Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science

Introduction to Civil Engineering:

Civil Engineering is an engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and
maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads,
bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and
railways.

Surveying:
Surveying is the technique of determining the relative positions of different features on, above or
beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and finally representing them
on a sheet of paper known as plan or map.
Prepare a plan and a section of an area to be covered by the project. From these prepared maps and
sections, the best possible alignment, amount of earthwork and other necessary details depending upon
the nature of the project can be calculated.
Surveying is used to prepare a topographic map of a land surface of the earth.

Structural Engineering:
Structural engineers are trained to design the framework of structures that create the form and
shape of man-made structures. Structural engineers also must understand and calculate the stability,
strength, rigidity and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for buildings and non-building
structures.
Structural engineers rely increasingly on computer-aided design (CAD) systems, so proficiency with
computers is essential. In addition to speeding up the drafting process, CAD systems allow for quick and
easy modifications of designs and three-dimensional (3D) visualization of finished parts and assemblies.

Geotechnical Engineering:
Geotechnical Engineering concerned study of soil, its behaviour on the application of load and its
use as an engineering material in the construction. The knowledge of this subject is useful in the design
of earth dams, different pile foundations, buildings, shallow foundations. Geotechnical engineers
determine the physical, mechanical and chemical properties of soil and rock to design foundations,
retaining structures and earthworks.

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Water Resources Engineering:
Fluid mechanics is a branch of science in which the study of fluids, i.e., liquids and gases, at rest
and in motion.
When the water is at rest, the forces exerted by the water on immersed areas are found out by the laws of
mechanics. Thus, the knowledge of these forces is useful in the design of the gates used to control the
flood water in case of dams.
When water is drawn off from a reservoir and conveyed through closed conduits or open channels, the
knowledge of the behaviour of liquids in motion is useful. Thus, in the design of water supply distribution
systems.
Water resources engineering is the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle, the distribution and
circulation of water linking the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans. Applications include the management
of the urban water supply, the design of urban storm sewer systems, and flood forecasting.

Transportation Engineering:
Transportation Engineering involves the planning, design, operation, and maintenance of
transportation systems to help build smart, safe, and liveable communities.
In planning projects, transportation engineers gather relevant data on the population in the surrounding
area, travel patterns, socioeconomic characteristics, laws and ordinances, and financial resources.
The transportation facilities often include roadways, highways, airports, railways, bicycle/pedestrian
paths, waterways, and public transit facilities.

Environmental Engineering:
Environmental Engineering studies the effects of projects on the environment.
Environmental engineers study and evaluate impacts to cultural resources, noise impacts, threatened and
endangered species, water quality, air quality, wetlands, and socioeconomic impacts.
Projects in environmental engineering involve the treatment and distribution of water supply system,
wastewater treatment, the control of air pollution and noise pollution, municipal solid-waste management
and hazardous-waste management and the clean-up of hazardous waste sites and the preparation of
environmental assessments, audits, and impact studies.

Construction planning & Project management:

Construction planning provides guidelines to ensure the project is a success. It is the process of
identifying the steps required to build a structure. It involves defining what actions need to be completed,
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creating an ordered timeline of events, staffing the project and determining the necessary materials and
equipment.
Construction project management involves directing and organizing each part of the project life cycle,
from ideation to completion. It’s a holistic practice with the goal of delivering projects on time and under
budget.

Basic Materials of Construction:

Earth Bricks:

Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by drying and
burning these blocks.
Bricks can broadly be divided into two categories, namely unburnt or sundried bricks and burnt bricks.
Unburnt or sun-dried bricks are those that are dried with the help of heat received from sun after the
process of moulding.
Burnt bricks used in construction works are classified into first class bricks, second class bricks, third
class bricks and fourth class bricks.
Qualities of Good Earth Brick:
 Bricks should be table moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks and with
sharp and square edges.
 They should be uniform shape and of standard size.
 They should give clear ringing sound when struck each other.
 When broken, they should show a bright homogeneous and compact structure free from voids.
 They should not absorb water more than 20 % by weight for first class and 22 % by weight for
second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for a period of 24 hours.
 They, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salts when allowed
to dry in shade.

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 They should be sufficiently hard with no impression left on brick surface, when it is scratched with
finger nail.
 They should have low thermal conductivity and be sound proof.
 They should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one meter.
 No brick should have crushing strength below 55 kg/cm2.

Mortar:

The paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a mixture of binding material like
cement or Lime and fine aggregates like sand. The combined effect of the two components of mortar is
able to bind the bricks or stones firmly.
Mortars are classified into the following categories, namely lime mortar, surkhi mortar, cement mortar
gauged mortar and gypsum mortar.
Qualities of good Mortar:
 It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks, stones,
etc.,
 It should be capable of developing the designed stresses and resisting penetration of rainwater.
 It should be cheap, durable & easily workable.

Cement:

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Cement is an extremely fine material having adhesive and cohesive properties which provides a
binding medium for the discrete ingredients.
Chemical Composition of Cement:
Constituents Percentage
Lime (CaO) 62 – 67 %
Silica (SiO2) 17 – 25 %
Alumina (Al2O3) 3–8%
Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) 3–4%
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 3–4%
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1 – 3 %
Sulphur 1–3%
Soda and Potash (Na2O + K2O) 0.5 – 1.3 %
Types of Cement:
1. Ordinary Portland Cements: a. 33 Grade, b. 43 Grade, c. 53 Grade
2. Rapid Hardening Cements
3. Extra Rapid Hardening Cements
4. Low Heat Portland Cements
5. Portland Slag Cements
6. Portland Pozzolana cements
7. Sulphate Resisting Portland Cements
8. White Portland Cements
9. Coloured Portland Cements
10. Hydrophobic Cements
11. High Alumina Cements
12. Super Sulphated Cements
13. Special Cements: a. Masonry Cements, b. Air Entraining Cement, c. Expansive Cements
Field Tests for Cements:
Colour: Grey colour with a light greenish shade.
Physical properties:
 Cement should feel smooth when rubbed between the fingers.
 If hand is inserted in a bag, it should feel cool.
 If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, it should sink and should not float
on the surface.
 Cement should free from lumps.
Laboratory Tests for Cements:

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 Chemical composition test.
 Normal (standard) consistency test.
 Initial and final setting time test:
 Soundness test.
 Strength test.
 Fineness test.
 Heat of hydration test.
 Specific gravity test.

Plain Cement Concrete (PCC):

Plain cement concrete is a hardened mass obtained from a mixture of cement, sand, gravel, and
water in definite proportions. These ingredients are mixed together in a definite proportion to form a
plastic mass which is poured into desired shape moulds. This plastic mass hardens on setting and we get
PCC.
Properties of plain cement concrete:
 Compressive strength: The compressive strength of PCC lies between 200 to 500 kg/cm2.
 Tensile strength: The tensile strength of plain cement concrete lies between 50 to 100 kg/cm2.
 Density: The density of concrete ranges from 2200 kg/m3 to 2400 kg/m3.
 Durability: It is more durable.

Uses of plain cement concrete:

 It is used as a base below all types of foundations to provide a hard and level surface for laying the
foundation.
 It is used at the plinth level to provide a hard and level surface for laying floor tiles & to act as a
damp proof course (DPC).

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 It is used as coping over top of parapet walls to protect the wall from rain.
 It is used for pavements and roads.
 It is used for mass concrete structures such as retaining walls.

Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC):

Concrete in which steel is embedded in such a manner that the two materials act together in
resisting forces is called Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC).
The reinforcing steel—rods, bars, or mesh—absorbs the tensile, shear, and sometimes the compressive
stresses in a concrete structure.
In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength of steel and the compressive strength of concrete work together
to allow the member to sustain these stresses over considerable spans.
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete:
Strength, economy, versatility, durability, fire resistance, ductility, seismic resistance, ease of
construction, multi-mode application,
Applications of Reinforced Concrete:
Buildings, bridges, flyovers, water tanks, roads, floating structures, foundations, marine structures, pipes
and conduits, precast works, chimneys and towers, retaining Walls, bunkers and silos.

Pre-stressed Concrete (PSC):

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Concrete reinforced by either pre tensioning or post tensioning, allowing it to carry a greater load
or span a greater distance than ordinary reinforced concrete is called Pre-stressed Concrete (PSC).
In pre tensioning, lengths of steel wire or cables are laid in the empty mould and stretched. The concrete
is placed and allowed to set, and the cables are released, placing the concrete into compression as the steel
shrinks back to its original length.
In post tensioning, the steel in the concrete is stretched after the curing process. Pre-stressing places a
concrete member in compression, these compressive stresses counteract the tensile bending stresses of an
applied load.

Uses of Pre-stressed Concrete:

Long span bridges, high buildings, hollow slabs, simple span box girders, Cable bridges, Flat slab floor.
Advantages of Pre-stressed concrete:
 Precast pre-stressed concrete is used in the construction of dynamically loaded structures such as
railway bridges and machine foundations and in the construction of long-span floors and roofs.
 These members have more resistance to shear forces.
 These offer great technical advantages in comparison with other forms of construction.
 When fully pre-stressed, members are free from tensile stresses under working loads, thereby
having more efficiency when compared with RCC and other composite materials.

Structural Steel:

Structural Steel is used for construction purposes. Due to its rigidity and high strength to weight ratio.
Properties of Structural Steel:
Density: 7750 to 8100 kg/m3.
Young's Modulus of Elasticity: 190 - 210 GPa.
Poisson's ratio: 0.27 - 0.3.

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Yield strength: 366 to 1793 MPa.
Shear strength: 0.57 times the yield stress of structural steel.
Hardness: structural steel manufactured with alloys 149 to 627 kg and carbon structural steels have
weight range of 86 to 388 kg.
Specific heat: carbon structural steel 450 to 2081 J/kg-K & structural alloy steel 452 to 1499 J/kg-K.

Construction Chemicals:

Modern construction industry uses chemicals in a number of ways and in different applications to
enhance properties of existing construction materials, repair & retrofitting works and for
waterproofing works.
Admixtures:
Chemicals added to concrete, mortar or grout at the time of mixing, to modify the properties, either in
the wet state immediately after mixing or after the mix has hardened.
Admixtures can be divided into three categories, namely Active materials, Surface active admixtures
and Passive or inert admixtures.
Functions of Admixtures:
 Increase slump and workability.
 Retard or accelerate initial setting.
 Reduce or prevent shrinkage.
 Modify the rate or capacity for bleeding.
 Reduce segregation.
 Decrease weight of concrete.
 Improve durability.
 Decrease the rate of heat of hydration.
 Reduce permeability.
 To make porous concrete and coloured concrete.
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 To protect from chemical attack, increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement and increase
strength (compressive, tensile or flexural).
 Increase bond between existing and new concrete.
Types of admixtures:
 Plasticizers.
 Super plasticizers.
 Retarders and Retarding Plasticizers.
 Accelerators and Accelerating Plasticizers.
 Air-entraining Admixtures.
 Pozzolanic or Mineral Admixtures.
 Damp-proofing and Waterproofing Admixtures.
 Gas forming Admixtures.
 Air-detraining Admixtures.
 Alkali-aggregate Expansion Inhibiting Admixtures.
 Workability Admixtures.
 Grouting Admixtures.
 Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures.
 Bonding Admixtures.
 Colouring Admixtures.

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Structural elements of a building:

Foundation:
A foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are
transmitted.
Functions of Foundation:
 Reduction of load intensity.
 Even distribution of load.
 Provision of level surface.
 Lateral stability.
 Safety against undermining.
 Protection against soil movements.
Requirements of good Foundation:
 The foundation needs to be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit these
to the sub-soil.
 Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimized.
 Foundation should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage caused by
swelling or shrinking of sub-soil.
 Foundation should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any unexpected
future influence.
Types of foundations:
Shallow foundation or Open foundation and Deep foundations.

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Plinth:

Plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the wall and its foundation.
These are constructed as reinforced concrete beams, to prevent the extension or propagation of cracks
from the foundation into the wall when the foundation suffers from settlement.
Plinth beams distribute the load of the wall over the foundation evenly.
The plinth beam separates the superstructure and the substructure and acts like a tie beam that keeps walls
and columns connected.
Formwork used for plinth beam construction should be properly installed and adequately secured prior to
concrete placement.
A minimum depth of plinth beam is 20 cm, whereas its width should match the width of final course of
the foundation.
The concrete needs to be compacted sufficiently to prevent steel bars from aggressive elements.

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It is recommended to provide two bars with minimum diameter of 12 mm at the bottom of the beam.
Similarly, two bars with minimum diameter of 10 mm shall be provided at the top of the plinth beam.
Reinforcement bars should be protected by 25 mm concrete cover. As far as stirrups are concerned, stirrup
diameter should be at least 6mm and a spacing of 15 cm should be sufficient.

Lintel:

A lintel is a horizontal member, which is fixed over openings, viz., doors, window recesses, etc. to support
the structure over the opening. Lintels are thus a sort of rectangular beam which afford facilities for fixing
the door and window frames, wherever they are used.
The width of lintel should be equal to the width of the wall.
Types of lintels:
Wooden lintels, stone lintels, brick lintels, reinforced brick lintels, steel lintels and reinforced cement
Concrete lintels.

Chajja:

Chajja is a sloping or horizontal structure overhung usually provided for protection from sun and rain or
for architectural considerations. It is mostly provided in conjunction with the lintel.
The purpose of a chajja is to prevent direct entry of sun light into the room to a certain extent.
It acts as a barrier to direct entry of rain water into the room through the opening and also it also adds on
to the aesthetic appeal of a building.

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Masonry Wall:

Masonry walls are the most durable part of any building or structure.
Types of Masonry Walls:
Load-bearing masonry wall, reinforced masonry wall, hollow/cavity masonry wall, composite masonry
wall and post-tensioned masonry wall.
Advantages of masonry wall:
 It increases the thermal mass of a building.
 It provides a structure with reduced life-cycle costs.
 It is very heat resistant & thus provides good fire protection.
 It is resistant to projectiles.

Column:

A column is a vertical structural member designed to transmit a compressive load.

Columns transfer vertical loads from a ceiling, floor or roof slab or from a beam, to a floor or foundation.
They also carry bending moments about one or both of the cross-section axes.
Types of columns:
 Based on shape: Rectangle, Square, Circular, Polygon, Square, L-column, T-Column and Circular.
 Based on slenderness ratio: Long Column or Slender, Short Column and Intermediate Column.

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 Based on type of loading: Axially loaded column, axial load and uniaxial bending column, axial
load and biaxial bending column.
 Based on pattern of lateral reinforcement: Tied columns, Spiral columns.
 Based on material of construction: Timber Columns, Masonry Columns, R.C.C. Columns, Steel
Columns and Composite Columns.

Beams:

Beams are structural elements that run horizontally to withstand vertical load coming off the building
frame. They are the structural elements that carry loads perpendicular to their longitudinal direction.
The beams take the load and distribute it to ends and transfer it to columns, walls, and posts on both sides
of the beam.
The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within
the beams that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam.
Types of Beams:
 Based on Construction Material: Timber, steel, reinforced concrete & composite beams.
 Based on Loads and Supports: Simply supported beam, fixed beam, overhanging beam, double
overhanging beam, continuous beam, cantilever beam and trussed beam.
 Based on Shape of Cross Section: Rectangular beam, I – beam, T – beam, C – beam & L – beam.
 Based on Equilibrium Conditions: Statically determinate beam and statically indeterminate beam.
 Based on Geometry: Straight beam, curved beam and tapered beam.
 Based on Construction Methods: Cast in-situ concrete beam, precast concrete beam, pre-stressed
concrete beam and lintel beam.

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Slab:

Slab is an important structural element which is constructed to create flat and useful surfaces such as
floors, roofs, and ceilings.
Commonly, slabs are supported by beams, columns (concrete or steel), walls, or the ground.
The slab may be supported by walls or by reinforced concrete beams usually cast monolithically with the
slab or by structural steel beams or by columns, or by the ground.
If the ratio of long side / short side is less than 2 it is considered as 2-way slab and if longer side to shorter
side is greater than 2 then it is considered as 1-way slab.
The functions of slab are to provide a flat surface, to act as sound, heat and fire insulator, to provide a
covering shelter or working flat surface in buildings, to transfer the load by bending in one or two
directions and also it helps the other components of the building to withstand different loads.
Reinforced Concrete floor slab construction process includes the steps as,
 Assembly and erection of formwork.
 Preparation and placement of reinforcement.
 Pouring, compacting and finishing concrete.
 Removal of formwork and curing of the slab.
Types of concrete slab used in construction:
Flat slab, conventional slab, hollow core ribbed slab or hollow core slab, hardy slab, waffle slab, sunken
slab, composite slab, low roof slab, projected slab, waist slab.

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Stair:

By means of communication between various floors is offered by various structures such as stairs, lifts,
ramps, ladders, escalators.
A stair is a series of steps arranged in a manner so as to connect different floors of a building. Stairs
consists of a number of steps arranged in a single flight or a greater number of flights.
The requirement of good stairs is:
 It should be so located as to provide easy access to the occupants of the building and should be
well lighted and ventilated directly from exterior.
 The stair should preferably be constructed of materials which possess fire-resisting qualities.
 Width: 0.9 m in residential buildings and 1.5 m to 2.5 m in public buildings.
 Number of steps in a flight: Maximum number of steps in a flight should be limited to 12 to 14,
while minimum is 3.
 Rise: Rise is the vertical projection of a step in a staircase. This should be provided uniformly. It
is normally 150 mm to 175 mm in residential buildings while it is kept between 120 mm to 150
mm in public buildings.
 Tread: Horizontal projection of a step in a stair case is called tread. It is also known as going. In
residential buildings tread provided is 250 mm while in public buildings it is 270 mm to 300 mm.
 Head Room: Head room available in the stair case should not be less than 2.1 m.
 Hand Rails: Hand rails should be provided at a convenient height of a normal person which is from
850 mm to 900 mm.
Types of Stairs:
Based on the shape: Straight stairs, dog legged stairs, well or open-newel stairs, geometrical stairs, spiral
stairs, turning stairs.

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