ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Soladeveanhalli, Bangalore - 560 107

LECTURE NOTES:
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR SUBSTRUCTURE &
SUPERSTRUCTURES (21CV72)

DRAFTED BY:
Dr. P SREEKANTH REDDY, Ph.D. (NIT) (AI002648)
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
 MODULE-5
COFFER DAMS & CAISSONS

Coffer Dam
A cofferdam is a temporary enclosure built around a body of water to create a dry work
environment for construction or repairs. Cofferdams are typically made of steel and are
made up of sheet piles, wales, and cross braces. They are usually dismantled after the
construction project is complete.
Types of coffer dams
There are various types of cofferdams, including:
Earthen Cofferdams
These are the simplest type of cofferdams well-adapted to depths of water upto 3 m. Earth
embankments are constructed around the area to be dewatered. The earth coffer dams are built
of local soils, preferably fine sand. These usually have a clay core or a vertically driven sheet
piling in the middle. The upstream slope of the bank is covered with a rip rap. A successful
coffer dam need not be completely watertight. For reason of economy, it is not possible to
make it watertight and hence some seepage of water into the excavation is usually tolerated.
The water collected is pumped out of the excavation. The embankment should be provided
with a minimum free board of 1 m to prevent overtopping by waves. Sand-bag coffer dams are
used in an emergency.

Rock-Filled Cofferdams
Rockfill coffer dams made of rockfill are sometimes used to enclose the site to be dewatered.
These are permeable and are usually provided with an impervious membrane of soil to reduce
seepage. The crest and the upper part of the impervious membrane are provided with rip rap to
provide protection against wave action. Overtopping doesn’t cause serious damage in case of
rockfill coffer dams. The slopes of a rockfill cofferdam can be made as steep as 1 horizontal to
1.5 vertical.

Braced Cofferdams
A braced coffer dam is formed by driving two rows of vertical sheeting and bracing with wale
and struts. These are similar to sheeting and bracing system with one basic difference that
braced cuts are required for excavations in dry areas whereas braced coffer dams are used to
isolate a working area surrounded by water. The braced coffer dams are susceptible to flood
damage. Braced cofferdams are sometimes used as land coffer dams to prevent ground from
entering the foundation pile pit on land and to support the soil so as to prevent cave in. After
the pit is dewatered, the structure is concreted. When concreting has been completed above the
water level, the coffer dam is removed.

Timber Crib Cofferdams

Timber crib cofferdams are made of a frame comprised of wooden beams. Horizontal and cross
beams are laid in an alternate course. Timber crib cofferdams are left open at the bottom and
filled in with either earth, gravel, or rock.

Concrete Cofferdams
Concrete cofferdams are used when pile driving is problematic. This includes limited
headroom, the need to reduce or eliminate vibrations, or where boulders embedded in the
ground would split steel sheet piles. Concrete cofferdams are expensive, but the overall cost is
reduced by making them part of the permanent structure. This type of cofferdam is typically
used for smaller areas and are often built of pre-cast, reinforced cement concrete (RCC) piles.
Single-Wall Cofferdams

These are generally used to enclose small foundation sites in water for bridges at a relatively
shallow depth. In this type of coffer dams, there is a single row of cantilever sheet piles. The
piles are sometimes heavily braced. Joints in the steet piles are properly sealed. This type of
coffer dams are suitable for moderate-flow velocities of water and for depth upto 4 m. The
depth of penetration below ground surface is about 0.25h for coarse sand and gravels, 0.5h for
dine sand and 0.85h for silts, where h is the depth of water. Sometimes single-sheet coffer dams
are provided with earth fills on one or both sides to increase the lateral stability. The figure of
single sheet pile cofferdam is shown on the right.

Double-Wall Cofferdams
These dam consists of two straight, parallel vertical walls of sheet piling, tied to each other and
the space between walls filled with soil. The width between the parallel piles is empirically set
as (h/2 + 1.5m); where h is height of water. Double-wall sheet piling coffer dams higher than
2.5m should be strutted. Sometimes, an inside berm is provided to keep the phreatic line within
the berm. The fill material should have a high coefficient of friction and unit weight so that it
performs as a massive body to give the coffer dam stability against sliding and overturning.
Suitable measures should be adopted to reduce the uplift on the coffer dam. This is generally
done by driving the sheet piling on the upstream as deep as possible. The double-wall sheet
piling coffer dam has the advantage of having less leakage than that in a single-wall coffer dam.
These coffer dams are suitable upto a height of 10m.

Cellular cofferdam

This is constructed by driving sheet piles of special shapes to form a series of cells. Te cells
are interconnected to form a watertight wall. These cells are filled with soil to provide
stabilizing force against lateral pressure. Basically, there are two types of cellular coffer dams
that are commonly used:
1. Diaphragm type cellular cofferdam
This type of cellular cofferdam consists of circular arcs on the inner and outer sides
which are connected by straight diaphragm walls. The connection between the curved
parts and the diaphragms are made by means of a specially fabricated Y-element. The
coffer dam is thus made from inter-connected steel sheet piles. The cells are filled with
coarse-grained soils which increase the weight of the cofferdam and its stability. The
leakage through the coffer dam is also reduced.
To avoid rupture of diaphragms due to unequal pressure on the two sides, it is essential
to fill all the cells at approximately the same rate. One advantage of the diaphragm type
is that the effective length of the cofferdam may be increased easily by lengthening the
diaphragm.
2. Circular type Cellular cofferdam
It consists of a set of large diameter main circular cells interconnected by arcs of smaller
cells. The walls of the connecting cells are perpendicular to the walls of the main circular
cells of large diameter. The segmental arcs are joined by special T-piles to the main cells.
The circular type cellular cofferdams are self-sustaining, and therefore independent of
the adjacent circular cells. Each cell can be filled independently. The stability of such
cells is much greater as compared with that of the diaphragm type. However, the circular
cells are more expensive than the diaphragm type, as these require more sheet piles and
greater skill in setting and driving the piles. Because the diameter of circular cells is
limited by interlock tension, their ability to resist lateral pressure due to high heads is
limited.
Cofferdam Construction Process
Most cofferdams are constructed using the following 12 general steps:
1. Pre-dredge and level the area for the cofferdam.
2. Drive temporary support piles.
3. Temporarily install a bracing frame on the support piles.
4. Install steel sheet piles.
5. Drive sheet piles to grade.
6. Block between bracing frame and sheets.
7. Tie sheet piles at the top.
8. Excavate, leaving the water inside the cofferdam.
9. Install internal bracing as the water is removed progressively from the cofferdam.
10. Drive piles as required.
11. Install rock fill.
12. Place tremie concrete seal.
Soldier construction method
• Soldier beams are a component of a braced cofferdam, a temporary structure used
to create a dry work environment for construction.
• Cofferdams are used to prevent water from entering an excavation or to support the
walls of an excavation project.
• They are often used in the construction of bridge piers and abutments.

Caisson
A caisson is a water-tight box like structure or a chamber, made of wood, steel, or concrete,
usually sunk by excavating within it, for the purpose of gaining access to the bed of a
stream and placing the foundations at a prescribed depth and which subsequently forms
part of the foundation itself. Caissons are adopted when the depth of water is great and the
foundations are to be laid under water. Caissons are generally built on the shore and
launched in to the river floated to the site and sunk at the proper position.
Types of Caissons:
The shape and size of a caisson depends upon the nature of structure for which it is to be built
and the depth up to which it is required to be sunk. Caissons can be broadly classified in the
following three different types.

(1) Open Caissons:

Depending upon their shape, open caissons can be further classified as,
(i) Single wall open caisson:
This is a box type structure having no top or bottom (during construction) and mainly consists
of vertical walls. The method of construction of a typical single wall open caisson is describe
below. Wherever necessary the site is made dry by dewatering the area by adopting suitable
method (By constructing cofferdam, sheet piling etc.). A pit of suitable size and about 3 to 4
meter deep is excavated at the site where the caisson is to be sunk. The cutting edge is then
placed at the bottom of the pit. Above the cutting edge, the wall reinforcements are suitably
tied up and the shuttering for casting the concrete wall is erected. The caisson walls are then
concreted in lifts to a suitable height. When the freshly laid concrete has gained sufficient
strength, sinking operation is started. The caisson sinks due to its own weight when the soil
from the space inside s removed by use of clam shell or any other method. As sinking proceeds,
additional sections of the caisson walls are successively cast. Sinking is stopped while each
section is concreted and it is resumed only after the concreted section has gained sufficient
strength. When the caisson is sunk to the required depth, its base is plugged by providing 15
to 45 m thick layer of concrete (concrete seal). The concrete for the seal is placed by use of a
tremie pipe or by a bottom dump bucket. After the concrete seal has set, the water inside the
caisson is pumped out and the empty space is filled with sand, gravel or concrete.

The rate of sinking of the caisson is always slow because the downward moment of the caisson
is resisted by the skin friction of the ground on its walls. At times the skin friction becomes so
great that the caisson does not sink even after all the earth has been dredged out from the inside
clean down to the cutting edge. In such situations, sinking is resorted to by loading the caisson
with additional weights in the form of rails, ingots etc. which are removed afterwards.

(ii) Cylindrical open caisson (well):

This may be defined as a cylindrical shell made up of timber, masonry, steel or reinforced
concrete shod with a cutting edge and which is sunk by excavating the soil within the shell.
The thickness of the caisson wall must be adequate so that when the inside soil is dredged out,
it sinks under its own weight. To facilitate sinking of the caisson water jets are sometimes used
around the sides which decrease the skin friction. Cylindrical open caisson is also known as
well caisson. This type of caisson is similar in all respect to the single wall open caisson except
that its wall is circular in plan. The method of construction of well caisson is exactly similar to
that of a single wall open caisson described earlier. After the well is sunk to the desired depth
its bottom is sealed with concrete. This type of caisson is commonly adopted for providing
foundation for bridges and other structures to be built in rivers and waterways.
(iii) Open caisson with dredging wells:
This type of caisson has the distinction of being employed for the deepest foundation for, bridge
piers, abutments and other similar structures. The caisson in this case is rectangular or square
in plan and is further sub-divided into smaller sections from inside forming open walls. The
outside walls as well as the inside divider walls are normally made up of reinforced concrete.
The caisson is sunk by excavating soil through the wells by means of dredges. After the caisson
is sunk to the required depth, its base is plugged with a concrete seal and the walls are filled
with sand or concrete. From the point of view of control during sinking, this type of caisson
has definite advantage over the other types described earlier. In this case, any tendency of the
caisson to tilt or to drift from its position during the process of sinking, can be checked by
dredging the soil from the appropriate wells.

(2) Box caisson:

This type of caisson is similar to open caisson except that it is closed at bottom. The caisson is
cast and cured on land and when required, it is launched in water and towed to the site for
sinking. The caisson is sunk by filling sand, gravel, or concrete in the empty space inside. The
place where the caisson base is to rest must be levelled and as such box caissons are used in
places where the strata of sufficient bearing capacity is available near the ground. In normal
practice, the soft natural bottom soil of the river bed is dredged out to some depth and the trench
thus formed is filled with sand to have a levelled base. The function of the sand layer is to
uniformly distribute the superimposed loads over the soil below and thus avoid tilting of the
caisson.

(3) Pneumatic caisson:

This type of caisson is closed at top and open (during construction) at the bottom. The water is
excluded from the caisson chamber by means of compressed air. The construction of the
pneumatic caisson is similar to the types described above, except that, the working chamber
and shaft are made air-tight. In order that the workmen may carry out excavation work
underneath the caisson and the water may not find its way inside from below, the pressure of
the compressed air in the shaft is kept just higher than that of the water at that depth. Each
caisson has two air locks. Through one air lock workmen go down for working while through
the other excavated material is taken out. An air lock essentially consists of a steel chamber
having two air-tight doors. One door of this chamber serves as an entry for men and material
from outside into the steel chamber and the other door leads to the air shaft. When a workman
enters the airlock from outside, the pressure inside the airlock is the same as that of outside
atmosphere. Thereafter the outside door is closed and the pressure inside the airlock is raised
slowly. When the pressure inside the airlock becomes equal to the pressure in the caisson, the
door of the airlock which leads to the air shaft is opened and the workman goes down the air-
shaft with the help of a ladder installed therein. Exactly reverse procedure is followed when
the workman comes out of the caisson. Air-shaft provides means of access for the worker from
airlock down to the working chamber.
This method of providing foundation is complicated, expensive and very slow. However, in
places where it is rather difficult to use bulky equipment required for alternative method,
pneumatic caissons appear to be the only choice. The chief advantage of this method is that
entire operation of sinking the caisson can be carried out under controlled conditions. This
method provides better facilities for removing obstructions, inspection of work and concreting
of foundations bed.
This type of caisson is suitable for depths ranging from 25 m to 40 m. At higher depths, the
persons working inside the caisson for sinking operation are liable to get caisson disease
(resulting from the expansion of bubbles of air trapped on joints, muscles etc.).

Well foundations
A well-foundation is a form of deep foundation generally used for bridges, dams, and other
underwater structures. Well-foundations were first initiated in India, and the Taj Mahal was
built using the well foundation. Well-foundations are boxes made up of materials like metal,
masonry or concrete. It is used to develop passive resistance against the horizontal forces at the
top of the wall. It is stable and durable for construction. The main purpose is to distribute the
structural load and reduce the risk of settlement of soil. It helps in bringing long-term stability.
Components of well foundation
Well foundations are generally built in parts and then floated to their final position. They
consist of several components, which are explained as follows:
Cutting edge
The cutting edge is placed at the lowest part of the well foundation and. It can easily penetrate
the soil. The design of the cutting edge is sharp and short to ensure quick soil or surface
penetration.
Well curb
Well curb is a component of the well-foundation that brings stability to the base. It is generally
a reinforced concrete ring beam placed above the cutting edge. It helps distribute the load
evenly around the circumference.
Bottom plug
The bottom plug is a concrete layer. It is placed at the bottom of the well after it reaches the
desired depth. It acts as a seal and provides a solid base which resists pressure from the bottom.
Top plug
It is a concrete layer placed at the top of the sand filling. Its solid surface helps distribute the
load by providing a top seal to the well.
Steining
Steining refers to the walls of the well foundation. It is the main body of the well and is usually
made up of reinforced concrete. It provides structural stability and integrity.
Well cap
The well cap is the top component of a well foundation, formed by an RCC slab. It covers the
top of the well and distributes the load from the superstructure to the well foundation.
Advantages of well-foundation
 The well foundation is suitable in a variety of soil conditions. It works well in both soft
and unstable soil, including loose sand, clay, and silt. The load distribution is even to
the underlying soil.
 The well foundation can support heavy vertical and horizontal loads. This is because
they have a large pace and enable deep penetrations. It is relatively easy to construct
and requires less excavation work.
 Well foundations are provided with a larger cross-section area, with effective resistance
to scouring. They are highly durable and can last hundreds of years with proper
maintenance.
 When compared to other deep foundation methods, the construction for well
foundations is quick. They are an efficient way to create underground stability for
structures like bridges and piers.
Disadvantages of well-foundation
 Constructing a good foundation can be time-consuming and requires skilled labor and
professionals who are experienced
 During the construction process, it can face difficulties due to the presence of
groundwater. There can also be delays.
 The soil inspection is difficult at deep depths and also challenging to clean. Well
foundation cannot generally be constructed on contaminated sites.
 Deepwater has a high safety risk during the construction of a well foundation. It
requires specialized equipment, which is not easily available and is affected by weather
conditions.
 It requires complex anchoring in tidal zones. A well foundation has difficulty accessing
remote areas.
Construction of pneumatic caisson

The construction of a pneumatic caisson involves several carefully executed steps to ensure
safety, structural integrity, and efficient progress. Here's a detailed step-by-step procedure:
1. Site Preparation and Planning
 Geotechnical Survey: Conduct detailed soil investigations to understand soil strata,
bearing capacity, and groundwater conditions.
 Design Considerations: Finalize the dimensions, shape (typically circular or
rectangular), and material specifications of the caisson based on load requirements.
  Permits and Safety Planning: Obtain necessary permits and prepare safety protocols,
particularly for working under pressurized conditions.
2. Fabrication of the Caisson
 Cutting Edge Fabrication: Construct a steel cutting edge at the bottom of the caisson
for easy penetration into the soil. Ensure it is durable and sharp enough to cut through
the soil layers.
 Caisson Shaft Construction: Build the caisson walls (made of reinforced concrete or
steel) above the cutting edge. Install reinforcement as per design to withstand lateral
pressures and vertical loads.
 Airlock Chamber Installation: Include airlocks and bulkheads to maintain the
pressurized working environment inside the caisson. Design airlocks with proper seals
to allow worker entry and material movement under pressure.
3. Transportation and Placement
 Transport to the Site: Transport the fabricated caisson to the construction site,
typically by barge or land transport.
 Positioning: Use cranes or heavy lifting equipment to place the caisson at the
predetermined location. Ensure the caisson is level and aligned with the foundation
plan.
4. Initial Sinking of the Caisson
 Flooding for Stability: Allow water to enter the caisson to add weight and stabilize it
during the initial sinking process.
 Controlled Sinking: Gradually lower the caisson by excavating soil from the inside.
The cutting edge facilitates penetration.
 Monitoring: Monitor vertical alignment using precision instruments and correct any
deviations.
5. Pressurization and Excavation under Pressure
 Pressurization: Seal the working chamber and pressurize it using air compressors to
prevent water and soil ingress. Maintain the pressure slightly above the hydrostatic
pressure at the cutting edge level.
 Excavation: Workers enter the pressurized chamber through airlocks and excavate the
soil manually or using small equipment. Remove excavated material through muck
buckets or conveyors.
  Safety Measures: Provide sufficient oxygen and monitor air quality in the pressurized
environment. Train workers in decompression protocols to avoid decompression
sickness.
6. Gradual Lowering and Progress Monitoring
 Incremental Lowering: Allow the caisson to sink further as soil is removed. Add
ballast weight (e.g., concrete) if necessary for faster sinking.
 Verticality Checks: Continuously monitor alignment and use jacks or winches for
corrective adjustments if the caisson tilts.
7. Bottom Sealing
 Final Positioning: Sink the caisson to the desired depth, ensuring it rests on a stable
bearing stratum.
 Sealing the Base: Place concrete in the working chamber to seal the bottom and create
a permanent foundation. Use tremie pipes for underwater concreting if necessary.
8. Superstructure Connection
 Decompression and Decommissioning: Gradually release pressure from the caisson
after sealing the bottom. Remove airlocks and other temporary installations.
 Integration: Connect the caisson to the bridge piers, building foundations, or other
superstructure components as per the design.

Construction of precast caissons.

A precast caisson is constructed and cured at a fabrication yard or site and then transported and
installed at the foundation location. Here’s a detailed step-by-step construction procedure:

1. Planning and Site Preparation

 Geotechnical Investigation: Conduct soil tests to determine soil strata, groundwater
table, and bearing capacity.
 Design Considerations: Finalize the shape (usually rectangular, circular, or square),
dimensions, and material specifications based on the structure's load and environmental
conditions.
 Logistics and Safety Planning: Plan the fabrication, transportation, and installation
procedures, including crane and transport equipment capacities.
2. Fabrication of the Precast Caisson
  Base and Walls Construction: Fabricate the caisson in a controlled environment
(casting yard or on-site). Build the base slab and walls using high-strength reinforced
concrete. Include reinforcement bars as per the structural design.
 Cutting Edge Installation: Attach a steel cutting edge at the bottom to facilitate
sinking and alignment. Ensure the cutting edge is securely fixed and aligned.
 Segmental Fabrication (if required): For large caissons, construct in segments to
facilitate transport and assembly.
 Provisions for Installation: Provide lifting hooks or loops for handling. Incorporate
necessary openings for dewatering, grouting, and other installation activities.
 Curing: Cure the concrete to achieve the required strength before transportation.
3. Transportation of the Precast Caisson
 Preparation for Transport: Inspect the caisson for cracks, deformities, or other
defects before moving. Prepare suitable transportation equipment (trailers or barges).
 Transport to the Site: Move the caisson using a trailer or barge, ensuring stability
during transit. Use padded supports to prevent damage during transport.
4. Placement and Alignment
 Positioning at the Site: Use cranes or heavy lifting equipment to position the caisson
at the exact location. Verify alignment and level the caisson using temporary supports
if necessary.
 Initial Sinking: Add ballast (e.g., water or temporary concrete weights) to stabilize the
caisson and assist in sinking to the desired depth.
5. Excavation and Sinking
 Excavation below the Caisson: Excavate soil from inside the caisson to allow it to
sink under its own weight. Use dredging, pumps, or manual excavation techniques as
appropriate.
 Monitoring: Continuously monitor the verticality of the caisson during sinking. Adjust
weights or use jacks to correct any tilts.
6. Final Placement and Bottom Sealing
 Final Sinking: Lower the caisson to the design depth and ensure it rests on a stable
bearing stratum.
 Base Sealing: Fill the base of the caisson with concrete or grout to seal the bottom and
create a solid foundation. Use tremie pipes or grouting equipment to place the material
if water is present.
7. Integration with Superstructure
 Superstructure Connection: Integrate the caisson with the bridge pier, building
column, or other components as per the design. Perform reinforcement connections and
cast additional concrete if required.