattice with cube side (*) ice. simple cubie lati selfreciprocal lattice. Volume of primitive unit cell ofreciprocal lattice . (Fy Volume of reciprocal unit cell ofany lattice is equal to ¥, % A(Bx€) > y, where V, = volume ofdirect unit cellReciprocal Lattice & X-ray Diffraction = Reciprocal lattice of body centered cubic lattice: Let the primitive translation vectors ofa body centered cubic lattice are Sli j-h), a S(i-3+8) ‘The primitive translation vectors of the reciprocal of body centered cubic lattice are given by oS(isied).¢ Similarly, | 2X? @/2 an Hence, reciprocal af body centered cubic lattice is face centered cubic lattice with side ( ) (@): Reciprocal lattice of face centered cubic lattice: Let the primitive translation vectors ofa face centered Volume of reciprocal unit cell Vy = A-(BxE) = Y, ‘e ‘e ata (fa3), be UGa8), ea (ba? cubic lattice are a” slitd)b Sia), S(é+4) ‘The primitive translation vectors ofthe reciprocal of face centered cubic lattice are given by a Beef ee eo eae Similarly, B= 2 (f+ j+8) ana Hence, reciprocal of face-centered cubic littice is body centred cubic lattice. X-RAY DIFFRACTION: What are X-rays: Like visible light, X-rays are also a form of electromagnetic radiation having wavelength of the order of 1 A. In other words, we can say that X-rays represent a relatively high eflergy form of radiation. In electromagnetic spectrum, X-rays lie between ultraviolet and gamma rays, Production of X-rays: The X-raysare produced when a stream of high energy charged particles, e.g. a beam ofekeetrons areatlowed to strike a metal target (such as Molybdenum, Copper or Tungsten) of high melting point. In this process electrons loose some of their energy which is converted into electromagnetic radiations, i.e. some part of energy will be converted into electromagnetic radiations ofhigh frequency according to formula A. ‘These processes give continuous X-rays,w) a Reciprocal Lattice & X-ray Diffraction ‘The wavelength ofthe X-rays can be given by AB = hv,,, = = Ing = (eV) 4 12400 1 mV (volt) ” i where Vis the applied potential for accelerating the electrons. I Thus, WEBEL Ag 2 o . Absorption of X-rays: When X-rays of intensity (/,) are passed through a material of absorption coefficient 41, the intensity of the transmitted beam is given by J, = J, ¢~!", where x isthe thickness of the material, Thus the intensity of X-ray beam decreases exponentially with the thickness of the absorbing material. X-ray diffraction: Similar to other electromagnet radiatons, X-raysalso interact with the electron cloud of the atoms. Since X- rays have shorter wavelengths, X-rays are scattered by adjacent atoms in érystal. The scattered X-rays inter- fere and give rise to diffraction phenomena, Thé etoms oferystal acts as a diffraction center for the X-rays like athree-dimensional diffraction grating. The X-ray diffraction pattern produced by this method can giveus the information about the internal arrangement of.atoms in crystals. Consider parallel lattice planes equidistant from one another in acrysta structure, separated by adistance d. Suppose a beam of X-rays AB of wavelength 2. is incident on a layer of atoms in one cleavage plane Pofa crystalata glancing angle 0 at Band after reflection goes along BC. The ray DE incident on cleavage plane © after reflection goes along BF. Draw BG perpendicular on DE and BH perpendicular on EF, then BG is the incident wave front and BH the reflected wave front. Path difference between the two.wave front: iE + BH. Now; in ABGE, GE = BEsin@dsin9 ‘and in’ABEH, EH = BEsind = ‘Therefore, Path-difference, GE-+EH =2dsin0’~ Ifthispath-difference isan integral multiple of wavelength 4, construct the reflécted beams. Thus the intensity will be maximum if 2dsind = ni. where = 1, 2,3, ind nterference will take place between Bragg’s reflection of X-rays from the atomic planesReciprocal Lattice & X-ray Diffraction For n= 1, we get the first order spectrum and for n= 2, we get the second order spectrum and so on. This phenomenon is similarto that of the optical diffraction with diffiaction grating with only the difference that here various parallel planes of the crystal act as lines in the grating, The above equation 2d sin@ = nA. is Bragg’s equation and represents Bragg’s law. Physical significance of Bragg’s law : The interpretation of Bragg’s law gives that the difftaction intensities can be stronger only at certain values of @ for specific values of 4 and d . Therefore, a knowledge of experimentally observed diffraction angles and wavelength of X-rays can provide the information about the interplanar spacing ofthe crystal. Thus, the space, shape and orientation ofthe unit cell canbe determined from any diffraction experiment using monochromatic X-rays. Ewald construction: Ewald construction isa geometrical construction to get a relation between wave vector j and the direction of | incident X-ray beam with the help of reciprocal lattice and thus derive Bragg’s law in vector form. Draw a p 2 vector OA oat ‘the direction of incident X-ray beam originating at O and terminating at any reciprocal lattice point A. Drawa sphere of radius & 2 with origin O as centre, This sphere is knownas reflex sphere (The section of this sphere in a plane is acitcle). Suppose this sphere intersects some point B ofthe reciprocal lattice whose indives are (2"%'U'), then. AB represeits the reciprocal latice vector G@ and isnormal to some 2an a ‘where nis the largest integral factor common to numbers (/"£'Z') and dis the interplanar spacing for the set set of direct lattice planes e.g... ON. ofparaliel planes. ‘Reciprocal Latice Poin Ewald construction in the reciprocal lattice Bragg’s diffraction condition in terms of reciprocal la isthe incident wave vector, OB Asthe wave vector OA k’ isthe diffracted (or reflected) wave vector and is given by R'sk+G zt @ ‘This shows that scattering changes only the direction ofthe wave vector & and the scattered wave vector differs from the incident wave vector by a reciprocal lattice vector G. For the diffrac n, the magnitude: of (é +6) must be equal to the wave vector a)? b4G) =(k+G)-(k+G)= 0 42k C4666 ie But the magnitude of & = magnitude of F ‘ wavelength of incident and scattered beam is same)38) (a Reciprocal Lattice & X-ray raction > Rake Hence, equation () becomes, 2k+G+G+G=0 = 2keG+G"=0 G kes |+G=0 ne ( 2 } This is Bragg’s law in vector form and gives the Bragg’s diffraction conditions in terms of reciprocal lattice vector G Brillouin zones : A Brillouin zone is the locus of all those {- values in the reciprocal lattice which are Bragg reflected. For example, let us construct the Brillouin zones for asimple cubic structure with lative parameter a. ‘The primitive translation vectors of the simple cubic structure are a=ai, b=aj -@ The corresponding translation vectors ofthe reciprocal lattice are i-().0-(8) @ @ ‘The reciprocal lattice vector is given by =a) ‘The Bragg’s law in the reciprocal lattice is given by 2k-G+G=0 i) = 2 [itd AE 8 An = [hk +, ]= => hk, +hk, Brisson [DD second ze Brillouin zones of a square lattice in its reciprocal latticeReciprocal Lat ¢ & X-ray Diffraction The f- values which are Bragg reflected are obtained by the all possible com! For h Zand k, isarbitrary. land & = 0, equation (iv) gives &, = and k, is arbitrary. a Also, for =Oandk 1 , equation (iv) gives k, ©. This square is called as first 2x x ‘Thus, we get a square of side bounded by &, = + and k a a a : 2 Brillouin zone. Hence, the first zone of a square lattice of sidea isa square of side 7, a In addition to this set of lines, some other sets of lines are also possible which satisfies equation (iv). For example, = +1 and k = +1, equation (jv) gives the following set ofines +k, +k, = 2. The area bounded a by these four lines are called as second Brillouin zone. Similarly, we can construct other Brillouinzones, The boundaries of Brillouin zones represent the loci of F--values that are Bragg reflected. Hence we consider them asreflecting planes. The boundaries of the first zone represent thereflecting planes for the firstorder reflection and those of the second zone represent the reflecting planes for the second order reflection, and soon. A -vector that does not terminate at azone boundary can not produce Bragg, reflection. So, we can say that Brillouin zone pattern can be used to determine the X-ray diffiaction pattern of a crystal and vice-versa, ‘The Brillouin zones fora three dimensional cubical lattice are constructed using the generalized equation hk, + kk, +k, Zar +r) where @ is the length of the cube edge. 2a ‘Thus, we get first Brillouin zone as a cube of side equal to () ‘The second zone is formed by adding pyramids to each face of the cube (first zone) as triangles are added to the square in two- on, Ve * Electron diffraction : Similar to X-rays, @ beat of eleciron’can also, be used to characterize the crystal structure. A beam of electron emitted from a hot wite (as aresult of thermionic emission) is accelerated through vacuum under a very large electrode potential (P) and is then passed through a collimator before it gets diffracted by the specimen to be studied. The energy (£2) acquired by these electrons will depend on acceler where ¢ is electronic charge. According to de-Broglie hypothesis, the wavelength of the moving electrons can be given by oe ee (li) i p Jami ame? Where m is the mass of electrons. mnsions, and so ting voltage (V), thus, E =e... (i) Putting m = 9.1110" kgand e 7 150)? ,_ 12.24 610°C, the wavelength 2 willbe 2-(3 Aa A. a i Vv Ww Thus, wavelength of moving electron is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleratingvoltage and hence canbe varied easily to get the desired wavelength of electron bean ‘Thus, if we apply the accelerating voltage (V) such that the wavelength ofthe election beam become equal to the order ofatomie distances, then we can use electron beam diffraction,