“हुनर तो सब में होता हैं फर्क बस इतना होता हैं,

कर्सी र्ा किप जाता हैं तो कर्सी र्ा िप जाता हैं.”

Topics
• Introduction
• Common Diseases in Humans
• Immunity
• AIDS
• Cancer
• Drugs and Alcohol Abuse
 HEALTH
A/c to WHO:- Health is
defined as a state of
complete physical, mental
and social well-being.

Disease:-
[not easy/comfort]
 • Hippocrates (Early Greek scientist) :-
Father of medicine.

• Charakh :- Father of Indian Ayurveda.

Give good humor (body fluid) hypothesis. [Good humor – Good health]

Person with “Black Bile” belongs to hot personality and would have fever.
William Harvey:- First discover blood
circulation.

 Using experimental method and the demonstration of

normal body temp. with black bile using thermometer
disapprove the “good humor hypothesis” of health.
Health :- Health does not simply means
“absence of disease” or “Physical fitness”.

 A/c to WHO:- Health is defined as a state of complete

physical, mental and social well-being.
Factors affecting health:-

 Genetic factor :- Comes from previous generation.

 Infection :- Environmental cause.

 Life style:- like type of food we take, exercise, yoga,

work etc.
Some steps to improve health:-

 Proper hygiene and cleanliness.

 Regular exercise, yoga and meditation.

 Proper balance diet and avoid junk food.

 Vaccination and immunization.

Terms related with diseases:-

 Pathogen:- disease causing agents.

 Pathogenicity:- Attack of pathogen.

 Virulence effect:- most powerful action of pathogen.

 Incubation period:- Time period b/w entering of

pathogen to appearing of symptoms.
 Disease:- [not easy/comfort]

Symptoms Syndromes

 Acute (short time)  Chronic (long time)

 Eg.- sneezing, coughing etc.  Eg.- AIDS, Cancer etc

Types of disease:-

 Innate / congenital / By birth (जन्मजात):-

 Acquired / During Life Span (उपार्जि त):-

Innate / Congenital

 Genetic disorder :- Eg.- Haemophilia, Sickle cell

anaemia etc.

 Metabolic disorder :- Eg.- Dumbness, Deafness, Pore

in heart etc.
Acquired / During life span

 Communicable or infectious :- spread from person to

person. Eg.- AIDS, Typhoid, Pneumonia etc.

 Non-communicable or Non-infectious:- Don’t spread

from one person to other person. Eg.- Cancer,
deficiency disease etc
Disease and their pathogens:-
 Bacterial disease:-
• Disease Pathogen
• Anthrax Bacillus anthracis
• Typhoid Salmonella typhi
• Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumonia
• Cholera Vibrio cholera
• Diptheria Cornybacterium diptheriae
• Tetanuas Clostridium tetanoi
• Plague Yersinia pestis
• Tuberculosis (TB) Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Syphylis (STDs) Trepanoma pallidum
• Gonorrhoea (STDs)) Neisseria gonorrhoea
  Viral disease:-
Disease Pathogen
• Chikungunya Chikungunya virus
• Chicken pox (Chhoti mata) Varicella zostera virus
• Small pox (Badi mata) Variolla
• Influenza/flu Influenza virus (myxovirus influenza)
• Dengue Arbovirus
• Rabies Rhabdo virus
• Common cold Rhinovirus
• Herpes (STDs) Herpes simplex virus
• Genital warts (STDs) HPV (Human papilloma virus)
• Hepatitis (STDs) Hepatitis virus
• AIDS (STDs) HIV
 fungal disease:-

Disease Pathogen
• Ringworm Mirosporum, trichophyton,
epidermophyton.
• Dandruff Malassezia
 Helminthic disease:-

Disease Pathogen
• Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides
(Common round worm)
• Filariasis / Elephantiasis Wuchereria bancrofti and
(हाथी पााँव) wuchereria malayi
(filarial worm)
 Protozoan disease:-

Disease Pathogen
• Malariya Plasmodium
• Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba histolitica
• Sleeping sickness Trypanosoma
• Kala azar Leismania
Bacterial disease:- [Treatment- Antibiotics]

 Typhoid / Enteric fever:-

• Caused by Salmonella typhi

• Diagnosed by WIDAL TEST

• Spread by contaminated food and water.

• Symptoms:-

- Fever (39-40˚C)

- Abdominal pain due to intestinal perforation

- loss of appetite

- Constipation

- Weight loss
 Chances of typhoid is more in achlorhydric person (non-
secretion of HCl) or person frequently using antacids.

 NOTE:- Typhoid carriers may be cured by surgical

removal of Gall bladder b/z typhoid germs remain
concentrated in it.

 Mary mellon (Typhoid mary) is an example of typhoid

carrier, who continue to spread typhoid for several years
through the food she prepared.
Pneumonia:-

 Mostly caused by bacteria like streptococcus

pneumonia and haemophilus influenza.

 But can be also caused by virus, protozoa, fungi and

worms.

 Mode of spread:-

• Droplet infection (secretion of nasal passage)

• By sharing glasses, utensils etc.

 Symptoms:-
1. Bronchioles and alveoli remain filled with mucus which
decreases surface area for gaseous exchange, which
causes problem in respiration.
2. Fever, chill, cough, headache.
3. In sever cases lips and finger nails turns greyish to blue.
 NOTE:- lungs are affected in pneumonia and T.B. but not
in common cold.
 Common cold is an upper respiratory tract infection.
Dysentry:-

 Caused by many bacteria like E.coli, salmonella,

shigella etc.

 Symptoms:- Diarrhoea (loose motion) along with

blood.

• Diarrhoea:- loose, watery stools that occurs more

more frequently than usual.
Plague/Bubonic plague/Black death

 Black death:- Appearance of red patches then black

patches followed by death.

 Bubonic plague:- swelling in lymph node.

 Caused by “Yersinia pestis”.

 Spread by a vector called “Xenopsylla cheopsis”(Rat

flea)
Diphtheria :-

 Caused by corynebacterium diphtheriae.

 Spread by Droplets

 Symptoms:- formation of grey membrane over tonsils

and throat.

 Prevention:- DPT vaccine (diphtheria, pertussis,

tetanus)

 DPT vaccine is a triple vaccine.

Tetanus (lock jaw disease):-

 Jaw locked due to stiffing of jaw and face muscles.

 Caused by “clostridium tetani” [Release a neurotoxin

called neurospasm.]

 Enters through wounds.

 Prevention:- DPT and TT vaccine (tetanus toxoids)

 ATS (anti tetanus serum) used just after infection.

Cholera:-

 Caused by “vibrio cholera”

 Spread by contaminated food and water.

 Symptoms:- diarrhoea and vomiting.

 Treatment:- ORS (Oral rehydration solution)

Tuberculosis (T.B.) :-

 Caused by “Mycobacterium tuberculosis”.

 Spread by Sputum.

 Diagnosed by Monteux test.

 Vaccine:- BCG (Bacillus Calmat Guerin)

 Treatment:- DOTS (direct observation treatment short

course)- patient observed by doctor in regular interval
of time.
Viral diseases:-

Common cold:-

 Caused by rhinovirus.

 Spread by droplets.

 Usually lasts for 3-4 days

 Affects upper respiratory tract (URT) but not lungs.

 Symptoms:-

1. Nasal discharge

2. Nasal congestion

3. Sore throat

4. Tiredness

5. Hoarseness of voice
Small pox (Badi mata):-

 Caused by variolla virus.

 Small pox, now has been completely eradicated due

to vaccine prepared by “Edward Jenner”.
Measles:-

 Caused by rubella virus.

 Spread by droplets.

 Prevented by MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella)

vaccine.
Mumps :-

 Caused by Paramyxo virus.

 Symptoms:-

1. Parotitis – inflammation of parotid glands.

2. Orchitis – inflammation of testis (orchitis may leads

to male infertility).
Rabies (Hydrophobia):-

 Caused by rhabdo virus.

 Spread through biting of rabbit, dog, cat, wolf etc. b/z

their saliva contains rhabdo virus.
 Symptoms:-

1. Profuse salivation.

2. Person is unable to swallow fluids (hydrophobia) due

to choked throat.

3. CNS damage.

 Prevention:- by ARV (Anti-rabies vaccine)- 5

injection.
Chikunguniya:-

 Caused by arbo virus/flavi virus.

 Vector- female Aedes mosquito.

Dengue / Haemorrhagic fever / Break bone
fever:-

 Caused by Arvo virus / flavi virus.

 Vector- “female aedes aegypti” mosquito.

 Diagnosis- Tourniquet test

Polio (Poliomyelitis) / Infantile paralysis:-

 Polio – refers to skeletal system.

 Caused by – Polio virus

 NOTE:- Oral administration of polio vaccine is

beneficial b/z it provides (develops) intestinal
immunity
Hepatitis –B / Serum Hepatitis:-

 Caused by HBV (Hepatitis B Virus).

 Spread by sexual contact or blood transfusion.

 Symptoms:-

 Liver cirrhosis:- Chronic inflammation of liver in which

hepatocyte (liver cell) are replaced by fibroblast (fiber
producing cell).

 Liver cirrhosis is also found in case of alcoholism.

Helminthic disease:-

Filariasis / Elephantiasis / wucheriasis :-

 Caused by wuchreria bancrofti and wuchreria malayi.

 Spread by female culex mosquito.

 Symptoms:- wuchreria damages lymphatic vessels of

limbs and genital organ causing chronic inflammation
(due to accumulation of lymphatic fluid)
Ascariasis:-

 Caused by ascaris lumbricoids.

 Spread by contaminated food and water.

 Symptoms:-

 Fever, Muscular pain

 Internal bleeding, Anemia (RBC loss).

 Vomiting, Diarrhea

 Intestinal blockage due to worms.

Fungal diseases:-

 Ring worm:-

 Causative agents are called dermatophytes.

 Caused by three genera of fungus :-

1. Microsporum- skin and hairs

2. Trycophyton- skin, nails, and hairs

3. Epidermophyton- skin, nails and hairs

 Spread through contact by sharing clothes, combs etc.

 Growth of fungus requires warm and moist condition. Like b/w toes, thigh.

 Symptoms :- Appearance of dry and scaly lesions along with intense itching.
Protozoan disease:-

Amoebiasis (Amoebic dysentery):-

 Caused by “Entamoeba histolytica”.

 This is an endoparasite of large intestine (colon).

 Monogenetic parasite (complete their life cycle in only one host)

 House flies act as mechanical carrier.

 Symptoms:-

1. Feces with blood and mucus.

2. Abdominal pain, cramps, and constipation.

 Malaria (Black water fever):-

 Caused by plasmodium.
 Spread by Female anopheles mosquito.
 Many species of plasmodium are known but only four are
pathogenic:-
1. Plasmodium vivax- Most common [incubation period- 14 days]
2. Plasmodium ovale [incubation period- 14 days]
3. Plasmodium malariae [incubation period- 30 days]
4. Plasmodium falciparum – Most dangerous [12 days]
 Plasmodium is a digenetic parasite (life cycle
completes in two host):-

1. Primary host- Female anopheles , plasmodium

reproduce sexually.

2. Secondary host- Human, plasmodium reproduce

asexually.
 Infectious stage of plasmodium:-

• In Human- sporozoites.

• In mosquito- gametes/gametocyte.

 Schizogony- Division of sporozoites

 Life cycle of
plasmodium in Entry of sporozoites into human blood by biting of
human body:- female anopheles mosquito.

Sporpzoites enter into liver for pre-erythrocytic

schizogony

After this, it enters into RBC for erythocytic schizogony.

During erythocytic schizogony a signet ring

(Trophozoite) is formed inside RBC which cause rupture
of RBC.
 After rupturing of RBC “Haemozoin granules” and
“Merozoites” are releases.

Haemozoin is a toxin formed due to breakdown of hemoglobin.

Release of haemozoin cause fever and chill.

Haemozoin is a toxin formed due to breakdown of

hemoglobiMerozoites form gametocyte (micro gametocyte and
mega gametocyte), which taken up by female anopheles
mosquito
 Life cycle of
plasmodium in
mosquito body:-
Male gamete and female gamete taken up by
mosquito via human blood.

Fertilization occurs in stomach of mosquito.

Zygote develops into sporozoits and migrate to

the salivary gland for storage.
 Symptoms of malaria:-

1. Chill, headache, fever.

2. Relapsing of fever on every 3-4 day.

3. Anemia (lowering of RBC).

4. Jaundice.

• Relapsing of fever is absent in case of plasmodium falciparum.

 Treatment- Quinine drug (source- Bark of neem)

 Controlled by Gambusia fish (Eat mosquito larvae)

Immunity:-

 The overall ability of an individual to fight against the

disease causing organisms is called immunity.
 The network of organs, cells and proteins that protect the
body from harmful, infectious agents such as bacteria,
virus, fungus etc. is called the Immune system.
 The branch of biology that deals with immunity or the
study of immune system is called immunology,
 “Edward Jenner” is known as the father of immunology,
  Immunity works on various level

Levels of immunity

Innate / inborn Acquired

o Non-specific. o Pathogen specific.
o Not memory based o Memory based.

1st Level 2nd Level 3rd Level

o Prevent the entry of o Kill the pathogen non- o The immune system.
pathogen [Barrier] specifically. [fever,
inflammation,
phagocytosis, interferon
etc.]
Innate immunity :-

 Non-specific to pathogen.

 Present from birth.

 No memory.
 Innate immunity

First line of defense Second line of defense

o To prevent the entry of o Internal defense
pathogen

1. Physical barrier 2. Chemical barrier 3. Cellular barrier 4.Cytokine barrier

o Skin, mucus etc. (physiological barrier)
o Saliva, tears, HCl (in
stomach) etc.
1. Physical barrier:-

i. Skin:- main barrier which prevents the entry of the

micro-organisms.

ii. Mucus:- helps in trapping microbes entering in our

body. Eg.- in respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract,
urogenital tract etc.
2. Physiological barrier (Chemical barrier):-

i. Tears:- secreted by ‘lacrimal glands’ in eyes.

ii. Saliva:- secreted by ‘salivary glands’ in buccal cavity (oral

cavity)

iii. HCl:- secreted by ‘gastric glands’ in stomach (pH=1 to 3)

iv. Lactic acid:- in vagina (pH=3 to 4)

NOTE:- both tear and saliva contains ‘Lysozyme’ which destroy

cell wall of bacteria.
 3. Cellular barrier:-
 Cells (WBCs) are involved to kill the pathogens.

WBCs involved in cellular barrier

Neutrophils Monocyte macrophages Mast cells Basophils Eosinophils

Phagocytic call (Engulf the pathogens) Secretory cells (Secretes- Cause allergy
Histamine, Heparin, during
Serotonin) infection
Neutrophils also
known as NOTE:- Cellular barrier also involves natural
‘Polymorph nuclear killer (NK) cells (type of lymphocyte) which kill
leucocyte’ (PMNL) the pathogens.
4. Cytokine barrier (Interferon) :- Against
virus

Two types

Gamma interferon Alpha interferon

Make cytokine
Anti-cacerous
barrier
 Mechanism of
cytokine barrier
Virus attack to the cell

Infected cell secretes some proteins called interferon

These interferons send signal to the neighbouring cells

Neighbouring cells secrete anti-viral protein

Anti-viral proteins prevent these cells from viral attack

 Fever:- The necessary evil.

 Raising body temp. above 37˚C

Mechanism of fever:- Pathogen/Germ

s enter

Release a toxin
(Pyrogen)

Raise body
Stimulate
Temp. (Fever)
hypothalamus
 Kill the pathogen
(Necessory)

Fever:-
Denaturation of
protein or enzyme
(Evil)

Antipyretics:- fever lowering agent. eg.- Paracetamol.

 Inflammation:-

Four clinical symptoms

2. Pain or
1. Heat 3. Swelling 4. Redness
itching
 Mechanism of
inflammation:- Tissue injury

Basophil/Mast
cell rupture

Secrete
Histamine

Treatment:- Anti-histamine
Inflammation Drug
Histamine:- Main cause of inflammation.

 Vasodilator

 Stimulate pain receptors

 Generate heat to kill pathogen.

 Due to vasodilation:-

1. More blood flows to the site of injury (for more WBCs) –

Cause redness.

2. Diapedesis enhances (WBCs and plasma goes out to blood

vessels around tissue) – cause swelling.
 Humoral immunity
or Antibody mediated
immunity - mainly B-cell
participated

Acquired immunity:-
Cell mediated immunity
(CMI) – responsible for
rejection of organ
transplant

• Pathogen specific.
• Characterized by memory of pathogen attack.
• Differentiate between self and non-self Antigen
 Mechanism of
Acquired immunity

Primary response:-

• Pathogen enters into the body for first time.

• Slow response.
• Person feel sick.
 Primary response
forms:-

B-cells or B-lymphocyte T-cells or T-lymphocyte

1. B-plasma cell 1. T-cytotoxic or T-killer cell

2. B-memory cell 2. T-helper cell
3. T-memory cell
 Secondary response
or Anamnestic response

• Fast response, because memory cells

memories the previous attack of the pathogen.
 Humoral immunity
or Antibody mediated
immunity - mainly B-cell
participated

• Provided by B-cells. (B-effector cell or plasma cell and B-

memory cell).
• Secretes army of glycoproteins called “Antibody”.

• Antigen:- those substance which stimulate immune

system for production of Antibody.
• Any foreign particle which enters into body to cause
allergy or disease, secretes Antigen.
Antibody or Immuno globulins (Ig) :-

• Army of glycoproteins secreted by B-plasma cells or B-

lymphocyte.
• Generally written as H2L2 as they contain two heavy
chain and two light chain which are linked together by
disulphide bond (16-bond)
Paratope

Constant
region:-
Responsible
for effector
function
 Types of Antibody:-

IgG (75%) IgA (15%) IgM IgD (1%) IgE

(7-10%) (Less than 1%)
 IgG (Immunoglobin G):-
 Smallest antibody
 Only antibody which can cross placenta.

 IgA (Immunoglobin A):-

 Found in body secretions like tears, saliva, colostrum.
 Attack on those pathogen which enters through
inhalation or ingestion
 IgM (Immunoglobin M):-
 Largest antibody.
 Earliest antibody to be formed during initial
attack of pathogen.
 1st formed antibody in foetus (20 weeks)

 IgD (Immunoglobin D):-

 Present as receptors on the surface of B-lymphocyte.

 IgE (Immunoglobin E):-

 Responsible for allergic reaction.
 Cell Mediated Immunity
(CMI)

 Provided by T-lymphocyte.
 Responsible for Graft rejection (organ transplant rejection)

Types of T-cells:-

T-helper Or CD4 cell T-killer cell T- suppressor T- memory

T-helper Or CD4 cell

 Maximum in number.
 Contains CD4 (cluster of differentiation) receptor.
 Function:- stimulate B-plasma cells and T-killer cells
by secreting “interleukins” that means T-helper cell
activates both CMI and HMI

T-killer cell

 Function:- secretes perforins and lymphotoxins to

kill pathogens.
 Responsible for graft rejection.
 Destroy cancer cells.
T- suppressor cell

 Inhibit over activity of T-killer cells to prevent ‘Auto

immune disorder’.
 Types of Acquired Immunity:-

Passive Immunity Active Immunity

Passive Immunity

 When readymade antibodies are directly given to protect

the body against foreign agents.

 Eg.-

o Colostrum (mother milk in initial day of lactation)- contain

abundant antibodies (mainly IgA)

o IgG antibody which cross placenta.

o ATS (Anti Tetanus Serum)

Given at the time of infection.
o AVS (Anti Venom Serum)
Active Immunity

 Antibody produced in host body when antigens

enters the host body.

 It is slow and takes time to give its full effective

response.

 It produce immunological memory.

 Vaccination based on Active immunity principle.

Vaccination And Immunization:-

 The principle of vaccination and immunization is

based on the property of ‘Memory’ i.e. Active
immunity.
Vaccine:-

 A solution or preparation which contains dead or

attenuated (living but weakened) antigen or
neutralized toxin which can stimulate immune system
to form antibody.
Vaccination:-

 Introduction of vaccine into body is called vaccination.

Immunization:-

 Process by which body starts producing antibody against antigen is

called immunization.

 Vaccination leads to immunization.

 Father of vaccine – Edward Jenner (Prepared 1st vaccine against

“small pox”.

 Louis pasture prepared vaccine against cholera, anthrax and rabies.

 Recombinant DNA Technology has allowed the production of
antigenic polypeptides of pathogen (vaccine) in bacteria or yeast.
 Eg.- Hepatitis-B vaccine produced from yeast.
Allergy :-

 The exaggerated response of the immune system to

certain antigen present in the environment is called
allergy.

 The substance which cause allergy is called allergens.

Eg.- mites in dust, pollen, animal dander etc.

 IgE antibody produce against allergy.

 Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like
histamine and secretion from the mast cell / basophil
cells.

 Symptoms:- watery eyes, Sneezing, Difficulty in

breathing, Running nose.

 Diagnosis:- To know or detect possible allergen, the

patient is exposed or injected with very small does of
possible allergens and reaction will be studied.
 Treatment:- use of drugs like Anti-histamine, Adrenaline
and Cortisol (Steroid).

 In modern day life-style has resulted in lowering of

immunity and more sensitive to allergens.

 More and more children in metro cities of India suffer

from allergies and asthma due to sensitivity to the
environment.

 This could be because of the protected environment

provided early in life.
Auto- immune disease :-

 Sometime, due to genetic and other unknown

reasons, the antibody attacks self-cells is called auto
immune disease.

 Eg.- Rheumatoid arthritis, Myasthenia gravis etc.

2
2
Immune System in the body :-

 The human immune system consist of lymphoid organs,

tissues, cells and soluble molecule like antibodies.

 Immune system is unique in the sense that it recognizes

foreign antigens, responds to these and remembers them.

 The immune system also plays an important role in allergic

reactions, auto-immune diseases and organ transplantation.
Lymphoid organs :-

 Organs in which origin or maturation and proliferation

of lymphocytes occurs.

Types of Lymphoid organs :-

1. Primary lymphoid organs 2. Secondary lymphoid

or central lymphoid organs or peripheral
organs. lymphoid organs.
 Eg.- Bone Marrow and  Eg.- Spleen, Lymph nodes,
Thymus. Tonsils, Peyer’s patches,
MALT.
1. Primary lymphoid organs or
central lymphoid organs.

 Formation and maturation of lymphocytes takes

place.

 Organs in which immature lymphocytes differentiate

into antigen sensitive lymphocyte.

 After maturation, lymphocytes migrate to secondary

lymphoid organs for interaction with antigens.
2. Secondary lymphoid organs or
peripheral lymphoid organs.

 Organs in which lymphocytes interact with antigen

and become effector cells after proliferation.

 MALT:-
 Mucosal Associated Lymphoid Tissue.

 It is located with the lining (mucosal layer) of major tracts like respiratory
tract, digestive tract and urinogenital tract.

 MALT constitutes (forms) about 50% of the lymphoid tissue in human body.

 Payer’s patches is an example of MALT.

 Bone marrow :-

 It is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells

including lymphocytes are formed.

Thymus :-

 It is lobed organ located near the heart and beneath

the breast bone (sternum)

 Thymus is quite large at the time of birth but keep

reducing in size with age and by the time of puberty it
reduced to a very small size.
 Both bone marrow and thymus provide micro-
environments for the development and maturation of
T-lymphocytes.

 B-lymphocyte:- origin and maturation occurs in bone

marrow.

 T-lymphocyte:- origin in bone marrow and maturation

occurs in thymus.
Spleen (Graveyard of RBC) :-

 It is also known as blood bank of the body. (Large

reservoir of RBC)

 Spleen is a large bean shaped organ located near

stomach.

 It mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes.

 It acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood borne

micro-organisms.
Lymph nodes :-

 Lymph nodes are small solid structures located at

different point along the lymphatic system.

 Lymph nodes serve to trap the microorganisms or

other antigens, which enters into the lymph and
tissue fluid.

 Antigen trapped into the lymph nodes are responsible

for the activation of lymphocytes present there and
cause the immune response.
AIDS
AIDS (Acquired Immuno-deficiency Syndrome :-

 AIDS means deficiency of immune system acquired

during the life time of an individual indicating that it is
not a congenital disease.

 Syndrome means group of symptoms.

 AIDS was first reported in 1981 (in USA) and in the

last 25 years or so ,it has spread all over the world
killing more than 25 million people.
 AIDS is caused by a virus called HIV.

 HIV- Human Immuno-deficiency Virus.

 This virus is member of a group of virus called

‘Retrovirus’ which have an envalope enclosing the
‘RNA genome’.
 Glycoprotein spike – attach with CD4 receptor to
cause infection.

 CD4 receptor present on macrophage and T H cell.

 Reverse transcriptase enzyme- Help in making

viral DNA from viral RNA.
Transmission of HIV virus :-

 Sexual contact with infected person.

 By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood

products.

 By sharing infected needles as in the case of

intravenous drug abusers

 From infected mother to her child through placenta.

People who are at high risk for AIDS:-

 Individual who have multiple sexual partners.

 Drug addicts who take drug intravenously.

 Individuals who require repeated blood transfusions.

 Children born to HIV infected mother.

 It is important to note that HIV/AIDS is not spread by
mere touch or physical contact. It only spread
through body fluids.

 Incubation period- Few month to many years (usually

5-10 years).
Mechanism of infection and life cycle of HIV :-

 After getting into the body of a person, the HIV virus

first enter into microphage.

 In microphage, RNA genome of the virus replicates to

form viral DNA with the help of enzyme ‘reverse
transcriptase’
 This viral DNA gets incorporated into microphage
DNA and directs the infected cell to produce virus
particles (HIV).

 Microphage continue to produce virus and act like

‘HIV Factory’.

 Simultaneously, HIV enters into helper T-lymphocyte

(TH cell), here they replicates and produce progeny
viruses.
 Due to replication of virus TH cell get burst and progeny
viruses released in the blood to attack other TH cell.

 This is repeated leading to a progressive decrease in

the number of TH cell in the body of the infected person
which leads to immune deficiency.
Symptoms :-

 The person suffers bouts of fever, diarrhea and

weight loss.

 Due to low number of TH cells (immune deficiency)

opportunistic attack of pathogens occurs. Like
bacteria, viruses and even parasites like
toxoplasma.
 No. of TH cell in normal person = 1200/mm3

 Opportunistic infection starts when no. of TH cells

below 200/mm3 – Symptoms of AIDS.

 Diagnostic Test :- ELISA (Enzyme linked Immuno-

sorbent Assay).

 Based on Antigen-Antibody interaction principle.

Treatment :-

 Anti-retroviral drugs – only partially effective.

 Reverse transcriptase inhibitor.

 These drugs can only prolonged the life of the patient

but not prevent death.
Prevention of AIDS :-

 As AIDS ha no cure, prevention is the best option.

 In our country the ‘National AIDS Control

Organization’ (NACO) and other Non-Governmental
Organizations (NGOs) are doing a lot to educate
people about AIDS.
Cancer :-
Cancer :-

 Cancer is one of the most dreaded disease for

human beings and is a major cause of death all over
the globe.

 More than one million Indians suffer from cancer and

a large number of them die from it annually.
 Difference b/w normal cell and
cancerous cell :-

Normal cell cancerous cell

 They show contact inhibition  They do not show contact

property. (when one cell inhibition property. Hence,
contact with other cell they uncontrolled cell division
inhibit uncontrolled growth) occurs.
 Difference b/w normal cell and
cancerous cell :-

Normal cell cancerous cell

 These are no invasiveness.  These are invasiveness.

 They are mortal.  They are immortal.

 Cause of Cancer :-

Carcinogens:- those factors or agents which transformed

normal cell into cancerous cell are called carcinogens.

Types of carcinogens:-

Physical Chemical Biological

Physical carcinogens:-

 Ionizing radiations – Eg.- X-ray, Y-ray.

 Non-ionizing radiation. Eg.- UV radiation of sunlight

chemical carcinogens:-

 Tobacco smoke:- Major cause of lung cancer

 Some other chemicals like cadmium oxide etc.

Biological carcinogens:-

 Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic virus.

 Proto-oncogene present in normal cell in inactive

form.

 When proto-oncogene activated, leads to oncogene

transformation of normal cell.
 Carcinogens transformed normal cell into oncogenic
or neoplastic or cancerous cell.

 These cell grow and divide rapidly to form a mass of

cells called ‘Tumor’.
 Types of Tumor :-

Benign Tumor Malignent Tumor or cancer

 Also known as Capsulated  Capsulated Tumor rupture and

Tumor or Neoplasm tumor cells spread throughout the

body and cause tumor at different
location.

 The property of spreading of

Tumor cells is known as
“Metastasis”
  Inside tumor blood vessels are formed and the
transport of nutrients and oxygen increases towards
tumor cells

Types of cancer:-

Carcinoma Sarcoma Lymphoma or leukemia

Cancer in ectodermal Cancer in mesodermal Body fluid cancer or

tissue. tissue. blood cancer
Cancer Detection and Diagnosis:-

1. Biopsy and histological studies of tissue in case of

leukemia. Blood and Bone marrow tests for
increased cell counts.

 Biopsy:- In biopsy a piece of suspected tissue cut

into thin sections is stained and examine under
microscope by a pathologist.
2. Radiography:- use of X-rays.

3. CT scan (Computed tomography):- Use of X-ray [3-D image]

4. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging):- 3-D image by the use of

strong magnetic field and non-ionizing radiation.

5. Antibodies against cancer specific antigens are also used for

detection of certain cancers.

6. Technique of molecular biology can be applied to detect genes

in individuals with inherited suspectibility to certain cancer.
Treatment of cancer :-

 The common approaches for treatment of cancer are:-

1. Surgery

2. Radiotherapy – using Y-Ray.

3. Chemotherapy – Drugs like ‘Vincristine and Vinblastine’.

4. Immunotherapy – Alpha interferon [Biological response

modifiers- Activate immune system and helps in
destroying Tumor cells.]
Drugs And Alcohol Abuse:-
 The drugs which are commonly abused are Opioids,
Cannabinoids and Coca alkaloids.

 Majority of these are obtained from flowering plants,

some are obtained from fungi.
 Types of Drug :-

Psychotropic Psychedelic

 Mood altering drugs.  Hallucinogenic drugs.

 Eg.- Tranquilizer, Opioids,  Eg.- Cannabinoids, Datura,

Stimulants. Atropabelladona, L.S.D.
Psychotropic – Mood Altering Drug :-

1. Tranquilizer:- increase tranquility (calmness).

 Effects:- Anesthetic, Depressant, Sleeping.

 Eg.- Benzodiazopines and Barbiturates.

 Use in Anxiety, Insomnia and Schizophrenia.

 Schizophrenia:- A serious mental illness in which a

person confuses real world and world of imagination
and often behaves in strange and unexpected ways.
2. Opioids:-

 Effect :- Narcotics, sedative, Depressant, Analgesic,

Euphorient.

 Isolate from:- Latex of Papaver somniferum plant

(opium poppy).

 Contain 2-C alkaloids.

Derivatives of “Opium poppy”:-

i. Morphine:- used as powerful analgesic.

• Receptors present in brain and gastrointestinal tract.

ii. Codeine:- it is formed by the methylation of

morphine.

• Used in cough syrup.

iii. Heroine:- Diacetyl morphine.

iv. Smack:- produced from Heroin.

• Also called brown sugar.

• White crystalline, bitter and odorless compound.

• Taken by snorting and injection.

3. Stimulants:-

i. Cocaine or Coke or Crack:-

• Isolate from Coca plant (Erythroxylum coca- native to south America)

• Taken by snorting.

• Euphorient and increase energy.

• Excessive dose cause halluciunation.

• Stimulates CNS by interferes with transport of dopamine

(neurotransmitter)
ii. Tobacco:-

• Nicotine Alkaloids present.

• Taken by – smoked, chewed, snuff.

• Stimulate Adrenal glands

• Adrenal gland secretes “Adrenaline and noradrenaline”.

• These hormones increase Heart rate, Rate of Breathing and

Blood Sugar level etc.
 Smoking:- cause lung cancer and hypoxia (decrease
in oxygen level) and increase in carbon monoxide
level.

 Chewing:- cause mouth cancer.

 Amphetamine :- Superman, Synthetic and Anti-sleep

Drug.
Psychedelic (Hallucinogenic Drug):-

1. Cannabinoids:-

• Isolate from “Cannabis sativa” plant.

• Receptor present in “brain”.

• Example:-

i. Marijuana- obtained from dried flowers of cannabis

plant.
ii. Bhang- Obtained from dried leaf.

iii. Ganja- Female inflorescence.

iv. Chars or Hashish- Resins extract.

2. L.S.D. (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide):-

 Obtained from fruiting body of fungus “Caviceps purpura”

3. Atropa belladonna:-

3. Datura:-
Adolescence And Drug/Alcohol Abuse
 Adolescence means both ‘a period’ and ‘a process’
during which a child become mature in terms of
his/her attitudes and beliefs for effective participation
in society.

 The period b/w 12-18 years of age may be thought

as adolescence period. In other words, Adolescence
is a bridge linking b/w childhood and adulthood.
 Adolescence is accompanied by several biological
and behavioral changes. Thus it is a very vulnerable
phase of mental and psychological development of
an individual.
 Addiction And Dependence:-

 Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain

effect such as euphoria and a temporary feeling of
well-being, associated with drugs and alcohol.

 With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the

receptors present in our body increases.
 Consequently the receptors respond only to higher
doses of drugs or alcohol leading to greater intake
and addiction.

 However, it should be clearly borne in mind that use

of these drugs even once, can be fore runner to
addiction.
 Dependence is the tendency of body to manifest a
characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome.

 If regular dose of drugs / alcohol is abruptly

discontinued , this is characterized by anxiety,
shakiness, nausea and sweating which may be
relieved when use resumed again.
 In some cases, withdrawal symptom can be sever
even life threating and the person may need medical
supervision.
Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse:-

 Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and

death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or
cerebral hemorrhage.

 A combination of drugs or their intake along with

alcohol generally results in overdosing and even
death.
 The most common warning signs of drugs and alcohol
abuse among youth include drop in academic performance,
unexplained absence from school/college, lack of interest in
personal hygiene, withdrawal, isolation, depression, fatigue,
aggressive and rebellious behavior.

 Deteriorating relationships with family and friends, loss of

interest in hobbies, change in sleeping and eating habits,
fluctuations in weight, appetite etc.
 The chronic use of drugs and alcohol, damages nervous
system and liver (cirrhosis).

 The use of drugs and alcohol during pregnancy is also

adversely effect the fetus.

 Another misuse of drug is certain sport persons do to

enhances their performance. They (mis)use narcotics
analgesics, anabolic steroids, diuretics and certain
hormones in sports to increase muscle strength.
Prevention and Control:-
 Some of the measures mentioned here would be
particularly useful for prevention and control of alcohol
and drugs abuse among adolescence.
i. Avoid under peer pressure.
ii. Education and cancelling.
iii. Seeking help from parents and peers.
iv. Looking for danger sign, Seeking professionals and
medical help.