Epithermal ore deposits: first-order features relevant to

exploration and assessment

Jeffrey W. Hedenquist
University of Ottawa, Canada

Antonio Arribas R.
Akita University, Japan

Abstract. The general features of ore deposits in the alteration halos of the latter deposit style indicate an initial
epithermal environment are influenced by their tectonic, fluid with an acidic pH, related to volcanic emanations
magmatic and geologic associations. Geologic variability (Ransome, 1907). These three endmembers correlate with 3
means that there is a wide variation in features associated low-, intermediate-, and high-suylfidation epithermal
with individual districts, deposits, and prospects. In this deposit types, respectively (Hedenquist et al., 2000).
presentation we review some of the first-order features The Ag-Au±bms and Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits may be
relevant to exploration and assessment of epithermal spatially associated with one another (Hedenquist et al., 4
deposit targets. Our recommendations combine 2000; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003), and either or both
knowledge from traditional and recent geologic and occur in association with (and centered on) subvolcanic
genetic models with personal lessons from exploration and porphyritic intrusions, which, within districts, can be hosts 5
published exploration case studies. These to more deeply formed (~1.5-3 km) porphyry Cu-Au
recommendations provide a framework for investigation deposits (Sillitoe, 2010). These epithermal deposits are
and documentation of key features such as genetic models typically associated with intermediate-composition,
and deposit classification, depth of formation, alteration oxidized magmas and hydrothermal fluids of moderate- to
mineralogy and zoning, and ore and gangue assemblages high-sulfidation state in volcanic arcs. By contrast, Au-Ag
and textures, among others. Use of this framework for the deposits (with very low base metal contents) commonly 6
design and later interpretation of geochemical and form in zones of crustal extension, typically in back-arc
geophysical surveys will assist greatly in the development rifts, and are associated with more reduced and low
and testing of epithermal base- and precious-metals sulfidation-state bimodal rhyolite-basalt magmatism
exploration targets. (John et al., 2001; Einaudi et al., 2003). Volcanic rocks
most commonly host all epithermal deposit styles, but all
1 Introduction rock types, particularly sedimentary basement, can be 7
potential hosts, especially where the ore body form is
The general features of ore deposits in the epithermal strongly influenced by structures and veins have a large
environment are influenced by their tectonic, magmatic vertical interval.
and geologic associations (Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003). The low sulfide-content Au-Ag deposits in rifts
1 While highly variable, alteration and ore minerals plus typically contain arsenopyrite or pyrrhotite plus Fe-rich
textures and zonation patterns have defining sphalerite, indicating a reduced and low-sulfidation state,
characteristics (Arribas, 1995; Hedenquist et al., 2000). in addition to pyrite; chalcopyrite and other intermediate 8
These characteristics have implications for the assessment sulfidation-state sulfides can be present in minor
of prospects during mineral exploration. quantities, caused by sharp cooling (due to boiling). By
Waldemar Lindgren recognized nearly a century ago contrast, the more sulfide-rich Ag-Au±bms veins contain
(Lindgren 1933) that the group of ore deposits he termed chalcopyrite, tennantite/tetrahedrite, galena and low-Fe
epithermal formed within the upper km or so of Earth's sphalerite, as well as local hematite and pyrite, defining a
surface. He and his colleagues appreciated that more oxidized and intermediate sulfidation state, related
2 geothermal hot springs and volcanic fumaroles are the to more oxidized magmas in volcanic arcs. Enargite in
active surficial expression of hydrothermal systems that Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits, also located in volcanic arcs,
formed epithermal deposits. Lindgren realized that the define these deposits as high sulfidation state, along with
epithermal group has characteristic styles of deposits, and fine pyrite, covellite and locally native S; the early
he distinguished several deposits groups on the basis of residual quartz and advanced argillic stage of alteration in 9
metal association, gangue and alteration assemblages, these deposits is typically barren and associated with
based on relative contents of Au, Ag, base metal (Zn, Pb, coarse pyrite. The high sulfidation state of these deposits
Cu) sulfide minerals (bms) and the abundance of Se or Te. is related to cooling of an intermediate sulfidation-state
Here we use three base- and precious-metal epithermal fluid and the lack of any buffering capacity of the residual
deposit group, Au-Ag, Ag-Au±bms, and Au-Ag-Cu-As quartz host rock (Einaudi et al., 2003). In these deposits,
3 (Table 1). The first two groups have gangue and alteration the Au stage mainly follows the Cu stage, and is 10
minerals indicative of near-neutral pH fluids, whereas the
 associated with chalcopyrite, tennantite/tetrahedrite and temperature, to nearly 1 km and ~300°C. Above ~250°C
10 low-Fe sphalerite. the white mica in the alteration halo is crystalline 13
(muscovite) with illite and lower temperature clays in
Veins of Ag-Au±bms (intermediate sulfidation-state distal positions or shallow depths over ore veins.
sulfides) have local high sulfidation-state assemblages By contrast, Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits are proximal to
11 proximal to the feeder zone, and there can be local halos intrusive centers, hosted by early-formed hypogene
of advanced argillic alteration, consistent with the close advanced argillic alteration (Hedenquist and Taran, 2013).
genetic association of these two sulfide-rich (up to several Core zones of residual quartz (locally vuggy in texture), 14
wt% base metals) deposit styles. closest to feeder zones, form by acidic condensates of
magmatic vapor (pH~1). Alteration halos flare outward as
2 Depth of formation depth decreases and consist of an inner zone of quartz-
alunite±dickite that grades outward and upward to quartz-
The Ag-Au±bms and Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits form as deep kaolinite, then to clays. Where a structure intersects a
as ~1+ km (Table 1), with vertical ore intervals of ~100 horizon of lithologic permeability, a lithocap of advanced
up to 600 m; the top of ore may be 100-900 m below argillic alteration can form where the acidic condensate
paleosurface. By contrast, Au-Ag deposits form at a flows laterally (Sillitoe, 2010), with this lithocap typically
shallower depth, and the top of ore veins may lie a few being offset from (on the shoulder of) the deep source 15
tens of meters below the paleosurface, capped by silica intrusion (Hedenquist and Taran, 2013).
12 sinter, with a surficial blanket above the groundwater table Pyrophyllite±diaspore is common in the high-temperature
of steam-heated acid sulfate water (pH~2.5) and kaolinite- feeder zones, and similar alteration may occur in proximal
alunite alteration. Temperature at the paleosurface was a positions along structures that are subsequently reopened
maximum of ≤100°C, whereas temperature increases by quartz Ag-Au±bms veins of a later system with deep
along the boiling point-for-depth curve to ~300°C at 1000 halos of white mica.
m depth (Fig. 1). This temperature-depth relation controls
the distribution of temperature-sensitive alteration
minerals (Fig. 2).

Figure 1. Boiling-point-for-depth curve in upflow (red) and

marginal (mixing; orange) zones; alteration mineral zonation in
upflow and marginal zones differ, with steam-heated alteration
blankets above the groundwater table. Modified from
Hedenquist et al. (2000)

3 Alteration minerals and zonation

Figure 2. Variation in mineral stability with temperature at
Alteration mineralogy is controlled largely by temperature quartz solubility (dashed curves for amorphous silica solubility). 16
as well as pH (Hedenquist et al. 2000). In Au-Ag deposits, Modified from Hedenquist et al. (2000).
their shallow depth of formation (Table 1) means that the
paleotemperature was low, typically <230°C at 4 Gangue minerals and textures
paleodepths <300 m (Fig. 1). At this temperature the
13 alteration is dominated by illite next to the vein, plus local Deposits of Ag-Au±bms and Au-Ag-Cu-As commonly
adularia and silicification. At distal positions or depths have sulfate minerals such as barite and anhydrite as
<150 m (<200°C), interstratified illite-smectite and then gangue, which indicate relatively oxidized fluid. By 17
smectite are the stable clays. The Ag-Au±bms deposits contrast, Au-Ag deposits do not have sulfate minerals, and
typically form at greater depths and hence higher
 the pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite plus Fe-rich sphalerite features such as silica sinters (or laminated colloidal silica
indicate a reduced composition. formed in acidic lakes) and steam-heated alteration as well
Both Au-Ag and Ag-Au±bms veins are dominated as the chalcedony blankets formed at the paleowater table
by quartz, with subsidiary adularia, carbonates (bladed (Fig. 1a) indicate little erosion (Sillitoe, 2015). Zonation
calcite, indicative of boiling) and in Ag-Au±bms veins of alteration mineralogy (Hedenquist et al., 2003), and
17 only, Mn carbonates ± rhodochrosite (Table 1). increasingly mineral chemistry (Chang et al., 2011),
Crystalline quartz occurs in the deeper, higher provide powerful tools to assist in the location of the
temperature Ag-Au±bms veins, commonly with banded or feeder conduit(s) close to the main upflow center(s).
crustiform textures, whereas finer quartz and chalcedony Patterns of temperature-dependent alteration mineralogy
occur at the shallower depths (and lower temperatures) of and mineral composition can be mapped, assisted by
Au-Ag veins. Colloform textures are present where SWIR (short wave infrared spectral methods).
boiling and vapor loss of an ascending liquid, Appreciation that residual vuggy quartz and advanced
accompanied by sharp cooling (Fig. 3), results in argillic minerals commonly have zoning asymmetric to
amorphous silica saturation of a colloid, which deposits as the feeder zone, and are typically barren of Au-Ag-Cu-As
a gel, locally banded (Fig. 2 inset). Gold saturation from a (Hedenquist et al., 2000), is essential since, where
bisulfide complex – dominant in epithermal systems – is mineralized, feeder zones of lithocaps typically have
strongly driven by boiling due to the loss of H2S to the higher metal grades.
vapor phase (Hedenquist et al., 2003). The presence of In this manner, knowledge of the tectonic, magmatic
such colloidal features in banded quartz veins and breccia and geologic setting, and documentation in plan view as
fills are evidence of boiling and potentially gold well as cross- and long-section of the temperature-
precipitation. Indeed, high gold grades in all styles of dependent alteration mineralogy, ore and gangue
epithermal deposit are commonly associated with such assemblages, structures and lithological information, and
colloform or laminated colloidal features (also seen in other potential district- or deposit-scale relevant features
banded quartz veins of porphyry Au deposits, again due to (such as ore and mineral textures, mineral composition,
vapor loss). etc.) provide a framework for the design and interpretation
of geochemical and geophysical surveys. For example, the
nature of a geochemical anomaly (anomalous elemental
suite as well as threshold of anomaly, etc.) can be highly
variable between districts and hence requires orientation
surveys to provide confidence in interpretation of stream,
soil and rock results. Clay halos (low resistivity zones) can
vary in width depending on permeability of host rock,
whereas residual quartz (particularly lithocaps) will
provide high resistivity anomalies. Sulfides in narrow
veins typically do not provide chargeable anomalies,
whereas sulfides in lithocaps and disseminated at shallow
levels of porphyry deposits do (unless supergene
oxidized). Where alteration halos are sufficiently wide
around veins, etc. (particularly under cover), magnetic
lows may indicate extent of alteration and/or structural
corridors to assist in mapping efforts. Among others, these
Figure 3. Silica solubility vs temperature for quartz, cristobalite observations will assist in the development and testing of
and amorphous silica. Boiling and equilibrium vapor loss (red epithermal exploration targets.
lines) results in the cooling liquid to shift from quartz to
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