MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS:

Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

EDITOR
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sıdıka EKREN
MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and
Other Aspects

EDITOR
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sıdıka EKREN

AUTHORS
Prof. Dr. Emre ILKER
Prof. Dr. Hatice DEMİRAY
Prof. Dr. Oğuz BAYRAKTAR
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza ONGUN
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Berna TÜRKEKUL
Assoc. Prof. Dr. İdil İPEK
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ilkay YAVAS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. İsmail DEMİR
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mahmut TEPECİK
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nural KARAGÖZLÜ
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Oktay YERLİKAYA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Özgür ARAR
Assist. Prof. Dr. Aslı AKPINAR
Assist. Prof. Dr. Deniz ORUÇ
Assist. Prof. Dr. Zeynep DUMANOĞLU
Dr. Ceyda SÖBELİ
Dr. Derya SAYGILI
Dr. Diren KAÇAR
Dr. Özlem YILDIZ
Dr. S. Betül BOZATLI
PhD of Agriculture Lecturer H. Eda TOKUL
Lecturer Aliye YILDIRIM KESKINOGLU
Msc. F. Çiğdem SAKİNOĞLU ORUÇ
Agr. Eng. Sadık ORUÇ
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 CONTENTS
EDITED BY
PREFACE
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sıdıka EKREN…………………….………………..1
CHAPTER 1
MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS PRODUCTION,
MARKETING AND FOREIGN TRADE
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Berna TÜRKEKUL, Dr. Özlem YILDIZ……...……3
CHAPTER 2
EFFECT OF SALINITY ON MORPHOLOGICAL,
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
MEDICINAL PLANTS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ilkay YAVAS, Prof. Emre ILKER………….…..…45
CHAPTER 3
MEDICINAL PLANTS WITH ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES
Dr. Diren KAÇAR. Prof. Dr. Oğuz BAYRAKTAR……………...…63
CHAPTER 4:
PLANTS DESERVING AS MUCH INTEREST AS LAVENDER
FOR TURKEY
PhD of Agriculture Lecturer H. Eda TOKUL……………………...103
CHAPTER 5
MICROBIOLOGY AND ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES OF
SPICES AND HERBS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nural KARAGÖZLÜ, Dr. S. Betül BOZATLI…..137

CHAPTER 6
SOIL REQUIREMENTS OF SOME MEDICINAL AND
AROMATIC PLANTS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza ONGUN,
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mahmut TEPECİK……………………………….161
CHAPTER 7
SOME PLANTS OF AEGEAN REGION FROM TURKEY:
PHYTOCHEMISTRY AND ITS USE IN HEALTH CARE
Prof. Dr. Hatice DEMİRAY…………………………………..……179
CHAPTER 8
SEPARATION OF ESSENTIAL OILS BY MEMBRANE
PROCESSES
Assoc. Prof. Dr. İdil İPEK. Assoc. Prof. Dr. ÖZGÜR ARAR….....249

CHAPTER 9
MEDICINAL AROMATIC PLANTS AND THEIR USE IN
MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS
Dr. Ceyda SÖBELİ………………………………………………...267

CHAPTER 10
CUMIN (Cuminum cyminum L.)
Lecturer Aliye YILDIRIM KESKINOGLU…………………….....299

CHAPTER 11
THE IMPORTANCE AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF CORIANDER (Coriandrum sativum L.): A REVIEW
Assist. Prof. Dr. Zeynep DUMANOĞLU…………….…………….321
CHAPTER 12
USE OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS IN DAIRY
PRODUCTS
Dr. Derya SAYGILI, Assist. Prof. Dr. Aslı AKPINAR
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Oktay YERLİKAYA……………………………..335

CHAPTER 13
ETHNOBOTONICAL ASPECTS OF SOME MEDİCAL
SPECIES IN DÜZCE AND ITS VICINITY
Msc. F. Çiğdem SAKİNOĞLU ORUÇ, Assist. Prof. Dr. Deniz ORUÇ
Agr. Eng Sadık ORUÇ……………………………………...…...…391
CHAPTER 14
THE EFFECT OF SOWING DATES ON GROWTH AND
YIELD PARAMETERS OF BLACK CUMIN (Nigella sativa L.)
CULTIARS IN KIRSEHİR SEMI-ARID CONDITIONS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. İsmail DEMİR……………………………………419
CHAPTER 15
FERTILIZATION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC
PLANTS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mahmut TEPECİK,
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza ONGUN………………………………...445
CHAPTER 16
DROUGHT-MEDIATED CHANGES IN GROWTH,
PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY OF MEDICINAL
PLANTS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ilkay YAVAS…………………………………….469
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 1

PREFACE

Turkey has an important potential in terms of natural and cultivated

medicinal and aromatic plants with its rich plant diversity, wide
surface area and different climates. In our country, medicinal and
aromatic plants are mostly collected from nature and consumed, and
plants are cultivated at a certain rate. It is very difficult or even
impossible to obtain a standard quality in plants collected from nature.
In order to be able to be met the increasing consumer demand and
obtained a standard product, the cultivation and variety development
of medicinal and aromatic plants are gaining speed day by day.

In recent years, the demand for synthetic products has decreased and
continues to decrease. The interest and need for natural herbal
products and many other products consisting of these products, such
as food, medicine, herbal tea and cosmetics, is increasing day by day.
2 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

The fact that some plant species have become more consumed due to
the epidemic we are experiencing has made the importance of
medicinal and aromatic plants indisputably felt.

Medicinal and aromatic plants, which have a wide range of uses

because they constitute the important raw material of pharmaceutical,
food, beverage, cosmetics and many other industries, are discussed in
this book from different aspects. Studies have been tried to deal with a
wide range of uses of some families and plant species, from economy
to production, from soil conditions to fertilization, from cultivation
techniques to yield and yield parameters, from microbiological,
antioxidant and antimicrobial properties to use in meat and dairy
products, from morphological, physiological and biochemical
properties to essential oil processing.

With the present book, it is aimed to contribute to science by creating

a resource in the field of medicinal and aromatic plants, and it has
been presented to the service of you, our esteemed readers.

I would like to thank our esteemed authors who contributed to the

preparation of this work, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Seyithan SEYDOŞOĞLU
for their help and support during the preparation of the book, and
İKSAD Publishing House staff who contributed to its publication.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sıdıka EKREN

Editor
19th November 2021
IZMIR
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 3

CHAPTER 1

MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS PRODUCTION,

MARKETING AND FOREIGN TRADE

Assoc. Prof. Berna TÜRKEKUL1 Dr. Özlem YILDIZ1

1
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Agricultural Economics Department, İzmir,
Turkey, Orchid: 0000-0003-2445-3285, e-mail: [email protected]
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Agricultural Economics Department, İzmir,
Turkey, Orchid: 0000-0002-5581-0102, e-mail: [email protected]
4 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 5

1 . Introduction

Since the days of humanity, people have collected plants and used
them to meet their various needs. Medicinal and aromatic plants
(MAPs) have been used for various purposes in many fields from
medicine to cosmetics for thousands of years. And presently, it is still
used as medicine for curing diseases, as food supplements, as
substances in cosmetics and as insecticides etc. In recent years, with
the increasing awareness of sustainable development, environmental
protection and healthy life, the production and trade of medicinal and
aromatic plants has also increased. As a trend in the current pandemic
context (COVID-19), attention has also been drawn towards the
antiviral potential of plant-based preparations and their effectiveness
in supporting the human immune system against infections (Cadar et
al, 2021). Thus medicinal plant based industry is a promising sector
and source of enormous economic growth potential (Roosta et al.,
2017).

Globally it is not possible to ascertain the exact number of species

used as medicinal and aromatic plant material. Only the number of
plant species used for medicinal purposes can be estimated. An
enumeration of the WHO from the late 1970s listed 21,000 medicinal
species. Today it is estimated that there are 422,000 plant species in
the world and 50,000 of them are medicinal and aromatic plants.
China alone has 4,941 of 26,092 native species (Schippmann et al,
2002).
6 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

The same is also true for MAPs international trade. It is difficult to

assess how many MAPs are commercially traded. The bulk of MAPs
is exported from developing countries while major markets are in the
developed countries. According to ITC figures in the 2011-2020
period, MAPs’ exports increased by 5% and reached 68.5 million
dollars. Asian and European countries dominate the MAPs export
market. On the other hand, about 46.8% of the worldwide MAPs
imports are allocated to European countries. This increase is also due
to the fact that alternative treatment methods with MAPs have recently
attracted more attention especially in developed countries.

As an important MAPs exporter, Turkey has great plant diversity and

endemic plants due to its geographical location. In Turkey the exact
number of plants used medicinally is not known. But it is estimated to
be around 500. It is stated that approximately 200 medicinal and
aromatic plants have export potential (Faydaoglu and Surucuoglu,
2011, KUDAKA, 2013). Turkey is one of the important exporting
countries in MAPs. However, despite the high export potential of
medicinal and aromatic plants in Turkey, the desired level has not
been reached yet.

It is known that medicinal and aromatic plants have been widely used
in Turkey for thousands of years. Consumers show more interest in
herbal methods, and the demand for medicinal and aromatic plants is
increasing due to the fact that health-related issues have been on the
agenda lately, they are safer than synthetic drugs and they are less
costly. As a result of the expanding interest in medicinal and aromatic
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 7

plants, new income generating opportunities are opening up for rural

populations. With many of the MAPs gathered from the wild, the
collection and sale of MAPs is providing a complementary source of
cash for many extremely poor rural households. However, despite the
fact that the products collected can have very high value in the final
products, the collectors typically receive only a small share of the final
value, either because they are unaware of the real value, are unable to
market it in the form wanted by buyers or are unable to market to
these buyers (FAO, 2005). Therefore this study aims to provide an
overview of the international markets for MAPs and to indicate the
place and competitiveness of Turkey in the international market of
MAPs. The study also provides information on the production, trade
and marketing of MAPs with special reference to Turkey, and to
indicate what needs to be done in order to expand the opportunities for
increasing her exports.

2 The Importance of MAPS for Turkish Economy

2.1 The Production of MAPS
2.1.1 World Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Production

Medicinal and aromatic plants are supplied by cultivation or wild

collection in the world. Many medicinal plants, especially the
aromatic herbs, are grown in home gardens, some are cultivated as
field crops, either in sole cropping or in intercropping systems and
rarely as plantation crops (Schippmann et al, 2002). Therefore, there
are problems in obtaining reliable data on MAPs production.
However, the most reliable production data on cultivated MAPs is
8 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

published by FAO. According to these data, MAPs production areas

and production amounts have increased significantly in recent years.
Products with an increasing trend are anise, badian, fennel, coriander,
cinnamon cloves, cocoa beans, green coffee, ginger, linseed, nutmeg,
mace and cardamoms, peppermint, poppy seed, spices, tea and vanilla.
The product group with the highest increase is anise, badian, fennel,
coriander with an increase of 91.3%. It is followed by cloves, tea,
nutmeg, mace and cardamoms, linseed, cinnamon, ginger, cocoa
beans and peppermint. On the other hand, the increase in spices
nested, green coffee and vanilla is below 15%. In recent years the
most serious decrease in production areas are seen in carobs with
68%. This was followed by poppy seed with a decrease of 56.5%,
while the decrease in mate planting areas was 1.2% (Table 1, Table 2).
As in the MAPS production areas, the highest increase in the
production amount has been in anise, badian, fennel and coriander in
recent years. This was followed by nutmeg, mace and cardamoms
(89.3%), cloves (76.7%), ginger (72.5%), linseed (41.7%), tea
(34.6%). Production increase in mate, cinnamon, cocoa beans, green
coffee, peppermint and spices nested is below 30%. The most
significant decrease in the production amount in recent years is seen in
poppy seed with 72.4%. This was followed by carobs (-70.4%) and
vanilla (-10.3%) (Table 3, Table 4).

2.1.1 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Production in Turkey

Turkey is home to many endemic plants due to its geographical

advantage. Some of the medicinal and aromatic plants are cultivated
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 9

in Turkey, and some of them are obtained from nature as in many

parts of the world. Among the medicinal and aromatic plants, cumin,
anise, thyme, fenugreek, poppy, fennel, mint and coriander are
cultivated in our country. Laurel, mahaleb, linden flower, sage,
rosemary, licorice root and juniper bark are collected from nature. As
a matter of fact, it can be said that MAP's production tends to increase
over the years. While anise cultivation area was 211,542 decares in
2011, it decreased to 155,317 decares in 2020. Due to the decrease in
the production area, the production amount in 2020 was 10,716 tons.
Anise yield is 69 kg per decare. Cumin production areas have
increased by 6% in the last ten years and reached 212,132 decares.
While the amount of production increased approximately at the same
rate and realized as 14,000 tons, the yield was 66 kg per decare. There
has been a significant increase of 137.7% in the last ten years in the
cultivation areas of thyme. The average yield of thyme, which was
produced 23,866 tons in 2020, is 129 kg per decare (Table 5).
10 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

Table 1: World MAPS Area Harvested (Ha)

Anise, badian, Cinnamon
Carobs Cloves Cocoa, beans Coffee, green Ginger
fennel, coriander (cannella)
2011 1,085,460 44,964 241,854 403,475 10,254,014 9,929,407 307,607
2012 1,042,614 42,713 247,508 568,400 10,314,015 10,314,953 368,330
2013 1,001,891 42,218 257,639 584,767 10,176,654 10,544,876 373,591
2014 1,108,230 41,590 267,954 601,153 10,533,723 10,449,598 312,885
2015 1,151,106 41,799 277,958 633,421 10,959,721 10,858,452 347,282
2016 1,343,755 41,462 282,206 655,923 10,872,315 11,011,540 393,514
2017 2,108,759 38,817 288,204 672,943 11,997,741 10,565,783 405,591
2018 2,034,824 14,421 300,796 677,691 12,251,449 10,741,484 393,762
2019 2,076,609 14,366 309,165 673,415 12,234,311 11,120,498 385,172
Change 91.3 -68.0 27.8 66.9 19.3 12.0 25.2
Source: FAOSTAT, Crops and Livestock Products,
https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL, Accessed: 07.11.2021

Table 2: World MAPS Area Harvested (Ha)

Nutmeg,
Linseed Maté mace Peppermint Poppy seed Spices nes Tea Vanilla
and cardamoms
2011 2,231,132 267,984 303,765 2,331 129,006 1,189,963 3,402,185 94,003
2012 2,430,418 274,847 319,679 4,067 72,701 1,151,087 3,512,376 98,132
2013 2,237,790 266,392 335,015 3,684 94,941 1,194,196 3,615,252 95,228
2014 2,637,642 268,641 353,105 3,529 99,831 1,155,281 3,787,752 94,973
2015 2,987,214 274,251 363,593 3,274 143,304 1,236,576 3,878,291 91,530
2016 2,765,498 260,870 391,891 3,434 109,963 1,285,536 4,154,480 92,958
2017 2,922,493 261,776 415,109 3,749 100,870 1,091,366 4,688,300 100,718
2018 3,149,344 253,844 452,665 3,422 46,347 1,417,130 4,854,692 101,273
2019 3,223,531 264,699 450,728 2,779 56,094 1,368,702 5,079,387 102,435
Change 44.5 -1.2 48.4 19.2 -56.5 15.0 49.3 9.0
Source: FAOSTAT, Crops and Livestock Products,
https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL, Accessed: 07.11.2021

Table 3: World MAPS Production (tonnes)

Anise,
Cinnamon
badian, Carobs Cloves Cocoa, beans Coffee, green Ginger
(cannella)
fennel, coriander
2011 953,713 157,418 198,837 102,878 4,614,869 8,387,101 2,365,576
2012 924,026 126,405 204,029 130,774 4,613,416 8,821,944 2,464,003
2013 907,761 114,823 208,761 143,237 4,484,825 8,896,881 2,445,355
2014 1,004,382 166,449 212,939 165,618 4,744,750 8,809,418 2,301,702
2015 1,082,290 133,349 223,035 184,250 4,827,752 8,891,891 2,753,027
2016 1,165,558 135,498 231,020 190,287 4,651,282 9,405,297 3,623,585
2017 2,153,312 138,288 235,615 164,267 5,268,238 9,365,306 3,518,955
2018 2,073,365 46,141 237,895 179,886 5,573,392 10,412,185 4,080,927
2019 1,971,482 46,604 242,635 181,788 5,596,397 10,035,576 4,081,374
Change 106.7 -70.4 22.0 76.7 21.3 19.7 72.5
Source: FAOSTAT, 2021.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 11

Table 4: World MAPS Production (Tonnes)

Nutmeg,
Linseed Maté mace and Peppermint Poppy seed Spices nes Tea Vanilla
cardamoms
2011 2,165,619 774,524 74,837 62,931 107,268 2,597,295 4,827,510 8,602
2012 2,027,340 821,534 92,633 106,386 49,801 2,428,909 5,025,690 8,052
2013 2,273,498 842,650 98,128 95,176 69,624 2,597,385 5,309,841 7,600
2014 2,663,662 959,247 107,017 92,692 81,020 2,600,058 5,493,989 7,081
2015 3,149,783 990,103 107,433 107,586 101,078 2,343,344 5,761,926 7,218
2016 2,910,903 1,015,327 124,671 106,674 84,229 2,652,359 5,802,728 7,780
2017 2,872,323 1,016,085 131,682 99,262 70,285 2,732,111 5,994,682 7,995
2018 2,975,473 928,240 145,568 106,408 29,442 2,642,611 6,326,897 7,738
2019 3,068,254 945,962 141,700 74,232 29,713 2,770,523 6,497,443 7,715
Change 41.7 22.1 89.3 18.0 -72.3 6.7 34.6 -10.3
Source: FAOSTAT, 2021.

In addition, there has been a 43% increase in black cumin cultivation

areas in the last five years. Especially in the last production period, the
increase in the coriander cultivation area draws attention. In 2020,
2,455 decares of coriander were planted and 188 tons of coriander was
obtained. In addition, with an increase in the production area of
approximately 41%, the production of fennel planted on 22,204
decares was 4,365 tons (

Table 6).

Sage production has also increased over the years. In the last five
years, sage production, which has been planted with an increase of
60% by 6,655 decares, has tripled with the increase in yield.
Fenugreek production area has increased five times in the last ten
years and reached 6,521 decares. 713 tons of production was realized.
Carob production area increased by 88% and reached a production of
18,806 tons on 9,299 decares (
Table 7).
12 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

Significant increases in wild harvesting medicinal and aromatic plants

draw attention. In addition to cultivation, carob, one of wild
harvesting MAPs, was collected only 23 tons in 2011 and 642 tons in
2020. Bay leaves were collected 12,329 tons in 2011 and 32,537 tons
in 2019. The amount of linden collected has also increased from 3
tons to 76 tons in the last ten years (Table 8).

Since a significant part of medicinal and aromatic plants are wild

harvesting, it becomes difficult to obtain reliable statistical data.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 13

Table 5: Production Area (Da), Production (Tonnes) and Yield (Kg/Da)

of Some MAPs (Harvested)
Anise Cumin Thyme
Area Production Yield Area Production Yield Area Production Yield
2011 211,542 14,879 70 200,117 13,193 66 77,707 10,953 141
2012 194,430 11,023 57 226,294 13,900 61 94,283 11,598 123
2013 152,431 10,046 66 247,045 17,050 69 89,137 13,658 153
2014 140,506 9,309 66 224,421 15,570 69 92,959 11,752 126
2015 138,118 9,050 66 270,247 16,897 63 104,863 12,992 124
2016 136,552 9,491 70 268,849 18,586 69 121,127 14,724 122
2017 121,833 8,418 69 267,358 19,175 72 121,472 14,477 119
2018 124,455 8,664 70 361,761 24,195 67 139,061 15,895 114
2019 239,171 17,589 74 321,889 20,245 63 157,074 17,965 114
2020 155,317 10,716 69 212,132 13,926 66 184,711 23,866 129
Change -26.6 -28.0 -1.4 6.0 5.6 0.0 137.7 117.9 -8.5

Table 6: Production Area (Da), Production (Tonnes) and Yield (Kg/Da)

of Some MAPs (Harvested)
Black Cumin * Fennel * Coriander *
Area Production Yield Area Production Yield Area Production Yield
2012 2,299 161 70 15,775 1,862 118 11 1 91
2013 3,261 352 108 13,848 1,994 144 11 1 91
2014 1,717 140 82 15,848 2,289 144 11 1 91
2015 4,681 425 91 15,512 1,461 94 150 11 73
2016 23,160 2,527 109 17,503 2,464 141 503 42 83
2017 32,560 3,094 95 16,525 2,022 122 410 29 71
2018 33,864 3,322 98 23,400 3,067 131 405 29 72
2019 37,085 3,603 97 33,859 4,655 137 155 12 77
2020 33,773 3,412 101 22,204 4,365 197 2,455 188 77
Change 1,369.0 2,019.3 44.3 40.8 134.4 66.9 22,218.2 18,700.0 -15.4
* Data have been compiled since 2012.
Source:TUIK, 2021.
Table 7: Production Area (Da), Production (Tonnes) and Yield (Kg/Da)
of Some MAPs (Harvested)
Sage* Fenugreek Carob
Area Production Yield Area Production Yield Area Production Yield
2011 - - - 1,055 141 134 4,940 13,978 48
2012 54 7 130 645 67 105 5,449 14,166 45
2013 30 4 133 1,678 195 116 5,119 14,261 48
2014 130 19 146 1,979 218 110 6,307 13,985 46
2015 536 80 149 4,825 491 114 5,244 12,851 45
2016 3,681 411 112 8,234 914 111 5,693 13,405 46
2017 4,123 557 135 14,499 1,521 105 6,735 15,016 45
2018 3,951 428 108 7,188 745 104 6,821 15,506 47
2019 5,602 1,233 220 6,040 645 107 7,652 16,256 47
2020 6,655 1,271 191 6,521 713 109 9,299 18,806 54
Change 12,224.1 18,057.1 46.9 518.1 405.7 -18.7 88.2 34.5 12.5
* Data have been compiled since 2012. Source: TUIK, 2021.
Table 8: Production of Some MAP’s (Collected) (Tonnes)
Carob Bay Leaves Linden
2011 23 12,329 3
2012 24 12,351 56
2013 522 15,178 29
2014 539 15,581 50
2015 614 21,634 48
2016 1,492 21,788 65
2017 669 27,678 208
2018 933 28,582 35
2019 642 32,537 76
Source: T.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Forest General Directorate,
2021.
14 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

2.2 The Marketing of MAPS

In MAPs marketing, the supply chain is often very long with as many
as six or seven marketing stages involving primary collectors and
producers, local contractors, regional wholesale markets, large
wholesale markets and specialized suppliers. Industry buys from
suppliers and wholesalers rather than direct from smallholders because
of the substantial quantities and broad range of raw material that is
needed. This makes product traceability nearly impossible. Currently,
contract farming and buy-back arrangements provide the only
practical alternatives for exporters whose customers require
traceability (FAO, 2005).

In Turkey, the marketing channels of medicinal and aromatic plants

vary according to the products. The domestic marketing channel of
medicinal and aromatic plants is given in Figure 1. Manufacturers and
collectors sell the product to local wholesalers and packaging
companies. Local wholesalers generally make an agreement with the
demands of certain processing companies or large wholesalers, and
get the product by communicating with the people who can collect the
products demanded from that region. Processing companies buy
products directly from local collectors and producers, especially from
large wholesalers. The processed and packaged products are given to
the domestic market through herbalists, markets and neighborhood
markets, or they are exported to the foreign market (Artukoğlu and
Uzmay, 2003).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 15

In a study conducted in Isparta province, 29% of the lavender

producing enterprises markets their products in the distribution
channel as producer-factory-firms-consumer, 22% are producer-
merchant-wholesaler-retailer-consumer and 19% are producer-factory.
It is stated that only 6.35% of the producers sell directly from the
producer to the consumer (Bozkıran, 2015).

Producers and
Collectors

Local
Processors Wholesalers

Large
Wholesalers

Herbalist Shops
Markets
Local Markets

Consumers

Figure 1: Marketing Channels of MAPs in Turkey

Source: Artukoğlu ve Uzmay, 2003.
16 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

2.3 Trade of MAPS

2.3.1 World Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Trade

In the last two decades, interest in the use of medicinal and aromatic
plants in health care has increased in developed countries. Legal
restrictions on chemicals used in food preservation have been
effective in this development. The recognition of herbal products as
safe and healthy products with few side effects, is also an important
factor in the growth of market share. Also, this general trend has led to
the development of the herbal medicine industry. Therefore market
demand for medicinal and aromatic plant products will remain strong
in the near future.

Moreover, the global dietary supplements market size was valued at

USD 140.3 billion in 2020 and is expected to expand at a compound
annual growth rate of 8.6% from 2021 to 2028 (Grand View Research,
2021). The U.S. emerged as a leading market in the North American
region in 2020. On the other hand the botanicals market was valued at
USD 93.6 billion in 2020, registering a rate of 6.63%, during the
period, 2021-2026 (Mordor Intelligence, 2020). The growth of the
market for botanical ingredients is expected to be hindered by the
ongoing pandemic COVID-19, which has relentlessly hit the global
trade and production business.

In the light of these developments, when the foreign trade of

medicinal and aromatic plants is examined, it is seen that there is an
export potential of 65.73 billion dollars. Although the export of MAP
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 17

reached to 68.57 billion USD in 2020, there is a difficulty in assessing

exact trade figures. This problem is that the MAPs are not gathered
under the same harmonized commodity chapters. In general,
medicinal and aromatic plants are included under chapters 09, 12, 13
and 33. According to world trade figures, 75.21% of world MAP trade
consists of coffee, tea, mate and spice. Although medicinal plants and
essential oils have low shares in world trade, they are the product
groups whose trade has increased the fastest in the last decade (Table
9).

Table 9: World export of medicinal and aromatic plants by product ($1,000)

Lac; gums,
Coffee, tea, Medicinal resins, saps Essential Total
maté and plants and extracts oils
spices
2011 51,255,925 2,539,936 7,939,374 3,634,883 65,370,118
2012 48,641,432 2,663,893 12,736,899 3,674,944 67,717,168
2013 45,355,147 3,467,213 9,237,509 3,966,056 62,025,925
2014 49,644,156 3,559,692 8,656,524 4,450,614 66,310,986
2015 48,180,272 3,140,843 6,898,080 4,846,850 63,066,045
2016 48,476,499 3,201,753 6,734,226 4,734,472 63,146,950
2017 52,088,378 3,194,721 7,230,626 5,431,453 67,945,178
2018 49,749,048 3,215,550 8,122,695 5,955,614 67,042,907
2019 49,179,452 3,242,997 8,064,189 5,642,249 66,128,887
2020 51,828,339 3,554,136 7,901,192 5,290,510 68,574,177
Average 49,439,865 3,178,073 8,352,131 4,762,765 65,732,834
Share (%) 75.21 4.83 12.71 7.25 100.00
Change (%) 1.12 39.93 -0.48 45.55 4.90
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

There are approximately 20,000 MAPs species in the world, and about
2,000 of them are traded (HABDER, 2020). When the single countries
export shares are analyzed for the year 2020, Brazil ranks first with a
share of 9.5% in 2020, followed by China (7.1%) and India (6.5%) for
coffee, tea, maté and spices (Figure 2). Germany with a share of 5.7%
and Viet Nam with a share of 5.6% follow these first three countries.
18 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

On the 2011-2020 period average, Brazil (11.5%) ranks the first. It is

followed by Viet Nam (8.3%), Germany (6.3%), India (6.2%) and
China (5.7%), respectively. Turkey's export share is 0.4% for the same
period (Table 10).

Table 10: The 5 leading countries of MAP exports (2011-2020)

Lac; gums,
Coffee, tea, maté Medicinal plants resins, saps and Essential oils
and spices extracts
Value Value Value Value
% % % %
(1000 $) (1000 $) (1000 $) (1000 $)
Brazil 5,702,824 11.5 11,791 0,4 113,406 1,4 298,753 6.3
China 2,832,507 5.7 975,219 30.7 1,303,793 15.6 412,404 8.7
India 3,062,604 6.2 253,875 8.0 1,984,097 23.8 746,025 15.7
Germany 3,123,785 6.3 166,738 5.2 560,312 6.7 187,705 3.9
Viet
4,114,703 8.3
Nam
18,762 0.6 27,623 0.3 10,483 0.2
USA 159,966 5.0
1,182,696 2.4 622,134 7.4 639,050 13.4
Canada 167,252 5.3
601,128 1.2 66,548 0.8 58,324 1.2
France
1,097,877 2.2 54,236 1.7 591,062 7.1 392,373 8.2
Turkey 181,228 0.4 19,087 0,6 13,126 0.2 35,387 0.7
World 49,439,865 100,0 3,178,073 100,0 8,352,131 100.0 4,762,765 100.0
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

Figure 2: The Main Exporting Countries for Coffee, Tea, Maté and Spices
(2020)
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 19

Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

In medicinal plants, China and India rank the first two places with a
share of 14.8% for medicinal plants in 2020. Egypt ranks third with a
share of 5.9%. Spain's share who ranks in the top five is 4.4%, while
Poland's is 4.1% (Figure 3). On the average China heads the world’s
top countries of export. It has 30.7% on average in medicinal plants in
the period 2011-2020, which is one third of the total exportation of
medicinal plants. Further important exporters are India (8.0 %),
Canada (5.3%), Germany (5.2%) and the USA (5.0%). Turkey, on the
other hand, ranks 26th with a share of 0.6% (Table 10).

Figure 3: The Main Exporting Countries for Medicinal Plants (2020)

Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.
A similar ordering applies to lac; gums, resins, saps and extracts.
China (20.7%) is still the largest exporter in 2020. China is followed
by India (9.2%) again. The third country is the USA. As of 2020, it
20 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

has a share of 7.7% in lac; gums, resins, saps and extracts exports
(Figure 4). However, when the average of the last decade is taken into
account, it is seen that India surpassed China and ranked first with the
share of 23.8%. As the period average, China's share is 15.6%. Other
important exporting countries are the USA (7.4%), France (7.1%) and
Germany (6.5%). Turkey's export share is 0.2% for the same period
(Table 10).

Figure 4: The Main Exporting Countries for Lac; gums, resins, saps and
extracts (2020)
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

It is seen that the top five countries have not changed much in
essential oils exports as of 2020. In this group, India ranks the first
with a share of 15.1%, while the USA ranks the second with a share of
14.5%. China is in fourth place with a share of 5.5% (
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 21

Figure 5). France has 8.6% and ranks the third. On the average (2011-
2020), India heads the list of the world’s top 5 countries of essential
oils exports with a share of 15.7%. Further important exporters on
average are the USA (13.4%), China (8.7%), France (8.2 %) and
Brazil (6.3%). Turkey, on the other hand, ranks 25th with a share of
0.7% (Table 10).

Figure 5: The Main Exporting Countries for Essential oils (2020)

Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.
Although Turkey is one of the countries with the richest plant
diversity in the Mediterranean, its share in MAPs exports is below
1%. The reason for Turkey's low export rates in global MAPs trade is
that Turkey still exports unprocessed MAPs. As a matter of fact, it is
seen that Asian (35.8%) and European (28.8%) countries dominate the
MAPs export market. American countries, on the other hand, rank the
third place in MAPs exports with a share of 27.6% (Hata! Başvuru
22 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

kaynağı bulunamadı.). Another main feature of MAPs imports is the

dominance of European countries; about 46.8% of the worldwide
MAPs imports are allocated to European countries. The countries of
Asia and America are responsible for 24.8% and 24.6% respectively
of the worldwide MAPs imports (Figure 6). The emergence of such
differences between countries is associated with MAPs prices, plant
variety and processing status, and the socio-economic status of the
suppliers. Also higher prices are paid for processed, semi-processed
and organic certified products from countries such as the USA, Chile,
Hong Kong, Japan, Taiwan (Lange, 2006).

Figure 6: The leading country groups of MAP trade (2011-2020)

Import of MAP also has an important place in the world trade. As a

matter of fact, when the last decade is examined, it is seen that there is
an import potential of 68 billion dollars in MAPs. On MAPs imports
side, coffee, tea and spices are the most imported product groups with
a share of 75.65%. Lac and extracts are the second important product
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 23

group. Although medicinal plants and essential oils have low shares in
world MAPs import, they are the product groups whose import has
increased the fastest in the last decade (Table 11).

Table 11: World import of medicinal and aromatic plants by product ($1,000)
09 Coffee, 1211 13 Lac; 3301 Total
tea, maté Medicinal gums, Essential
and spices plants resins, oils
saps and
extracts
2011 50.942.282 2.537.115 7.150.412 3.765.050 64.394.859
2012 48.091.717 2.666.343 9.986.222 3.679.157 64.423.439
2013 44.252.452 3.114.990 8.258.297 3.904.264 59.530.003
2014 47.550.036 3.260.405 7.860.721 4.139.641 62.810.803
2015 48.014.383 3.078.843 6.882.051 4.427.385 62.402.662
2016 47.425.261 3.106.031 6.572.505 4.627.929 61.731.726
2017 51.359.005 3.141.439 7.191.717 5.405.416 67.097.577
2018 49.841.314 3.831.483 8.039.940 6.097.214 67.809.951
2019 49.033.270 3.299.906 8.024.182 5.987.026 66.344.384
2020 50.385.371 3.434.631 8.034.581 5.240.871 67.095.454
Average 48.689.509 3.147.119 7.800.063 4.727.395 64.364.086
Share (%) 75,65 4,89 12,12 7,34 100,00
Change (%) -1,09 35,38 12,37 39,20 4,19
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

In 2020, the USA (15.4%), Germany (8.4%) and France (6.6%) are
the leading countries that import coffee, tea, mate and spices. Almost
all of the countries in the top five in the coffee, tea, maté and spices
group are European countries (Figure 7). On the 2011-2020 period
average, the USA (16.8%) ranks the first. It is followed by Viet Nam
(8.3%), Germany (6.3%), Germany (9.8%) and France (6.4%),
respectively. Turkey's import share is 0.5% for the same period (Table
12).
24 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

Table 12: The 5 leading countries of MAP imports (2011-2020)

09 13
1211 3301
Coffee, tea, maté Lac; gums, resins,
Medicinal plants Essential oils
and spices saps and extracts
Value Value Value Value
% % % %
(1000 $) (1000 $) (1000 $) (1000 $)
USA 8,156,401 16.8 391,109 12.6 2,052,690 26.3 981,352 20.8
Germany 4,794,295 9.8 281,244 9.1 597,756 7.7 345,477 7.3
France 3,101,997 6.4 97,334 3.1 366,627 4.7 392,995 8.3
Netherlands 1,542,404 3.2 53,915 1.7 165,950 2.1 125,519 2.7
UK 1,675,640 3.4 76,075 2.5 228,893 2.9 292,985 6.2
Japan 2,010,015 4,1 269,113 8.7 355,784 4.6 190,762 4.0
Hong Kong,
China 230,392 0,5 316,186 10.2 41,649 0.5 34,549 0.7
China 575,549 1,2 145,314 4.7 261,502 3.4 226,813 4.8
Turkey 229,654 0.5 9,877 0.3 45,321 0.6 27,057 0.6
World 48,689,509 100.0 3,102,289 100.0 7,800,063 100.0 4,727,395 100.0
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

Figure 7: The Main Importing Countries for Coffee, Tea, Maté and Spices
(2020)
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

In 2020, Hong Kong (10.4%), the USA (7.3%), and Germany (6.3%)
ranked first in the world's imports of medicinal plants. India (4.5%)
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 25

and Spain (4.4%) are the other leading countries (Figure 8). According
to the average of 2011-2020 period, the five major importing countries
are the USA (12.6%), Hong Kong (10.2%), Germany (9.1%), Japan
(%8.7) and China (4.7%) (Table 12). Turkey's import share is 0.3%
for the same period (Table 12).

Figure 8: The Main Importing Countries for Medicinal Plants (2020)

Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.
In extracts, the most important importing country for 2020 is the USA.
The USA is followed by Germany, France, China and Japan in order.
While the share of the USA in its imports is 18.4%, Germany's
following it is 7.6% (Figure 9). Looking at the period average, it is
seen that the USA ranks first with a share of 26%. This country is
followed by Germany (7.7%), France (4.7%), Japan (4.6%) and China
(3.4%), respectively. Turkey's import share is 0.5% for the same
period (Table 12).
26 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

Figure 9: The Main Importing Countries for Lac; gums, resins, saps and
extracts (2020)
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

In the import of essential oils, the USA ranks first with a share of
18.9%. France ranks the second place with a share of 7.3%, and
Germany ranks the third place with a share of 6.5% in 2020. China
and UK are other major countries in essential oil imports. (Figure 10).
According to the average data, a similar country distribution emerges
for essential oils. The USA (20.8%) also maintains its importance in
essential oils imports. Other important importers are France (8.3%),
Germany (7.3%), UK (6.2%) and China (4.8%), respectively. Turkey's
import share is 0.6% for the same period (Table 12).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 27

Figure 10: The Main Importing Countries for Essential oils (2020)
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.
Briefly, a main feature of international trade is the dominance of
European and Asian countries. 68.0% of the global imports and
exports of MAPs are allocated to these countries. Asian countries are
responsible for 35.8% of MAPs export and 24.6% of MAPs imports.
European countries’ share in MAPs import is more than one third.
This situation, which was also expressed in Lange's study (2006),
seems to be still valid today.

2.3.2 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Trade in Turkey

It is known that the use of some MAPs as food and medicine in

Turkey has a history of millennia. As a matter of fact, Turkey's natural
wealth allows many medicinal and aromatic plant species to be
collected and cultivated from nature. However, the use of these plants
as a commercial commodity is quite new. Although these products are
28 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

commercially new, their production areas have increased over the

years. Depending on these developments, Turkey has become one of
the leading countries in the trade of these plants. In Turkey, 347
species are traded and 139 species are exported (HABDER, 2020).
However, medicinal and aromatic plants are generally exported as raw
products, creating low added value. This results in a low income from
MAPs exports. As a matter of fact, during the period under
consideration, there was an increase of 129.9% in the value of MAPs
exports and MAPs exports reached 350 million dollars in 2020.
Turkey's export of MAPs shows a similarity with the world. Turkey's
most important MAPs export item is coffee, tea and spices. The share
of essential oils in Turkey's exports is also high (Table 13).

Table 13: Export of medicinal and aromatic plants in Turkey ($1,000)

Lac; gums,
Coffee, tea, maté Medicinal resins, saps and Essential oils Total
and spices plants extracts
2011 110,495 12,944 6,636 22,177 152,252
2012 118,694 11,908 8,403 24,794 163,799
2013 185,149 19,983 10,607 25,149 240,888
2014 205,283 25,660 9,783 32,244 272,970
2015 168,481 15,676 9,107 33,586 226,850
2016 196,162 16,332 10,283 41,292 264,069
2017 178,338 17,577 12,003 49,187 257,105
2018 180,685 20,336 16,387 47,481 264,889
2019 211,864 24,399 19,122 40,065 295,450
2020 257,132 26,052 28,925 37,894 350,003
Average 181,228 19,087 13,126 35,387 248,828
Share (%) 72.8 7.7 5.3 14.2 100.0
Change (%) 132.7 101.3 335.9 70.9 129.9
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

Turkey is exporting a wide range of spices, but is particularly strong

in ginger, saffron, turmeric, thyme, bay leaves and seeds of anise,
badian, fennel, coriander, cumin (Figure 11). Thyme, which has many
uses, especially in the spice, medicine, cosmetics and chemical
industry, has an important place in the foreign trade of medicinal and
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 29

aromatic plants of our country. Turkey holds approximately 70-80%

of the world's thyme export. Thyme (31.1% takes the first place in
exports of MAPs. Bay leaves ranks the second with a 21.1% share in
Turkish MAPs exports. Another important group product in Turkey's
MAPs export is essential oils. The most important export item in
terms of essential oils is rose oil. It accounts for 36.4% of MAPs
exports in the period under consideration. Almost all of the rose oil
produced in Turkey is exported. This is followed by volatile oils
(12.3%), thyme oil (10.4%), extracted oleoresins (9.0%) and
steraopten (6.4%).

Figure 11: The share of coffee, tea, maté and spices exports (2020)
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.
The USA is the most important market for Turkish spices. The main
markets are the USA and Germany, which absorb about 30% of total
Turkish spices exports. Other important markets are Viet Nam,
30 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

Belgium and Netherlands. In medicinal plants again the USA and

Germany are the major countries. They have approximately 43% share
in Turkish medicinal plants export. These countries are followed by
UK, France and Japan. In lac and extracts exports Germany is the
leading country with a share of 18.6% and followed by Italy, China, S.
Korea and Malaysia. Turkey exports also significant amounts of
essential oils to the world. France is the dominant country in essential
oil exports; its export share is 56.7%. France is followed by UK,
Germany, the USA and Switzerland (Table 14). In general, it is seen
that the USA, Germany and France are main markets in the export of
Turkish MAPs.
Table 14: The 5 leading countries in Turkish MAPs exports (2011-2020)
Coffee, tea, maté Lac; gums, resins,
Medicinal plants Essential oils
and spices saps and extracts
Value Value Value Value
% % % %
(1000 $) (1000 $) (1000 $) (1000 $)
USA 33,681 18.6 3,923 20.6 2,331 6.6
Germany 17,290 9.5 4,141 21.7 2,442 18.6 2,834 8.0
Viet Nam 12,896 7.1
Belgium 8,853 4.9
Netherlands 6,931 3.8
UK 1,154 6.0 2,889 8.2
France 910 4.8 20,076 56.7
Japan 563 2.9
Italy 2,023 15.4
China 1,313 10.0
S. Korea 1,098 8.4
Malaysia 598 4.6
Switzerland 1,191 3.4
Total 181,228 100,0 19,087 100,0 13,126 100.0 35,387 100.0
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

The increasing trend in the world has also been observed in Turkey's
foreign trade. Turkey also imports many MAPs. Data on the import
value of MAPs in Turkey are presented in Table 15. It is seen that the
import value of the coffee, tea and spices, which was 118 million
dollars in 2011, increased approximately 2 times and reached 343,7
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 31

million dollars in 2020. The same increasing trend is observed in other

product groups of MAPs. Especially the medicinal plants import has
increased 3 times since 2011.
Table 15: Import of medicinal and aromatic plants in Turkey ($1,000)
Lac; gums,
Coffee, tea, Medicinal resins, Essential Total
maté and plants saps and oils
spices extracts
2011 118,020 4,390 36,700 19,477 178,587
2012 136,177 4,940 38,259 18,048 197,424
2013 175,646 15,336 45,702 19,519 256,203
2014 187,841 15,591 43,905 23,693 271,030
2015 199,779 6,505 39,577 26,727 272,588
2016 215,998 7,623 42,599 27,398 293,618
2017 319,580 9,965 43,861 36,394 409,800
2018 266,302 9,401 51,754 33,546 361,003
2019 333,448 12,503 50,844 32,457 429,252
2020 343,749 12,511 60,005 33,314 449,579
Average 229,654 9,877 45,321 27,057 311,908
Share (%) 73.63 3.17 14.53 8.67 100.00
Change (%) 191.26 184.99 63.50 71.04 151.74
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

The coffee, tea and spices supplying countries with the highest
imports are Brazil, Sri Lanka, Syria, the Netherlands, and Vietnam for
2011-2020 period. Albania, India, Turkmenistan, Morocco and
Azerbaijan are the leading supplying markets for medicinal plants
imported by Turkey. The reason why Albania ranks first in Turkey's
imports is that Turkey re-exports the products imported from Albania.
It is stated in the report prepared by USAID (2010) that there are no
facilities for sterilizing sage in Albania, so that the product exported to
Turkey and sterilized there before being re-exported to USA. In lac
and extracts imports Germany is the leading country with a share of
19.9% and followed by France, India, China, and Italy. India and
32 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

Germany are the main essential oil supplying countries for Turkey;
their import share is 30.4%. These countries are followed by France,
the USA and Spain (Table 16).
Table 16: The 5 leading countries in Turkish MAP imports (2011-2020)
Coffee, tea, maté and Lac; gums, resins,
Medicinal plants Essential oils
spices saps and extracts
Value (1000 Value Value Value
% % % %
$) (1000 $) (1000 $) (1000 $)
Brazil 108,830 47.4
Sri Lanka 20,583 9.0
Syria 12,304 5.4
Netherlands 11,545 5.0
Viet Nam 8,336 3.6
Albania 2,141 21.7
India 1,126 11.4 4,732 10.4 4,519 16.7
Turkmenistan 1,032 10.4
Morocco 737 7.5
Azerbaijan 553 5.6
Germany 9,009 19.9 3,715 13.7
France 6,704 14.8 2,632 9.7
China 4,726 10.4
Italy 3,071 6.8
USA 2,501 9.2
Spain 2427 9.0
Total 229,654 100.0 9,877 100.0 45,321 100.0 27,057 100.0
Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

Turkey, which is an important exporter of MAPs, also imports some

plant species. Turkey is an importer of coffee, black pepper, ginger,
turmeric, ginseng, nutmeg and cinnamon since it is not possible to
cultivate these in Turkey. Coffee ranks first among the most imported
products. Brazil is the major supplying market for Turkey, followed
by the, Colombia, Guatemala and India (ITC, 2021). Being an
important source country as a producer and exporter for MAPs,
Turkey shows high imports MAPs at the same time. The underlying
reason for this is insufficient production in Turkey, more affordable
costs of importing countries and the advanced spice processing
technologies in our country (Boztaş et al, 2021). These imported
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 33

products are processed and re-exported. Among the re-exported

products is coffee and black pepper with a high share. In addition, it is
seen that bay leaves are imported, which is one of our most important
export products. The reason for importing bay leaves is that Georgian
bay leaf is preferred especially in Europe. Therefore bay leaves are re-
export (Boztaş et al, 2021).
Prices allow drawing conclusions on the kind of commodity, their
degree of processing, and the socioeconomic situation of the
collectors. The leading countries in medicinal plants import and export
prices of different countries are assessed for the period 2011-2020.
Comparing the average export and import prices for one tonne in
selected countries, it can be concluded that consumer countries and
countries with huge MAP-processing industries show higher export
prices. Another striking fact is that the most important supply
countries show lower prices (Figure 12). Low prices indicate that
mainly raw plant material is exported, in most cases of wild-collection
origin. The benefit is relative low. Consequently, only unemployed or
unskilled people or people with low wages are collecting botanicals
(Lange, 2006).
34 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

USA

India

China

Germany

Turkey

-2000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Surplus Import Price ($/ton) Export Price ($/ton)

Figure 12: Import and export prices of medicinal plants (2020)

Source: ITC, Trademap, 2021.

3 Competitiveness of Turkey in MAPS International Market

Various types of MAPs have been produced as raw materials of both

modern and traditional medicine. The large demand of MAPs results
in tremendous international trade. For all exporting countries of
MAPs, it is important to improve competitiveness of MAPs aimed to
hit the export market and also to be able to compete with import
products in domestic market (Riptanti et al, 2018). Therefore we
examined the competitiveness of MAPs in international market for the
leading five exporting countries. We employed the basic comparative
advantage method, known as Revealed Comparative advantage
(RCA), to examine the competitiveness of MAPs.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 35

In this study, Vollrath index of Revealed Comparative Advantage

Index (RCA) index is used. Vollrath (1991) proposed that RCA can be
estimated under international competitiveness based on four principal
areas under RCA theory which consist of; the relative trade advantage
(RTA), revealed comparative advantage index (RCA), the relative
export advantage (RXA), and relative import advantage (RMA).
Positive values of RXA, RTA, and RCA indicate competitive
advantage, while negative values indicate competitive disadvantage.
Vollrath’s indices can be calculated as follow:

RXAij= (Xij / Xit) / ( Xnj / Xnt) Equation (1)

RMAij= (Mij / Mit) / (Mnj / Mnt) Equation (2)
RTAij=RXAij-RMAij Equation (3)
RCAij= ln(RXAij)-ln(RMAij) Equation (4)

where Xij the exports of commodity j, by country i; Xit the exports of

all commodities, excluding commodity j, by country i; X nj the exports
of commodity j, by the rest of the world, excluding country i; Xnt the
exports of all commodities excluding commodity j, by all countries in
the world excluding country i; Mij the imports of commodity j, by
country i; Mit the imports of all commodities, excluding commodity j,
by country i; Mnj the imports of commodity j, by the rest of the world;
Mnt the imports of all commodities, excluding commodity j, by all
countries in the world, excluding country i; X the exports; M the
imports; n the rest of the commodities; t the rest of the world.
36 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

The structure of global market of medicinal and aromatic plants is

mostly competitive. In MAPs international market there are large
numbers of effective competitors. In other words, none of them has
more than 10 percent of the market share. Also major exporters
possess nearly 35 percent of the market and other exporters can take
this opportunity to enter into the business (Roosta et al, 2017). Roosta
et al’s results showed that Singapore, Japan, Germany, Malaysia, and
the U.S. have the highest importing advantage.

When the exporting advantage of MAPs in the global market is

examined, it is seen that the competition in this market is high. Table
17 shows the RCA value for coffee, tea and spices of five major
exporting countries during periods of 2011-2020. The mean score of
the value of RCA for Brazil, India and Vietnam was above 1
indicating a strong comparative advantage in international markets.
Although Germany ranks the third in coffee, tea and spices, it has
comparatively low advantage. Likewise Germany, China has a
disadvantage in the international markets.

Table 17: RCA Index for Coffee, tea, maté and spices
Brazil China India Germany Vietnam Turkey
2011 12.12 0.39 3.64 0.84 14.38 0.30
2012 9.91 0.37 3.68 0.86 16.00 0.31
2013 9.27 0.44 3.47 0.90 12.43 0.50
2014 11.71 0.41 3.45 0.83 12.83 0.49
2015 11.04 0.38 3.77 0.74 8.44 0.45
2016 9.57 0.47 3.76 0.74 8.99 0.51
2017 7.94 0.44 3.85 0.79 7.32 0.46
2018 8.09 0.53 3.87 0.84 6.67 0.51
2019 8.35 0.55 3.86 0.78 4.85 0.44
2020 8.77 0.53 4.55 0.82 3.86 0.52
Average 9.68 0.45 3.79 0.81 9.58 0.45
Source: WITS Database, 2021.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 37

China heads the world’s top countries of medicinal plants export.

However, ranking the first does not give a competitive advantage for
China. Instead, India has a comparative advantage in medicinal plant
market (Table 18).

Table 18: RCA Index for Medicinal plants

China India Canada Germany USA Turkey
2011 2.78 3.95 1.30 0.70 0.66 0.69
2012 2.83 4.66 2.48 0.68 0.57 0.54
2013 2.98 3.40 2.23 0.56 0.59 0.68
2014 2.88 4.00 2.72 0.58 0.55 0.82
2015 2.38 4.68 2.89 0.60 0.49 0.64
2016 2.42 5.02 2.50 0.57 0.54 0.67
2017 2.34 5.45 2.43 0.67 0.61 0.67
2018 2.02 5.83 -- 0.75 0.68 0.82
2019 2.10 5.15 -- 0.73 0.61 0.79
2020 1.78 6.23 -- 0.77 0.61 0.76
Average 2.45 4.84 2.36 0.66 0.59 0.71
Source: WITS Database, 2021.

India maintains its superiority in international markets in the lac,

gums, resins, saps and extract market as well. It is clearly seen that
India has a competitive advantage among the other major exporting
countries (Table 19).
Table 19: RCA Index for Lac; gums, resins, saps and extracts
India China USA France Germany Turkey
2011 18.50 1.27 1.00 0.99 1.07 0.12
2012 33.81 0.72 0.72 0.65 0.67 0.08
2013 19.97 1.14 0.86 0.99 1.02 0.14
2014 17.04 1.31 0.88 1.10 1.06 0.14
2015 10.13 1.41 0.96 1.24 1.18 0.15
2016 7.64 1.43 0.92 1.28 1.19 0.17
2017 8.14 1.45 0.88 2.86 0.86 0.18
2018 7.51 1.40 0.94 2.73 1.13 0.21
2019 6.50 1.40 0.90 2.60 1.17 0.24
2020 5.71 1.37 0.92 3.09 1.23 0.37
Average 13.50 1.29 0.90 1.75 1.06 0.18
Source: WITS Database, 2021.
38 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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India also has a comparative advantage in the essential oils

international market. But in this market, besides India, Brazil, France
and the USA also have the moderate advantage (Table 20).

Table 20: RCA Index for Essential oils

India USA China France Brazil Turkey
2011 8.69 1.59 0.59 2.52 5.16 0.82
2012 12.34 1.57 0.53 2.42 5.02 0.80
2013 10.18 1.51 0.72 2.50 4.12 0.74
2014 7.99 1.46 1.06 2.70 4.33 0.81
2015 7.32 1.35 1.18 2.43 4.65 0.75
2016 7.96 1.49 0.69 2.77 6.44 0.94
2017 8.58 1.52 0.50 2.90 6.45 0.96
2018 8.63 1.56 0.61 2.97 6.10 0.86
2019 12.13 1.55 0.45 2.67 4.41 0.72
2020 9.76 1.81 0.38 3.15 4.15 0.72
Average 9.36 1.54 0.67 2.70 5.08 0.81
Source: WITS Database, 2021.

When overall MAPs market is evaluated, it is seen that India has a

strong competitive advantage. India is followed by China, Germany
and the USA. Unfortunately, Turkey's competitiveness in MAPs is
quite low. The product group it can compete with is the essential oils
group. The average RCA index in this group is 0.81. Considering
Turkey's production potential, a competitive advantage can be reached
in essential oils. In a study, calculating Brülhart indices on a product
basis, it was found that Turkey's IIT for MAPs was very low. Also
Turkey’s foreign trade has shown differences according to IIT before
and after 2012 (Kurt and İmren, 2018).

4 Conclusion
Due to their functional properties, medicinal and aromatic plants are
also used in different industrial areas along with their traditional use.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 39

The widespread use of medicinal and aromatic plants has increased

with the increase of people's awareness of health, their desire to take
precautions against diseases and to create their own treatments.
Accordingly, their production and trade has increased both in the
world and in Turkey. This has not as yet, however, resulted in
substantial benefits to developing countries or particularly benefits to
growers and producers.

MAPs are both wild harvested and cultivated in the world as well as in
Turkey. It is seen that awareness and interest in the economic, social
and environmental benefits and importance of MAPs have increased
in the world in recent years. These plants are important in terms of
biodiversity, as well as in the protection of wildlife. Especially in
small family farming, MAPs have the potential to provide an
opportunity for high income.

Turkey is at an important point in terms of surface area, climate and

gene centers. Therefore, it has rich endemic plant diversity. MAPs
constitute a significant part of this endemic diversity in Turkey.
However, in Turkey since MAPs are exported as raw materials, its
value added is low. In Turkey, MAPs cleaning, sorting, classification,
processing and packaging are done only in spice and herbal tea
production. Therefore, processed and standardized MAPs production
is insufficient. So, every process to be made on MAPs will increase
the MAPs’ value added and their exports.
40 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

Although Turkey has an important place in world trade in MAPs’

exports, her current exports and competitiveness in this market are
low. It is not possible to produce MAPs only by collecting. In
addition, MAPs, which is important and has economic value, should
be cultured. Thus, Turkey's exports and competition in world trade
will increase. In order for Turkey to conceive this increase, it is
important to produce standardized MAPs that can meet market
demands. Here, traceability in is also important. A holistic approach
should be adopted for the development of the industry. Also Turkey
should develop effective strategies to support improved cultivation,
quality controls systems, provision of high quality planting materials,
and the encouragement of investments in new technologies. Since
most of these plants are wild collected, the protection of nature and
sustainability is also important here. The policies and the measures to
be implemented should not ignore sustainability. For cultivated and
wild harvested MAPs implementing organic agriculture standards
along with other international standards is a possibility to consider.

Certification of organic or other standards could strengthen long-term

buyer-seller trade relationships and increase income. There may also
be an opportunity to link such products to the market for genuine
origin or geographical indication products. These measures will also
support the quality, traceability and competitiveness of MAPs.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 41

5 . References

Artukoğlu, M., Uzmay, A., (2003). Tıbbi ve Aromatik Bitkiler İç ve Dış Ticaret
Üzerine Bir Araştırma, İzmir Ticaret Odası Yayın No:126, 42p.
Bozkıran, S., (2015). Tıbbi ve Aromatik Bitkiler Pazarlaması: Lavanta Örneği-
Isparta, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Tarım
Ekonomisi Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Isparta. 60p.
Boztaş G, Avcı A.B, Arabacı, O, Bayram E., (2021). Tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerin
dünyadaki ve Türkiye’deki ekonomik durumu. Theoretical and Applied
Forestry 1: 27- 33.
Cadar, R.-L., Amuza, A., Dumitras, D.E., Mihai, M., Pocol, C.B., (2021). Analysing
Clusters of Consumers Who Use Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Products.
Sustainability, 13, 8648. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158648.
FAO, (2005). Trade in Medicinal Plants, Raw Materials, Tropical and Horticultural
Products Service Commodities and Trade Division Economic and Social
Department, Rome.
FAOSTAT, (2021). Crops and Livestock Products, https://www.fao.org/faostat/
en/#data/QCL, Accessed: 07.11.2021
Faydaoğlu, E., Sürücüoğlu, M. S. (2011). Geçmişten günümüze tıbbi ve aromatik
bitkilerin kullanılması ve ekonomik önemi. Kastamonu University Journal of
Forestry Faculty, 11(1), 52-67.
Grand View Research, (2021). Dietary Supplements Market Size, Share & Trends
Analysis Report By Ingredient (Vitamins, Proteins & Amino Acids), By
Form, By Application, By End User, By Distribution Channel, And Segment
Forecasts, 2021–2028. Report ID: 978-1-68038-919-7, 200 p.
HABDER, (2020). Tıbbi Aromatik Bitkiler Sektör Analiz Raporu,
https://www.habder.org, Accessed: 24.10.2021.
ITC, (2021). Trade Map Trade statistics for international business development,
https://www.intracen.org/, Accessed: 02.11.2021.
KUDAKA, (2013). Kuzeydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Tıbbi ve Aromatik Bitkiler
Sektörü, https://www.kudaka.gov.tr/assets/upload/dosyalar/ad37e-kuzey
42 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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doguanadolu_bolgesi_tibbi_ve_aromatik_bitkiler_sektoru.pdf,
Accessed:18.09.2021, 12p.
Kurt, R., İmren, E., (2018). Türkiye’deki Önemli Tıbbi ve Aromatik Bitkilerin
Endüstri İçi Ticaret Göstergeleri ile Statik ve Dinamik Analizi. Bartın Orman
Fakültesi Dergisi, 20(3), 548-557.
Lange, D., (2006). International trade in medicinal and aromatic plants: Actors,
Volumes and Commodities, Frontis, 17, 155-170.
Mordor Intelligence, (2020). Botanicals Market - Growth, Trends, Covid-19 Impact,
And Forecasts (2021-2026). https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-
reports/botanicals-market, Accessed: 23.10.2021.
Riptanti E.W., Qonita R.A., Fajarningsih, R.U., (2018). The competitiveness of
medicinal plants in Central Java Indonesia. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and
Environmental Science 142 012018 doi :10.1088/1755-1315/142/1/012018
Roosta R.A., Moghaddasi, R., Hosseini, S.S., (2017). Export target markets of
medicinal and aromatic plants. Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants, 7, 84-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.jarmap.2017.
06.003
Schippmann, U., Leamn D.J., Cunningham, A.B., (2002). Impact of Cultivation and
Gathering of Medicinal Plants on Biodiversity: Global Trends and Issues in
Biodiversity and the Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries. Satellite event on the occasion of the Nineth Regular Session of the
Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Rome, 12-13
October 2002. Inter-Departmental Working Group on Biological Diversity
for Food and Agriculture. Rome.
T.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Forest General Directorate, (2021). The
production of non-wood forest products, 1988-2020, https://www.ogm.gov.tr
/tr/e-kutuphane/resmi-istatistikler, Accessed: 02.11.2021.
TUIK, (2021). Crop Production Statistics, https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Kategori/Get
Kategori?p=tarim-111&dil=1, Accessed:25.10.2021.
USAID/ALBANIA AGRICULTURE COMPETITIVENESS (AAC), (2010). The
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Value Chain in Albania, 85 p.
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Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 43

Vollrath, T.L. (1991). A Theoretical Evaluation of Alternative Trade Intensity Measures of

Revealed Comperative Advantage. Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv Vol. 127(2), pp.
265-280.
WITS, (2021). World Integrated Trade Solution, Trade Outcomes Indicators.
http://wits.worldbank.org/WITS/WITS/AdvanceQuery/TradeOutcomes/Indic
atorDefinition.aspx?Page=Indicator. Accessed: 29.10.2021.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 45

CHAPTER 2

EFFECT OF SALINITY ON MORPHOLOGICAL,

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
MEDICINAL PLANTS

Assoc. Prof. Ilkay YAVAS1 Prof. Emre ILKER2

1
Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Kocarli Vocational School, Department of
Crop and Animal Production, Aydin, TURKEY, (ORCID. 0000-0002-6863-9631),
[email protected]
2
Ege University, Faculty of Agricultural, Department of Field Crops, Izmir,
TURKEY, (ORCID. 0000-0002-4870-3907), [email protected]
46 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 47

1.Introduction
Medicinal plants

Since ancient times, medicinal plants have been widely used in

countries such as India, Pakistan, China, Thailand, Japan, Sri Lanka
and Nepal (Imadi et al., 2016). It has been used as medicine since
prehistoric times including many herbs and spices used today.
Medicinal and aromatic plants are grown for different parts and their
active ingredients are evaluated in various ways especially in the
pharmaceutical industry. In developing some countries, antibiotics are
still used for herbal treatment today as they are expensive (Mondal
and Kaur, 2017).

Salinity

Salinity is the most important abiotic stress, which causes osmotic

pressure leading to cell dehydration, accumulation or reduction of
secondary metabolites, and affects agricultural productivity, especially
in arid and semi-arid areas. Secondary metabolites include terpenoids,
flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids and phenolics that function in plant
defense against salt stress (Jan et al., 2021). These conditions
adversely affect seed germination, seed viability, plant growth, yield,
morphological and physiological properties such as photosynthesis
and respiration, total carbohydrate, fatty acid and protein content, but
amino acid, especially proline content increases.
48 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

Although the effects of salt stress on many plants such as wheat, corn,
cotton, barley and rice have been studied intensively, there is still a
lack of information on medicinal and aromatic plants (Mondal and
Kaur, 2017). The growth and development of medicinal and aromatic
plants are adversely influenced by salinization in soil and water,
therefore it plays a significant role in the geographical distribution of
medicinal plants. The negative effects of salt stress on the yield of
medicinal plants are increasing day by day due to the increasing
salinity of soils. Besides, while salinity causes a decrease in
production, it also affects the physicochemical properties of the soil
and the ecological balance of the region (Mondal and Kaur, 2017;
Mohammadi et al., 2020).

Osmotic stress occurs when there is an excessive amount of soluble

salt in the soil and this causes the death of plants (Mondal and Kaur,
2017).

Effects of salinity stress on medicinal plants

When the increase in the salt concentration in the soil, the germination
one of the most salt sensitive growth stages, is adversely affected. Due
to the salt in the environment, the osmotic potential of the plants
decreases and water uptake required for the mobilization of nutrients
slows down, thus affecting seed germination or salt ions become toxic
to embryonic growth (Mondal and Kaur, 2017).
Increased salt stress causes a decrease in germination percentage,
plumule length, radicle length and seed vigor in Thymus kotschyanus
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 49

and Thymus daenensis plants (Bagheri et al., 2012). It has been

observed that increasing doses of salt applications results decreases
the germination rate and Kadioğlu (2021) reported that one of the best
examples of this is Salvia nemorosa L. In Plantago ovata and
Caryophyllus aromaticus germination was inhibited at high salt levels,
while Cucurbita pepo was unaffected. NaCl application caused a
serious decrease in early seedling growth by reducing root and shoot
length at higher salinity levels (Bina and Bostani, 2017).

Salt stress negatively affected the growth of Foeniculum vulgare

subsp. vulgare (Abd El-Wahab, 2006), Majorana hortensis (Shalan et
al., 2006), Matricaria recutita (Baghalian et al., 2008), Thymus
vulgaris (Najafian et al., 2009), Salvia officinalis (Ben Taarit et al.
2009), Mentha pulegium (Queslati et al., 2010) and Chamomilla
recutita (Ghanavati and Sengul 2010).

Root growth, number of leaves and dry matter content (Moghbeli et

al., 2012) decreased in Aloe vera plant exposed to salinity conditions
and the number of tillers in Citronella java plant (Chauhan and
Kumar, 2014).

It was observed that 6 dS/m salt application to Melissa officinalis

caused the death of plants (Öztürk et al., 2004). The growth of
Lepidium sativum L., Linum usitatissimum L., Nigella sativa L.,
Plantago ovate Forssk and Trigonella foenum-graecum L. plants
decreased due to salinity (Muhammad and Hussain, 2010).
50 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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The plant is significantly affected by salinity stress during the

maturation period and serious decreases in yield are detected. Salinity
significantly reduced umbel number, fruit yield and 1000 seed weight
in Foeniculum vulgare and Cuminum cyminum plants (Nabizadeh,
2002; Abd El-Wahab, 2006).

In Mentha piperita, leaf number, leaf area and leaf biomass (Ta
batabaie and Nazari, 2007) and in Satureja hortensis, leaf area, leaf
and stem fresh weight and dry weight decreased under salt stress
conditions (Najafi et al., 2010). Salt stress adversely affected biomass
production in Cyanoposisa tetragonoloba (Ullah et al., 2018),
Ocimum basilicum (Ullah et al., 2019) and Cymbopogon citratus
(Ullah et al., 2020). In moderately salt-tolerant Ammi majus plants salt
stress caused significant reductions in both the fresh and dry weight of
roots and shoots as well as seed yield (Ashraf et al., 2004).

Salinity conditions, dry matter production in Thymus vulgaris and

Thymus daenensis species, K+ and Ca2+ content in shoots and leaves
decreased with salt stress. On the other hand, flavonoid and cinnamic
acid values increased. Salt stress significantly reduced the yield of
thyme species and improved the amount of phenolic compounds and
antioxidant capacity (Bistgani et al., 2019). Arid conditions combined
with salt stress reduced the germination rate of Nigella sativa L. seeds
(Nezamivand Chegini et al., 2021).

Salinity affects photosynthesis in plants mainly due to the decrease in

leaf area, chlorophyll content and stomatal conductivity. To a lesser
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 51

extent, a decrease in photosystem II activity occurs (Netondo et al.,

2004).

Germination, seedling growth, chlorophyll content, glutathione and

alphatocopherol were adversely affected under salt conditions in
Withania somnifera plant (Jaleel et al., 2008 b). NaCl applied to
Echinacea angustifolia decreased stomatal conductivity,
photosynthesis and transpiration rate (Sabra et al., 2012). In Capsicum
annumm L. photosynthetic pigments decreased and water use
efficiency increased with the increase in salt stress. 1 dS m−1 saline
application increased photosynthesis, transpiration rate, stomatal
conductivity, and intracellular CO2 rate (de Melo et al., 2017).

Jaffel-Hamza et al. (2013) emphasized that salt decreases growth, seed

yield and total fatty acid while increasing lipid peroxidation in Borago
officinalis L. In Carum copticum plant (Davazdah Emami and
Mazaheri, 2009) and Rosmarinus officinalis (Dehghani Bidgoli et al.,
2019) EO percentages decreased significantly with increasing salinity.
In another study it was observed that salt stress reduced the fresh and
dry weight and leaf/stem ratio of Rosmarinus oficinalis L. (Piri et al.,
2017).

In Satureja hortensis, saline conditions caused a decrease in shoot dry

weight, potassium content and photosynthetic pigments, while
malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, proline and sodium content
increased in shoots (Mohammadi et al., 2019).
52 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Salt stress decreased the fresh and dry weight, germination rate,
ascorbate content, and increased the hydrogen peroxide and proline in
Cassia angustifolia (Agarwal and Pandey, 2004). At 160 mM salt
concentration, the content of artemisinin in Artemisia annua (Qureshi
et al., 2005) and ajmalisin in Catharanthus roseus were decreased
under 100 mM NaCl conditions (Jaleel et al., 2008 a).

In Trachyspermum ammi EO yield (Ashraf and Orooj, 2006) and in

Bacopa monnieri, bacoside-A content and yield decreased
significantly (Bharti et al., 2013) exposed to salt stress. Significant
biochemical changes (amino acids, amides, proteins, quaternary
ammonium compounds (betaines) and polyamines) occur with the
accumulation of osmoregulatory nitrogen-containing compounds in
plants exposed to salt (Rabie and Almadini, 2005). With increasing
salinity, proline content raised in Echium amoenum (Ramezani et al.,
2011), Chamomilla recutita and Origanum majorana (Ali et al.,
2007). Phenolic compounds in Nigella sativa (Bourgou et al., 2010),
Matricaria chamomilla (Cik et al., 2009), Mentha pulegium (Queslati
et al., 2010) and Achillea fragratissima (Abd EL-Azim and Ahmed,
2009) has increased significantly under salt conditions. Ginko biloba
female seedlings treated with 40 mmol dm −3 NaCl showed higher
photosynthesis rate and water use efficiency and lower transpiration
compared to male seedlings (Jiang et al., 2010). Salt also disrupted the
carbohydrate balance in Foeniculum vulgare in another study (Abd
El-Wahab, 2006).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 53

Salinity adversely affected the morphological characteristics of

Andrographis paniculate as well as relative growth rate, moisture
content and salt tolerance index. Total protein content was
significantly affected at the highest salt dose (Hossain, 2016). Salt
stress reduced the amount of EO in Trachyspermum ammi, Foenicum
vulgare (Abd El-Wahab, 2006; Ashraf and Orooj, 2006), Mentha
suaveolens Ehrh (Aziz et al., 2008) and Origanum majorana (Baatour
et al., 2010). Some researchers emphasized that EO increases with salt
in Satureja hortensis (Baher et al., 2002), Salvia officinalis L.
(Hendawy and Khalid, 2005), Thymus vulgaris L. (Ezz El-Din et al.,
2009). The total amount of fatty acids in Coriandrum sativum leaves
also decreased significantly due to salt stress (Neffati and Marzouk,
2008). Salt conditions increased the total amount of free amino acids
in Catharanthus roseus (Osman et al., 2007) and Matricaria
chamomilla (Cik et al., 2009). This increase resulting from salt stress
is due to the degradation of intact proteins (Roychoudhury et al.,
2015). Against all these adverse conditions, the plant develops a
tolerance mechanism (Said-Al Ahl and Omer, 2011; Kadıoğlu, 2021)
and accumulates a large number of secondary metabolites (Deshmukh
and Khare, 2017; Bhattacharyya et al., 2020).

2. Conclusion
Among the abiotic stress factors, especially salinity and drought, have
the highest effect on medicinal plants (Heidari et al., 2008). The root
under control conditions ensures the intake of water and nutrients
from the soil throughout the plant's entire life. However, it differs due
54 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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to changes in structure and functions as a result of exposure of roots to

stress conditions. Along with salt stress, roots cannot get enough
water, where high salt accumulation and osmotic pressure occur (Jan
et al., 2021). Salinity affects the growth, development, yield and
quality of medicinal plants by causing physiological and metabolic
problems. Finally, while it has a negative effect on photosynthesis,
respiration, carbohydrate, fatty acid and protein content in the plant,
the amount of proline and secondary metabolites increases
significantly.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 55

References

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growth and chemical constituents of Achillea fragratissima Forssk, under Ras
Sudr conditions. Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Science
5:1121-1129
Abd El-Wahab, M.A. (2006). The efficiency of using saline and fresh water
irrigation as alternating methods of irrigatio on the productivity of
Foeniculum vulgare Mill sub sp. vulgare var. vulgare under North Sinai
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CHAPTER 3

MEDICINAL PLANTS WITH ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES

Diren Kaçar1, Oguz Bayraktar2

1
İzmir Institute of Technology, Department of Biotechnology, İzmir, Turkey,
[email protected]
2
Ege University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Bioengineering, İzmir,
Turkey, [email protected], Oguz Bayraktar ORCID: 0000-0003-4210-2825
* This chapter is part of a publicly defended MSc. Thesis of Diren Kaçar.
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INTRODUCTION

There is an increasing interest in using medicinal and aromatic plants

as natural sources in pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic industries all
over the world. Bioactive compounds of medicinal plants led them to
be used in these industries as botanical drugs, dietary supplements,
functional foods and food packaging, etc. Plants also have been used
in ethnopharmacy for various diseases such as hypertension,
cholesterol, eczema and diarrhoea for centuries and today their
scientific validation was provided by identification and isolation of
bioactive phytochemicals (Littleton et al., 2005). Phytochemicals are
the secondary metabolites that have several subgroups possessing
various bioactivities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antivirus,
anticancer, etc., (Duffy and Power, 2001). Nowadays re-emerging
connection between plants and human health especially depends on
their antioxidant activities that may delay or reduce the hazardous
effects of free radicals. The major causative for the generation of free
radicals in food, drugs, and living systems is the oxidation process
(Pourmorad et al., 2006). Free radicals and other reactive oxygen
species (O2•- , H2O2 , OH•- ) are released continously during the
essential aerobic metabolism as metabolic by-products which are
potentially producing damage on biomolecules such as membrane
lipids, cellular proteins and DNA which leads to cell death and several
diseases (Antolovich et al., 2002). Most common radical related
diseases are atherosclerosis, arthritis, diabetes, cancer and
neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson, Alzheimer and Huntington’s
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disease) and also aging (Pourmorad et al., 2006). Living systems have
their own cellular defense systems including some enzymatic and
nonenzymatic systems which protect the functional and structural
molecules that are the targets of free radicals (Prior et al., 2005). They
are able to keep the system in the state of equilibrium by controlling
the harmful effects of free radicals under normal physiological
conditions, but in some cases the equilibrium may be disturbed by
some factors that induce the formation of free radicals such as
environmental pollutants, radiation, chemicals, physical stress and
also some endogenous sources including some enzymes and immune
system products (Serafini, 2006). Oxidative stress occurs as a result of
an overproduction and accumulation of highly reactive compounds
(Antolovich et al., 2002). Dietary antioxidants are the supplements
that may delay or reduce the effects of oxidative stress and phenolic
compounds are the phytochemicals that are widely present in the plant
kingdom exhibiting several bioactivities (King and Young, 1999) and
can be classified in natural antioxidants that take an important place in
our diet which absorb and neutralize free radicals by donating an
hydrogen atom from their hydroxyl groups (Boskou et al., 2006).

Infectious diseases are the primarily threat that account for death
worldwide. In the last decades, the clinical efficacy of many synthetic
antibiotics is being threated by the emergence of a serious problem
which can be defined as multi- drug resistant pathogens (Eldeen et al.,
2005). Multi- drug resistance in both human and plant pathogenic
microorganisms has developed due to the indiscriminate usage of
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commercial antimicrobial drugs that have widely applied in the

treatment of infectious diseases. Therefore scientists have tried to
discover new antimicrobial substances from various sources including
plants. It is known that, now natural products and their derivatives
hold more than 50% of all the drugs in clinical usage with one quarter
originating from higher plants (Eldeen et al., 2005).

Turkey has one of the greatest floras in Europe due to its various
numbers of plants also including many endemics (Cetin and
Yanikoglu, 2006). In this chapter scientific evaluation and ethno-
botanical use of some Turkish medicinal plants are summarized.
Classification of phytochemicals, common phtytochemical
constituents in plants and their extraction studies are discussed.
Antioxidant activity of phytochemicals and widely used measurement
methods for the determination of antioxidant capacity are given.

1. MEDICINAL PLANTS
“ Let your food be your first medicine” (Hippocrates, 377 BC) was
probably the first time that the link was made between nutrition and
well-being which emphasizes the importance of functional foods
(Carbone, 2005). In addition, the practice of medicinal plants is very
well known for treating the diseases from ancient times. Even today
because of the belief that medicinal plants are safe and effective most
of the plant products are being used in local traditional systems of
medicine (Dhawan, 2003). In developing countries, a report of WHO
survey indicates that 80% of the populations rely on mostly traditional
medicine for their primary health care needs (Goyal et al., 2007).
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Besides, scientific validations of medicinal plants have been ensured

by various phytopharmacological studies which evaluate active plant
constituents. So today, plants are the important raw materials for
pharmacological research and drug developing (Mendonça, 2006), and
they are also being increasingly used as the complementary or
alternative medicine in industrialized countries.

Medicinal plants have considerable importance in international trade

and their clinical, pharmaceutical, and economic value is still growing,
although this varies widely between countries. Based on current
research and financial investments, medicinal plants will, seemingly,
continue to play an important role as a health aid. Use of herbal
medicines in Asia represents a long history with several applications
against various diseases (Draipandiyan et al., 2006). The practice of
traditional medicine is widespread in China, India, Japan, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka and Thailand. The countries of the region such as China
(30,000 species of higher plants), Indonesia (20,000), India (17,000),
Myanmar (14,000), Malaysia (12,000) and Thailand (12,000) have
large floras (Ics-Unido, 2006). In China about 40% of the total
medicinal consumption depends on traditional medicines. In Thailand,
herbal medicines make use of legumes encountered in the
Caesalpiniaceae, the Fabaceae, and the Mimosaceae.

The use of medicinal plants like Eupatorium perfoliatum in Central

America medicinal plants have been widely used (Hoareau et al.,
1999).
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However, among the estimated 250,000-400,000 plant species, only

6% have been studied for biological activity, and about 15% have
been investigated phytochemically . This shows a need for phyto-
pharmacological evaluation of herbal drugs (Goyal et al., 2007). A
vast knowledge of how to use the plants against different illnesses
may be taken on a shape in the regions where the use of plants is still
of great importance. The medicinal value of plants lies in some
chemical substances that produce a definite physiological action on
the human body. These phytochemicals are the active constituents that
exhibit some biolological activities concerning antioxidant,
antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, and anticancer activities, ext.
Exploration of the chemical constituents of the plants and
pharmacological screening is of great importance which leads for
development of novel agents (Goyal et al., 2007). The most important
phytochemicals are alkaloids, flavanoids, tannins and some other
phenolic compounds which are abundantly found in plants
(Draipandiyan et al., 2006).

Medicinal plants were the main source of products used to maintain

well-being until the nineteenth century, when the German chemist
Friedrich Wöhler in 1828, attempting to prepare ammonium cyanate
from silver cyanide and ammonium chloride, accidentally synthesized
urea. This was the first organic synthesis in history and revealed a new
area of the synthetic compounds (Mendonça, 2006). Today, herbal
remedies are back into prominence because of the ineffectiveness of
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conventional medicines such as antibiotics. The history of modern

psychopharmacology is short, and its current concepts are more
“pharmaco-centric” than those of most other branches of modern
medicine (Husain et al., 2007). In more recent history, the use of
plants as medicines has involved the isolation of active compounds,
beginning with the isolation of morphine from opium in the 19th
century. Drug discovery from medicinal plants led to isolation of early
drugs such as cocaine, codeine, digitoxin, and quinine, in addition to
morphine, of which some are still in use (Balunas and Kinghorn,
2005). In addition some synthetic medicines have been derived from
medicinal herbs are digioxin, aspirin, reserpine, ephedrine, quinine,
vincristine, vinblastine, taxol, artemisinin, hypericin and silymarin
(Singh, 2006).

Rediscovery of the connection between plants and health is

responsible for launching a new generation of botanical therapeutics
that include plant-derived pharmaceuticals, multicomponent botanical
drugs, dietary supplements, and functional foods. Many of these
products will soon complement conventional pharmaceuticals in the
treatment, prevention and diagnosis of diseases, while at the same
time adding value to agriculture (Raskin, et al., 2002). Today, many
plant derived products are being consumed commercially in a rising
rate.
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1.1. Turkish Medicinal Plants

Turkey is very rich in medical and aromatic plants with its large
floristic diversity. The estimated number for Turkish flora is 11,000
for specific, and infraspecific taxa of higer plants including 3000
endemic species. Turkey contains 347 species that have commercial
values and about 30,000 tons of plants are being exported annually. In
Anatolia plants have been commonly used as the source of food,
remedy, animal fodder, tinder and some utensils from time
immemorial. Although the ethnobotanical experience is being lost
with the modernization of society, in some rural areas, people still use
traditional medicine for health care (Satıl et al., 2008, Coskun et al.,
2005). Some important plant species and their ethnobotanical use are
shown in Table 1.

Table. 1. Ethnobotanical use of some Turkish plants (Source: Sezik et al., 2001,
Tuzlacı and Erol, 1999, Tuzlacı and Aymaz, 2001)

Plant species Ethnobotanical use

Hypericum perforatum, Mostly used for the treatment of
Urtica dioica, haemorrhoid, rheumatism, stomach and
Thymus longicaulis, Salvia kidney ailments.
tomentosa
Juniperus oxycedrus Cold, stomachache

Origanum onites Stomachache

Teucrium chamaedrys Goiter
Pictacia terebinthus L. ssp. Diabetes mellitus, decoction, as tea
Alkanna cappadocica Wound healing, red-colored barks
are roasted in butter to obtain
ointment and applied on wounds
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Brassica oleracea L. var. Ulcer; fresh leaves are ingested

capitata
Juniperus oxycedrus L. ssp. Bronchitis;
Quercus libani Olivier Hemorrhoids
Hypericum perforatum Wound healing; stomach ache, colitis,
intestinal disorders
Allium cepa L. Abscess, gastric ulcers
Allium sativum L. Sunstroke, hemorrhoids, as hypotensive
Urtica dioica L. Abscess, rheumatic pain, eczema
Teucrium polium L. Common cold, antipyretic; decoction, as tea
for rheumatic pain

Today, developing phytopharmacological industry leads to the

examination of some medicinal species for their biological activities
in the laboratories and these studies mostly confirm therapeutical
usage in ethnopharmacy of some species. Table 2 summarizes some of
the Turkish species examined for their activities and phytochemical
groups.

Table 2. Scientific evaluation of some Turkish medicinal plants

Scientific name Findings of the studies References

A phytochemical study of the petroleum

ether and ethyl acetate extracts of the
Arbutus unedo Carcache et al., 2006
entire plant of Arbutus unedo led to the
isolation of a new sterol,
Quercitrin, isoquercitrin, hyperoside and
rutin were identified in all leaf samples by
Arbutus unedo Males et al., 2006
means of thin-layer chromatography; the
fruits contained only isoquercitrin
Flavonoids (quercetin-3-O-methyl ether) Coşkun and Özkan,
Cistus genus
was found to be as potent against diabet 2005
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The methanolic extract of the aerial parts

of Capparis spinosa yielded the new
flavonoid quercetin 3-O- w690-a-L- Sharaf et al., 2004
Capparis sinosa rhamnosyl-60-b-D-glucosylx-b-D-
glucoside.
Antioxidant activity and total phenol
assays were performed for three hypericum
Hypericum
species. Hypericum empetrifolium Meral et al., 2004
empetrifolium
exhibited the highest values for both
experiments.
Lavender had effective reductive
potential, free radical scavenging,
Lavandula
superoxide anion radical scavenging, and
stoechas Gülçin et al., 2004
metal chelating activities at all tested
concentrations.
A quantitative determination of a-
tocopherol in Pistacia lentiscus, Pistacia
lentiscus var. chia, and Pistacia
Kıvçak and Akay,
Pistacia lentiscus terebinthus, leaves was established by
2005
TLC- densitometry and colorimetry. The
highest amount of a-tocopherol was found
in P. lentiscus var. chia.
Total phenol content was determined in a
Pistacia lentiscus Stocker et al., 2004
comparison study
the most active three fractions in DPPH
Pistacia assay were purified from P.terebinthus to
Topçu et al., 2007
terebinthus afford a new flavone 60-
hydroxyhypolaetin 30-methyl ether .
It has a noticable antioxidant activity
particularly in the protection of human
Pistacia Kıvçak and Akay,
LDL from oxidation .
terebinthus 2005
However the phytopharmacology and
phytochemistry of this plant is not known.
Quercus infectoria is rich in phenolic acids,
Quercus Surveswaran et al.,
flavonoid glycosides, and phenolic volatile
infectoria 2007
oils.
Antioxidant and total phenol content was
Surveswaran et al.,
Solanum nigrum determined in a comparison study of 133
2007
Indian plants
74 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Teucrium Strong inhibitory activity was shown by T.

montanum and T. chamaedrys extracts. Panovska et al., 2005
chamaedrys
Tyrosol, caffeic acid, ferulic acid and
Teucrium polium lutein were Proestos et al., 2006
identified.
Flavanoid and total phenol contents were
Teucrium polium Djeridane et al., 2006
determined.
Urtica dioica had powerful antioxidant
Urtica dioica activity when compared with standard Gülçin et al., 2004
antioxidants
Flavvonoid content and total phenol
Urtica dioica content were Proestos et al., 2006
identified with some other Greek plants
Dopaminergic compounds present in Vitex
agnus castus are clinically the important
Vitex agnus-
compounds which improve premenstrual Wuttke et al., 2003
castus
mastodynia and possibly also other
symptoms of the premenstrual syndrome.

2. PHYTOCHEMICALS

The “phyto-” of the word phytochemicals is derived from the Greek

word phyto, which means plant. Therefore, phytochemicals can be
defined as plant chemicals. Phytochemicals are bioactive plant
compounds in fruits, vegetables, grains, and other plant foods that
play a role of reducing the risk of major chronic diseases. It is
estimated that 5000 individual phytochemicals have been identified in
fruits, vegetables, and grains, but a large percentage still remain
unknown and need to be identified before we can fully understand the
health benefits of phytochemicals in whole foods (Liu, 2004). There
are apparent evidences that bioactive compounds will reduce the risk
of many diseases, including chronic diseases such as cardiovascular
disease. One example of how bioactive compounds that show how
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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they modify disease risk is illustrated by the large difference in

absolute coronary disease mortality rates at a given total cholesterol
level observed in the 25-year follow-up of the Seven Countries Study
(Kris-Etherton et al., 2004). Epidemiological studies have consistently
shown that a high dietary intake of fruits and vegetables as well as
whole grains is strongly associated with reduced risk of developing
chronic diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, which are
the top 2 causes of death in the United (Liu, 2004). Identifying
bioactive compounds and seeking their health effects are active areas
of scientific surveys. Because of the great number of bioactive
compounds and the diversity of likely biological effects, numerous
and diverse experimental approaches must be taken to increase our
understanding of the biological activities of bioactive compounds.
Recognizing the complexity of this biology, sophisticated
experimental designs and analytical methodologies must be employed
to advance the field. The discovery of novel health effects of bioactive
compounds will provide the scientific basis for future efforts to use
biotechnology to modify and fortify foods and food components as a
means to improve public health (Kris-Etherton et al., 2004).

Phytochemicals can be classified as carotenoids, phenolics, alkaloids,

nitrogen- containing compounds, and organosulfur compounds. The
most studied of the phytochemicals are the phenolics and carotenoids
(Liu, 2004). These groups have also several subgroups. For example,
phenolics can be phenolic acids, stilbenes, flavonoids, coumarins,
tannins. Flavonoids can again be divided into subgroups such as,
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flavanols, flavanes, catechins, flavanones, anthocyanidins and

isoflavanoids.

2.1. Phenolic Constituents in Plants

Among the various phytochemicals as the secondary metabolites of

plants, phenolic compounds are the common ones and frequently
present in the plant kingdom. Phenolic constituents exhibit several
bioactivities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral,
antiinflammatory. Dietary phenolics that have being researched deeply
in the last decades are divided into various subgroups and the major
categories of phenolic compounds are flavonoids, phenolic acids, and
tannins (King and Young, 1999). Some of the other types of phenolics
are coumarins, lignans, quinones, and stilbenes (Chai et al., 2004).

2.1.1. Flavonoids

Flavonoids are the most important and most studied phenolic

phytochemicals that are widely distributed in plants (Chai et al.,
2004). More than 6,400 flavonoid structures were determined in the
performed studies (Silva et al., 2006). Generally they include
particular hydroxyl groups with the constitution of ring structures.
They have a basic carbon skeleton (C6 + C3 + C6). Flavonoids are
consist of several subclasses such as; flavones, flavonols, flavanones,
flavanonols, chalcones, isoflavonoids, anthocyanins, biflavonoids
(Chai et al., 2004). Flavonoids are basically divided into two groups;
anthocyanins and anthoxanthins. Anthocyanins have some colour
pigments such as red, blue, and purple. Anthoxanthins possess
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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colorless or white to yellow molecules (flavonols, flavones,

isoflavones) (King and Young, 1999).

Differences in the generic structure of the heterocycle C ring classify

them as flavonols, flavones, flavanols (catechins), flavanones,
anthocyanidins, and isoflavonoids. Flavonols (quercetin, kaempferol,
and myricetin), flavones (luteolin and apigenin), flavanols (catechin,
epicatechin, epigallocatechin, epicatechin gallate, and epigallocatechin
gallate), flavanones (naringenin), anthocyanidins, and isoflavonoids
(genistein) are common flavonoids in the diet (Liu, 2004).

Flavonoids generally exist as glycosides, nevertheless some of them

are found as aglycones. There is an insufficient knowledge about
metabolism, extraction and absorption of dietary polyphenols in
humans and recovery in the gastrointestinal surface. Furthermore, the
hydrolysis of flavonoid glycosides and the reductive metabolism are
performed by intestinal microorganisms (Rice-Evans et al., 1997).

2.1.2. Phenolic acids:

Phenolic acids form another large class of phenolic compounds.

Phenolic acids contain two main groups; (1) Hydroxybenzoic acids
(e.g. gallic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acids, vanillic
acids), (2) Hydroxycinnamic acids (e.g. ferulic acid, caffeic acid,
coumaric acid, chlorogenic acids, cinnamic acids).
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2.1.3. Tannins

Phenolic polymers, commonly known as tannins and they are divided

into two general classes: (1) Hydrolyzable tannins : They include a
central core of polyhydric alcohol such as glucose and hydroxyl
groups. They are esterified partially or wholly by gallic acid
(gallotannins) or hexahydroxy-diphenic acid (ellagitannins). (2)
Condensed tannins: They are more common and have more complex
structures then the hydrolyzable tannins. They consist of oligomers
and polymers of catechins. In some cases hydrolyzable and condensed
tannins are present together in plants, so this kind of tannins can be
defined as complex tannins (Chai et al., 2004).

Polyphenolic phytochemicals are ubiquitous in plants, in which they

function in various protective roles. A recommended human diet
contains significant quantities of polyphenolics, as they have long
been assumed to be antioxidants that scavenge excessive, damaging,
free radicals arising from normal metabolic processes (Stevenson et
al., 2007). Structural diversity of polyphenolics are a diverse class of
plant secondary metabolites. They are characterised structural by the
presence of one or more six-carbon aromatic rings and two or more
phenolic (i.e.., linked directly to the aromatic ring) hydroxyl groups.
Strictly speaking, mono-phenols such as p-coumaric acid are not
polyphenolics , but they share many of their properties and
characteristics and are most usefully considered as functional
polyphenolics (Stevenson et al., 2007).
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3. EXTRACTION
The pharmaceutical definition of extraction may be expressed as the
separation of medicinally active portion from plant or animal tissues
using selective solvents through standard extraction procedures.
Primarily criteria of extraction techniques is separating the soluble and
insoluble components and leaving behind only insoluble cellular marc.
The extraction products of plants have relatively complex mixtures
covering a number of groups of plant metabolites either in liquid form
or semi-solid state or after removing the solvent resulting in dried
powdered extract. Obtaining the therapeutically desired portion of the
plant material and the elimination of unwanted material by treatment
with a selective solvent is the main purpose of a standardized
extraction procedure for medicinal plants. An extract may be further
processed through various techniques of fractionation to isolate
individual chemical entities such as vincristine, vinblastine,
hyoscyamine, hyoscine, pilocarpine, forskolin, codeine, etc., to be
used as modern drugs (Ics-Unido, 2006). Extraction and
characterization of several active phyto-compounds from these green
factories have given birth to some high activity profile drugs (Mandal
et al., 2007).

The choice of extraction method, can have an effect on the efficacy of

active plant constituents (Shaalan et al., 2005). The general techniques
of extraction of medicinal plants include maceration, infusion,
percolation, digestion, decoction, hot continuous extraction (soxhlet),
aqueous-alcoholic extraction by fermentation, counter current
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extraction, microwave assisted extraction, ultrasound extraction

(sonication), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), phytonic extraction
(with hydro-flouro-carbon solvents), etc. For the aromatic plants, three
types of hydro-distillation techniques (water distillation, steam
distillation, steam and water distillation), hydrolytic maceration
followed by distillation technique, expression method and enfleurage
method (cold fat extraction) may be employed. Some of the latest
methods of extraction for aromatic plants include head space trapping
technique, solid phase micro-extraction, protoplast extraction
technique, micro-distillation, thermo-micro-distillation, and molecular
distillation techniques (Ics-Unido, 2006). Novel extraction methods
including microwave assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction,
pressurized solvent extraction have drawn significant research
attention in the last decade (Shaalan et al., 2005). In recent years, the
use of microwave for extraction of constituents from plant material
has shown tremendous research interest and potential. Conventional
techniques for the extraction of active constituents are time and
solvent consuming, thermally unsafe and the analysis of numerous
constituents in plant material is limited by the extraction step (Shaalan
et al., 2005).

The extraction of essential oil components using solvent at high

pressure, or supercritical fluids (SCF), has received much attention in
the past several years, especially in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic
industries, because it presents an alternative for conventional
processes such as organic solvent extraction and steam distillation
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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(Xiao et al., 2007). There is also a technique called enzyme assisted

extraction. The mechanism for enzyme-assisted extraction is that cell
wall degrading enzymes (i.e., glucanases and pectinases) can weaken
or break down the cell wall rendering the intracellular materials more
accessible for extraction (Li et al., 2006).

Many valuable natural materials have traditionally been extracted with

organic solvents. However, some of the organic solvents are believed
to be toxic, and the extraction conditions are often harsh. A simple
method using ethanol (a food-grade solvent) instead of methanol for
the extraction of phenolic compounds is the preference frequently in
the literature (see Table 3) (Li et al., 2006). The traditional techniques
of solvent extraction of plant materials are mostly based on the correct
choice of solvents and the use of heat or/and agitation to increase the
solubility of the desired compounds and improve the mass transfer.
Usually the traditional technique requires longer extraction time thus
running a severe risk of thermal degradation for most of the phyto-
constituents (Mandal et al., 2007). Thus the basic parameters
influencing the quality of an extract are: a) the plant part used as
starting material, b) the solvent used for extraction, c) the
manufacturing process (extraction technology) used with the type of
equipment employed, and d) crude-drug: extract ratio (crude drug:
extract). The use of the appropriate extraction technology, plant
material (nature of the plant material, its origin, degree of processing,
moisture content, particle size), manufacturing equipment (type of
extraction, filling height, hydrostatic pressure, batch size), extraction
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method (type of extraction, time of extraction, flow velocity,

temperature and pressure) and the solvent (nature of solvent, its
concentration and polarity) and good manufacturing practices, will
certainly produce good desired quality of extract. From laboratory
scale to pilot scale, all the conditions and parameters, if properly and
accurately recorded, one can employ process simulation for successful
industrial scale production (Ics-Unido, 2006). In Table 3 the basic
parameters such as solvent type and concentration, solid liquid ratio
and extraction time that have been applied in several studies were
summarized. The studies in Table 3 cover the screening of some
medicinal plants for their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. It
is nearly imposible to optimize extraction parameters for each plant
material in screening studies that includes great numbers of plant
species. So for screening studies generally a standardized extraction
procedure is applied for all samples. Table 3 indicates for commonly
used parameters in extraction of screening plants. Mostly ethanol and
methanol in various concentrations of water are used as solvent in
these studies. But ethanol is more advisable because it is much safer
than methanol which has high toxic effects. The solid-liquid ratio is
another important parameter in extraction of plant materials and
studies indicate that mostly 1/10-50 ratios are used in screening
studies.
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Table 3. Comparison of performed studies related with extraction of phytochemicals

solvent type solid-liquid extr. time references

ratio (g/ml) (min.)
methanol 1/3 30 Mosaddik et al., 2004

methanol 1/20 NA Chanwitheesuk et al.,

2005
1-)methanol
2-)water+cloroform NA 180 Tepe et al., 2006

1)water
2)ethanol 1/20 1-15 Gülçin et al., 2003

1-)70% acetone
2-)methanol 1-)1/8 NA Neergheen et al., 2005

2-)1/5
70% methanol NA 180 Lee et al., 2003

80% ethanol NA 120 Mantle et al., 2000

aqueous extraction 1/20 10 Vanderjagt et al., 2002

aqueous extraction 1/10 15 Ljubuncic et al., 2005

1-)water
2-)60% ethanol 1/8 30 Duffy and Power, 2001

1-)methanol
2-)water+chlaroform NA 360 Sökmen et al., 1999

1-)methanol
2- 1/10 360 Matkowski et al., 2006

)chlaroform
70% ethanol 1/50 1440 Djeridane et al., 2006

methanol 1/10 2880 Pourmorad et al., 2006

80% ethanol 1/10 NA Boskou et al., 2006

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1-) 90% ethanol

2-)water NA NA Auddy et al., 2003

water 3/200 30 Katalinic et al., 2006

4. FREE RADICALS

Oxidation process is the major occurrence that gives rise to free

radical formation in food, drugs, and living systems (Pourmorad et al.,
2006). Free radicals and other reactive oxygen species (ROS) are
released continously during the essential aerobic metabolism as
unwanted metabolic by-products (Mantle et al., 2000). Structurally
unstable free radicals has been defined as a molecular entitiy which
retain an unpaired electron and that’s the reason of free radicals are
mentioned as highly reactive (Madhavi et al., 1996).

Several facts contribute the formation of free radicals such as

environmental pollutants, radiation, chemicals, toxins, deep fried and
spicy foods, also physical stress leading to depletion of immune
system antioxidants, modifications in gene expression and proteins
(Pourmorad et al., 2006). That’s why the free radicals are among the
common intracellular DNA modifiers (Ramos et al., 2003).

Superoxide radical (O2-●), hydroxyl radical (●OH) and non-free

radical species such as H2O2 and singlet oxygen (1O2) are generated
during the oxidative stress and accelerate more than one hundred
disorders in humans. Most common radical related diseases are
atherosclerosis, arthritis, diabetes, ischemia, central nervous system
injury, cancer, AIDS, inflamentation and aging (Pourmorad et al.,
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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2006, VanderJagt et al., 2002, Chanwitheesuk et al., 2005, Chai et al.,

2002). The most reactive forms of active oxygen species are HO● and
1
O2 .

Comparison of the reactivity: HO● and 1O2 > O2 ●- > H2O2

Primary factors that contributing prooxidant states in the initiation of

chain reactions (Madhavi et al., 1996): hyperbaric oxygen tension,
radiation, reagents, electron transport chain, inhibition of antioxidant
defence system.

4.1. Free Radical Chain Reactions

Lipid oxidation process causes complex free radical chain reactions
releasing various radicals (Maisuthisakul et al., 2007). Peroxyradicals
and hydroperoxides are the initiators of this chain reaction introduced
when unstable free radicals react with molecular oxygen. Free radical
chain reaction termed as autoxidation is distinguished in three distinct
steps: initiation, propagation and termination.

Initiation :
When an unsaturated lipid contact with oxygen this produces free
radicals (Eq. 4.1)

RH→R●+H● (4.1)

ROOH→RO●+HO- (4.2)

2ROOH→RO●+ROO●+H2O (4.3)
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R●= lipid radicals

RO●= alkoxy radicals

ROO●= lipid peroxyradicals

Propagation :

Propagation reactions generate different type of radicals. Previously

formed free radicals in the initiation reactions take part in the chain
reactions and as a result of consuming of oxygen by lipids new free
radical species occurs such as peroxy radicals (ROO.) and peroxides
(ROOH).

R●+O23→ROO● (4.4)

ROO-+RH→ROOH+R● (4.5)

ROOH: lipid peroxides

R●: lipid radicals

ROO●: lipid peroxy radicals

As a result of repated reactions in propagation step, accumulation of

hydroperoxides occurs. Lipid peroxy radicals react with other
molecules which give rise to lipid hydroperoxides (ROOH) and lipid

free radicals R●. Lipid hydroperoxides can be also generated

enzymatically by the action of lipoxygenase.

Termination:

In the further steps of propagation, the amount of unsaturated lipids

 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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(or fatty acids) is reduced and free radicals react with each other,
resulting in stable non radical compounds (Madhavi et al., 1996).

R●+ R●→ R-R (4.6)

R●+ROO●→ ROOR (4.7)

ROO●+ROO●→ ROOR+O2 (4.8)

In the situation of imbalance between scavenging enzymes and free

radical formation, destructive and lethal cellular effects occur (Mantle
et al., 2000). Scavenger systems contain both endogenous defences
and diatery antioxidants. Endogenous defences are enzymes such as
superoxidedismutase (SOD), catalase (CA), glutathione peroxide
(GPX), plus vitamin E, uric acid and serum albumins. Beside these,
intaking of dietary antioxidants is quite essential for human health to
cope with the degenerative effects of lipid oxidation (Antolovich et
al., 2002). Enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense
mechanisms convert these life threatening free radicals and reactive
oxygen species into non- reactive forms (Dasgupta and De, 2007).

5. ANTIOXIDANTS

Antioxidants have several definitions, but the common definition can

be expressed as “any substance delay or inhibit oxidation of
oxidizable substrate by neutralizing free radicals” (Antolovich et al.,
2002). Antioxidant activity is an important parameter and it is widely
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used for characterize and determine the various plant materials such as
fruits, vegetables, wine, teas, oils and etc. In the recent years, the
strategy of implementing the diet with antioxidants especially deriving
from natural sources, is becoming more and more convincing against
oxidative stress damages (Vertuani et al., 2002). Some of the natural
antioxidant classes are flavonoids (quercetin, catechin rutin), tannins
(procyanidin, ellagic acid, tannic acid), stilbenes (resveratrol)
(Pokorny, 2007).

Living organisms have their protective systems with a high

regenerative ability which protect the structures and the functional
molecules of the organisms against hazardous effects of both
endogenous radicals and exogenous radicals generated as a result of
normal metabolic processes. The intracellular mechanisms for
suppressing by products of aerobic metabolism include enzymatic
mechanisms such as glutathine- peroxidase- glutathione system,
superoxide dismutase (SOD) and the catalase (CA) (Matthias et al.).
Besides, the biological systems use different antioxidant sources such
as, some large molecules (albumin, ceruloplasmin, ferritin, other
proteins), and small molecules (ascorbic acid, glutathione, uric acid
,tocopherol, carotenoids, (poly)phenols) and some hormones
(estrogen, angiotensin, melatonin, etc.) (Prior et al., 2005). Under
normal conditions natural protective systems of organisms can cope
with the radicals and keep the system in the state of equilibrium by
controlling the harmful effects of them, but in some cases this
equilibrium may be disturbed by exogenous factors. The increased
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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accumulation of highly reactive compounds is called oxidative stress

(Matthias et al.). Clasically oxidative stress is described as an
imbalance between generation and elimination of ROS ( Reactive
Oxygen Species) and RNS (Reactive Nitrogen Species) thus goes with
many critical diseases and aging (Emerit et al., 2004).

5.1 Antioxidative Mechanism of Action

Individual antioxidants may, in some cases, act by multiple
mechanisms depending on the reaction system. Furthermore,
antioxidants may respond in a different manner to different radical or
oxidant sources due to their different characteristics (Prior et al.,
2005). In that manner antioxidants can be classified in two general
groups as primary (chain breaking) antioxidants which delay or inhibit
the initiation step by reacting with a lipid radical or inhibit the
propagation step by reacting with peroxyl or alkoxyl radicals and as
secondary (preventative) antioxidants that retard the rate of oxidation.
Antioxidants also divided into two groups according to their origin as
natural (e.g. tocopherols, ascorbic acids) and synthetic antioxidants
[e.g.,BHT (butylhydroxytoluene), BHA (butylhydroxyanisole) ]
(Antolovich et al., 2002).

Antioxidants can deactivate radicals by two major mechanisms, HAT

(Hydrogen Atom Transfer) and SET (Single Electron Transfer).
Antioxidants with the HAT mechanism quench free radicals by
hydrogen donation and with SET mechanism antioxidants transfer one
electron to reduce any compound, including metals, carbonyls, and
radicals (Prior et al., 2005). These mechanisms are shown with the
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equations below (Antolovich et al., 2002).

L•+AH→LH+A• (5.1)

LOO•+AH→A•+LOOH (5.2)

LO•+AH→A•LOH (5.3)

LOO•+A•→LOOA (5.4)

LO•+A•→LOA (5.5)

5.2 Antioxidant Activity of Phytochemicals

The primary constituents of phytochemicals that have the ability of
contributing total antioxidant capacity of plants are the polyphenols,
carotenoids, and traditional antioxidant vitamins such as vitamin C
and E (Lako et al., 2007). Polyphenols are widely present in plant
kingdom and possessing significant bioactivities just like the
antioxidant activity by adsorbing and neutralizing free radicals
(Djeridane et al., 2006). Polyphenols can be classified in natural
antioxidants and take an important place in our diet (Boskou et al.,
2006). Polyphenols are among the most efficient antioxidant
molecules owing to the ability of stabilizing and delocalizing the
unpaired electron of free radicals by donating an hydrogen atom from
their hydroxyl groups. There are many constituents of phenolics
retaining potential antioxidant properties such as preventing agents
against some critical diseases, independently or in synergetic action
(Rice- Evans et al., 1997, Villano et al., 2004). Among the phenolic
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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compounds , bioflavonoids have important antioxidant activity

because of their natural origin and importance as efficient free radical
scavengers (Katalinic et al., 2006, Heim et al., 2002).

Main function of antioxidants on free radicals is, distrupting the free

radical chain reaction or decomposing the lipid peroxides formed into
stable end products (Madhavi et al., 1996). Antioxidants have two
basic groups related with their action mechanisms. These two groups
are primary and secondary antioxidants. Primary antioxidants help
delay or inhibit lipid oxidation as free radical scavengers by donating
hydrogen atoms or electrons so more stable products can be achived.
Secondary antioxidant activities include several mechanisms such as
binding of metal ions, scavenging oxgen, converting hydroperoxides
to non-radical species, absorbing UV radiation or deactivating singlet
oxygen and decreasing localized oxygen concentrations
(Maisuthisakul et al., 2007, Tepe et al., 2006).

For the exact and effective usage of phytochemical antioxidants, lipid

oxidation, the action mechanism of antioxidants and some other
properties such as synergism and degradation should be known well
(Madhavi et al., 1996).

5.2.1 Methods for Determination of Antioxidant Activity

Methods utilizing HAT reaction mechanisms

ORAC Method: measures antioxidant inhibition of peroxyl radical

induced oxidations and thus reflects classical radical chain breaking
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antioxidant activity by H atom transfer. In the basic assay, the peroxyl

radical reacts with a fluorescent probe to form a nonfluorescent
product, which can be quantitated easily by fluorescence.

TRAP Method: This method monitors the ability of antioxidant

compounds to interfere with the reaction between peroxyl radicals
generated by AAPH or ABAP [2,2’- azobis(2-amidinopropane)
dihydrochloride] and a target probe.

Chemiluminescence (CL) Method: The fundamental chemistry of

CL assays is based on the reaction of radical oxidants with marker
compounds to produce excited state species that emit
chemiluminescence (chemically induced light). Compounds that react
with the initiating radicals inhibit the light production. The most
widely used marker is luminol that have extensively used to study
radical reactions and is acceptable when single oxidants are being
measured (Prior, et al. 2005).

PCL (Photochemiluminescence) Assay: The assay involves the

photochemical generation of superoxide O2·- free radical combined
with CL (chemiluminescence) detection. The assay is initiated by
optical excitation of a photosensitizer (S), resulting in the generation
of the superoxide radical anion.

S + hυ +O2 →[ S*O2 ] → S•+ +O2 • - (5.6)

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LDL (Low–Density Lipoprotein) Oxidation: LDL is isolated fresh

from blood samples, oxidation is initiated by Cu(II) or AAPH, and
peroxidation of the lipid components is followed at 234 nm for
conjugated dienes or by peroxide values for lipid hydroperoxides
(Prior et al. 2005).

Methods utilizing SET reaction mechanisms

FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power): The reaction

measures reduction of ferric to a colored product. The reaction detects
compounds with redox potentials of <0.7 V, so FRAP is a reasonable
screen for the ability to maintain redox status in cells or tissues.
Reducing power appears to be related to the degree of hydroxylation.

Methods utilizing both SET and HAT mechanisms

TEAC or Other ABTS Assays: This method is based on the

scavenging ability of antioxidants to the long-life radical anion
ABTS˙+. In this assay, ABTS is oxidized by peroxyl radicals or other
oxidants to its radical cation, ABTS˙ +, which is intensely colored, and
antioxidant capacity is measured as the ability of test compounds to
decrease the color reacting directly with the ABTS˙+ radical .Results
of the compounds are expressed relative to Trolox.

DPPH Assay: DPPH radical is commercially available and does not

have to be generated before assay like ABTS˙ +. This assay is based on
the measurement of the reducing ability of antioxidants toward DPPH
radical by measuring the decrease of its absorbance (Prior, et al.
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2005).

The effects of the oxidative stress may be delayed or reduced by

taking dietery supplements (Villeponteau et al., 2000). It is important
to determine the antioxidant capacities of dietary antioxidants.
Various kinds of methods are being used for measuring antioxidant
capacity of substances such as physical, chemical and biochemical
generator systems. Most of these methods have quite time consuming
procedures up to several hours for a single sample and many
substances contain both water-soluble and lipid- soluble antioxidants.
However most of the methods have a single measuring principle that
determines only one of the two substance classes (Matthias et al.)

CONCLUSION
Medicinal plants are the important natural raw materials in food,
cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries due to their several biological
activities such as, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-
inflammatory. The increasing demand and consumption of medicinal
plants induced the large scale production and processing of plant
products as raw materials for several industries. Processing of
medicinal plant products need to follow a standardized quality
arrangement. Quality here refers to the product in terms of technical
specifications and to the organization of the production process and
the continuity of service. The know-how and control of the production
process and the coordination of all links are essential for good quality.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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CHAPTER 4

PLANTS DESERVING AS MUCH INTEREST AS LAVENDER

FOR TURKEY
PhD of Agriculture, Lecturer H. Eda TOKUL1

1
Manisa Celal Bayar University, School of Tobacco Expertise, Manisa, Turkey
email: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0000-0002-6445-8219
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INTRODUCTION

The increasing popularity of Lavender (Lavandula spp.) species in

Turkey in recent years is due to the ease of cultivation and the
abundance of usage areas. In addition, the fact that it is an
environmentally friendly plant that many growers are not aware of is
one of the most important of these advantages. This role in preventing
erosion is due to the tap-rooted plant. It is also important that it
ensures the utilization of barren lands where agriculture cannot be
carried out. The rapid increase in production areas will translate into a
greater gain by increasing the added value of the final product. In
Turkey, this issue should be given more importance, and training and
seminars should be given if necessary to increase awareness on issues
such as processing and marketing of the product harvested from the
field. It is known that its contribution to the country's economy is
undoubted and despite this increase in production areas, production is
still insufficient and cannot meet the domestic and foreign demand.
For this reason, the increase in interest in lavender continues to be a
positive development for Turkey. However, increasing the number of
plant species cultivated in Turkey, which has an important position in
terms of the plant kingdom and includes three different florae, will
also bring this agricultural capacity of our country to the commercial
dimension. There are more than 250,000 plant species in the world. It
is estimated that 35,000-70,000 species are used for medical purposes
in some cultures at different times. Developing countries, which make
up the majority of the world's population, still rely on herbal
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medicines to meet their health needs. However, interest in herbal

medicines has been increasing rapidly in the regions where modern
medicines can also be reached in recent years Guidelines for the
Appropriate Use of Herbal Medicine. (1998) named book.

Plants that are used in pharmaceutical production, dye production,

flavor substances, cosmetic raw materials, spice production, and many
other sectors and are the raw materials of these sectors are called
medicinal and aromatic plants. The use of medicinal and aromatic
plants is quite common in the world. Most of the plants in this group
spread in the natural flora in many parts of the world. In addition,
many of them have been cultivated and grown. This cultivation is also
in large quantities for many countries and contributes to the
economies of the countries.

It is thought that the maximum number of medicinal and aromatic

plants cultivated in the world is approx. 200-300. According to the
International Union for Nature Conservation (IUCN), some species
are at risk of extinction in different parts of the world where medicinal
plants are used extensively today, such as in Asia and Africa.
According to data from IUCN, 15,000 species of medicinal plants in
the world are endangered to different degrees. Turkey's flora is one of
the most remarkable countries in the world with its high number of
endemic species rather than the high number of species it has. 3.649 of
totals of 11.466 plant species (31%) spreading in Turkey are endemic.
However, the flora of Turkey has not yet been fully revealed.
Although Turkey covers 0.6% of the world's land surface, it contains
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2.5% of all plant species in the world. It is reported that 1/3 of the
total plant species naturally found in Turkey's flora may have the
potential to be used for medicinal and aromatic purposes. Some
regions of our country are richer in terms of endemism than other
regions. Mt. Taurus, Mt. Amanos, Uludağ, Mt. Erciyes, many plateaus
of Anatolia, and salinized areas in the Salt Lake Basin are the most
important sources of biodiversity in our country in the southern
regions, especially in Mt. Kaçkar and Karçal of our Eastern Black Sea
Region. In contrast, there are a total of 14,000 plant species on the
European continent. The number of plant species owned by Germany,
one of the European countries, is around 2500. Istanbul, which has a
surface area of 5500 square kilometers, is more than that of England
and the Netherlands with 2450 natural flowering plant species. It has
been determined that there are over 2750 plant species in the flora of
our Artvin province, which is the smallest province of our country.
Although the number of medicinal and aromatic plants that are
economically important and traded in Turkey is reported to be 347, it
is estimated that this number is much higher and approximately 500
are used for medical and aromatic purposes and traded. It is known
that approximately 200 plant species of 500 plant species used in
Turkey and of economic importance have export potential. It can be
said from the sector analyses that 90% of the medicinal and aromatic
plants used and traded in our country are collected from nature in
terms of the number of species and the remaining species are
cultivated in terms of the number of species, and 50% of the total
production of medicinal and aromatic plants in Turkey is used in the
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sector by cultivating Book of Doğu Karadeniz Bölgesi Tıbbi ve

Aromatik Bitkilerin Envanterinin Çıkarılması, Ticari Kullanımının
Araştırılması ve Üreticilerin Eğitimi Projesi Eğitimi. (2017).

Medical and aromatic plants and processed products are exported

from Turkey to approximately 100 countries. Japan, the USA, the EU,
Latin America, the Far East, and North Africa are among the countries
that are exported. Among these countries, the USA, Canada, Vietnam,
Germany, the Netherlands, Brazil, Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, and
Poland are at the top of the list. Thyme is one of the most important
medicinal and aromatic plants exported by Turkey. This is followed
by bay leaf, cumin, anise, sage, carob, sumac, fennel, rosemary,
mahaleb, licorice, and mint, respectively. Again, among the essential
oils obtained by processing the medicinal and aromatic plants
exported by Turkey, rose oil, thyme oil and citrus oil are followed.
The world trade in medicinal and aromatic plants is growing. This
growth shows that the demand for medicinal and aromatic plants is
increasing day by day Book of Doğu Karadeniz Bölgesi Tıbbi ve
Aromatik Bitkilerin Envanterinin Çıkarılması, Ticari Kullanımının
Araştırılması ve Üreticilerin Eğitimi Projesi Eğitimi. (2017).

SAGE (Salvia sp)

Labiatae (Lamiaceae) is one of the 45 genera belonging to the family

and is a common plant species in the Mediterranean Region. It has
been stated that there are 900 species under the Salvia genus in the
world. It is seen in the Americas and South-West Asian continents. It
is stated that the Salvia genus contains 36 species on the European
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continent, 70 species in Iran, and 75 species within the borders of the

former Soviet Union. In Turkey, there are 97 species, 4 subtypes, and
8 varieties. 51 of these species are endemic and their rates of
endemism (52.5%) are quite high. Of the 97 species grown in Turkey,
58 (59.7%) are in Iran-Turan, 27 (27.8%) are in the Mediterranean, 5
(5%) are in the Euro-Siberian phytogeographical region, and the
remaining 7 (7%) are in more than one phytogeographical region.
Salvia fruticosa, S. cryptantha, S. multicaulis, S. sclarea and S.
tomentosa are merchandised. Considering the natural spread of sage,
which has a very high endemism rate, in Turkey, it has been observed
that it is mostly concentrated in the central and southern regions,
including the east and west part of these regions. Among these, it was
determined that the most endemic species were located in the west of
Eastern Anatolia, followed by the east of Central Anatolia, the east of
the Mediterranean Region, and the west of the South Eastern Anatolia
Region, respectively. It is known that S. aethiopis, S. argentea, S.
bracteata, S. candidissima, S. ceratophylla, S. microstegia, S. pinnata,
S. sclarea, S. syriaca, S. verticillate and S. viridis show more
distribution in these regions. Plants under the Salvia genus are single
or perennial and in herbaceous or shrub-like form. In particular, the
flowers have two obvious lips and there are 4 stamens. Stamens have
special structures. At the end of the elongated long arm, which is in
the form of two connected arms, there is an efficient theca, and at the
end of the short arm, there is an inefficient theca, which has turned
into a plaque (Ceylan, A., 1996; İpek and Gürbüz, 2010).
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The leaves (Folium Salviae) of Salvia officinalis L. (locally named as

“Tıbbi Adaçayı”, “Diş otu”), one of the traded species, are used as
drugs, collected and dried at flowering time. This species is a 50-100
cm tall, purplish-blue flowering, simple leafy, perennial, and bushy
plant. Its leaves are 3-8 cm long and 1-4 cm wide. Light threaded,
with frequent fur on both sides and silver-colored. Its composition
contains tannin, the bitter substance, and 1-2.5% essential oil. The
essential oil contains 30-50% thujone, 15% cineol, 10% borneol. Its
drug has been used as a therapeutic substance since the Middle Ages.
It has antiseptic, tonic, stimulating, carminative and relieving in throat
and nose diseases. It is not seen in the flora of Turkey, but successful
results have been obtained in breeding trials in many regions (Baytop,
1999).

S. fruticosa Miller (Syn: S. triloba L. Fil.) (Locally named as

“Anadolu adaçayı”, “Elma Çalbası”) is a perennial plant with a bush-
like appearance that can reach 120 cm tall. Its branches are tilted and
covered with white-colored fur. The leaves are greyish-white and
strongly scented and have stems with plain or 1-2 tabs. 2-6 of the
flowers stay together and are lilac-colored. It grows abundantly in
Western and Southwestern Anatolian flora. In these regions, it is
collected from nature and exported to many countries, especially the
USA. It contains 3% essential oil, triterpenes, and flavone derivatives.
The essential oil obtained from its leaves and flowering branches is
called apple oil (Oleum Salviae trilobae). This oil is mostly obtained
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in Muğla and Fethiye regions. It has carminative, gastric,

antiperspirant, and urinary effects (Baytop, 1999).

S. multicaulis Vahl (locally named as “Kürt Reyhanı”) is a perennial

and purple-flowered species at a height of 15-50 cm. It grows
abundantly in the Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia Regions (Baytop,
1999).

S. sclarea L. (locally named as “ayıkulağı”, “misk adaçayı”, “tüylü

adaçayı”) is a two or perennial plant with purple or pale blue flowers
that can grow up to 100 cm. The leaves are stalked, heart-shaped, and
furry. Its flowering branches (Herba Salviae sclareae) carry tannin,
resin, bitter substance, and essential oil between 0.3-0.9%. Flowering
branches and leaves are used as 5% infusion as stomach, constipation,
antiperspirant, and soothing (Baytop, 1999).

S. tomentosa Miller (Sage with big flowers) is a bush-like plant and

can grow up to 100 cm. Its flowers are lilac, and its corolla is 25-30
mm long. The leaves are stalked, long, and oval and the bottom is
round and heart-shaped. It grows in the outer region of Anatolia. It is
collected intensively from nature in our country. Together with S.
fruticosa, the amount of collection from nature is about 1.5 tons
(Tutin, 1972; akt. Adaçayı Türlerinin Tarımı ve Endüstrisi Fizibilite
Raporu, 2020; Baydar 2016; akt. Adaçayı Türlerinin Tarımı ve
Endüstrisi Fizibilite Raporu, 2020).

It is produced in some European countries such as Albania, Bulgaria,

Croatia, Germany, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Spain
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and in the USA. However, 50% of the sage leaves circulating in the
world markets are still collected from nature. One of the most
important sage producers and exporters is Albania. It exports an
average of 1.5 tons per year. The USA, on the other hand, is one of the
important countries that imports sage and meets 55% of its needs from
Albania. In Albania, it has been reported that 2300 farmers cultivate
sage on an area of 2724 hectares. Germany is the second country to
supply sage after Albania. Although Germany is actually a sage
producer, it realizes most of its exports by reprocessing sage from
Southeast European countries or Turkey Adaçayı Türlerinin Tarımı ve
Endüstrisi Fizibilite Raporu. (2020).

It has been reported that sage cultivation in our country was carried
out in an area of approximately 5600 decares in 2019. In the same
year, the production amount was 1233 tons. This data is the average of
the production area and quantities made in Adana, Antalya, Denizli,
Düzce, Eskişehir, Karaman, Kayseri, Kütahya, Manisa, Muğla,
Tekirdağ, Uşak and İzmir provinces (TUİK, 2020; akt Adaçayı
Türlerinin Tarımı ve Endüstrisi Fizibilite Raporu, 2020).

According to TUİK’s datas, 2020 sage is imported and exported as tea

in small packages, as a different kind of tea from the product used as
tea in small packages and as sage oil. The export amount of the
product used as tea in small packages in 2020 was 9365 kg, 160.763
USD, and 1.117.447 TL. Its imports were reported as USD 3192 and
TL 20,634 with 15 kg. It was observed that the export volume data of
different kinds of tea from the product used as tea in small packages
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was 1.751.450 kg and 7.366.450 USD and 50.880.071 TL in 2020,

and the import volume data was 2.801.491 USD and 19.059.364 TL
for 1.115.748 kg. Almost all of these imports were made for
processing and export in facilities in Turkey. While the export data of
sage oil in 2020 were 24.328 kg, 171.440 USD and 1.154.404 TL, the
import data were explained as 629 kg, 54.162 USD and 397.828 TL
Adaçayı Türlerinin Tarımı ve Endüstrisi Fizibilite Raporu. (2020).

Sage grows best on hillside terrain, dry, sandy, and thick soils. It is
mostly grown in Antalya, Denizli, and Kutahya provinces in our
country. It can be said that cultivation can be done in places where
there is a Mediterranean climate. However, since the ecological
factors desired by sage grown for different purposes will also differ, it
is important to choose the most suitable species for the ecological
characteristics of the place to be cultivated. While the relatively
temperate regions with the Mediterranean climate should be selected
for Anatolian sage, musk sage can also be grown in the inner regions
because it is more tolerant to cold.

THYME (Thymus, Thymbra, Origanum, Coridothymus, Satureja)

There are many types of thyme from the Labiatae family. In Turkey,
nearly 100 plant taxa belonging to the genus Thymus (thyme),
Thymbra (locally named as “zahter”), Origanum (locally named as
“İzmir kekiği”, “bilyalı kekik”, “mercanköşk”), Satureja (thymbra)
are called thyme. The main components (with some exceptions) of
essential oils of these genera are usually carvacrol or thymol or both.
The number of species included in the genus Thymus in the world is
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about 220, 39 species (58 taxa) in Turkey, 43 species included in the

genus Origanum, 23 species (27 taxa) in Turkey, about 30 species of
the genus Satureja, 13 species (14 taxa) in Turkey, about 12 species of
the genus Thymbra, 2 species (4 taxa) in Turkey and there is only
species belonging to the genus Coridothymus, and this species is also
found in Turkey. In Turkey, 44.2% of the species included in the
Lamiaceae family, 65.2% of the species belonging to the Origanum
genus, and 52.6% of the species belonging to the Thymus genus, and
28% of the species belonging to the Satureja genus are endemic. This
information is an indication of how rich Turkey is in terms of these
genera and how these genera have a gene center (Davis, 1988; akt.
Bozdemir, 2019; Biskup and Saez, 2002; Kintzios, 2002).

Origanum syriacum var. bevanii (locally named as “Suriye

Kekiği”, “Dağ Kekiği”, “İsrail Kekiği”)

It naturally grows in the Southwestern Mediterranean and

Southeastern Anatolia (Icel, Hatay, Kahramanmaras, and Amanos). In
a sample collected in Kahramanmaraş, essential oil yield was found to
be 3.7%. 43% of this was found to be carvacrol, 25% thymol, 13%
terpinene, and 6% p-Cymene (Bozdemir, 2019).

Origanum onites (locally named as “İzmir Kekiği”, “Bilyalı

Kekik”, “Türk Kekiği”)

As it is known in Europe, "Turkish Oregano" is widely grown along

the coasts of the Aegean and Western Mediterranean (Balıkesir, İzmir,
Aydın, Mugla, Antalya) (up to 1400 m height). It was cultivated in the
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Aegean Region. Our country has the largest share in thyme exports
(approximately 80%). Linalool was found in 91-92% of the samples
collected from Antalya and Isparta regions, and it is thought that what
grows in this region is a chemotype (Baytop, 1991; akt. Bozdemir,
2019; Öğütveren et al., 1992; akt. Bozdemir, 2019).

Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum (locally named as “İstanbul

Kekiği”)

It grows in Marmara and Aegean regions (Bursa, Balıkesir,

Canakkale, İzmir, Aydın, Mugla). It is considered a spice and medical
tea. Essential oil yield varies between 3.6-5.7%. Although it has
carvacrol-rich essential oil, it is possible to find plants in thymol and
linalool chemotype. The flowering period of the plant usually
coincides with July-August.

Origanum minutiflorum (locally named as “Sütçüler Kekiği”,

“Yayla Kekiği”, “Toka Kekiği”)

It is an endemic species grown in the Mts. Taurus near Antalya

(Saklıkent) and Isparta. It is exported in large quantities by collecting
within the periods determined in a controlled manner for the
continuation of the species. Essential oil yield is between 2-5%. It has
carvacrol-rich essential oil It carries 40-80% carvacrol, 25% thymol,
13-8% terpinene, and 6% p-Cymene.
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Origanum majorana (Sweet marjoram, locally named as “Alanya

Kekiği”, “Mercanköşk”, “Tatlı Kekik”, “Beyaz Kekik”)

It is common in dry meadows, rocky and dry forests in the western

(Thrace, Marmara, Aegean, and the Mediterranean) regions of our
country. It blooms in July-September. In the Aegean region,
cultivation is carried out for the production of essential oil in gardens.
The rate of carvacrol is also quite high at the rate of 78-80%. There is
no carvacrol in the samples grown in Europe and known as marjoram.

Satureja hortensis L (locally named as “süpürge kekiği”,

“çibriska”)

It is an annual herbaceous species that spreads in almost all regions of

our country and can also be used as a drug. It can naturally be found
on rocky and eroded slopes, gravel places, loose beaches, and fallow
areas on the shores. It can be found at 1920 m above sea level. It
blooms between June and September. Its flowers, which bloom from
the beginning of summer to the autumn, are white or purple. The ratio
of essential oil in the drug varies between 0.3-2.6% and there is
especially carvacrol (20-65%) as a phenol derivative in the essential
oil (Bozdemir, 2019).

Thymus x citriodorus (synonym T. fragrantissimus, T. serpyllum

citratus and T. serpyllum citriodorum)

Thymus citriodorus is reported to be a hybrid of T. pulegioides and T.

Vulgaris. The ever-green species blooms in July-August. It is reported
to be used in the perfumery industry and mouthwash as a compound.
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The rich nectar in its flowers attracts honeybees (Huxley, 1999; akt.
Bozdemir, 2019). In our country, the species with no natural spread is
mostly used for landscaping purposes with its fresh lemon scent and
flamboyant flowers. The species, also called lemon thyme or gold
thyme, has been reported to be included in the geraniol type thyme
group (Huang Jian et all., 2009).

Thymbra spicata (locally named as “Karakekik”, “Karabaşkekik”,

“Sivrikekik”)

It is a species common in Thrace, Mediterranean coasts, Aegean, and

Western and Southeastern Anatolia. Due to the antiseptic effect of
high amounts of carvacrol, it is used as a medicine as well as spices
and tea. The rate of carvacrol is 50-71%. The rate of an essential oil
varies between 1-3.4 % (Bozdemir, 2019).

Table1. The amount of production and yield of thyme (TUİK,

2020)

Lines Turkey-
TR

Fruits, Beverages, Yield and 01.28.19.00.01. 2015 124

and Spices (Thyme, Unprocessed) - 2016 122
Kg/Decare 2017 119
2018 114
2019 114
2020 129
Amount of Production and 2015 12992
01.28.19.00.01. (Thyme, 2016 14724
Unprocessed) - Ton 2017 14477
2018 15895
2019 17965
2020 23866
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When Turkey's thyme production amounts and yields are examined, it

has been observed that both increased between 2015 and 2020 (Table
1). However, even 23866 tons of thyme in 2020 do not meet the
demand. Thyme agriculture is also very important for the continuity of
the ecosystem, as increasing production areas means less collection
from nature. Moreover, this is not the only reason to grow thyme. Its
cultivation is quite effortless and because it is a perennial plant, input
use will start to decrease after the first 2 years. As mentioned above,
the presence of species and varieties adapted to all kinds of ecological
conditions also makes it easier to make choices. The first condition of
successful breeding is the right type and variety selection. After this
stage, it should be determined which production material to start with.
Thyme seedlings can be produced by seed or vegetative production. If
production is to be made with vegetative propagation, rootstock
oregano plants where cuttings can be taken are needed. If it is to be
produced with seed, care should be taken to use improved seed. If
cultivation is to be carried out under aqueous conditions, it is
cultivated in October, November, or December; in areas where
irrigation facilities are limited, the soil is plowed deeply (autumn
surface tillage) after precipitation when conditions are suitable and
disc harrow is applied. Before planting, fertilization is performed at
the rate of 6-8 kg pure N and 4-5 kg pure P per decare. The planting
distance is measured as 40x20. In the first year, the development is
slow as the adaptation process to the field will take place first.
Therefore, it harvests once, which may take up to October. In the
following years, either 2 or 3 harvests can be taken according to the
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conditions and production techniques of the region. Harvesting is done

by harvesting at least 10 cm above the soil surface. It is dried under
appropriate conditions and traded in the form of herba or oil. In our
country, it is one of the plants whose cultivation has been increasing
in recent years. However, since it contains a large number of species
and varieties, production is not sufficient to meet the demand. It is
thought that it will come to its rightful place and contribute to the
national economy by increasing the production areas and establishing
more processing facilities.

ECHINACEA (Echinacea spp.)

The echinacea plant is found in the family Asteraceae (Compositae).

Echinacea is a perennial herbaceous plant with a steep stem that can
grow up to 60-180 cm, which begins to bloom in April-May. The
body is cylindrical, the lower leaves are stalked, and the upper leaves
are usually attached directly to the body. Its body and leaves are
slightly furry. The leaves are oval spear-shaped and have 3-5 veins.
The center of the echinacea plant is a round structure surrounded by
radial flowers and has a cone head. The radial flowers around the
round structure are pink, white, yellow, red, and usually purple. An
average of 250-300 seeds are obtained from a ripe flower receptacle.
The body rises from the root in the form of vertical pile root (E.
angustifolia) or hairy root (E. purpurea). Echinacea species can
regenerate and withstand drought, but they grow slowly (Mistríková,
I., Vaverková, Š., 2007).
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For this reason, it may be recommended to grow in areas where

irrigation opportunities are limited. Echinacea, whose homeland is
North America, has spread to South America, Canada, Europe, Russia,
Africa, and the Pacific. This plant has accounted for about 10% of the
medical plant industry in America in recent years. Echinacea, whose
usage area is expanding, even participates in feed rations to increase
the milk quality and the resistance of cattle to diseases in a natural
way, and numerous studies are carried out in many countries on its
usage areas and cultivation. In Tanzania, echinacea is produced as off-
season cut flowers and exported to Europe. The echinacea plant is
better known as a medicinal plant. There are various secondary
metabolites in both the upperparts and underground organs of the
plants included in the echinacea genus. The most common ones are
active substances such as caffeic acid derivatives, flavonoids,
alkylamides, polysaccharides, and essential oil (Mat, 2002). Quantities
and ratios of secondary metabolites are affected by processes such as
cultivation conditions, harvest time, drying, and storage. For example,
while E.purpurea is hairy rooted, E.angustifolia is rooted in the pile
and is mostly grown for the root. The metabolites in the herba and root
parts of the economically important E.purpurea, E.angustifolia and
E.pallida species are as follows;

- Phenolic compounds; Phenylprepanoids; echinacoside, cichoric

acid, caftaric acid, verbascoside, chlorogenic acid,
isochlorogenic acid, cynarine,
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Flavonoids; Tutoside, luteolin, kaempferol, quercetin, quercetagetin,

apigenin, isorhamnetin,

Essential oils; germacrene D, borneol, bornylacetate, caryophyllene,

caryophyllene epoxide, and palmitic acid, etc.,

Lipid compounds; polyacetylene, nitrogen compounds; alkylamides,

alcoholoids, polysaccharides; inulin, etc. (Çalışkan and Odabaş,
2011).

This plant, which is known to increase the number of white blood

cells that protect us against infections and strengthen our immune
system, has been used for medical purposes from the past to the
present. The echinacea plant has antiviral and antibacterial effects.
The positive effects on human health in the USA and Europe have
been the subject of much researches. Today, the use of the echinacea
plant in the food sector is also increasing.

South Africa sells raw materials to some Western European countries

and exports its extracts to Russia and North America. It is also seen
that the echinacea plant has an important place in the world economy.
Sales volume shows a rapid increase from year by year. According to
World Health Organization (WHO) data, approximately 20,000 plants
are used for medical purposes. In today’s world, where the need for
natural foods and medicinal plants increases, the use of echinacea,
which is known to be important in terms of health, is also becoming
widespread with many active ingredients in its content. Echinacea, the
natural plant of North America, has spread from America to Europe,
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from Africa to the Pacific with the understanding of its benefits, and
has gained millions of dollars of the industry that contains hundreds of
products. In Europe, more than 280 different products made of
Echinacea purpurea are sold. It is mostly used as an ointment,
tincture, lotion, cream, liquid, and dry extracts and toothpaste. In the
United States, the infusion of fresh and dry roots is more common as
powdered roots or encapsulated dry herb. The increasing use of
echinacea has threatened natural plant populations, and some states
have banned or restricted the wild collection of E. Angustifolia.
Australia, Germany, Russia, New Zealand, Ukraine, the Republic of
South Africa have advanced in echinacea agriculture. Echinacea is a
cool climate plant, but it can adapt well to summer temperature and
dryness. They usually grow in poor, rocky, well-drained alkaline, and
near-neutral pH soils. While some species of echinacea are resistant to
arid soils, some species have less tolerance to dry land. These plants
do not grow especially in areas with incomplete drainage in winter.
The ideal soil requirement may vary according to the species, so they
can grow at different pH levels. However, in general, they can grow at
pH values of 6-7. According to some studies, while the higher
essential oil is produced in arid, low-nitrogen soils, alkoloid level
increases in moist, high-nitrogen soils. In many studies, the effect and
importance of different soil types and different fertilization rates of
this plant on yield have been revealed. Echinacea, which is a
medicinal and aromatic plant, can be planted in the field in three
ways: direct planting of seeds in the field, acclimatization of seedlings
to the field by growing in trays, and vegetative production methods
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from root fragments. According to some researchers on these 3

cultivation systems, the lowest rhizome yield was obtained directly
from seed planting and the highest levels from vegetative production.
Researchers also report that controlled arid stress increases the dry
weight of roots. Although different levels of dormancy are observed in
echinacea seeds, the germination rates also differ according to their
species. To break dormancy and increase germination, the
stratification process, leaving it in a cold and humid environment,
various chemicals and mechanical abrasion methods, and light can be
used. Using several methods together can increase germination by
affecting the seed. Although some echinacea species have very low
germination rates, the germination rates can increase up to 70% by
combining seeds with seed shell abrasion and keeping them cold and
under the light. The most common cultivation method is the method of
acclimatization of the seedlings to the field. Seedlings grown in
violets should be surprised from the beginning of May. Plantation of
the field can be done in autumn as well as in spring. The distance
between plants varies especially depending on the soil quality.
Different planting density such as 45x10, 30x30, 60x30 cm etc. are
recommended. It can be reduced to 15 cm on the row, but increasing
the distance between plants reduces the risk of fungal leaf disease and
root rot. Fertilization in the cultivation of echinacea has great effects
on the chemical composition of the plant. Various studies have been
conducted on the fertilization of the echinacea plant. According to a
study, it was observed that the total biomass yield depends on both the
soil type and the amount of fertilizer and the fertilizer dose varies
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depending on the soil type used. According to another study, as a

result of the observation they carried out by applying different doses
of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) fertilizers to the
plant, it was observed that if the fertilizer dose exceeds the limits, the
yield decreased, and even the root yield decreased. In some studies,
10-20 kg N, 10 kg P, 25 kg K per decare are recommended, while in
New Zealand, 50 kg per decare is recommended for NPKS fertilizers
15-10-10-8 composite fertilizer. According to the result of another
study, potassium fertilization has a significant effect on the
echinacoside content, which is one of the important components of the
echinacea plant and a value that shows its efficiency. In another study
conducted in Egypt, the highest yield was obtained with low
potassium and relatively high nitrogen application and they increased
the alkylamide content in plant tissues.

The harvest of the echinacea plant varies in 2 different ways. These

are varied as root harvest and upper part harvest according to the plant
parts to be harvested. In E. purpurea, the highest yield was achieved
at the beginning of flowering for one-year-old plants and at the full
flowering in two-year-old plants (Lozykowska, 2003). In full
flowering, which usually occurs in the middle of summer, leaf and
flower harvesting is recommended for E. purpurea. Leaves and
flowers are separated from the body and used as fresh or dried
(Kindscher and Wittenberg 2006).
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The production and agriculture of echinacea plants in Turkey are not

carried out professionally. There is no information in TUİK data
related to production in Turkey. Echinacea is a newly formed
medicinal and aromatic plant with an economic use in Turkey.
Echinacea is sold in open spaces in herbalists and grocery stores in
teabags. Echinaceas sold in herbalists are collected from nature. It is
also used as an ornamental plant in Turkey. It has been observed that
the climate and soil requirements of the Echinacea plant can grow in
many regions of Turkey, and it is appropriate to cultivate this plant
especially in Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia, and Central
Anatolia regions. For example, it is cultivated in Akbucak village of
Sarıkaya, Yozgat in the region of Central Anatolia (Yozgat Tıbbi ve
Aromatik Bitkiler Değerleniyor Projesi Fizibilite Raporu, 2012).

Various academic studies have been carried out and continue to be

carried out regarding the cultivation of the plant in our country.
However, the data obtained so far show that this plant can be
cultivated in our country. Namely; the results obtained in a study
conducted with an experiment established in Aydın province show
that Echinacea purpurea species is adapted to these ecological
conditions and can be cultivated in regions with the same
characteristics. The average plant height values according to different
harvest times and plant densities were calculated between 57.12 and
74.19 cm. The highest values were obtained from the end of the
flowering harvest. The highest average main branch lengths were
obtained from the harvest at the end of flowering with 76.10 cm. The
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number of main branches varied between 1.46 pcs/plant and 9.26

pcs/plant among all species according to different harvest times, and
the highest number of main branches was determined in the end-
flowering harvest of E. purpurea species.

In plant densities, the maximum number of main branches was

obtained from 80x20 cm plant densities and with the species of E.
purpurea. The wider space occupancy of the herb of this species
compared to other species and the increase in the distance between
rows caused increasing the number of main branches. Green herb
yield was obtained as 1460.1 kg/da with a plant density of 20x20 cm.
The average drug yield of the herba was measured as 358.31 kg per
decare at a plant density of 20x20 cm (Özcan, İ.İ., 2014). The drug
yield of the flowers was determined as 158.45 kg per decare at a
frequency of 20x20 plants. While the fresh root yield was 1580.7 kg
per decare, the drug yield of the root was 736.1 kg per decare
accordingly. The essential oil ratio varied between 0.051% and
0.117%, and the highest value was obtained at the end of the
flowering harvest. Substances of 9-octadecanoic acid, ortho-cymene,
β-pinene, germacrene D, octadecanoic acid, n-hexadecanoic acid,
caryophyllene oxide, α-phellandrene, 1.5-epoxysalvial-4(14)-ene, α-
pinene, 1-cyclopenthyl 3-fluorobenzoate, 4'-methoxyacetophenone,
humulene epoxide II, gamma-curcumene, curcumene, 3.4-dimethyl-3-
cyclohexen-1-carboxaldehyde, caryophyllene,
dehydroxyisocalamendiol, limonene, widdrol, α-farnesene, β-
longipinene, β-eudesmene, Nor-copaanone, 3.7-dimethyl-1.6-
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octadien-3-ol, 1-nonanecarboxyl, myrtenal, aromadendrene, trans-4-

keto-beta-iononane and 4-(1-imethylaminoethenyl)-pyridine were
detected in the essential oil of E. purpurea.

Echinacea is a plant that can be recommended to growers who are

looking for alternative products to include Turkey in this market,
which has reached serious dimensions in the world. As the successful
results of the first cultivations guided by expert teams are harvested,
echinacea agriculture can become widespread by conducting
experiments in different regions. To create added value, it is very
possible to turn it into tea, drugs, etc. that are valuable in the world
market and market them.

CUMIN

The word cumin can be used for many species. Cuminum syminum is
real cumin. This species is cultivated in Turkey. Carum carvi L.,
locally known as "Karaman kimyonu” or “Frenk kimyonu” in
Anatolia, is not cultivated in our lands. It grows naturally in the
wetlands of Eastern Anatolia. Apart from these, black cumin (Bunium
persicum, B.bulbocastanatum (Syn; Carum bulbocastanum et al.) and
white cumin (Cuminum setifolium) are locally used species in Iran,
Pakistan and Afghanistan. However, in recent years, black cumin
seeds have also been sold on international markets and are priced
higher. Although these two species aren’t present in our country, 20
taxa of the Bunium genus grow naturally with 12 sub-species. “Kefe
kimyonu” (Laser trilobum) grows naturally in our country and is used
locally. Trachyspermum ammi (Syn. Carum copticum) was once
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grown in small quantities in our country. Especially in India, it is

grown as a source of thymol (Arslan, 2019).

Fructus Cumini is the harvested and dried fruits of Cuminum syminum

L. (Umbelliferae) species cultivated in our country before full
ripening. This species is an annual herbaceous plant with white or
pink flowers, fragmented leaves, and a height of 50 cm. Its homeland
is Egypt. The Mediterranean countries and Central Anatolia Region in
Turkey (Eskisehir, Sivrihisar, Polatlı, Konya, Sivas, Kayseri, Kırsehir,
Kırıkkale), Southeastern Anatolia Region (Sanliurfa), Inner Aegean
(Afyon, Denizli) are among the regions where cumin is grown.

The appearance is 5-6 mm long, spindle-shaped, and has yellowish-

brown grains. It is usually divided into two half fruits. Each half-fruit
contains 5 easily visible, yellow-colored ribs. Between the ribs is
brown-colored. The upper part is sparsely furry. It has a strong smell
and special flavor. It contains fixed oil, essential oil (1.5-4%), resin,
etc. The active ingredient of essential oil is cuminal (50%). It is used
in alternative medicine and also as a spice due to its gastric,
carminative, diuretic, stimulant, and sweating effects. (Baytop, 1999)

The ripe fruits of the Carum carvi L. (Umbelliferae) species (Fructus

Carvi) are also used as spices in Europe. This species is approx. 100
cm tall, perennial and herbaceous plant, and has white or pink flowers,
fragmented leafy, It is widely grown in Europe. It has carminative,
milk boosting, and does good for menstrual disturbances. Fixed oil
carries essential oil (3-9%) resin, etc. The active ingredient in essential
oil is carvone and it contains approximately 60% of it.
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It loves deep, topsoil-rich, and stony areas. It wants to have enough

nitrogen and lime in the soil. It is resistant to prolonged droughts. But
it doesn't like too windy places. It is not suitable for very sandy and
clayey soils (Ceylan, 1996).

Cumin is grown in India, Turkey, Syria, China, Iran, USA, Mexico,

Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sudan, Egypt, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, and
some other countries. India is the largest producer, consumer, and
exporter of cumin in the world. While cumin is an important export
product for Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Syria, it is an
imported product for the UAE and Saudi Arabia. Reducing or even
eliminating import values can be achieved by increasing production
areas for Turkey.

Table 2. Cumin Production Data in Turkey (Anonymous, 2021).

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Total 270247 268849 267358 361761 321889 212132
Production
Area
Yield 63 69 72 67 63 66
(kg/da)
Amount of 16897 18586 19175 24195 20245 13926
Production
(Ton)

In Turkey, cumin yield was reported as 66 kg/da and production

amount as 13.926 tons in 2020. In the last two years, there has been a
decrease in the amount of production, and it has been observed that
there has been a decrease in the total production area in 2020 (Table
2).
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According to the data on the basis of regions, 64 kg/da yield was

obtained in the Mediterranean Region and Central Anatolia, while the
production amount was 6 tons and 1295 tons, respectively. While the
yield is 66 kg/da in the Western Anatolia, Western Black Sea, and
Southeastern Anatolia Regions, the production amount in these
regions is 12.232 tons, 9 tons, and 17 tons, respectively. While the
lowest yield was in the Aegean Region with 62 kg/da, the highest
yield was in Eastern Marmara with 86 kg/da. Production amounts in
these regions are 262 tons and 105 tons, respectively (Anonymous,
2021)

Expanding the production areas of cumin will increase Turkey's

importance in the global cumin market.

SUMAC (Rhus coriaria L.)

Sumac is a common name for flowering plants of the Rhus genus,

derived from the Arabic and Syriac word "summāq", meaning "dark
red", and belonging to the Anacardiaceae family, and having more
than 250 species. When the general characteristics of the
Anacardiaceae family are examined, it is seen that there are plants in
the form of shrubs or trees, whose natural spreading area is temperate
and warm climates (Köroğlu, 1989; Quattrocchi 1999 and USDA
2007 akt. Karadaş, 2019).

When the general characteristics of the Anacardiaceae family are

examined, it is seen that there are plants in the form of shrubs or trees
that find natural spreading areas in tropical and temperate regions and
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contain resins in their shells. Its leaves are helical or counter arrayed
and consist of simple and partial particles. The flowers of the plant are
in the form of clusters and the flowers are actinomorphic,
hermaphrodite, or unisexual (Köroğlu, 1989). Morphologically, sumac
has a vegetable structure seen in bush or tree form ranging from 1 to 3
m in height.

Sumac plants can grow in dry, stony, and rocky places, bushes,
roadside slopes, and forested places at 600-1900 m altitude. It can be
reproduced with seeds or vegetative (Browicz, 1982; Başoğlu ve
Cemeroğlu, 1984; Baytop, 1999; Karadaş, 2019 akt. Davis, 1967)

Rhus species are important in terms of erosion control studies since

they form a wide root system. This species can be used in roadside
filling slopes, afforestation of non-deep soils eroded due to erosion,
improvement of mine soils and other protection nature (Brinkman,
1974; Humphrey, 1983; Rowe and Blazich, 2003; Gezer ve Yücedağ,
2006; Göktürk ve ark., 2006 akt. Güvenç et all., 2017).

Although there are “derici sumağı” (Rhus coriaria L.), “boyacı

sumağı” (Rhus cotinus L.) and Rhus Chinensis L. species in Turkey,
the most common sumac species is “derici sumağı” (Rhus coriaria L.).

Rhus chinensis L. is found around Artvin. The sprawl of the "derici

sumağı” (Rhus coriaria L.) extends from the islands of the Canary
Islands and Madeira to Iran and Afghanistan through North Africa and
Southern Europe. In Turkey, it grows wild in the Aegean,
Mediterranean, and Eastern Anatolia regions. On the provinces basis;
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sumac plant can be found in provinces such as Adana, Amasya,

Ankara, Antalya, Artvin, Çanakkale, Denizli, Gaziantep, Gümüşhane,
Hakkâri, İstanbul, İzmir, Karaman, Kastamonu, Mersin, Samsun, Siirt,
Şanlıurfa and Tekirdağ in our country (Çiçek, 2015). It can reach 3m
in height. It is a plant in the form of a bush. Alternatively, the leaves
are in the form of compounds, dentate, or serrates. Its flowers are
green. and bloom in April and May. Their young twigs are reddish-
furred, And compound-leaved. Its fruit is spherical, feathery and when
it is ripe it is red-colored. (Salim Çoban). It carries the active
substance of gallotannin, which is commercially important in the parts
above the soil and roots of sumac. Contains gallic acid and
methyl/ethyl esters, flavonoids, anthocyanins, phenolic acids, essential
oil, and minerals (Ayhan, and Altınkaynak, 2020). Leaves and fruits
of the “derici sumağı” (Rhus coriaria L.) are used. Leaves and fruits
have an antioxidant and antimicrobial effect. The composition of the
sumac leaf (Folium Rhois coriariae) contains tannins, sugars, wax and
flavone derivatives and yellow color substances (myricetin). It was
determined that 21.7% tannin was found in Anatolian-origin leaves. It
is a drug with laxative, styptic, and antiseptic effects. It is also used
for tanning leather and dyeing woolen fabrics and carpet yarns. It is
one of Turkey's export products. Sumac fruit (Fructus Rhois coriariae)
is a dried ripe fruit of the species Rhus coriaria L. The fruit is in the
form of pale red, single-seeded, furry, and spherical-shaped grains.
Tannin (4%) carries essential oil, organic acids (citric, tartric, malic),
and these compounds’ salts. Therefore, its sour flavor is delicious. It
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is used in abundance as a spice (sumac extract), especially in Southern

Anatolia (Baytop, 1999).

Being able to become an agricultural country again will be possible by

identifying and studying the plants that spread in the natural flora of
our country and/or the species that can grow under the ecological
conditions of our country, bringing them into agriculture or increasing
the production areas of those that are still being cultivated.
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REFERENCES

Adaçayı Türlerinin Tarımı ve Endüstrisi Fizibilite Raporu. (2020). Isparta:T.C.

Sanayi ve Ticaret Bakanlığı, T.C. Batı Akdeniz Kalkınma Ajansı.
Anonymous, 2021. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TUİK) Bitkisel Üretim İstatistikleri,
http://tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=92&locale=tr, (Erişim tarihi: 25.09.2021)
Arslan, N. (2019). Dünyada Kimyon Üretimi ve Ticareti. Türkiye Tohumculuk
Birliği Dergisi 29 (8):52-55
Ayhan, F., Altınkaynak, D., (2020). Sumak fizibilite raporu ve yatırımcı rehberi. B.
Akgün et all. (Ed). Ankara: TC. Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı Eğitim ve Yayın
Dairesi Başkanlığı
Başoğlu F., Cemeroğlu B. (1984). Sumak’ın Kimyasal Bileşimi Üzerine Araştırma.
Gıda, 84:167-172.
Baytop, T. (1999). Türkiye’de Bitkiler ile Tedavi. Nobel Tıp Kitabevleri, İstanbul
Biskup, S., & Saez, E. (Ed.) (2002). Thyme, The Genus Thymus. Taylor-Francis.
London.
Bozdemir, Ç. (2019). Türkiye’de Yetişen Kekik Türleri, Ekonomik Önemi ve
Kullanım Alanları. YYU Journal of Agriculture Science 29 (3): 583.
Browicz K. (1982). Distribution of Species from the Genus Rhus L. In the Eastern.
Mediterranean Region and In Southwester Asia. Arbaretum Karnickie
rocznik, 26:3-11.
Ceylan, A. (1996). Tıbbi Bitkiler-II. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayını
No:481, Bornova-İzmir.
Çalışkan, Ö., Odabaş M.S. (2011). Ekinezya (Echinacea sp.) Türleri, Genel
Özellikleri ve Yetiştiriciliği. Anadolu J Agr Sci, 26(3): 265-270.
Çiçek, T. (2015). Derici Sumağı (Rhus coriaria L.)’nın Kahramanmaraş Yöresindeki
Doğal Yayılışı ile Bazı Biyolojik ve Ekolojik Özellikleri Üzerine
Araştırmalar, (Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam
Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Kahramanmaraş
Doğu Karadeniz Bölgesi Tıbbi ve Aromatik Bitkilerin Envanterinin Çıkarılması,
Ticari Kullanımının Araştırılması ve Üreticilerin Eğitimi Projesi Eğitimi
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Kitabı. (2017). Giresun :T.C. Kalkınma Bakanlığı Doğu Karadeniz Projesi

Bölge Kalkınma İdaresi Başkanlığı (DOKAP)
Guidelines for the Appropriate Use of Herbal Medicine. (1998). Manila:WHO
Ragional Publication, Western Pasific Series No: 23
Güvenç G., Özcan A., Bükücü Ş.B., Sütyemez M. (2017). Bazı Derici Sumak (Rhus
Coriaria L.) Genotiplerinin Fenolojik Özelliklerinin Belirlenmesi. Türk
Tarım ve Doğa Bilimleri Dergisi, 4: 477–483.
Huang Jian, Ma Li, Yao Lei, & Wu YaNi. (2009). The principle component analysis
and chemo-types of the essential oils from seven varieties of thyme. Journal
of Shanghai Jiaotong University-Agricultural Science, 27 (3) :206.
İpek, A., Gürbüz, B. (2010). Türkiye Florasında Bulunan Salvia Türleri ve Tehlike
Durumları. Tarla Bitkileri Merkez Araştırma Enstitüsü Dergisi 19 (1-2): 30-
35
Karadaş, Ö. (2019). Işinlama İşlemi Uygulanmiş Sumak (Rhus Coriaria L.) Meyve
Yağlarinin Fizikokimyasal Özelliklerinin Belirlenmesi (Yüksek Lisans Tezi)
Tekirdağ Namık Kemal Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Tekirdağ
Kindscher K. and R. Wittenberg (2006). The naming and classification of Echinacea
species. The conservation Ssatus of Echinacea species. K. Kindscher (Ed).
Echinacea: Herbal Medicine with a Wild History . Kansas: Springer, Cham.
Kintzios, E.S. (Ed.) (2002). Oregano, The Genus Origanum and Lippia Taylor-
Francis. London.
Köroğlu, A. (1989). Rhus coriaria L. (Sumak) Bitkisi Yaprak ve Meyvaları
Üzerinde Farkonognozik Çalışmalar (Yüksek Lisans Tezi) Ankara
Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimi Enstitüsü, Ankara.
Lozykowska S. K.; J. Dabrowska (2003). Yield and Polyphenolic Asits Content in
Purple Coneflower (Echinacea purpurea Moench.) at Different Growth
Stages. Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants, 10(3): 7 – 12.
Mat, A. (2002). Echinacea Türleri. 14. Bitkisel İlac Hammaddeleri Toplantısı.
Bildiriler, 29-31 May 2002 Eskisehir.
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Mistríková, I., Vaverková, Š. (2007). Morphology and anatomy of Echinacea

purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida and Parthenium integrifoliurm.
Biologial Bratislava, 62 (1): 2.
Özcan İ.İ. (2014). Farklı Kültürel Uygulamaların (Echinacea spp.) Türlerinin Bazı
Verim ve Kalite Özelliklerine Etkisi (Doktora Tezi) Adnan Menderes
Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Aydın
Yozgat Tıbbi ve Aromatik Bitkiler Değerleniyor Projesi Fizibilite Raporu, (2012).
T.C. Sanayi ve Teknoloji Bakanlığı, Orta Anadolu Kalkınma Ajansı.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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CHAPTER 5

MICROBIOLOGY AND ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES OF

SPICES AND HERBS

Assoc. Prof. Nural KARAGÖZLÜ1, Dr. S. Betül BOZATLI2

1
Manisa Celal Bayar University, Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering
Department, Yunusemre-Manisa, Turkiye. ORCID NO: 0000-0003-3754-0724
[email protected]
2
Manisa Celal Bayar University, Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering
Department, Yunusemre-Manisa, Turkiye. ORCID NO: 0000-0003-3986-9021
[email protected]
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1. INTRODUCTION

Spices and herbs, whose history is almost as old as human history, are
products of plant origin added to foods to give flavor. Although they
were initially used in the manufacture of medicines for the treatment
of diseases, in religious ceremonies, in the production of perfumes and
cosmetics, and with their aphrodisiac effects; over time, they have
been used for purposes such as protecting foods, increasing flavor,
making foods more appetizing. Factors such as changing and
developing dietary habits in recent years, people's search for a
healthier life, increasing demand for local/ethnic dishes, tending to
interesting tastes, emergence of new food products and developments
in technology have increased the importance and usage area of spices
and herbs (Akgül, 1993).

In order for a product to be considered as a spice; First of all, in order

to add flavor to foods, one or more of the parts of the plant such as
root, rhizome, onion, bark, leaf, stem, flower, fruit, seed should be
used together, fresh or dry (Akgül, 1993).

Spices alone are not considered as foodstuffs. Although they are

generally used in very small amounts in foods, they contribute
significantly to the microbial properties of the food they are used
because of the microbial load of flavors and spices.

In this section, information is given about the microbiological

properties and antimicrobial properties of spices and herbs, which
have a wide range of uses.
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2. Microbiology of spice and herbs

The microbial properties of spices and herbs are important both for
themselves and for the foods they are used as ingredients. Although
they have antimicrobial properties against many saprophytic and
pathogenic microorganisms, they are also an important source of
contamination for foods due to the microbial load they contain
(Tunçel, 2015).

Since spices and herbs are of vegetable origin, they are products that
are in direct contact with the soil. The fact that the soil is the natural
source of many important microorganisms, as well as fecal
contamination from animals such as birds, rodents, insects, affect the
contamination of spices with these microorganisms. Depending on
environmental factors such as whether the soil is fertile or clayey, its
type, ambient humidity and temperature, the number of
microorganisms of soil can reach up to 10 10 per gram. Especially
spore-forming bacteria such as Bacillus and Clostridium, as well as
other bacteria, coliforms, yeasts and especially mold spores can be
found in very high numbers in the soil. Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes,
Artrobacter, Bacillus, Clostridium, Corynebacterium,
Flavobacterium, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas, Streptomyces are the
most common bacteria in the soil. In addition, due to fecal
contamination, various viruses from the soil and various enteric
pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio are also an
important source. These microorganisms in the soil can be directly
transmitted to spices and herbal foods. For this reason, spices and
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other food materials that come into contact with the soil and have not
undergone any washing process are considered as products with high
microbial load (Aktuğ Gönül, 2015; Akın and Akın, 2021; Tunçel,
2015).

In addition to the number of bacteria, the number of molds can be high

in spices. The high number of mold spores in the natural environment
causes the mold load of spices grown in humid environments to be
around 104-108 per gram. The presence of mycotoxigenic molds in
these molds results in the synthesis of mycotoxins in the case of
drying and storage under appropriate conditions (McKee, 1995).

Considering that the growing conditions of spices are generally humid

and temperate climates with poor hygienic conditions, this causes the
microbial load of spices to be high. At the same time, failure to take
adequate hygienic precautions during harvest, transportation,
processing and storage causes an increase in the microbial load.
Although the bacteria, yeasts and molds mentioned above are
frequently encountered in this microbial load, foodborne pathogens
such as Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus,
Clostridium perfringens, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli can also
be encountered (Aktuğ Gönül, 2015; Akın and Akın, 2021; Tunçel,
2015).

Despite the positive developments in technology, some inadequacies

in hygiene and food production techniques in enterprises make food
safety even more important in terms of protecting public health. The
World Health Organization (WHO) reported that approximately 30%
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of the population in industrialized countries is affected by foodborne

diseases each year, and at least 2 million people worldwide died from
diarrhea in 2000 (WHO 2002a in Burt, 2004). WHO reported that in
2020, 1 out of every 10 people in the world got sick after eating
contaminated food, and at least 420,000 people died every year as a
result. It was stated that the number of children under the age of 5 in
this group is 125,000 and carries 40% of the foodborne illness burden
per year, and attention is drawn to food safety (Anonym, 2020).

Health is inextricably linked with food safety and food security.

Unsafe food creates an important vicious circle, especially for
children, infants, the elderly, pregnant women and those with chronic
diseases. For this reason, it is of great importance that foods and all
components used in foods are produced and consumed away from all
kinds of disease factors. Among the factors that make food unsafe and
cause food-borne diseases; it is of great importance to consume
vegetables, fruits and foods of animal origin, especially raw,
containing pathogenic bacteria, viruses and parasites grown in
contaminated water. In this context, the microbial qualities of spices
and herbs that are used and consumed in various ways in foods are
also an important factor that directly affects the health of consumers
(Aktuğ Gönül, 2015; Soyer and Bulut, 2016; Tunçel, 2015).

Spices are frequently produced at home in Turkey as in many

countries. It is also produced by some companies by contract farming
and then dried and presented to the domestic or foreign market.
Drying processes, both at home and in operating conditions, have a
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significant effect on the microbial load. Inadequate and rapid drying is

an opportunity for the reproduction of microorganisms that are
transmitted from the growing conditions. In this case, the microbial
load increases; In addition, if there are mycotoxigenic molds in the
environment, it is possible for them to synthesize mycotoxins under
certain conditions. For these reasons, drying conditions such as drying
temperature, drying time, drying environment and storage conditions
following the harvesting stage of spices are extremely important in
terms of microbial growth and mycotoxin formation. As a matter of
fact, mycotoxins such as Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, Ochratoxin A,
Fusarium toxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, patulin are frequently
encountered in countries all over the world such as the United States,
Oman, Qatar, Turkey, Indonesia, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and
European Union countries. (Al-Jaal et al., 2019; Erdoğan, 2004;
Thanushree et al., 2019; Suman, 2021). Depending on the growing,
drying and storage conditions, the microbial load of spices mostly
consists of spore-forming bacteria and molds. However, as a result of
the multiplication of bacteria, it is not uncommon to find that the
spices are spoiled. Molds can develop and cause both mold and
mycotoxin formation as mentioned above.

Mycotoxins, especially aflatoxin and ochratoxin in spices, cannot be

removed by any method. Microbial load, including pathogens, can be
transmitted to the food consumed depending on the way the spice is
used. Since the use of spices is before and after cooking or at the
consumption stages; In this case, the microbial load from the spices
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affects the microbial quality of the prepared food. The saprophytes

and most of the vegetative cells of pathogenic bacteria in the spices
added to the food before cooking die during cooking. However,
saprophytes in spices added to the food after cooking or at the
consumption stage may cause shortening of the shelf life of the food,
and pathogenic bacteria may pave the way for various food poisonings
(Jay, 1991).

Microbial quality of spices is an extremely important issue in terms of

both extending the shelf life of food and protecting public health by
preventing food-borne diseases. In many countries in the world,
enteric diseases associated with the use of spices directly or in food
have been encountered at various times. To give a few examples in
this context;

• Between December 1973 and May 1974 in Canada, 17 people

were affected by Salmonella Weltevreden in black pepper of
Indian origin.
• Between November 1981 and August 1982 in Norway, 126
people were affected by Salmonella Oranienburg in black
pepper of Brazilian origin.
• Between April and September 1993 in Germany, approximately
1000 people were affected by Salmonella Saintpaul, Rubislaw
and Javiana in paprika originating from South America.
• England and Wales experienced poisoning from Bacillus subtilis
and Bacillus pumilus in turmeric in 1995.
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• In England and Wales, 8 people were affected by Salmonella

Enteritidis PT4 in black pepper in August 1996.
• In 1997, 2 people were affected by Bacillus subtilis on peppers
of Malaysian origin in New Zealand.
• In England and Wales in August 2002, 20 people were affected
by Salmonella Braenderup in curry of Indian origin.
• Between October 2002 and June 2003 in Germany, 42 people
were affected by Salmonella Agona in anise seeds originating
from Turkey.
• A total of 87 people were affected by Salmonella Wandsworth
and Salmonella Typhimurium in spice mix and broccoli powder
between January and December 2007 in the United States.
• In 2007, 146 people were affected by Bacillus cereus in the
spice mix in France.
• 14 people were affected by Salmonella Senftenberg in fennel
between March 2007 and September 2008 in Serbia.
• In the United States, between November 2008 and April 2009,
87 people were affected by Salmonella Rissen in white pepper,
and a total of 283 people were affected by Salmonella
Montevideo in black pepper and red pepper between July 2009
and April 2010.
• In Denmark, 112 people were affected by Bacillus cereus in
white pepper in 2010 (Zweifel and Stephan, 2012; Van Doren et
al., 2013).
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3. Microbial quality of spices and herbs

As mentioned above, spices and herbs are products that are open to
high microorganism contamination because they are of plant origin,
grown in humid environments, especially in subtropical climates. For
this reason, various studies have been carried out to determine the
microbiological quality of spices for many years. While these studies
generally reveal the total microbiological load of spices, some studies
focus on the presence of pathogenic microorganisms and some
mycotoxins. In this context, examples of some studies are given:

In a study to determine the microbiological quality of spices sold in

Lebanon; total aerobic mesophilic bacteria (TAMB), sulfite reducing
anaerobic bacteria, C. perfringens, coliforms, E. coli, yeasts and
molds were found in 89%, 43%, 18%, 15%, 1% and 54% of the
samples, respectively. All samples were negative for Salmonella. One
per cent, 4%, 6%, 1% and 7% of the samples had unacceptable levels
of TAMB, coliforms, sulfite reducing anaerobic bacteria, E. coli,
yeasts and molds, respectively (Karam et al., 2021).

In the Bacillus and mold analyzes performed on 60 spice samples,

consisting of black pepper, chilli pepper, cumin, coriander, turmeric,
curry samples sold in the markets in Latvia (Lativa); prevalence of B.
cereus in spices and herbs was found 76% and 24%, respectively, and
B. cereus was found in nine (18%) black ground pepper samples with
2.08-3.09 log10 CFU/g. Prevalence of moulds in spices and herbs was
45/60 (75%) samples of spices and herbs. The levels of B. cereus and
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moulds in the local market were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than in
the supermarket chain (Fogele et al., 2018).

Microbiological analyzes of 2833 retail spice samples in England

8,3% of samples were of unsatisfactory quality due to the presence of
Salmonella spp., E. coli (ranging from 2.4x103 to 1.0x107 cfu g1 )
and/or high levels of B. cereus (ranging from 1.0x 104 to 2.3x107
cfu/g). spp. were detected in 1.1% (31/2833) of retail samples (Sagoo
et al., 2009).

In a study conducted in Poland on 60 samples of spices, herbs and

seasoning blends; The total aerobic mesophilic count was not found to
be more than 104 cfu/gr in 60% of the samples, and Cronobacter spp
was found in only 10 samples. The highest contamination (TAMB)
was found in samples of herbs and in ready seasoning blends, in
21.1% and 25.0% of which the total count of aerobic mesophiles was
in the range of 105-106 CFU/g. Results indicate that good hygienic
conditions in the production process of spices and herbs available on
the Polish market. (Garbowska et al., 2015).

Berthold-Pluta et al (2019) found the highest prevalence (63.3%) of B.

cereus in herbs and spices among nine food products in Poland.

In a study conducted in 180 spices and herbs in Ireland; a total viable

bacteria count greater than 6 log cfu/g and 2-6 log cfu/g spore bacteria
and thermophile were detected in 20% and 80% of the samples,
respectively. Pseudomonas spp. and Enterobacteriaceae (2-6 log
CFU/g) were detected in 33% or 23% of samples, respectively. Molds
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were detected in 50% of samples (1-3 log CFU/g) (Witkowska et al.,

2011).

In a study conducted in Elazig, a total of 120 spice samples collected

from the market were analyzed; as a result, total mesophilic aerobic
bacteria count, coliform count, Staphylococcus-Micrococcus count,
yeast-mold count, lactobacilli, Enterobacteriaceae and aerob spore
forming mesophile were found 7.50-5.45, 3.54-2.03, 5.52-4.01, 3.13-
2.81, 5.79-4.21, 4.02-2.34, 4.89-4.09, respectively. Escherichia coli
was detected in a total of 14 samples, coagulase positive S. aureus was
not detected in any of the samples (Demir et al., 2019).

In a study examining the hazards and data sources in the European

Union spice and herb chain; Banach et al. (2016) reported that
Salmonella and Bacillus spp are sources of danger especially in black
pepper and dried herbs, and Aflatoxin B1 and Okratoxin A in chili
powder, cayenne, paprika, and nutmeg.

B. cereus was detected in 64 (31.5%) of the 203 packaged and

unpackaged spice samples in Turkey (Cufaoğlu ve Ayaz, 2022).

4. Antimicrobial Properties of Spices and Herbs

Natural antimicrobials from spices and herbs have a long history of

use, starting in Egypt, China and India. Even though the first scientific
study on antimicrobial effects of spices was conducted in the 1880s,
some factors have increased the interest in plant-derived
antimicrobials over the past decade. The increased demand for ready
to eat foods and emergence of antimicrobial resistance have led
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scientists to search for more effective antimicrobial agents that can be

alternative for chemical preservatives, which raise concerns for
adverse effects they have on human health (Tajkarimi et al., 2010).

There are over 12,000 compounds isolated from plants that are mostly
secondary metabolites and help plants in defense against
microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Some of these compounds
provide flavor whereas others provide color or scent (Bor et al., 2016).
Most of these compounds are phenols or their oxygen-substituted
derivatives and they have antimicrobial properties (Hayek et al.,
2013). Phenolics, phenolic acids, quinones, flavonoids, tannins,
coumarins, terpenoids, and alkaloids are major groups of plant derived
compounds most of which have antimicrobial effect on
microorganisms (Lai & Roy, 2004). Examples of studies conducted on
antimicrobial properties of spices and herbs over the last decade are
listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Some studies conducted on antimicrobial properties of spices and

herbs over the last decade
Tested Microorganisms Spices and /or Herbs Reference
Escherichia coli Allium sativum (Garlic) Rahman et al.,
Zingiber officinale (Ginger 2011
Allium cepa (onion)
Coriandrum sativum (cilantro)
Piper nigrum (black pepper)
Citrus aurantifolia (key lime)
Escherichia coli Bitter fennel Akrayi, 2013
Staphylococcus aureus Ginger
Turmeric
Nutmeg
Coriander
Cubeb
Dry black lemon
Senna
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Vibrio vulnificus Turmeric Asimi et al., 2013

Micrococcus luteus Cinnamon
Cumin
Garlic
Ginger
Escherichia coli, Thymus vulgaris (thyme) Dostalova et al.,
Klebsiella oxytoca Lavandula angustifolia 2014
Klebsiella pneumoniae (lavender)
Hafnia alvei Melissa officinalis (Melissa)
Raoultella terrigena Ocimum Basilicum (Basil)
Allium schoenoprasum (Chives)
Petroselinum crispum parsley)
Vibrio vulnificus Oregano Gracia-
Vibrio parahaemolyticus Valenzuela et al.,
Vibrio cholerae 2014
Bacillus cereus Bay leaf Bag and
Listeria monocytogenes Black pepper Chattopadhyay,
Micrococcus luteus Coriander (seed and leaf) 2015
Staphylococcus aureus Cumin
Escherichia coli Garlic
Salmonella typhimurium Mustard
Ginger
Onion
Turmeric
Escherichia coli Cinnamon Zhang et al., 2016
Staphylococcus aureus
Salmonella spp. Basil García-Díez et
Listeria monocytogenes Thyme al., 2016
Staphylococcus aureus Tarragon
Escherichia coli Rosemary
Enterobacteriaceae Orange
Enterococcus spp. Parsley
Pseudomonas spp Nutmeg
Lemon
Garlic
Cumin
Cinnamon
Black pepper
Bay
Bacillus cereus Curcuma longa Dhiman et al.,
Serratia sp. Zingiber officinale 2016
Rhodotorula mucilaginosa Mentha arvensis
Aspergillus flavus Withania somnifera
Penicillium citrinum Rauvolfia serpentina
Emblica officinalis
Terminalia arjuna
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Centella asiatica
Escherichia coli Piper nigrum (black pepper) Kalunta, 2017
Staphylococcus aureus
Candida albicans
Salmonella spp. Oregano García-Díez et
Listeria monocytogenes Garlic al., 2017

Staphylococcus aureus A total of 67 spices Zhang et al., 2019

Salmonella enteritidis
Staphylococcus aureus Fenugreek Tura, 2019
Black cumin
Ethiopian cumin
Garlic
Cloves
Ginger
Coriander
Aframomum
Turmeric
Cinnamon
Staphylococus aureus Oxalis corniculata Manandhar et
Escherichia coli Artemisia vulgaris al.,2019
Salmonella Typhi Cinnamomum tamala
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Ageratina adenophora
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Citrobacter koseri
Rhizopus spp.
Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus flavus
Candida albicans
Escherichia coli Garlic Sah et al., 2020
Salmonella spp. Ginger
Pseudomonas spp. Turmeric
Staphylococcus aureus
Escherichia coli Mentha piperita (mint) Okmen et al.,
Salmonella Typhimurium Ribes nigrum 2020
Listeria monocytogenes (currant)
Candida albicans Nigella sativa (black seed)
Origanum majorana
(marjoram)
Thymus serpyllum (thyme)
Coriandrum sativum
(coriander)
Crocus sativus (saffron)
Escherichia coli Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Köse, 2020
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Enterococcus faecalis zeylanicum)

Bacillus cereus Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.)
Salmonella typhimurium Mint (Mentha spicata L.)

4.1. Phenolics and polyphenols

Plant derived phenolic compounds are one of the most diverse groups
of secondary metabolites. The hydroxyl groups in phenolic
compounds can disrupt cell membrane structures and cause the
leakage of cellular components (Xue, Davidson, & Zhong, 2013).
Differences in the structural configuration of these compounds have
an important effect on their antimicrobial action (Gyawali et al., 2014;
Quinto et al., 2019). The position of the OH group is found to be
effective on the antimicrobial property of phenolic compounds. For
instance even though thymol and carvacrol have similar structure,
differences in their antimicrobial effectiveness was observed (Dorman
and Deans, 2000).

4.2. Alkaloids

Alkaloids can be present in any part of the plant. However specific

compounds may be limited to certain parts. Alkaloids aid in keeping
away herbivores and protect the plant from infection. Different
mechanism of antimicrobial action has been proposed for different
classes of alkaloids. Some classes act by inhibiting nucleic acid
synthesis while others act by inhibiting cell division (Cushnie et al.,
2014).
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4.3. Flavonoids

Flavonoids can be found in photosynthesizing cells therefore occur

widely in fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds, stems and flowers (Cushnie
and Lamb, 2005). In addition to providing attractive colors in flowers,
flavonoids in leaves provide the plant protection from fungal
pathogens and UV-B radiation (Harborne and Williams, 2000)

Flavonoids have been reported to have antimicrobial effect on viruses,

fungus and bacteria. Antibacterial mechanism of flavonoids can be
attributed to several actions: inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis,
inhibition of cytoplasmic membrane function and inhibition of energy
metabolism (Cushnie and Lamb, 2005)

4.4. Quinones

Quinones are aromatic compounds which are part of natural defense

system of plants. They have been utilized as antifungals and
antibacterial (Tran et al., 2004). Quinones have antiviral, antifungal
and antibacterial activities (Martínez and Benito, 2005). They form
complexes with amino acids and inactivate microbial proteins (Lai
and Roy, 2004; Cowan, 1999). Furthermore these compounds may
interfere with the utilization of substrates by microorganisms (Cowan,
1999).

4.5. Terpenes

Terpenes are a major part of plant essential oils (EO). Oxygenated

terpenes are called terpenoids which causes membrane permeability
and potassium ions leakage in microbial cells. Oxygenated terpenes
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such as thymol and carvacrol were reported to have better antibacterial

activity than simple hydrocarbon monoterpenes (Sokovic et al., 2010).
Changes in the position of -OH group might cause differences in the
antimicrobial activity of terpenes (Griffin et al., 2005).

4.6. Tannins

Tannins are water soluble polyphenols which have the ability of

sedimentation of gelatin from solution (Scalbert, 1991). Tannins have
the ability to pass through the bacterial cell wall and interfere with the
cell metabolism which results in the destruction of the cell
(Kaczmarek, 2020). Other mechanisms involved in the antimicrobial
activity of tannins are inactivation of microbial adhesions, enzymes,
and cell envelope transport proteins as well as binding to
polysaccharides (Cowan, 1999).

4.7. Coumarins

Coumarins represent a major category in secondary plant metabolites

and they have been utilized for biochemical and pharmacological
purposes (Kayser and Kolodsiej, 1999). Recently coumarins have
received a considerable amount of attention due to their potential as
antimicrobial agents. Naturally produced coumarins show structural
differences from the parent molecule which have very low
antimicrobial activity (Reen et al., 2018). However, compounds which
have long chain hydrocarbon substitutions possess a high
antimicrobial capacity (Tomasz Kubrak et al., 2017).
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CHAPTER 6

SOIL REQUIREMENTS OF SOME MEDICINAL AND

AROMATIC PLANTS

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza ONGUN1

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mahmut TEPECİK2

1
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant
Nutrition, İzmir, Turkey.
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-5244-2770, e-mail: [email protected]
2
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant
Nutrition, İzmir, Turkey.
ORCID ID: 0000-0001-6609-4538, e-mail: [email protected]
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 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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INTRODUCTION

Increasing demands for medicinal and aromatic plants has increased

the interest in these plants. However, studies on cultivation of these
plants and increasing production areas have brought about some
questions that need to be answered. Soil comes forefront in some of
these questions. As it is known, the factors influencing yields in plant
production are gathered under two groups as of: genetic (internal) and
environmental (external) factors. Environmental factors include entire
external conditions and items influencing plant growth and
development. Among these environmental factors, soil is the primary
one. From this point of view, in this chapter, the definition, functions,
management of soil and interactions with some medicinal-aromatic
plants are presented.

1. SOIL
1.1. What is soil?

Soil is basically a part of lithosphere (earth's crust) cycle, in which

weathering, transport, sedimentation and metamorphosis-like
processes take place (Figure 1). In a broader sense, soil is defined as a
living, three-dimensional, organic or inorganic-originated natural
environment with varying solid, liquid and gas phases, a dynamic
balance and in which plants, animals and microorganisms inhabited
(Altınbaş et al., 2004). Soils, formed from different materials in
different climate conditions, show a great diversity. Therefore, soil
properties inevitably exhibit large variations.
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Figure 1: The position of soils in the cycle of the lithosphere (Blume et al., 2016)

Soil is a 3-dimensional concept and contains different horizons

(layers) arranged on top of each other. Therefore, soils offer quite
different physical, chemical and biological properties to vegetation
cover on them.

1.2. Functions of soil for crop production

Soil is an interface between water, atmosphere and terrestrial

ecosystem. To better understand the relationships between these
systems and the role of soil in these relationships, a new approach was
proposed for assessment of soils (Carter et al., 1997).
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The function of soil in crop production is to feed the plant and ensure
sustainable plant growth and development. This function of soil is
basically related to efficiency of soils in providing the necessary
nutrients, substrates and ambient to support the conversion of
atmospheric CO2 into organic molecules using energy from the sun
(through photosynthesis).

The function of soil in crop production can be divided into several

components as follows: providing a plant growth ambient; regulating
the flow of water, gas and energy and serving as a buffer or filter
system. Soil chemical, physical and biological properties should be
taken into consideration while assessing these functional components
(Table 1).

Table 1: Characterizing the main functional components of a soil in crop production

Functional component Functional characteristics/processes
Medium of plant Suitable medium for seed germination and root growth
growth Absence of adverse chemical conditions (acidity, salinity, sodicity)
Supply balance of nutrients
Suitable medium for microbes (nutrient cycling, decomposition)
Promote root growth and development

Regulate water Receive, store, and release moisture for plant use
Adequate water retention to buff'er and reduce effects of drought
Adequate infiltration and storage capacity to reduce runoff

Regulate gases Accept, hold, and release gases

Adequate air movement and exchange with atmosphere

Regulate energy Store release (recycle) energy rich organic matter

Buffer or filter Accept, hold, and release nutrients

Sequester energy compounds and/or biotoxic elements
Detoxify substances harmful to plants
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1.3. Soil properties

Soil properties are often examined under three groups: physical,

chemical and biological. Physical properties include texture, structure,
aeration, water retention and infiltration. Soil texture is defined as the
distribution of primary particles. Primary particles are defined by the
United States Department of Agriculture as sand (2.00-0.05 mm), silt
(0.05-0.002 mm) and clay (less than 0.002 mm) (Garcia-Gaines and
Frankenstein, 2015). Soils are divided into different texture classes
based on amount of these primary particles (Figure 2).

Figure 2: USDA textural triangle showing the percentages of clay, silt and sand in
12 basic texture classes (Soil Survey Division Staff, 2018).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Texture class of a soil reveals important information about the

behaviors of that soil (Table 2).

Table 2: Physical behaviors of soil with different textures (Osman, 2013).

Soil Infiltration Water- Nutrient- Aeration Workability Leaching
textural holding holding
class capacity capacity
Sand Good Poor Poor Good Good High
Silt Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Clay Poor Good Good Poor Poor Low
Loam Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium

Different sized primary materials such as sand, silt and clay in soils
come together with cementing materials in the presence of many
processes and form secondary formations constituting soil structure. A
well-developed soil structure can also be interpreted as the ability of
three phases in the soil to perform their functions in a balanced
fashion. Negative affection or deterioration of soil structure brings
about the deterioration of the balance of these three phases in the soil
against each other.
Soil chemical properties include soil reaction, salinity and alkalinity.
Soil reaction (pH) refers to concentration of H ions in the soil
solution. High H concentrations indicate acidic soils and the other way
indicates alkaline soils. Soil reaction has significant effects on
availability of plant nutrients (Figure 3). Soil reaction is effective not
only on plant nutrients, but also on the other elements (metals) that the
plant does not need. With the decrease in soil reaction, especially
metals dissolve and pose a threat to plants (Figure 4).
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Especially in arid and semi-arid climate conditions, in soils where

precipitation is insufficient but evaporation from the soil is high,
salinity is an inevitable condition. In particular, use of poor-quality
irrigation water and unconscious fertilization practices are among the
causes of soil salinity. Technically, soil salinity begins when the
soluble salt concentration of the soil solution exceeded a critical value.
The alkalinity starts when the exchangeable sodium percentage of soil
solution exceeded a certain threshold. Although it is possible to
reclaim saline and alkaline soils, it requires technical skill and
economic potential.

Darker shading indicates greater availability.

Figure 3: Availability of plant nutrients depending on soil reaction (Anonymous,
2021)
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Figure 4: Cotton Root Growth Restriction Due To Acid Sub-Soil and Aluminum
Toxicity (Anonymous, 2011).
2. SOIL REQUIREMENTS OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC
PLANTS

2.1. Citrus Bergamia

The root system is made up of a tap-root, from which arises

plagiotropic secondary roots; in sandy soils it may penetrate down to
5–6 meters but in clay soil the penetration is shallower (Rapisarda and
Germano 2014).

The soils in which deep and strong roots are formed as to best intake
available water and oxygen are preferred in bergamot cultivation.
Proper pH range for bergamot cultivation is between 6.5 – 7.5. The
pH is an important parameter in controlling the activity of
microorganism responsible for conversion of organic matter into
humus. Bergamot grows well also in sand soils as long as fertilized
frequently and water loss was eliminated through proper irrigation
procedures. Roots could penetrate deeper into the soil profile in sandy
soils and fruit set increases accordingly (Gazea 2014).
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In a study conducted on oil yield and chemical composition (quality)

of bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso) fruits, soil samples were taken
from 25 bergamot orchard for 3 years to evaluate soil chemical and
physical parameters and fruit samples were taken to determine oil
yield and quality. Collected data were subjected to regression analysis
in which pedological parameters were considered as independent
variables and yield and essential oil components were considered as
dependent variables. The results revealed that soil texture directly
influenced the yield and mainly the bergamot oil components. High
sand had an adverse effect by decreasing linalool and linalyl acetate
percentages and increased limonene content, which is only marginally
responsible for the odor (Intrigliolo et al., 1999).

2.2. Basil

Basil grows in different soil types with a pH of between 4.3 and 8.2.
Basil prefers moderately fertile or humus-rich, well-drained loamy or
sandy-loam soils. Soils with good physical properties and high-water
holding capacity are suitable for basil cultivation. Submerged lands
with poor drainage should always be avoided (Putievsky and
Galambosi, 2005). Well-drained soils encourage vegetative growth
(Pushpangadan and George, 2012).

2.3. Thyme

Thyme prefers light-textured, dry calcareous soils. They thrive in poor

soils and can tolerate drought. If the soil pH is below 5.5, it is
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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recommended to apply agricultural lime to the soil before planting

(Stahl-Biskup and Venskutonis, 2012).

In a study conducted in Central Otago region of New Zealand,

relationships between thyme spread and soil properties were
investigated. Quite widespread of thyme was encountered in areas
where sand content and average grain diameter increased. It was also
observed in the same study that the thyme spread outward decreased
with the decrease in sand content. It was observed that soil moisture
was significantly lower in areas where thyme spread was encountered
and increased from the edge of thyme spread to the outside (Nielsen et
al., 2014).

2.4. Oil Rose

Although roses are not very selective in terms of soil, they prefer
fresh, loamy soils rich in organic matter. These soils are easy to
cultivate. Roses can generally be grown in any garden soils. However,
they do not grow only in extreme conditions such as clay, sandy or
very calcareous soils (Hüsnü et al., 2014). Oil rose shows quite a well
development especially in sandy-loam, deep, slightly calcareous and
permeable soils with sufficient organic matter contents and pH values
of between 6-7 (Baydar, 2016).

2.5. Mint

Mint can survive in a wide variety of climate and soil conditions, but
it is important to create suitable conditions for an economic
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production. The best soil types for growing mint are deep, well-
drained, loose-textured, with sufficient organic matter content and a
pH range of 6.0 to 7.5. Although mint prefers well-drained soils, it
also requires soils that can retain sufficient moisture under normal
irrigation regimes. High sand contents usually require more irrigation
to keep mint roots moist. High clay contents reduce root penetration
and tend to retain too much moisture, which causes root rot. Soil type
also affects soil temperature, which is an important factor for a
shallow-rooted crop such as mint. In fact, soil temperature is thought
to have a greater effect on plant growth than ambient temperature
because roots are more sensitive to extreme temperatures (Morris,
2007).

Taneja and Chandra (2012) indicated that mint required high levels of
nutrients to grow, therefore, loamy-sandy loam soils rich in organic
matter and high in nutrients, with a pH of between 6.5-8.0 are suitable.
Ayhan and Altınkaynak (2020) stated that mint could practically be
grown in any soils with a pH of between 4.5 - 8.3, but the soil should
contain a normal level of moisture.

2.6. Blueberry

A natural blueberry soil is loamy or sandy loam (> 70% sand; < 15%
clay), with a pH of about 5.5 and organic matter content of greater
than 4%. Such soils also have a high polyphenol content and specific
rhizosphere flora and fauna that may support blueberry plant growth
and development (Gough, 1994).
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When the soil pH starts to rise above 5.2, nitrogen is converted from
the useful acidifying ammonium form into the nitrate form. In this
case, since the availability of iron in the soil will decrease, it becomes
unusable by the plant and iron chlorosis becomes a problem. Such a
case also negatively influences chlorophyll synthesis (Gough, 1994)
(Figure 5-6).

Figure 5: The row of yellowed plants in the foreground has high soil pH while the
ones in the background are in lower soil pH (Pscheidt, 2008).

Low soil pH can also be a problem. At low soil pH, soil aluminum
becomes more available, which inhibits the plant's nitrogen and
phosphorus uptake and possibly also iron uptake (Pscheidt and
Ocamb, 2021). It is already known that soil reaction influenced the
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diversity and solubility of many chemical substances (elements,

compounds, etc.) in the soil (Kayıkçıoğlu, 2021).

Figure 6: These are symptoms of iron chlorosis from inadequate levels of iron due
to a high soil pH (Pscheidt, 2008).

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, soil requirements of some medicinal and aromatic

plants were emphasized. As can be inferred from the present
examples, soil properties played as much important role as climate,
water quality, genetic material etc. factors in cultivation of medicinal
and aromatic plants. Knowing the soil for the target plant and
choosing the appropriate soil accordingly will mean preventing the
negative issues from the beginning.
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REFERENCES

Altınbaş, Ü, Çengel, M., Uysal, H., Okur, B., Okur, N., Kurucu, Y., Delibacak, S.,
2004. Toprak Bilimi. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları no: 557,
İzmir.
Anonymous, (2011). Soil Aluminum and Soil Test Interpretation. Spectrum Analytic
Inc 1087 Jamison Rd NW. https://spectrumanalytic.com/support/library/
ff/Soil_Aluminum_and_test_interpretation.htm , (Access: 16.09.2021)
Anonymous, (2021). Effect of pH on nutrient availability. Illinois State Water
Survey. https://www.isws.illinois.edu/data/altcrops/gisoils.asp, (Access:
17.09.2021)
Ayhan, F., Altınkaynak, D. (2020). Tıbbi Nane. Fizibilite Raporu ve Yatırımcı
Rehberi. T.C. Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı Bitkisel Üretim Genel Müdürlüğü.
Baydar, H. (2016). Yağ Gülü Tarımı ve Endüstrisi. Tıbbi ve Aromatik Bitkiler Bilimi
ve Teknolojisi (Genişletilmiş 5. Baskı). Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi
Yayın, (51).
Blume, H.P., Brümmer, G.W., Fleige, H., Horn, R., Kandeler, E., Kögel-Knabner, I.,
Kretzschmar, R., Stahr, K., Wilke, B.M. (2016). Scheffer/Schachtschabel Soil
Science. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
Carter, M.R., Gregorich, E.G., Anderson, D.., Doran, J.W., Janzen, H.H, Pierce, F.J.
(1997). Soil Quality For Crop Production and Ecosystem Health. Edited by:
Gregorich, E.G., Carter, M.R. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
Garcia-Gaines, R.A., Frankenstein, S. (2015). USCS and the USDA Soil
Classification System Development of a Mapping Scheme. US Army Corps of
Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center.
Gazea, F. (2014). Cultural Practices. In: Citrus bergamia. Edited by: Dugo, G.,
Bonaccorsi, I. CRS Press. Taylor and Francis Group.
Gough, R.E. (1994). The Highbush Blueberry and Its Management. Food Products
Press.
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Hüsnü K., Baser C., Arslan, N. (2014). Oil Rose (Rosa damascena). In: Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants of the Middle-East. Edited by: Yaniz, Z., Dudai, N.
Springer.
Intrigliolo, F., Caruso, A., Russo, G., Gazea, F., Intelisano, S., Giuffrida, A., &
Rapisarda, P. (1999). Pedologic parameters related to yield and quality of
bergamot oil. Communications in soil science and plant analysis, 30(13-14),
2035-2044.
Kayıkçıoğlu, H.H. (2021). Toprağın Kimyasal Özellikleri. In: Toprak Bilimi ve Bitki
Besleme. Edited by: Okur, N. Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık
Morris, M.A. (2007). Commercial Mint Species Grown in the United States. In:
Mint. Edited by: Lawrence, B.M. CRS Press. Taylor and Francis Group.
Nielsen, J.A., Frew, R.D., Whigham, P.A., Callaway, R.M., Dickinson, K.J.M.
(2014). Thyme invasion and soil properties in the Central Otago region of
New Zealand. Geoderma Regional, 1, 48-58.
Osman, K.T. (2013) Soils Principles, Properties and Management. Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London.
Pscheidt, J. (2008). The row of yellowed plants in the foreground have high soil pH
while the ones in the background are in lower soil pH. https://pnwhand
books.org/sites/pnwhandbooks/files/plant/images/blueberry-vaccinium-
corymbosum-incorrect-soil-ph/blueberryhighph.jpg , (Access: 16.09.2021)
Pscheidt, J. (2008). These are symptoms of iron chlorosis from inadequate levels of
iron due to a high soil pH https://pnwhandbooks.org/sites/pnwhandbooks
/files/plant/images/blueberry-vaccinium-corymbosum-incorrect-soil-
ph/ironchlorosisduetohighph.jpg, (Access: 16.09.2021)
Pscheidt, J.W., Ocamb, C.M. (2021). Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum)-Incorrect
soil pH. In: Pacific Northwest Plant Disease Management Handbook.
https://pnwhandbooks.org/node/2312/print , (Access: 16.09.2021).
Pushpangadan, P., George, V. (2012). Basil. In: Handbook of Herbs and Spices.
Edited by: Peter, K.V. Woodhead Publishing.
Putievsky, E., Galambosi, B. (2005). Production Systems of Sweet Basil. In: Basil.
Edited by: Hiltunen, R., Holm, Y. Harwood Academic Publishers.
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Rapisarda, A., Germano, M.P.(2014) Citrus × bergamia Risso & Poiteau: Botanical
Classification, Morphology, and Anatomy. In: Citrus bergamia. Edited by:
Dugo, G., Bonaccorsi, I. CRS Press. Taylor and Francis Group.
Soil Survey Division Staff, (2018). Soil survey manual. Soil Conservation Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 18.
Stahl-Biskup, E., Venskutonis, R.P. (2012). Thyme. In: Handbook of Herbs and
Spices. Edited by: Peter, K.V. Woodhead Publishing.
Taneja S.C., Chandra, S. (2012). Mint. In: Handbook of Herbs and Spices. Edited
by: Peter, K.V. Woodhead Publishing.
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 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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CHAPTER 7
SOME PLANTS OF AEGEAN REGION FROM TURKEY:
PHYTOCHEMISTRY AND ITS USE IN HEALTH CARE
Prof. Dr. Hatice DEMİRAY1

1
Ege Universiyt, Faculty of Science, Biology Department, İzmir, Turkey,
Orchid: 0000-0002-4400-237X e-mail: [email protected]
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 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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Juniperus macrocarpa SİBTH. & SM.

Vulgar name
Prickly juniper, plum juniper, cade juniper, red berry juniper, cada
Classification
Order: Pinales; Family: Cupressaceae; Genus: Juniperus.
Origin
The genus Juniperus L. has a total of 52 species, with the majority in
the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere of the world and 11
taxa including 8 species and three subspecies in Turkey. Juniperus
oxycedrus L. (Cupressaceae) (prickly juniper, plum juniper, cade
juniper, redberry juniper, cada) is a shrub or small tree native across to
the Mediterranean region from Morocco and Portugal east to western
Caucasus, growing on a variety of rocky sites from sea level up to
1600 m altitude (Orhan et al., 2011). Three subspecies: oxycedrus,
macrocarpa (Sm.) Balland badia (H. Gay) Debeaux of J. oxycedrus
are mentioned in the Flora Europea; in the Flora of Turkey two
subspecies, oxycedrus (Joo) and macrocarpa (Jom) were found
(Amaral-Franco, 1993; Farjon, 2000). After the revision studies made
in Turkey, the subspecies known as macrocarpa has been changed to
species epithet (Kandemir, 2018).

Uses in traditional or folk medicine

Juniperus false fruits, female cones -improperly called "berries" - are
used as spice, mainly in European cuisine; they are used in Northern
European and particularly Scandinavian cuisine to impart a sharp,
clear flavour to meat dishes (Loizzo et al., 2007). Taviano et al. (2013)
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indicated the phenolic profile and some biological properties of the

ripe "berries" methanol extracts of Joo and Jom from Turkey as three
fold higher in Jom (17.89 ± 0.23 mg GAE/g extract) than in Joo (5.14
± 0.06 mg GAE/g extract). In folk medicine J. oxycedrus berries have
widely been used in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders,
common colds, as expectorant in cough, to treat calcinosis in joints
and as diuretic to pass kidney stone, against urinary inflammations,
hemorrhoids, and as hypoglycemic; leaves and berries are applied
externally for parasitic disease (Sezik et al., 1997, Loizzo et al., 2007;
Akkol et al., 2009). Leaves, resin, bark and berry extracts of J.
oxycedrus were found to inhibit the growth of numerous
microorganisms (Karaman et al., 2003). At the same time, J.
oxycedrus is commonly used for the preparation of traditional
medicinal brandy in Dalmatia (Öztürk et al., 2011). In Turkey, Joo
berries are consumed for treatment of diabetes; while powdered
berries and leaves are used internally as tea (Orhan et al., 2012).
Although Jom has been reported to have a variety of uses in studies
conducted in different countries, the essential oil composition of fruits
harvested from Turkey is not found in any study. The essential oil
composition of leaf samples harvested from different months of plants
collected from the Ciftlik Village in Cesme - Izmir, Turkey, which is
very close to the area fruit samples, were collected and it was revealed
in a study conducted by Sezik et al. (2005). Because the berries of
Jom are eaten in Turkey (Öztürk et al., 2011), and in folk medicine the
ripe berries of this species were used as diuretic to pass kidney stones.
In the present experiment the essential oils of the ripen and unripen
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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berries of Jom growing in Turkey were focused and their chemical

compotitions were determined (Tort S. et al., 2019).

Chemical composition of essential oils of berries

Table 1 shows sum up the yields (v/w, dried weight) of essential oil
and chemical content (% w/w) of the different samples of Juniperus.
The yield obtained from the unripen berries of J. macrocarpa was
0.03% (100 g berry), while ripe berries exhibited a lower yield with
0.006% (200 g berry) by Clavenger method. In the results of present
study, the content of monoterpenes was lower in the ripe berries
(5.15%) than in unripe berries (20.9%) with higher (1.2%) oxygenated
monoterpene content in ripe berries (1.11%). Generally, the maximum
yields were obtained bydistilling ripe berries of J. phoenicea ssp.
turbinata and J. communis except for J. oxycedrus ssp. oxycedrus
(Joo), whose maximum yield was obtained by distilling unripe berries.
The content of monoterpenes was lower in the ripe and unripe berries
(81.88 and 83.51%, respectively) than in the leaves (95.58%) and
sesquiterpenes were higher in ripe and unripe berries, (14.79 and
13.89%, respectively) than in the leaves 1.00% (Angioni et al. 2003).
Sesquiterpenes was lower (65.23%)content in unripe berries, while
(90.66%) were present in ripe berries of Jom. Also in this study,
sesquiterpenes were higher in ripe and unripe berries (90.66 and
65.23%, respectively) than monoterpenes (5.15 and 20.9%,
respectively). In all samples, α-cedrol (49.87%) was the main
component in ripe berries, and 30.04% in unripe berries while α-
pinene was the main component (85.95% in leaves, 70.64% in ripe
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berries and 62.26% in unripe berries) in Joo (Angioni et al., 2003). In

the present results α-pinene, α-campholene aldehyde, trans-
pinocarveol, camphene, α-cubabene, germacrene-d, α-cedrol and γ -
muurolene were similar in all berries. α-cedrol was higher in the ripe
berries than unripe ones (49.87 versus 30.04%). The content of α-
pinen was higher in unripe berries than ripe berries (18.81% versus
1.13%) of J. macrocarpa. D-germacrene was higher in the unripen
berries than ripen ones (14.58 versus 0.90%). Trans-pinocarveol was
higher in ripe berries than unripe berries (1.2 versus 0,54%) of Jom. In
the present study β-pinen, sabinene, 3-carene, limonene, β-
phellandrene, α-terpinolene, α-copaene, trans-α-bergamotene,
germacrene, trans-caryophyllene, (-)-thujopsen, +calerene, β-
cubanene, 3-thujen 2-ol, α-humulene, α-amorphene, bicyclo
germacrene, γ -elemene, δ-cadinene, γ-cadinene, cadina-1,4 diene,
copaene, valencene, caryophyllene oxide, salvial-4(14)-en-1-one, α-
ylangene, limonene, β-silinene, α-longipinene, epi-
bicyclosesquiphellandrene, trans-caryophyllene, solanesol were only
found in unripe berries of J. macrocarpa, while α-cedrene, carvacrol
methyl ether, (1R)-(-)-myrtenal, α-phellandrene, α-muurolene,
cuparene, calacorene, β-caryophyllene were found in ripe berries of J.
macrocarpa.

The seasonal differences of oils of Jom leaves were 84.6%, in May,

95.2% in August, and 0.1% in October samples rich in manoyl oxide
(7.7 - 21.9%), α-pinene (7.2 - 11.1%), α-cedrol (2.3 - 9.7%), widdrene
(2.1 - 5.7%), α-muurolene (4.1 - 4.8%), trans-verbenol (1.7 - 4.3%),
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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germacrene D (1.5 - 4.1%), δ-cadinene (3.2 - 3.8 %), α-campholene

aldehyde (1.7 - 3.2%), trans-pinocarveol (1.5 - 3.0%), cubebol (1.4 -
2.4%), caryophyllene oxide (1.5 - 1.9%), δ-cadinene (1.0 -1.8%), β-
caryophyllene (0.7 - 1.8%), and epi-cubebol (1.0 - 1.4%). Main
component of ripe and unripe berries was α-cedrol (49.87 and 30.04%,
respectively), although it was present in August samples of leaves of
the same species (Sezik et al. 2005). α-cedrol ratio was; in May
(2.3%), in August (9.7%) and in October (3.4%) in the leaves of Jom
likely as the berries of J. macrocarpa. Similarly in ripe berries α-
pinene content was higher than unripe berries of Tunusian Jom while
myricene, β-phellandrene, β-pinene, respectively in unripe berries
(Medini et al., 2010).

Table 1. Percentage composition of essential oil of dry ripen and unripen fruits
of J. macrocarpa.

Compounds RIa % content Identification

method
Ripen Unripen Ripen Unripen

Monoterpenes

α-pinen 1048 1.13 GC-MS

1017 18.81

Carvacrol methyl ether 1522 1.4 ‘’

α-campholene aldehyde 1081 0.96 ‘’

1592 0.22

α-phellandrene 1071 0.93 ‘’

Camphene 1055 0.43 ‘’

1049 0.09

(1R)-(-)-myrtenal 1178 0.30 ‘’

3-carene ‘’
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1034 1.01

β- pinen ‘’
1080 0.55

α-terpinolene ‘’
1525 0.17

Sabinene ‘’
1019 0.05

Oxygenated monoterpenes

Trans-pinocarveol 1027 1.2 GC-MS

1554 0.54

3-thujen 2-ol GC-MS

1538 0.23

Caryophyllene oxide GC-MS

1573 0.34

Sesquiterpenes

α- cedrol 1583 49.87 GC-MS

1563 30.04

β-caryophyllene 1505 29.57 ‘’

α-cedrene 1087 4.75 ‘’

- muurolene 15.35 2.54 ‘’

α- cubabene 15.80 0.98 ‘’

1082 0.17

α- muurolene 1025 1.04 ‘’

D-germacrene 1510 0.90 ‘’

1568 14.58

Cuparene 1543 0.58 ‘’

Calacorene 1551 0.43 ‘’

- Cadinene ‘’
1559 3.80
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β- Cubenene ‘’
1062 0.66

Copaene ‘’
1567 0.54

(-)-Thujopsen ‘’
1583 0.49

β-silinene ‘’
1575 0.45

α-humulene ‘’
1548 2.29

Cadına-1,4 diene ‘’
1518 0.39

α-longipinene ‘’
1525 0.37

-muurolene ‘’
1568 2.27

epi-bicyclosesquiphellandrene ‘’
4520 1.69

trans-caryophyllene ‘’
1544 1.68

Valencen ‘’
1542 1.53

α-amorphene ‘’
1528 1.12

Bicyclo germacrene ‘’
1557 1.04

α-ylangene ‘’
1538 0.66

trans-α-bergamotene ‘’
1575 0.29

+calerene ‘’
1029 0.26
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Salvial-4(14)-en-1-one ‘’
1837 0.22

α-copaene ‘’
1508 0.21

Limonene ‘’
1077 0.19

Germacrene ‘’
1518 0.12

β-phellandrene ‘’
1015 0.09

-elemene ‘’
1538 0.08

a Retention indices in elution order from DB-5 colum.

According to the present results, unripe berries were rich in α-cedrol

(30.04%), α-pinene (18.81%), germacrene-D (14.58%); α-cedrol
(49.87%), β-caryophyllene (29.57%), α-cedrene (4.75%) were
identified from ripe berries. It was concluded that the yield and the
composition of the J. oxycedrus essential oils depend on the origin of
the plant; e.g. while the leaves from Elaphonios (Greece) were rich in
α-pinene (26.94%) and α-cedrole (13.88%) (Stassi et al., 1995), α-
cedrol was shown only in berries of J. macrocarpa. β-Myrcene, α-
pinene, and DL-limonene and germacrene D were indicated in berries
of different countries (Guerra-Hernandez et al., 1987; Cavaleiro,
2001; Koukos et al., 2002; Salido et al., 2002; Valentini et al., 2003;
Asllani, 2004,; Hajdari et al., 2014). The variations were related to
genetic and climatic factors, soil conditions, phase of growth
(vegetative or flowering stage), and part of the plant (Nemeth, 2005).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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REFERENCES
Akkol KE, Güvenç A and Yesilada E 2009. A comparative study on the
antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of five Juniperus taxa. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 125: 330-336.
Amaral-Franco J 1993. Juniperus L. Flora Europea vol. I; Cambridge (England). pp.
46-48.
Angioni A, Barra A, Russo MT, Coroneo V, Dessi S and Cabras P 2003. Chemical
composition of the essential oils of Juniperus from ripe and unripe berries
and leaves and their antimicrobial activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51: 3073-
3078.
Asllani U 2004. Essences of aromatic plants in Albania. In: Albanian: Esencat
ebimëvearomatike të Shqipërisë. Tiranë pp. 276-283.
Cavaleiro CMF 2001. Óleos essenciais de Juniperus de Portugal. PhD thesis,
Universidade de Coimbra, Faculdade de Farmácia, Coimbra, Portugal.
Farjon A 2000. Juniperus L. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, vol. 11
(Suppl. 2). Edinburgh (England). pp. 8-10.
Guerra-Hernandez H, Carmen L and Garcia V 1987. Determination by gas
chromatographyof terpenes in the berries of the species Juniperus oxycedrus
L. and J. sabina L. J. Chromatogr. 396: 416-420.
Hajdari A, Behxhet M, Valmira G, Dashnor N, AlbaniI and Johannes N 2014.
Chemical composition of the essential oils of ripe berries of Juniperus
oxycedrus L., growing wild in Kosovo. Biochem. Syst. Ecol.
57: 90-94.
Karaman I, Sahin F,Güllüce M,Ogütçü H, Sengül M and Adigüzel A 2003.
Antimicrobia activity of aqueous and methanol extracts of Juniperus
oxycedrus L. J. Ethnopharmacol. 85: 231-235.
Kandemir A 2018. Juniperus L. İn: Resimli Türkiye Florası, Güner A, Kandemir A,
Menemen Y, Yıldırım H, Aslan S, Ekşi G, Güner I, Çimen AÖ, Eds, Ali
Nihat Gökyiğit Vakfı, İstanbul (Türkiye). pp. 382-408.
190 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Koukos P, Papadopoulou K, Papagiannopoulos A and Patiaka D 2002. Variations in

the chemical composition of the berry oil of Juniperus oxycedrus L. grown in
North and West Greece. Holz als Roh Werkst. 60:152-153.
Loizzo MR, Tundis R, Conforti F, Saab AM, Statti GA and Menichini F 2007.
Comparative chemical composition, antioxidant and hypoglycaemic activities
of Juniperus oxycedrus ssp. oxycedrus L. berry and wood oils from Lebanon.
Food Chem. 105: 572-578.
Medini H, Elaissi A, Khouja M L, Chraief I, Farhat F, Hammamic M, Chemlia R
and Harzallah-Skhirie F 2010. Leaf essential oil of Juniperus oxycedrus L.
(Cupressaceae) Harvested in Northern Tunisia: Composition and Intra-
Specific Variability. Chem. Biodivers. 7: 1254-1265.
Nemeth E 2005. Essential oil composition of species in the genus Achillea. J.
Essent. Oil Res. 17(5): 501-512.
Orhan N, Orhan IE and Ergun F 2011. In sights into cholinesterase inhibitory and
antioxidant activities of five Juniperus species. Food Chem. Toxicol. 49:
2305-2312.
Orhan N, Aslan M, Demirci B and Ergun F 2012. A bioactivity guided study on the
antidiabetic activity of Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus L. leaves. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 140: 409-415.
Öztürk M, Tümen I, Uğur A, Aydoğmuş-Öztürk F and Topçu G 2011. Evaluation of
fruit extracts of six Turkish Juniperus species for their antioxidant,
anticholinesterase and antimicrobial activities. J. Sci. Food Agric. 91: 867-
876.
Salido S, Altarejos J, Nogueros M, Sanchez A, Pannecouque C, Witvrouw M and
De Clercq E 2002. Chemical studies of essential oils of Juniperus oxycedrus
ssp. badia. J. Ethnopharmacol. 81: 129-134.
Sezik E, Yesilada E, Tabata M, Honda G, Takahishi Y, Fujita T, Tanaka T and
Takeda Y 1997. Traditional medicine in Turkey. VIII. Folk medicine in East
Anatolia: Erzurum, Erzincan, Ağri, Kars, Iğdir Provinces. Econ. Bot. 51:
195-211.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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Sezik E, Kocakulak E, Baser KHC and Ozek T 2005. Composition of the essential
oils of Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. macrocarpa from Turkey. Chem. Nat.
Compd. 41(3): 352-354.
Stassi V, Verykokidou E, Loukis A, Harvala A and Philianos S 1995. Essential oil
of Juniperus oxycedrus. L. subsp. macrocarpa. (Sm.) Ball. J. Essent. Oil.
Res. 7: 675-676.
Tort S.N., Demiray H., Güvensen A., Dereboylu E.A., 2019. Chemical composition
of essential oils of berries of juniperus macrocarpa SİBTH. & SM. from
Turkey. Bangladesh J. Bot. 48(2): 339-343.
Taviano MF, Andreana M, Ada T, Valentina B, Antonietta M, Paola D, Francesco
C, Paola D, Luigi M, Aysegül G, Rita DP and Nataliziai M 2013. Juniperus
oxycedrus L. subsp. oxycedrus and Juniperus oxycedrus L. subsp.
macrocarpa (Sibth. & Sm.) Ball. ‘‘berries’’ from Turkey: Comparative
evaluation of phenolic profile, antioxidant, cytotoxic and antimicrobial
activities. Food. Chem. Toxicol. 58: 22-29.
Valentini G, Bellomaria B, Maggi F and Manzi A 2003. The leaf and female cone
oils of Juniperus oxycedrus L. ssp. oxycedrus and J. oxycedrus ssp.
macrocarpa (Sibth. et Sm.) Ball. from Abruzzo. J. Essent. Oil Res. 15: 418-
421.
A relict endemic shrub from tertiary period
Flueggea anatolica Gemici
Vulgar name
Kadıncık çalısı
Classification
Order: Malphigiales, Family: Euphorbiales, Genus: Fluegga.
Origin
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Flueggea is primarily an Old World genus. The genus Flueggea has

almost 15 species worldwide, with extending into warm temperate
zones at tropics and subtropics regions.
The overall distribution of the genus is relicttual. F. anatolica is
closely releated to F. virosa is a widespread paleotropically the
nearest species to F. anatolica, being present around the Nile river in
Egypt. F. anatolica, can be regarded as a Tertiary elict and Southern
Anatolia harbours other such species, e.g. Ajuga postii and, further
away in SW Anatolia, Liquidambar orientalis (Gemici and Leblebici,
1994).
Flueggea anatolica (Gemici and Leblebici, 1994; Gemici, 1993) is a
relict paleoendemic or conservative endemic shrub emnant from
Tertiary and includes Euphorbiaceae (Lawrence, 1971) which consists
of monoic or dioic herbs, brushes and trees which have laticifer.
Leaves are alternate, rarely decussate and verticillate, simple or
united, most of all stipulate. Flowers are solitary or in groups of spika
or panicula. Sepals at male flowers are in 0-5 numbers, free or united;
petals 0-6, sometimes united. They have one or a lot of stamens.
Sepals at female flowers are 0-6, free, petals are 0-6 and gynekeum
has one pistyll.
Flueggea anatolica is a dioic brush which can reach 5 m height of up.
They have never thorns or hairs. Leaves are spirally arranged, petioled
and oval or elliptic shaped, 2.5-6.5 cm × 1.5-3.5 cm long. Flowers are
at the leafy branches with the groups of 13 flowers, female flowers are
in the groups (Güner et al., 2000; Gemici and Leblebici, 1994;
Gemici, 1993).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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F. anatolica is known only from the type locality and from an area of
approximately 7000 m2. The number of individuals is approximately
500. Therefore, it should be regarded as belonging to World
Conservation Union (IUCN) Critically Endangered (CR) threat
category (IUCN, 2001).
Plant specimens were taken from the north of Tarsus (Icel) valley of
Kadincik (37°05' N, 34°47' E) in 1998 and autenticated by Yusuf
Gemici of the Section of Botany, University of Ege (Gemici: 6330).
Voucher specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of the
above-cited department (No; EGE 33639).
Uses in traditional or folk medicine
The medicinal use of Flueggea sp. comes from bergenin, a C-
glucoside of 4-O-methyl gallic acid. Bergenin isolated from aereal
parts of Flueggea virosa exhibited antiarrhythmic activity (Pu et al.,
2002) and bergenin and norbergenin, two isocoumarins isolated from
the leaves and roots of Flueggea microcarpa Blume gave significant
protection again pylorus ligation and aspirin induced gastric ulcers in
rats because of the increased prostaglandin production (Dahanuka et
al., 2000). The roots of Flueggea virosa Roxb. Ex Willd, have been
used for a treatment of rheumatism, pruritus, cephalic eczema,
leucorrhoea injuries and is known as a traditional Chinese medicine
(Li and Zhi, 1984). Flueggenins A and B, C, C-linked dimeric
indolizidine alkaloids isolated from the roots F. virosa and showed
strong cytotoxicity, only A showed weak activity against the P-388
tumor cell line (She et al., 2006). Bergenin was found also to inhibit
the powdery mildew isolated from Flueggea microcarpa Blume and
194 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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have antifungal effects against the plant pathogenic fungi, namely,

Alternaria alternata, A. brassicae, A. carthami, Fusarium udum, F.
oxysporum f.sp. ciceri, Curvularia lunata and Erysiphe pisi
(Prithiviraj et al., 1997).
Because of the resistance acquiries and genetic transmitting abilities
of bacteria to drugs which are utilized as therapeutic agents,
antibacterial and antifungal drugs have gain great importance in drug
industry. Although new synthetic chemical antibiotics have been
produced last three decades, resistance to these drugs by
microorganisms has increased (Cohen, 1992). The use of plant
extracts and phytochemicals, both with known antimicrobial
properties, can be of great significance in therapeutic treatments by
studies conducted in different countries (Ikram and Inamul, 1984;
Almagboul et al., 1985; Sousa et al., 1991; Kubo et al., 1993;
Shapoval et al., 1994; . Izzo et al., 1995; Digrak et al., 2011). The
microbial traits of many plants come from the secondary metabolism
of plants known as phenolic compounds which are parts of the
essential oils (Jansen et al., 1987) as well as tannins (Saxena et al.,
1994). In this study, chloroform extracts prepared from the leaves of
Flueggea anatolica plant were evaluated for the first time for
antibacterial and antifungal activities (Gemici et al., 2010). F.
anatolica is facing a threat of extirpation as well as the other tertiary
endemics, like Liquidambar orientalis.
Antimicrobial and antifungal activity:
The antimicrobial activity of F. anatolica Gemici was given in Table-
1. As can clearly be seen from this Table-1, the extract provided from
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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the leaves of F. anatolica were found to be effective against

Echerichia coli ATCC-12228, Pseudomonas aeroginosa ATCC-
27853, Proteus vulgaris ATCC 29905 as gram-negative bacteria and
Candida albicans ATCC-10239 yeast-like fungus, showing MIC
values 0.0025 µg/mL for E. coli and yeast-like fungus and 0.005
µg/mL for P. vulgaris and P. aureginosa. However, F. anatolica was
not effective against B. subtilis ATCC-6633, S. thyphimirium CCM
5445 and S. aureus ATCC-6538-P as gram-positive bacteria.
Table-1.Antimicrobial effect of Flueggea anatolica GEMICI
Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)

Microorganisms Extract Gentamycin Clotrimazole

(µg/mL) (µg/mL) (µg/mL)

Bacillus cereus CCM 99 - 1.25 n.t*

Escherichia coli ATCC 12228 0.0025 1.25 n.t

Salmonella thyphimirium CCM 5445 - 1.25 n.t

Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538-P - 1.25 n.t

Proteus vulgaris ATCC 29905 0.005 1.25 n.t

Pseudomonas aureginosa ATCC 0.005 2.5 n.t

27853

Candida albicans ATCC 10239 0.0025 n.t 0.78

*: not tested.

The microorganism E. coli which is already known to be multi-

resistant to drugs had its growth inhibited by the extract of F.
anatolica. On the other hand, P. aeroginosa (Chandler et al., 1982)
which is also resistant to different antibiotics, had its growth inhibited
also by F. anatolica extract. Such results are interesting because the
196 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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control of these bacteria was noticed to be very difficult by therapeutic

means (Chandler et al., 1982). While the control of resistant bacteria
is becoming a threat to human health, the studies regarding the mode
of action for these compounds in the bacterial cell should be done.
The synergistic effect of F. anatolica extract from the association of
antibiotic against resistant bacteria will lead to new choices for the
treatment of infectious diseases. This effect enables the use of
respective antibiotic when it is no longer effective by itself during
therapeutic treatment. Many plant phenols are reported as fungi-toxic
agents and the action of bergenin isolated from Flueggea microcarpa
(Kumar et al., 1985) can be declared to be similar to that of other
phenols. Yeast and antifungal activity evaluate together and tannins
can be toxic to filamentous fungi, yeast and bacteria (Cowan, 1999).
Condensed tannins have been determined to bind cell walls of ruminal
bacteria, preventing growth and protease activity (Jones et al., 1994).

REFERENCES
1. A. Guner, N. Ozhatay, T. Ekim and K.H.C. Baser, Flora of Turkey and the East
Aegean Islands (Supplement 2). Vol. 11, p. 656 (2000).

2. Y. Gemici and E. Leblebici, The Karaca Arboretum Magaz., 3, 79 (1995).

3. Y. Gemici, Edinburg J. Bot., 50, 75 (1993).

4. H.M. Lawrence, The Mc Millan Company, p. 823 (1971).

5. IUCN, IUCN Red List Categories Version 3.1 (2001).
6. H.L. Pu, X. Huang and J.H. Zhao, Planta Med., 4, 372 (2002).
7. S.A. Dahanuka, R.A. Kulkarni and N.N. Rege, Indian J. Pharmacol., 32, 81
(2000).
8. B.T. Li, Zhongguo Zhiwu Zhi, 44, 68 (1994).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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9. G. Li-She, F. Cheng-Qi and Y.S. Heng-Ping, Org. Lett., 8, 2285 (2006).

10. B. Prithiviraj, U.P. Singh and M. Manickam, Plant Patho., 46, 224 (1997).
11. M.L. Cohen, Science, 257, 1050 (1992).
12. M. Ikram and H. Inamul, Fitoterapia, 55, 62 (1984).
13. A.Z. Almagboul, A.K. Bashir and A. Farouk, Fitoterapia, 55, 331 (1985).
14. M. Sousa, C. Pinheiro, M.E.O. Matos, F.J. Matos, M.I. Lacerda and A.A.
Craveiro, Foryaleza, pp. 385-388 (1991).
15. L. Kubo, H. Muroi and M. Himajima, Agric. Food Chem., 41, 1016 (1993).
16. E.E.S. Shapoval, S.M. Silveira and M.L. Miranda, J. Ethnopharmacol., 44, 136
(1994).
17. A.A. Izzo, G. Di Carlo and D. Biscardi, Phytoter. Res., 9, 281 (1995).
18. M. Digrak, M.H. Alma and A. Ilcim, Pharm. Biol., 39, 346 (2001).
19. A.M. Jansen, J.J.C. Cheffer and A.B. Svendsen, Aspects Test Methods Planta
Med., 40, 395 (1987).
20. G. Saxena, A.R. McCutheon and S. Farmer, J. Ethnopharmacol., 42, 95 (1994).
21. F.B. Holetz, G.L. Pessini and N.R. Sanches, Mem. Inst. Oswaldo. Cruz., 97,
1027 (2002).
25. R.F. Chandler, S.N. Hooper and M. Harvey, J. Econ. Bot., 36, 203 (1982).
27. S. Kumar, M. Sahai and A.B. Ray, Planta Med., 59, 466 (1985).
28. M.M. Cowan, Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 12, 564 (1999).
29. G.A. Jones. T.A. Mc Allister, A.D. Murr and K.J. Cheng, Appl. Environ.
Microbial., 60, 1374 (1994).
Gemici M., Demiray H., Yıldırım H. 2010. Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities
of Flueggea anatolica (Euphorbiaceae). Asian Journal of Chemistry Vol. 22,
No. 5, 3802-3806.
Styrax officinalis L.
Vulgar name
Tesbi shrub, snowdrop bush, bear nut.
Classification
Order: Ericales, Family: Stracaceae, Genus: Styrax officinalis.
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Origin
Styrax officinalis L. (Styracaceae) is a small deciduous tree (up to 4
m) only found around the Mediterranean region and in East and
South-Eastern Asia (Fritsch, 1999). When the distribution of this plant
in Turkey and the Mediterranean region was compared with world
distribution, it was concluded that they originally had the same
environmental distribution in North America before the continental
drift that occurred at the beginning of the Cretaceous when North
America was separated from Europe (Melville, 1967). The presence of
a tropical species on both continents has been ascribed to the fact that
climate and physiological formations of the Mediterranean region and
California are similar. Because the evolution rate of this species was
rather slow with a high adaptability to terrestrial habitats, the
interregional variations were greater than the inter-continental
variations (Vardar & Oflas, 1973). Moreover, the distribution of this
species was demonstrated not only in the Mediterranean region, but
also in the sub-Mediterranean region and even in terrestrial zones such
as Konya, located in the western part of Central Anatolia, and
Adıyaman, located in the northern part of South-Eastern Anatolia.

Uses in traditional or folk medicine

At first glance, it is a lower element of forest areas with a wide
distribution and has seeds rich in oil content, making it industrially
important. Benzofuran glycosides were isolated from the seeds of
Styrax officinalis (Anıl, 1980; Akgül & Anıl, 2003), and benzofurans
and sterol were isolated from the seeds of Styrax obasia Siebold &
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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Zucc. (Lee et al., 2008). In addition, Styrax officinalis is known to

produce resinous material usually secreted when the barks and trunks
are injured by sharp objects (Correa, 1931). The species, a relict
dating from Mesozoic era, has resinous materials such as “Siam
benzoe” from Styrax tonkinensis (Pierre) Craib ex Hartwich, “benzoe”
from Styrax benzoides Craib, “Sumatra benzoe” from Styrax benzoin
Dryand., and “storax” from Styrax officinalis L. (Tschirsch, 1923;
Perkins, 1907; van Steenis, 1932; McKechnie, 1959; Milne & Milne,
1967). However, species distributed in Turkey do not include resinous
material or resinous channels (Zeybek, 1970). Styrax and benzoin
balsams have been widely employed since ancient times by the
Romans (Gianno et al., 1990; Modugno et al., 2006), Egyptians, and
Phoenicians to treat chronic infections of the respiratory tract, due to
the therapeutic and pharmacological properties of the species which
include disinfectant, expectorant, and vulnerary activities (Modugno
et al., 2006). Nowadays, their use is extended to perfumery and
fixative agents, whilst their antioxidant and organoleptic properties are
valued in the cosmetic and food industries for conservation and
improvement of flavour (Fernandez et al., 2003, 2006a, 2006b; Castel
et al., 2006). Due to the great economic importance of its resinous
benzoin substance, in the present study we have tested different agents
such as boric acid and cocarboxylase (thiamine diphosphate),
extensive stimulators of resin channels, in order to increase the
amount of benzoin volatile oil in in vitro grown stem tissues of Styrax
officinalis.
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Chemical composition of essential oils of petiol calli

Tissue culture is one of the biotechnological methods applied for the
production of volatile compounds such as essential oils, flavours, and
volatile isolates in addition to volatile aldehydes and alcohols that are
more easily produced by cultured, genetically modified
microorganisms (bacteria, algae, and fungi, including yeast)
(Guanaris, 2010; Namdjoyan et al., 2012; Yamaner et al., 2013).
Benzoin is a hydroxy ketone attached to 2 phenyl groups. It appears as
off-white crystals and has a light camphor-like odour. It is synthesised
from benzaldehyde in the benzoin condensation. Benzoin is not a
constituent of benzoin resin obtained from the benzoin tree (Styrax) or
tincture of benzoin. The main component in these natural products is
benzoic acid (Adams & Marvel, 1941).

It is indicated that even under the optimum induction conditions the

yield of essential oil by in vitro plant tissues and cells was generally
less than that achieved by the intact untreated plant, and the inability
of cultured plant cells and calli to accumulate significant amounts of
monoterpenes could be due to the combined effect of lower enzymatic
activity and their higher catabolic rate (Falk et al., 1990). Because
they are the enzymes of the volatile aldehyde and alcohol synthesis
path, the activity of lipoxygenase and hydroperoxide lyase has been
found in in vitro-cultured plant tissues (Matsui et al., 1996; Williams
& Hardwood, 1998; Fauconnier et al., 2001). Therefore, we obtained
successive increases with the applied induction media, one with
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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excess boron plus niacin (120%) and the other with cocarboxylase
enzyme (231%), depending on the intact plant benzoin content (90%).
Because the species of the genus Styrax were not commonly studied
for their essential oil and resin contents, it is not easy to compare our
results with the results of other studies. To date, all of the studies have
been performed on the leaves of Styrax officinalis. The volatile oil
contents of Styrax japonica were determined by Kim and Shin (2004)
and those of Styrax officinalis, known to be rare in France (they are
found only in a few locations in the south-east of France) were
reported by Tayaub et al. (2006). The oil composition obtained by
steam distillation of leaves exhibited high levels of 2-hexenal (64%),
n-hexanal (4.6%), nerol (4.6%), 3-hexen-1-ol (4.3%), and trans-2-
heptenol (2.6%). Only one paper concerned with essential oil
composition of stem of Styrax from south-eastern France indicated
that oxygenated monoterpenes were prominent in all of the plant
organs. The major compounds of the essential oils of the leaves were
2-hexenal (17.6%), linalool (11.9%), and geraniol (5.5%). While
linalool was the major compound (26.4%) of the volatile oils of the
flowers, tridecanal (9.8%), dodecane (9.6%), α-terpineol (17%), and
eugenol (9.9%) were also present (Tayaub et al., 2006). Natural
essential oils are usually mixtures of terpenoids (mainly
monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids), aromatic compounds, and
aliphatic compounds. Styrax is an aromatic plant that produces high
levels of essential-oil–containing aliphatic aldehydes. Decanol, the
dominant aldehyde that contributes to the flavour of the benzoin tree,
was identified as a natural source of aliphatic aldehydes, which could
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be useful as food additives and in the perfume industry. Benzyl

alcohol, one of the better known aromatic alcohols, which occurs in
storax (a resin obtained from the Styrax officinalis tree) and also in
balsam of Peru and balsam of Tolu—either in the free state or as an
ester in combination with cinnamic or benzoic acid (Maki & Takeda,
2000) was found in the stem tissue of calli, with or without applied
enzymes. Ethylbenzene and propylbenzene (in enzyme-applied calli)
and p-xylene (in calli with or without applied enzymes) occurred as
aromatic hydrocarbons. Methylcyclopentane and 1,1-
dimethylcyclopentane were found as monocyclic terpene cyclopentane
derivatives (Crane, 1955) in enzyme-applied calli and calli with or
without enzymes applied, respectively. In addition to these
compounds, methylcyclohexane and cyclohexane were the
monocyclic terpene hydrocarbons determined in Styrax stem tissues
with or without enzymes applied.

In this preliminary tissue culture study of Styrax officinalis from West

Anatolia, the major essential oil components of excess boron- and
niacin-induced stem calli were hexane (58.33%), 3-methyl-2-pentene
(16.10%), and cyclohexane (8.88%). The volatile oil composition was
changed by cocarboxylase enzyme application, and the compounds
hexane (62%), methylcyclopentane (19.09%), cyclohexane (12.04%),
2-hexanone (0.04%), ethylbenzene (0.03%), and 1-chloro-2-
methylpropyl benzene (propene) were provided. Cyclohexane was
found in each of the different calli tissues, but its ratio increased to
12.04% with enzyme application; acetone (0.03%), ethyl acetate
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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(4.10%), and dichloromethane (0.17%) contents were high as

compared with the results of boron-plus-niacin–induced calli tissues.
Decane and benzyl alcohol were present in the 2 different calli, but
percentages decreased with enzyme application.

Apart from their nonoxidative and oxidative decarboxylation of 2-

ketoacids, the formation of chiral 2-hydroxy ketones has been
established for thiamine diphosphate dependent enzymes (Pohl et al.,
2004). The cause of the increase in benzoin resin content is thiamine
diphosphate enzyme. Styrax benzoin resins can only be produced after
deep incisions have been made into the bark of the trees belonging to
the genus Styrax (family Stracaceae), which are endemic in numerous
East Asian countries such as Indonesia (Sumatra and Java), Laos,
Thailand, and Vietnam. For the first time on record benzoin was
identified in Styrax officinalis distributed in Turkey (Kemalpaşa), and
the benzoin content of in vitro grown plant materials increased both
excess-boron-plusniacin and cocarboxylase treatments (Demiray et al.,
2013).

The major essential oil components of excess boron and niacin and
also cocarboxylase-enzyme–induced stem calli are compared in Table
1. Hexane (58.33%– 62.19%), cyclohexane (8.88%–12.04%), acetone
(0.02%–0.03%), dichloromethane (0.16%–0.17%), and acetonitrile
(0.03%–0.04%) were found in both calli induced with media
supplemented with enzymes and in those without any enzymes.
Increases in the ratio of compounds were seen, as mentioned above.
However, 1,1-dimethylcyclopentane (0.56%–0.25%); decanol
204 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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(0.02%–0.01%); acetic acid, butyl ester, or butyl acetate (0.03%–

0.02%); p-xylene (0.03%–0.02%); l-butanol (0.56%–0.42%); and
benzyl alcohol (0.04%–0.02%) ratios decreased with enzyme
application while they were also present in the 2 different media.
While 3-methyl-2-pentene, ethyl acetate (16.10%); ethyl acetate,
acetic acid, ethyl ester (3.98%); propanoic acid, ethyl ester, or ethyl
propanoate (0.01%); 4-methyl2-pentanone (0.06%); benzene, 1,2
dimethyl-xylene (0.02%); and benzyl chloride (0.28%) were only
present in calli induced with excess boron and niacin, cyclopentane
(1.19%), methylcyclopentane (19.09%), ethyl acetate (4.10%), 2-
hexanone (0.04%), propanenitrile (0.01%), and (1-chloro-2 methyl)
propylbenzene (0.15%) were only found in excess boron and niacin-
with-cocarboxylase–induced Styrax stem calli (Table 1).

Table 1. GC-MS values of stem calli of Styrax officinalis with and without
cocarboxylase enzyme; nd: not determined, RIa: polar retention index value; RIb:
apolar retention index value.

Compounds Nodal Nodal bud Identification RIa RIb

bud calli calli + methods
cocarboxylase
enzyme
Hexane 58.3 62.19 GC-FID, GC-MS 599 572
Cyclopentane - 1.19 GC-FID, GC-MS 580 575
Methylcyclopentane - 19.09 GC-FID, GC-MS 575 571

3-Methyl-2-pentene 16.10 - GC-FID, GC-MS nd nd

1,1-Dimethylcyclopentane 0.56 0.25 GC-FID, GC-MS 714 709

Cyclohexane 8.88 12.04 GC-FID, GC-MS 647 639

Methylcyclohexane 0.02 0.02 GC-FID, GC-MS 656 651

Acetone 0.02 0.03 GC-FID, GC-MS 459 454

Ethyl acetate - 4.10 GC-FID, GC-MS 589 583

 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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Ethyl acetate, acetic acid, 3.98 - GC-FID, GC-MS nd nd

ethyl ester
Dichloromethane 0.16 0.17 GC-FID, GC-MS 415 408

Benzene 0.02 0.02 GC-FID, GC-MS 638 635

Propanoic acid, ethyl ester, 0.01 - GC-FID, GC-MS nd nd

or ethyl
propanoate
Decanol 0.02 0.01 GC-FID, GC-MS 1272 1743

2-Hexanone - 0.04 GC-FID, GC-MS 805 760

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 0.06 - GC-FID, GC-MS nd nd

Acetonitrile 0.03 0.04 GC-FID, GC-MS 466 461

Toluene 0.25 - GC-FID, GC-MS 747 743

Propanenitrile - 0.01 GC-FID, GC-MS nd nd

Acetic acid, butyl ester, or 0.03 0.02 GC-FID, GC-MS 1492 1480
butyl
acetate
Ethylbenzene - 0.03 GC-FID, GC-MS nd nd

p-xylene 0.03 0.02 GC-FID, GC-MS 844 842

Benzene, 1,2-dimethyl- 0.02 - GC-FID, GC-MS nd nd

xylene
1-Butanol 0.56 0.42 GC-FID, GC-MS 558 553

Benzyl chloride 0.28 - GC-FID, GC-MS nd nd

1-Chloro-2-methylpropyl - 0.15 GC-FID, GC-MS nd nd

benzene
Benzyl alcohol 0.04 0.04 GC-FID, GC-MS 1034 1032
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Vardar V & Oflas S (1973). Preliminary studies on the Styrax oil. Qualitas
Plantarum Et Materiae Vegetabiles 22: 145–148.
Anıl H (1980). Four benzofuran glycosides from Styrax officinalis. Phytochemistry
19: 2784–2786.
Akgül Y & Anıl H (2003). Benzofurans and another constituent from seeds of
Styrax officinalis. Phytochemistry 63: 939–943.
Lee HJ, Park SY, Lee OK, Jo HJ, Kang HY, Choi DH, Paik KH & Khan M (2008).
Benzofurans and sterol from the seeds of Styrax obassia. Chemistry of
Natural Compounds 44: 435–439.
Correa MP (1931). Dicionónorio de Plantas Medicinais Űteis do Brasil e das
Exóticas Cultivadas. (Rio de Janeiro) Brasil: Ministério da Agricultura.
Tschirsch A (1923). Styrax. In: Handbuch der Pharmakognosie. Volume III, Part 2,
Leipzig: Chr. Herrn. Tauchnitz, pp. 1012– 1028.
Perkins J (1907). Styracaceae. In: Engler A (ed.) Das Pflanzenreich, Serie 4, 241
(Heft 30), Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, pp. 1–111.
Van Steenis CGGJ (1932). The Stracaceae of Netherlands India. Bulletin du Jardin
Botanique Buitenzorg Serie 3: 212–272.
McKechnie J (1959). Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary. New York: The
World Publ. Comp.
Milne L & Milne M (1967). Living Plants of the World. New York: Haticleer Press.
Zeybek N (1970). Liefert Styrax officinalis L. ein Harz? Bericht der
Schweizerischen Botanical Gesellschaft im Band 80: 189–193.
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Gianno R, Erhardt D, Endt PW, Hopwood W & Baker MT (1990). Archaeological

resins from shipwrecks off the coasts of Sarpan and Thailand. Masca
Research Papers in Science and Archaeology 7: 59–67.
Modugno F, Ribechini E & Colombini MP (2006). Aromatic resin characterization
by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: raw and archaeological materials.
Journal of Chromatography A 1134: 298–304.
Fernandez X, Lizzani-Cuvelier L, Loiseau AM, Périchet C & Delbecque C (2003).
Volatile constituents of benzoin gums: Siam and Sumatra. Flavour and
Fragrance Journal 18: 328–333.
Fernandez X, Castel C, Lizzani-Cuvelier L, Delbecque C & Venzal SP (2006a).
Volatile constituents of benzoin gums: Siam and Sumatra. Fast
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Fernandez X, Lizzani-Cuvelier L, Loiseau AM, Périchet C, Delbecque C & Arnaudo
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Guanaris Y (2010). Biotechnology for the production of essential oils, flavours and
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Chronanthus orientalis Heywood&Frodin (Lois.) (Fabaceae): An

Endemic Species of Turkey
Vulgar name
Oriental clover
Classification
Order: Fabales, Family: Fabaceae, Genus: Chronanthus orientalis.
Origin
Turkey has about 10,750 vascular plant taxon and come to the fore in
this aspect of geography. Floristic richness of this nearly 3,500 is
endemic. This number forms 32 % of the total flora. Families contain
more taxa of the flora of Turkey are: Compositae (1,215 taxa) and
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) (1,071 taxa) and they constitute
approximately one-fifth of our country's flora. In flora of Turkey,
Leguminosae family are included in second place with around 400
endemic taxa. This study will form the basic material of the
Chronanthus orientalis (Lois.) Heywood & Frodin includes also
Leguminosae family. Genus Chronanthus contains only 2 species in
the world. One of them, Chronanthus biflorus (Desf.) Koch, has the
expansion in east-south Spain, Balarik Islands and the northwest
Africa. Other species of in the single locality (Izmir Bozdag) known to
grow (Davis, 1965-82) and takes place in the category of vulnerable
according to Turkey Red Book (Ekim et al., 2000) is Chronanthus
orientalis (Lois.) Heywood and Frodin. The name of Chronanthus
orientalis is given to the plant as a result of new data provided to with
the recent morphological and molecular systematic studies on the
210 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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genus Cytisus by considering the nuclear and plastid DNA characters

in mind (Cristofolini and Troia, 2006). According to the new
nomenclature Cytisus oritentalis Desf. (Greuter et al., 1989; Davis,
1965-82) is synonym of our plant nomenclatured as Chronanthus
orientalis (lois). Heywood and Frodin.

Uses in traditional or folk medicine

When used as dry and fresh, they have cardiotonic, cathartic,
antioxidant, diuretic, emetic, purgative effects (Dang, 2007; Van Beek
and Breteler, 1993). Quinolizidine alkaloids show a wide range of
biological activities: they can inhibit the multiplication of viruses
(Wink, 1987), the proliferation of bacteria (Wink, 1984; Tyski et al.,
1988; De la Vega et al., 1996) and the growth of certain fungi (Wink,
1984; Wippich and Wink, 1985). Some allelopathic (phytotoxic)
effects of quinolizidine alkaloids have been described, including the
inhibition of the growth of competing plants13-15 (Wink, 1983; Wink
and Twardowski, 1992; Múzquiz et al., 1994). They can also deter a
number of herbivores (nematodes, caterpillars, beetles, aphids, locusts,
snails, rabbits and cows) but also pollinators such as bees (Gegear et
al., 2007). Some are directly toxic or mutagenic (Wink, 1984; 1994).
Deterrent or toxic effects of quinolizidine alkaloids such as sparteine,
lupanine, cytisine and 13-tigloyloxylupanine against phytophagous
insects have been evaluated in some detail on some Lepidoptera.
Several authors suggest that acetylcholine receptors and Na+ /K+
channels are modulated by these compounds (Paolisso et al., 1985;
Korcz et al., 1987; Wink, 1992; Wink, 1993). Tri- and tetracyclic
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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quinolizidine (lupine) alkaloids have been used in folk medicine of

eastern Asia and are nowadays of medical interest because of their
oxytoxic and antiarrhythmic (sparteine, lupanine), hypoglycemic
(lupanine), hallucinogenic (cytisine, N-methylcytisine), teratogenic
(anagyrine) and inhibitory efects of natural killer cell growth
(Raschack, 1974; Wink, 1987). Many publications have appeared in
the last few years reporting the use of sparteine as a very efficient
chiral diamine, demonstrating promising potential for asymmetric
transformations of organometallic reagents to achieve enantioselective
deprotonation, polymerization and carbonyl addition reactions (Rush
et al., 1996; Klein et al., 1995; Lautens et al., 1993). The
characteristics of quinolizidine alkaloids is known to be
allelochemicals which are toxic to a variety of herbivores (Keeler,
1969; 1976; Wink, 1988; 1993; 1993; Wink and Witte, 1991) .

Chemical composition of Chronanthus orientalis

As a result of studies made so far on the phytochemistry of genus
Cytisus: quinolizidine alkaloids (QA), (spartein, Lupa), fenetilaminler,
isaflavonlar [genistein (Viscardi et al., 1984)], flavonoids, volatile oil,
caffeic acid, p-coumaric acids, tannin and pigments were found. The
characteristics of quinolizidine alkaloids is known to be
allelochemicals which are toxic to a variety of herbivores (Keeler,
1969; 1976; Wink, 1988; 1993; 1993; Wink and Witte, 1991).
Whereas alkaloid profiles are usually rather constant within a species,
some variation is found in the patterns of different organs such as
leaves as compared to seeds (Dolinger, 1973; Kinghorn et al., 1980;
212 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Meissner and Wink, 1992; Wink, 1992; Wink, 1992; 1993).

Quantitatively alkaloid levels vary diurnally and during the growth
cycle (Wink and Witte, 1984). A previously reported postulate
concerning the evolution of quinolizidine alkaloids and the detailed
consideration of the chemical composition led to a revised
dendrogram showing proposed phylogenetic relations within the
subfamily Papilionoideae in general and the tribe Genisteae in
particular (Salatino and Gottlieb, 1981). In the genera Genista and
Cytisus (both commonly called broom) as well as Laburnum,
quinolizidine alkaloids, including cytisine and sparteine, are common
(Wink, 2003). The hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids are found in
this family (e.g., in members of the genus Crotalaria) (Mattocks,
1986).

The underivatized alkaloid mixture extracted from herb of

Chronanthus orientalis Heywood and Frodin was investigated by
capillary GC/MS for the first time. Among the known Fabaceae
alkaloids of four structure types were identified. We identidied 11
alkaloids (one of them tentatively) (Table-1) (Güner et al., 2012) (Fig.
1). Some components remained unidentified due to the lack of
reference substances and library spectra. The main alkaloids were
sparteine (61.43 %) (Fig. 2), lidocaine (5.32 %) (Fig. 3), oxosparteine
(4.65 %) (Fig. 4), lupanine (0.72 %) (Fig. 5). Spartein found (61.43
%) (Fig. 2) in C. orientalis comprised the major alkaloid of plant. The
second major one was lidocaine. Here we can take attention to the
lidocaine as being the new compound special to this species in the
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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fabaceae family. By the way the alkaloids which are derived from
ornithine and lysine are named "quinolizidine alkaloids" (Mann et al.,
1994). They are characteristic secondary metabolites of the family of
Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and are especially abundant in the tribes
genisteae, sophoreae and thermopsideae (Wink et al., 1995). The
genus Cytisus is known to produce this type of alkaloids (Wink,
2003).

Table-1 GC-MS analysis of C. orientalis alkaloids

Retention time Relative Compare with Wiley Wiley GC/MS library (%)
(%) GC/MS library* comparison*

10.773 61.43 Sparteine 91

11.002 7.70 - -

11.227 1.54 - -

11.357 5.54 - -

11.559 1.88 - -

11.842 5.32 Lidocaine 96

12.845 1.26 - -

14.039 4.65 Oxosparteine 88

14.875 0.72 Lupanine 90

17.959 2.83 - -

18.351 1.33 n-Octylphtalate 94

*Compounds with high comparison in Library scanning are identified.

We subjected to GC-MS analysis the underivatized alkaloid mixture,

encouraged by the excellent results of Erdemoglu et al. (2009). These
authors applied for the first time GC-MS to underivatized fabaceae
214 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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alkaloids (from G. vuralii L. growing in Turkey) and demonstrated its

advantages over the analysis of silylated samples, especially in
identifying minor components.

Ten quinolizidine alkaloids were identified by capillary GCMS,

namely, N-methylcytisine, cytisine, tetrahydrorhombifoline, 17-
oxosparteine, 5,6-dehydrolupanine, lupanine, 17-oxolupanine,
anagyrine, baptifoline and 13α-tigloyloxylupanine from Genista
vuralii. 5 alkaloids (anagyrine, cytisine, N-formylcytisine, N-
methylcytisine and lupanine) have been isolated and identified in
aerial parts of Genista tenera (Martins et al., 2005). In our samples,
we found only two of them: lupanine and oxosparteine. According to
Martinez-Herrera et al. (2001); more than 25 alkaloids were detected
from L. flavoculatus, L. kingii, L. odoratus, L. pusillus and L.
shockleyi and sparteine, β-isosparteine, isolupanine, 5,6-
dehydrolupanine, lupanine and anagyrine were found while lupanine
and sparteine were detected as major alkaloids in C. orientalis. Ghania
(2007) have determined the alkaloid profile of the plant Cytisus
purgans growing in Algeria by GC-MS and improved the presence of
lupinine, camoensidine, lupanine, sparteine, multifloine, aphylline,
angustifoline, isolupanin, anagyrine, martine, ammodendrine,
retamine, alkaloids. 44 quinolizine alkaloids were isolated from Egypt
spreaded various species of Lupinus and lupanine and spartein was
also identified in C. orientalis (El-Shazly et al., 2001; Wink and
Carey, 1994) Quinolizidine alkaloids are the systematic markers of
Papilionaceae subfamily and Genisteae tribus and this phylogenetic
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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association was made by drawing the dendrograms of two plants

(Salatino and Gottlieb, 1991). Alkaloid pattern of Cytisophyllum
sessilifolium (Fabaceae-Genisteae) was revealed both the quinolizidin
and adenocarpin alkaloids as being the important chemotaxonomic
character for this species (Greinwald et al., 1991). Alkaloid patterns of
Genista cinerea was demonstrated chemical dichotomy for the species
of the section Spartioides: one group of species contained the α-
pyrydone alkaloids cytisine. Spartioides: one group of species
contained the α-pyridone alkaloids cytisine, Nmethylcytisine and
anagyrine as major alkaloids, while the other group contained
lupanine, 13-hydroxylupanine and its esters as main compounds (Van
et al., 1995). The quinolizidin type alkaloids as common in
Chronanthus orientalis as: 17-oxospartein and lupanin contained
Genista vuralii demonstrated an antibacteraial effect against
Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis,
Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans, Candida krusei
antifungal effect (Erdemoglu et al., 2009). When we examined all
above mentioned studies by different investigators included the
structure of 170 quinolizidine alkaloids of Orbanche rapum genistea
(Rascol et al., 1982), did not coincide any results of lidocaine alkaloid
except found as a major alkaloid used as topical anaesthesia (Tan et
al., 2011) in Chronanthus orientalis endemic species (Güner et al.,
2012).
216 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Ortiz, J. Food Biochem., 25, 117 (2001).
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Found in the Family of Fabaceae, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of
Sciences and Engineering Sciences, University of M'sila, Algeria (2007).
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153 (2000).
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 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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52. J.P. Rascol, C. Andary and G. Privat, Travaux de lla Societte de Pharmacia de
Montpellier, Montpellier (1982).
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Ophtalmol., 95, 837 (2011).
Güner M., Yazıcı I., Karabey F., Senol S., Demiray H. 2012. Alkaloids of
Chronanthus orientalis (Lois.) Heywood and Frodin (Fabaceae): An
Endemic Species of Turkey. Asian Journal of Chemistry; Vol. 24, No. 10
(2012), 4373-4376.
Euphorbia anacampseros var. tmolea: An Endemic species of
Turkey against Aedes aegypti
Vulgar name
Sütlüağu
Classification
Order: Euphorbiales, Family: Euphorbiaceae, Genus: Euphorbia
anacampseros var. tmolea. M.S. Khan
Origin
The genus Euphorbia is the largest in the spurge family
(Euphorbiaceae), comprising about 50 tribes, 300 genera and more
than 2000 species; probably the highest species richness with a world-
wide distribution (Mwine et al., 2013). They are widely distributed
throughout both tropical and temperate regions and range in
morphology from small, annual or perennial herbaceous plants to
woody shrubs, lianas, trees and large desert succulents (Webster,
1994). In Turkey 108 ‘Euphorbia’ taxa are known, 14 of which are
endemic species. One of the endemics, Euphorbia anacampseros var.
tmolea Boiss., occurs on Bozdag in Ödemis, Izmir, Turkey. It is a
glabrous, glaucous, decumbent-ascending perennial herb or subshrub
220 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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common to rocky slopes (sometimes present in Pinus brutia or

Quercus forest), mountain steppe, phrygana, lake and stream sides, at
elevations of 600-1900 m. It has several or simple stems arising from
a woody stock reaching 30-45 cm tall and it has cauline leaves
suborbicular, ovate, rhombic, obovate or obtrullate (Davis, 1982). Due
to the rich cultural heritage and relatively rich flora in Turkey.

Uses in traditional or folk medicine

Some Euphorbia species such as E. amygdaloides L., have been used

medicinally to treat skin diseases and wounds in different provinces
(Özbilgin and Saltancitoglu, 2012).

Chemical Composition and Mosquitocidal Activity of n-Hexane

and Methanolic Extracts

Control of the mosquito larvae is largely dependent on continued

applications of organophosphates (chlorpyrifos, temephos and
fenthion), insect growth regulators (diflubenzuron and methoprene)
(Yang et al., 2002) and Bacillus thuringiensis isrealiensis (Lacey,
2007). Frequent use of synthetic insecticides has disturbed natural
biological systems and led to insecticide resistance and amplified
environmental and human health concerns (Lee et al., 2001). This
warrants the need for the development of new strategies for selective
control of mosquito populations. Plants are a good source of
alternative agents for control of mosquitoes (Mathew et al., 2009;
Rahuman et al., 2009) because they are rich in bioactive chemicals
which are biodegradable. The Euphorbia genus is known to contain a
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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wide variety of terpenoids, ranging from mono-, sesqui- and

diterpenes to triterpenoids, flavonoids and steroids known for their
toxicity or potential therapeutic activity ( Tang et al., 2012). Taking
this into consideration, we investigated the chemical composition of
hexane and methanol extracts from E. anacampseros var. tmolea and
their efficacy against 1st instar larvae and adult female Aedes aegypti
L.

Volatile composition of the n-hexane and methanol extracts from E.

anacampseros var. tmolea was analyzed by head space-solid phase
microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (GC-MS). Chemical characterization of the methanolic
extract was determined by LC-ESI-MS/MS. Both extracts were
bioassayed against 1st instar larvae and adult female Ae. aegypti. The
main components identified from the E. anacampseros var. tmolea n-
hexane fraction were 1,8-cineole (27.5 %), p-cymene (25 %), γ-
terpinene (12.8 %), limonene (9.9 %). Methyl hexanoate (18.8 %),
methyl nonanoate (13.3 %), dimethyl succinate (6.5 %), methyl
octanoate (6 %) and methyl phenylacetate (5.3 %) were identified
from the methanolic fraction. The n-hexane extract showed 100 %
mortality at 0.1 µg/µL against 1st instar larvae of Ae. aegypti and the
methanolic extract exhibited 83.3 % mortality at 5 µg/mosquito
against adult female Ae. aegypti. The bioassay-guided study
demonstrates that n-hexane and methanol extracts of E. anacampseros
var. tmolea contain compounds with natural mosquito larvicidal and
adulticidal activity.
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The n-hexane and methanolic extracts were evaluated for larvicidal

and adulticidal activity against Ae. aegypti (Table1). The n-hexane
extract produced larvicidal activity at each screening concentrations of
1, 0.5, 0.25 and 0.1 µg/µL, while the methanolic extract did not show
any larvicidal activity at the same concentrations. However, the
methanolic extract showed higher adulticidal mortality than the
hexane extract, although both had activity above 70 % at the screening
dose.

Subsequently, the volatile composition of n-hexane and methanolic

extracts from E. anacampseros var. tmolea was identified using
headspace-solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and GC-MS
systems. Forty-four compounds in total were characterized in the n-
hexane and 36 in the methanolic extracts (Table-2). Monoterpene
hydrocarbons, p-cymene (25%), γ-terpinene (12.8 %), limonene (9.9
%), myrcene (3.2 %), α-pinene (2.3 %) and oxygenated monoterpenes,
1,8-cineole (27.5 %), linalool (3.4 %) and camphor (1.7 %) were the
main components of n-hexane extract, while the methanolic extract
was dominated mostly with linear esters, methyl hexanoate (18.8 %),
methyl nonanoate (13.3 %), dimethyl succinate (6.5 %), methyl
octanoate (6 %), methyl pentanoate (3.7 %), dimethyl malonate (3.1
%), methyl heptanoate (2.9 %) and with an aromatic ester methyl
phenylacetate (5.3 %).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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Table-1. Mosquitocidal activity against 1st ınostar and adult

felmale ae. Aegypti or l1952 straın
Samples Mortality (%)
Larvicidal activity* Adulticidal
activity**
1 0.5 0.25 0.1 µg/µL 5 µg/mosquito
µg/µL µg/µL µg/µL
n-Hexane 100 100 100 100 76.7 ± 15.3
extract
Methanol 0 0 0 0 83.3 ± 11.5
extract
*In larval bioassays, positive control permethrin at 0.04 ng/µl; negative control
solvent control (DMSO) had 0 mortality.

**In adult bioassays, two positive control permethrin doses were included at 0.19 ng
(60 ± 10 % mortality) and 0.86 ng (100 % mortality) in all assays; negative control
solvent control (acetone) had 0 mortality.

Table-2.Volatile composition of E. anacampseros var. tmolea

RRI Compound n-Hexane Methanolic Identification

extract extract (%) method

(%)

1032 α-Pinene 2.28 - RRI, MS

1090 Methyl pentanoate - 3.7 RRI, MS

1076 Camphene 0.2 - RRI, MS

1197 Methyl hexanoate - 18.8 RRI, MS

1118 β-Pinene 1.3 - RRI, MS

1132 Sabinene 1.0 - RRI, MS

1159 δ-3-Carene 1.1 - MS

1174 Myrcene 3.2 - RRI, MS

1188 α-Terpinene 1.4 - RRI, MS

1203 Limonene 9.9 - RRI, MS

224 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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1213 1,8-Cineole 27.5 - RRI, MS

1255 γ-Terpinene 12.8 - RRI, MS

1280 p-Cymene 25.0 RRI, MS

1290 Terpinolene 0.4 - RRI, MS

1382 cis-Alloocimene 0.1 - MS

1296 Methyl heptanoate - 2.9 RRI, MS

1360 1-Hexanol - 0.4 RRI, MS

1398 2-Nonanone 0.3 - MS

1399 Methyl octanoate 0.1 6.0 RRI, MS

1400 Nonanal 0.3 - MS

1406 α-Fenchone 0.4 - MS

1437 α-Thujone 0.2 - RRI, MS

1443 2,5-Dimethylstyrene 0.1 - MS

1450 trans-Linalool oxide 0.1 - MS

(Furanoid)

1452 1-Octen-3-ol 0.3 0.5 MS

1474 trans-Sabinene hydrate 0.1 - MS

1475 Menthone 1.9 - RRI, MS

1487 Citronellal 0.2 - RRI, MS

1475 Acetic acid - 0.4 RRI, MS

1500 Methyl nonanoate 0.1 13.3 RRI, MS

1503 Isomenthone 0.7 - MS

 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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1505 Dihydroedulane II* - 0.4 MS

1510 Dimethyl malonate* - 3.1 RRI, MS

1532 Camphor 1.7 - RRI, MS

1553 Linalool 1.4 - RRI, MS

1562 Octanol - 0.4 RRI, MS

1565 Linalyl acetate 0.1 - RRI, MS

1573 (E,E)-3,5-Octadien-2-one - 0.2 MS

1586 Pinocarvone 0.1 - RRI, MS

1591 Bornyl acetate 0.3 - RRI, MS

1591 2-Methyl propanoic acid - 0.3 MS

1601 Methyl decanoate - 1.3 RRI, MS

1602 Dimethyl succinate* - 6.5 RRI, MS

1602 6-Methyl-3,5-heptadien-2- - 1.3 MS

one

1611 Terpinen-4-ol 0.3 - RRI, MS

1621 2-Octen-1-ol - 0.1 MS

1625 4,4-Dimethyl but-2- - 0.4 MS

enolide

1638 Menthol 0.1 - RRI, MS

1631 γ-Pentalactone - 0.2 RRI, MS

1641 Methyl benzoate - 0.9 RRI, MS

1645 cis-Isodihydrocarvone tr - MS
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1648 Myrtenal 0.1 - MS

1651 γ-Butyrolactone - 0.2 RRI, MS

1662 Pulegone 0.1 - RRI, MS

1664 Nonanol - 0.2 RRI, MS

1670 trans-Pinocarveol 0.1 - RRI, MS

1687 Methyl chavicol 0.3 - RRI, MS

1706 α-Terpineol 0.1 - RRI, MS

1719 Borneol 0.1 - RRI, MS

1726 γ-Hexalactone - 0.4 RRI, MS

1751 Carvone 0.3 - RRI, MS

1762 Pentanoic acid - 0.4 RRI, MS

1779 Methylphenyl acetate - 5.3 MS

1802 Cumin aldehyde 0.1 - RRI, MS

1815 Methyl dodecanoate - 0.7 RRI, MS

1871 Hexanoic acid - 1.2 RRI, MS

1896 Benzylalcohol - 0.2 RRI, MS

1937 Phenyl ethyl alcohol tr 0.4 RRI, MS

1977 Heptanoic acid - 0.1 RRI, MS

1984 Benzothiazol 0.1 - MS

1996 2-Acetylpyrrole - 0.1 MS

2004 o-Cresol - 0.1 RRI, MS

 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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2022 Methyl tetradecanoate - 0.3 RRI, MS

2192 Nonanoic acid - tr RRI, MS

2226 Methyl hexadecanoate - 0.1 RRI, MS

RRI Relative retention indices calculated against n-alkanes % calculated from TIC
data

tr Trace (< 0.1 %)

Identification method based on the relative retention indices (RRI) of

authentic compounds on the HP Innowax column; MS, identified on
the basis of computer matching of the mass spectra with those of the
Wiley and MassFinder libraries and comparison with literature data

*Tentative identification

*Purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Co., St. Louis, MO, USA.

The chemical composition of methanolic extract of E. anacampseros

var. tmolea was also investigated with LC-MS/ MS. Four compounds
(1-4) were determined according to their molecular ion peaks and MS
fragmentation behaviours (Table3; Fig. 1) (Demiray et al., 2017).
Compound 1 showed molecular ion peak at m/z 367 which
fragmented the base peak ion at m/z 193 due to the loss of a feruloyl
unit. Other fragment ions at m/z 149 and 134, formed after the loss of
a methyl group, was led to the identification of this peak as 3-
feruloylquinic acid (1) (Clifford et al., 2003). Compounds 2-4 were
determined as quercetin derivatives which were previously identified
in Euphorbia species (Pisano et al., 2016). Compound 2 showed
pseudo molecular ion peak at m/z 463 and a base peak ion at m/z 300
228 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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which was formed after the loss of a glucose unit. Other fragments at
m/z 271, 255 were also observed. The base peak ion and further
fragments are characteristic for quercetin. These data led to
identifying compound 2 as quercetin glucoside. Similar identifications
were done for compound 3 and compound 4 which have the same
quercetin aglycone. Compound 3 presented molecular ion peak at m/z
477 and showed product ion at m/z 301 due to the loss of a glucuronic
acid moiety, so compound 3 was identified as quercetin glucuronide.
Compound 4 was identified as quercetin rhamnoside due to a loss of a
rhamnosyl unit (-147) from molecular ion peak at m/z 447 (Smara et
al., 2014).

Due to the disadvantages associated with synthetic pesticides,

including development of pesticide resistant strains, ecological
imbalances and harm to non-target organisms, there is a renewed
effort to develop substances of plant origin which are considered to be
more environmentally friendly due to their innate biodegradability and
lower toxicity to most organisms (Frederich et al., 2002). Several
researchers have investigated the application of plant extracts to fight
malaria vectors. For example, Achyranthus aspera ( Bagavan et al.,
2008), Azadirachta indica (Aliero, 2003), Jatropha curcas, Euphorbia
tirucalli, Euphorbia hirta, Phyllanthus amarus and Pedilanthus
tithymaloides (Rahuman et al., 2008), Piper nigrum (Siddiqui et al.,
2005), Chenopodium album (Sharma et al., 2006), Solanum
xanthocarpum (Mohan et al., 2005), Ajuga remota (Sharma et al.,
2004), Thymus capitatus (Mansour et al., 2000), Tagetes erectes,
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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Cleome icosandra, Ageratum conyzoides, Eichhornia crassipes

(Saxena et al., 1992). Larvicidal activity of ethyl acetate, butanol and
petroleum ether extracts of five species of Euphorbiaceae plants,
Jatropha curcas, Pedilanthus tithymaloides, Phyllanthus amarus,
Euphorbia hirta and Euphorbia tirucalli were previously tested
against the early fourth instar larvae of Ae. aegypti L. and Culex
quinquefasciatus (Say) (Rahuman et al., 2008). Previous studies
reported that E. tirucalli have shown larvicidal activity against Ae.
aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus (Rahuman et al., 2008; Yadav et al.,
2002) and E. lactea latex had larvicidal activity against three mosquito
vectors, An. stephensi, Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti
(Samidurai and N. Mathew, 2014). Bioassay-guided fractionation of
ethyl acetate extract of E. lactea latex resulted in an active fraction
and identified the chemical constituents by GC/MS analysis as a
tricyclic sesquiterpene and an aliphatic hydrocarbon (Samidurai and
N. Mathew, 2014).

Table-3. Chemical composition of E. anacampseros var. tmolea

methanol extract
Compound Rt [M-H] Fragments Compounds Reference
m/z

1 9.7 367 193, 149,134 3-Feruloylquinic [23]

acid
2 11.0 463 300,271,255,179, Quercetin [24]
151 glucoside
3 11.3 477 301, 273,179, 151 Quercetin [25]
glucuronide

4 12.1 447 300, 271, 255 Quercetin [24]

rhamnoside
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Mitragyna speciosa Korth (Rubiaceae)

Vulgar name
Kratom
Classification
232 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Order: Gentianales, Family: Rubiaceae, Genus: Mitragyna speciosa

(Korth.) Havil.
Origin
Mitragyna speciosa is an evergreen tree in the genus Mitragyna that
can grow to a height of 25 m (82 ft). Its trunk may grow to a 0.9 m
(3 ft) diameter (Eisenman, Sasha, 2014). The trunk is generally
straight, and the outer bark is smooth and grey (Eisenman, Sasha,
2014). The leaves are dark green and glossy (Warner et al., 2016) and
can grow to over 14–20 cm (5.5–7.9 in) long and 7–12 cm (2.8–4.7 in)
wide when fully open, are ovate-acuminate in shape, and opposite in
growth pattern, with 12–17 pairs of veins (Eisenman, Sasha, 2014).
The flowers, which are deep yellow, grow in clusters of three at the
ends of the branches (Rahman, 2021). In The calyx-tube is 2 mm
(0.08 in) long and has five lobes; the corolla-tube is 2.5–3 millimetres
(0.098–0.12 in) long (Eisenman, Sasha, 2014). Mitragyna speciosa is
indigenous to Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Papua
New Guinea (Rech et al., 2015). It was first formally described by
the Dutch colonial botanist Pieter Korthals in 1839, who named
it Stephegyne speciosa; it was renamed and reclassified several times
before George Darby Haviland provided the final name and
classification in 1859 (Eisenman, Sasha, 2014).
20. Eisenman, Sasha W. (2014). "Chapter 5. The Botany of Mitragyna speciosa
(Korth.) Havil. and Related Species". In Raffa, Robert B. (ed.). Kratom and
Other Mitragynines: The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Opioids from a
Non-Opium. CRC Press. pp. 57–76. ISBN 978-1-4822-2519-8.
7. Warner ML, Kaufman NC, Grundmann O (2016). "The pharmacology and
toxicology of kratom: from traditional herb to drug of abuse". Int. J. Legal
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Med. (Review). 130 (1):127–38. doi:10.1007/s00414-015-1279-

y. PMID 26511390. S2CID 2009878.
3. Rech, MA; Donahey, E; Cappiello Dziedzic, JM; Oh, L; Greenhalgh, E (February
2015). "New drugs of abuse". Pharmacotherapy. 35 (2): 189-
97. doi:10.1002/phar.1522. PMID 25471045. S2CID 206358469.
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Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-323-89815-7.
59. Baselt RC (2014). Disposition of toxic drugs and chemicals in man. Seal Beach,
Calif.: Biomedical Publications. p. 1382. ISBN 978-0-9626523-9-4.

Uses in traditional or folk medicine

Mitragyna speciosa Korth (Rubiaceae), endemic to tropical Southeast
Asia, has opium-like effects and coca-like stimulancy. Traditionally,
M. speciosa has been used as a remedy to cure diarrhea, cough,
muscular pain and fatigue. M. speciosa is also frequently used by drug
addicts seeking relief during opioid withdrawal stage (Takayama,
2014; Jansen and Prast, 1988; Khor et al., 2011; Adkins et al., 2011).

Chemical composition of Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil.

A number of chemical and pharmacological studies have been carried
out on this plant and many indole and oxindole alkaloids have been
reported (Takayama, 2014). The present phytochemical study on M.
speciosa leaves, aimed at the discovery of alkaloids with interesting
skeletons, resulted in the isolation of 11 indole and oxindole alkaloids
including two previously undiscovered compounds. Structure
elucidation of these alkaloids was achieved by NMR, CD, and MS
spectroscopic data analyses. The structures of 1–6 are shown in Figure
1. An alkaloid enriched fraction from the methanol extract of the
234 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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leaves of M. speciosa5 was fractionated using silica gel (22’’x1.5’’)

column chromatography (CC) with gradients of CHCl 3/ MeOH into
16 fractions (Frs. 1–16). Frs. 2–4 were combined (2.7 g) and subjected
to CC [silica gel (36’’x1’’), hexanes/acetone/NH4OH, (208:90:1)] to
isolate mitragynine (1.7 g). Fr. 5 (2.4 g) was divided into nine
subfractions (Frs. 5A–5I) using CC [silica gel (40’’x1.5’’),
hexanes/acetone, (7:3)]. Corynoxine B (14 mg) was purified from
fraction 5E (501 mg) along with an impure material (Fr. 5EA) by CC
[silica gel (35’’x0.75’’), hexanes/acetone/NH4OH, (208:90:1)].
Compound 5 (108 mg) was obtained as an upper band from
preparative thin layer chromatography (PTLC) [silica gel plate (0.5
mm), hexanes/acetone/NH4OH, (208:90:1)] of fraction 5EA. The
contents of the lower band were applied to PTLC [silica gel plate (0.5
mm), CHCl3/EtOAc (7:3)], followed by reverse phased HPLC [C-18
silica, MeOH/H2O, 65:35] to purify compounds 2 (2 mg), 3 (11 mg),
and 4 (77 mg). Speciogynine (45 mg) was purified by PTLC [silica
gel plate (0.5 mm), hexanes/acetone/NH4OH, (208:90:1)] of fraction
5I. Speciociliatine (650 mg) and corynoxine (44 mg) were obtained
from fractions 7 and 8 by CC [silica gel (36’’x1’’), CHCl3/MeOH
(49:1)] followed by PTLC [silica gel plate (0.5 mm),
hexanes/acetone/NH4OH, (180:120:1)]. Compound 6 (28 mg) was
obtained from fraction 8 by CC [silica gel (40 x 0.75),
hexanes/acetone/NH4OH, (180:120:1)] and compound 1 (17 mg) was
purified from fractions 10 and 11 (138 mg) by PTLC [silica gel plate
(0.5 mm), CHCl3/MeOH/NH4OH, (28:15:1)]. Compound 16 was
22
obtained as a yellow solid ([α] D -149.0 (c 0.13, MeOH)). The
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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molecular formula of compound 1 was inferred to be C23H30N2O5

from a protonated ion [M+H]+ at m/z 415.2224 in the HR-ESI-ToF-
MS (calcd for C23H31N2O5, 415.2233). The UV spectrum showed
absorptions at 291, 240, and 220 nm. The IR spectrum exhibited
absorption due to conjugated ester carbonyl function at 1700 cm -1.
13
The C NMR spectrum exhibited 23 resonances which were
differentiated as four methyl, five methylene, seven methine, and
seven quaternary carbons. The characteristic resonances for three
methoxy groups [δH/δC 3.83 (s)/55.5 (9-OCH3), 3.81 (s)/61.6 (17-
OCH3), and 3.69 (s)/51.4 (22-OCH3)], a primary methyl [δH/δC 0.71 (t,
J = 7.2 Hz)/11.2 (CH3-18)], an oxygenated olefinic bond in
conjugation with the oxo group [δH/δC 7.34 (s)/160.1 (CH-17) and dC
112.1 (C-16)], and an iminic quaternary carbon [δC 182.9 (C-2)] were
found in the 1H and/or 13C NMR spectra. The resonances for a 1, 2, 3-
trisubstituted phenyl ring with an ABC spin system [δH/δC 6.70 (br d, J
= 8.0 Hz)/108.8 (CH-10), 7.27 (t, J = 8.0 Hz)/130.6 (CH-11), 7.21 (br
d, J = 8.0 Hz)/114.3 (CH-12), dC 126.5 (C-8), 155.9 (C-9), and 154.6
(C-13)] and an oxygenated quaternary carbon [δC 82.1 (C-7)] along
with five aliphatic methylenes and three aliphatic methines were also
observed. The 1H and 13
C NMR data (See Tables 1 and 2) were
assigned with the help of HSQC, 1H–1H COSY, and HMBC (Fig. 2)
spectra. NMR data analyses showed that 1 had the same planer
structure as that of 7-hydroxyspeciocilliatine (Kitajima et al., 2006).
13
Literature reports indicated that the C NMR resonances of an ethyl
group were the key to determining the configuration at C-20. The
reported 13C NMR resonances of the ethyl group are δC 18.9–20.5 (C-
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19) and δC 12.6–13.3 (C-18) for C-20 S and δC 24.2–24.4 (C-19) and
δC 11.2–11.3 (C-18) for C-20 R (Kitajima et al., 2006; Sakakibar et
al., 1998). Based on the chemical shifts of C-20 ethyl group [dC 24.2
(C-19) and dC 11.2 (C-18)], the configuration at C-20 in 1 was
assigned to be R. The CD spectrum of 1 showed negative cotton
effects at 316, 272 and 216 nm and found to be partially comparable
to that of 7-hydroxyspeciociliatine, for which negative cotton effects
at 307 and 256 nm and positive cotton effect at 230 nm were
reported.7 The reverse cotton effects at lower absorbance could be due
to the opposite configurations at C-20 in 1 and 7-
hydroxyspeciociliatine (Kitajima et al., 2006). Consequently, the
structure of 7β-hydroxy-7H-mitraciliatine (1) was established as
shown in Figure 1. Compound 29 was obtained as a yellow solid ([α]
(27D38 (c 0.05, MeOH)). The molecular formula of compound 2 was
inferred to be C22H26N2O5 from a protonated ion [M+H]+ at m/z
399.1913 in the HR-ESI-ToF-MS (calcd for C22H27N2O5, 399.1920).
The UV spectrum showed absorptions at 290, 239, and 220 nm. The
absorptions in the IR spectrum at 1623 and 1706 cm -1 supported the
13
amide carbonyl and conjugated ester carbonyl functions. The C
NMR spectrum displayed 22 resonances, which were differentiated as
two methyl, five methylene, eight methine, and seven quaternary
carbons. The 1H and/or 13
C NMR spectra of 2 showed characteristic
resonances for two methoxy groups [δH/δC 3.70 (s)/61.4 (17-OCH3)
and 3.59 (s)/51.0 (22-OCH3)], an oxygenated olefinic bond adjacent to
an oxo group [δH/δC 7.20 (s)/159.7 (CH-17) and δC 111.3 (C-16)], and
an external double bond [δH/δC 5.50 (dt, J = 18.0, 10.8 Hz)/138.5 (CH-
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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19), 4.98 (br d, J = 18.0 Hz) and 4.95 (br d, J = 10.8 Hz)/116.2 (CH 2-
18)], a 1,2,3-trisubstituted phenyl ring [δH/δC 6.57 (br d, J = 8.5
Hz)/111.6 (CH-10), 7.06 (t, J = 8.5 Hz)/129.4 (CH-11), 6.41 (br d, J =
8.5 Hz)/101.0 (CH-12), δC 116.6 (C-8), 154.4 (C-9), and 140.6 (C-
13)], a conjugated ester carbonyl carbon [δC 168.2 (C-22)], and an
amide carbonyl carbon [δC 179.2 (C-2)]. The 1H and 13
C NMR data
assignment was done by analyses of the HSQC, 1H–1H COSY, and
HMBC spectra. When the NMR spectroscopic data of 2 were
compared with those of isospeciofoline (3), the resonances for an
ethyl group were found missing in 2 showing instead for an external
double bond. The sharp signals at δH 11.86 and δH 11.74 in the 1H
NMR spectra of 2 and 3 indicated a non-acidic phenol because of
intramolecular hydrogen bonding between C-9 hydroxyl and lone pair
of N-4, which ultimately supported the S configuration at C-7
(Hemingway et al., 1975). Furthermore, the comparative analyses of
the CD spectra of 2 and isospeciofoline (3) (Hemingway et al., 1975)
supported the R, S, S, and S, absolute configurations at C-3, C-7, C-
15, and C-20, respectively, due to the positive cotton effects at 293,
243, and 214 nm and negative cotton effect at 262 nm. Finally the
structure of 2 was elucidated as shown in Figure 1 and named as
isospeciofoleine. Compounds 3–6 were identified as isospeciofoline
(3), isorotundifoline (4), paynantheine (5), and 3-isopaynantheine (6)
by analyses of their NMR, mass, and CD spectroscopic data and were
found to be reported previously from Mitragyna species (Hemingway
et al., 1975; Shellard et al., 1978; . Shellard and Lala, 1978; Beckett et
al., 1966). Herein the 1H and 13
C NMR data of 3–6 are also reported
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first time. Five other known alkaloids were identified as speciogynine,

speciociliatine, corynoxine, corynoxine B, and mitragynine by
comparing their NMR spectroscopic data with those previously
reported (Kitajima et al., 2006; Sakakibar et al., 1998).

A new indole alkaloid, 7β-hydroxy-7H-mitraciliatine (1) and a new

oxindole alkaloid, isospeciofoleine (2) together with nine known
alkaloids were isolated from Mitragyna speciosa and characterized by
NMR, CD, and MS spectroscopic data analyses. The 1H and 13C NMR
spectroscopic data of isospeciofoline (3), isorotundifoline (4),
paynantheine (5), and 3-isopaynantheine (6) were also reported for the
first time (Ali et al., 2014). 14.

REFERENCES

1. Takayama, H. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2004, 52, 916–928.

2. Jansen, K. L.; Prast, C. J. J Psychoactive Drugs 1988, 20, 455–457.
3. Khor, B.-S.; Amar, J. M. F.; Adenan, M. I.; Shu-Chien, A. C. PLoS One 2011, 6,
e28340.
4. Adkins, J. E.; Boyer, E. W.; McCurdy, C. R. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2011, 11,
1165– 1175.
5. An alkaloid enriched fraction (3.7 g) was obtained by usual acid base treatment
of the methanolic extract (70 g) of the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa (550 g)
(Voucher No. 12433).
6. 7β-Hydroxy-7H-mitraciliatine (1). Yellow powder; [α] 22
D -149.0 (c 0.13,
MeOH); UV (MeOH) ʎmax nm (loge): 291 (3.37), 240 (3.80), 220 (3.99); IR
cm-1 : 3491, 1700, 1631, 1593, 1485, 1434, 1270, 1244, 1133, 1107, 1074,
1006; CD (MeOH) ʎmax nm (De): 216 (-1.70), 272 (-3.49), 316 (-1.86); 1H
NMR: see Table 1; 13C NMR: see Table 2; HR-ESI-ToF-MS m/z: 415.2224
[M+H]+, (calcd 415.2233 for C23H31N2O5).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects | 239

7. Kitajima, M.; Misawa, K.; Kogure, N.; Said, I. M.; Horie, S.; Hatori, Y.;
Murayama, T.; Takayama, H. J. Nat. Med. 2006, 60, 28–35.
8. Sakakibara, I.; Takahashi, H.; Terabayashi, S.; Yuzurihara, M.; Kubo, M.; Ishige,
A.; Higuchi, M.; Komatsu, Y.; Okada, M.; Maruno, M.; Biqiang, C.; Jiang,
H. X. Phytomedicine 1998, 5, 83–86.
9. Isospeciofoleine (2). Yellow powder; [α] 27 D 38.0 (c 0.05, MeOH); UV (MeOH)
ʎmax nm (loge): 290 (3.18), 239 (3.86), 220 (4.08); IR cm -1 : 3300, 1706,
1623, 1481, 1432, 1279, 1236, 1205, 1145, 1138, 1107; CD (MeOH) ʎmax
nm (De): 214 (8.13), 243 (1.41), 216 (-1.21), 293 (0.93); 1H NMR: see Table
13
1; C NMR: see Table 2; HR-ESI-ToF-MS m/z: 399.1913 [M+H]+ , (calcd
399.1920 for C22H27N2O5).
10. Hemingway, S. R.; Houghton, P. J.; Phillipson, J. D.; Shellard, E. J.
Phytochemistry 1975, 14, 557–563.
11. Shellard, E. J.; Houghton, P. J.; Resha, M. Planta Med. 1978, 34, 253–263.
12. Shellard, E. J.; Houghton, P. J.; Resha, M. Planta Med. 1978, 34, 26–36.
13. Shellard, E. J.; Lala, P. K. Planta Med. 1978, 33, 63–69.
14. Beckett, A. H.; Shellard, E. J.; Phillipson, J. D.; Lee, C. M. Planta Med. 1966,
14, 277–288.
15. Ali Z., Demiray H., Khan I. A. 2014. Isolation, characterization, and NMR
spectroscopic data of indole and oxindole alkaloids from Mitragyna speciosa.
Tetrahedron Letters 55, 369-372.

Stachys tmolea subsp. tmolea Boiss., an endemic species of Turkey

Vulgar name
Smutty tea.
Classification
Order: Lamiales, Family: Lamiaceae, Genus: Stachys tmolea subsp.
tmolea Boiss.
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Origin
The genus Stachys L. is one of the largest representative genera of
herbs and shrubs of the Lamiaceae (Labiatae) family, and involves
about 300 species (Rechinger and Hedge 1982, Greuter et al., 1986),
in the subtropical and tropical regions of both hemispheres excluding
Australia and New Zealand (Evans, 1996; Salmaki et al., 2012). The
species name arises from the Greek and means ‘‘an ear of grain”
attributing to the inflorescence spike found in many members. The
genus is represented in Turkey by 83 species (109 taxa) belonging to
12 subsections, 15 sections and 2 subgenera and 55 of which are
endemic (Bhattacharjee, 1982; Davis et al., 1988; Duman, 2000;
Özhatay et al., 2009; Akcicek, 2010; Radulovic et al., 2007, Dündar et
al., 2013, Bastürk et al., 2015). Stachys tmolea Boiss., as being a
Labiatae member with basal rosettes of sterile shoots, is an endemic
species of Turkey which is named tmolea as being the ancient name of
Boz mountain (in Ödemis, Izmir) by Boissier who collected the
species (Avcı, 2004). Flowering stems are simple or with few
branches, densely adpressed-tomentose, lanate-villous above. Species
are distinguished from the other Stachys species with its lower cauline
leaves being oblong-lanceolate to oblanceolate, narrowed towards
base; base usually attenuate to rounded, rarely subcordate and calyx
tube ± regular with distinctly visible veins; stem patently pilose with
dense glandular hairs; corolla creamish-white (Davis et al., 1988). The
species is a listed endangered species in Turkey (Güner and Akçiçek,
2014).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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Uses in traditional or folk medicine

Stachys species have a history of use as a traditional medicines.

Decoctions or infusions of some of Stachys species, locally known as
‘‘mountain tea’’, are applied as tonics to heal skin or taken by orally
for stomach disorders in Anatolia (Ozturk et al., 2009). The aerial
parts of S. tmolea are known as ‘‘smutty tea” (sürmeli çayçe) in the
Ulus mountains (Balıkesir) (Güner and Akçiçek, 2014) and ‘‘quester”
(kestire) in the city of Bilecik, Turkey where the plant is consumed as
a hot tea for the treatment of colds (Koyuncu et al., 2010). Many
Stachys species are used for the healing of skin, stomach, ulcer,
asthma, rheumatic deseases and vaginal tumors (Goren et al.,
2011a,b). Some of the species have been reported as having anti-
inflammatory, antibacterial, antianxiety, antioxidant or antinephritic
properties.

Chemical composition of the essential oil and n-hexane extract of

Stachys tmolea subsp. tmolea Boiss., an endemic species of Turkey,
and their mosquitocidal activity against dengue vector Aedes
aegypti

Essential oils are mixture of volatile and hydrophobic secondary

metabolites of plants consist of terpenes and phenylpropanoids. These
compounds have a lot of different bioactivities including the
antioxidative, cytoprotective, larvicidal, insecticidal, and antiparasitic
activities. The hydrophobicity of these compounds combat some
diseases like American and African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis,
and arboviruses, specially dengue (Luna et al., 2019) as crossing the
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membranes of parasites and the blood-brain barriers. Results obtained

from studying the 361 essential oils of 269 plant species against denge
virus displayed a larvicidal activity with LCs < 100 mg/L in a review
(Dias and Moraes, 2014). In this study; the chemical composition of
essential oil obtained from the aerial parts of S. tmolea subsp. tmolea
was analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. The composition of the 79.3%
total essential oil yielded monoterpene hydrocarbons in trace amounts,
sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (10.2%), oxygenated sesquiterpenes
(22.6%), fatty acids (14.6%), diterpenes (8.2%), alkanes (2.6%) and
others (21.1%). Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 15.1%, viridiflorol 9.9%,
hexadecanoic acid 7.4%, 9-geranyl-p-cymene 6.1%, tetradecanoic
acid 2.8%, cadalene 2.6%, valeranone 2.3% and 1,5-epoxy-
salvial(4)14-ene 2.3% were the majority of compounds in the oil. In
contrast, the n-hexane extract was characterized mainly by
hydrocarbons, aliphatic alcohol, aldehydes, carboxylic acids and
phenylpropane. The volatile compounds present in the n-hexane were
measured by headspace solid phase microextraction (HSSPME) and
followed by GC-MS. The identified components accounted for 82%
and major components were identified as 3,4- dimethyl decane
(16.0%), 3-methyl-3-pentanol (14.5%), 2-methyl 2-pentanol (12.1%),
1,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl) benzene (11.7%), heptanal (9.6%), acetic
acid (5.9%), nonanal (2.7%) (Table 2). Both the essential oil and n-
hexane extract were screened for the insecticidal activity against Ae.
aegypti. The n-hexane extract produced 90% ± 10 mortality against
adult female Ae. aegypti at 5 lg/mosquito, while essential oil
demonstrated 12.5% ± 3.6 mortality at the same concentration in the
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
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adulticidal bioassays. Neither n-hexane extract and nor essential oil

showed larvicidal activity at 1, 0.5, 0.25 and 0.1 lg/lL against 1st
instar Ae. aegypti. Control mortality in these experiments was 0% for
solvent only and 100% for the 0.62 ng/mosquito permethrin positive
control . Studies on the essential oil composition of Stachys species
are numerous (Khanavi et al., 2004; Cavar et al., 2010; Giuliani et al.,
2009; Hajdari et al., 2011; Ali et al., 2010). In a study on twenty two
Stachys species, b-caryophyllene, germacrene D, a-cadinene and
caryophyllene oxide were the major constituents (Goren et al.,
2011a,b). The essential oil of S. tmolea, which 93.2% of the
composition was determined, exhibited a high proportion of
sesquiterpenes (58.4%) ensued by oxygenated sesquiterpenoids
(21.9%). Of the 28 constituents detected, the most amplewere
germacrene D (22.2%), b-caryophyllene (19.7%) and valeranone
(8.5%), acadinene, spathulenol, caryophyllene oxide (Goren et al.,
2011a,b). The essential oil content of aerial parts of S. parviflora was
analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS systems. Twenty-three constituents,
representing 99.9% of the oil, were identified. Epi-a-muurolol (48.4%)
and (Z)-caryophyllene (11.2%) were the major constituents of the oil.
Oxygenated sesquiterpenes (71.4%) was the major fraction of the
essential (Bashi et al., 2013). Sesquiterpenes such as spathuleol, T-
muurol, elemene, cadinol, a-eudesmol, isoledene, caryophyllene was
found in higher percent in an endemic species of S. rupestris
(Erdog˘an, 2014). Stacyhs iberica subsp. iberica essential oil was
characterized by hexadecanoic acid (41.5%), %), phytol (8.2%) and
germacrene D (9.7%) (Goger at al., 2016) whereas S. iberica subsp.
244 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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stenostachya essential oil was rich in linalyl acetate (42.2%), linalool

(18.9%), geranyl acetate (8.2%), and a-terpineol (5.3%) as the main
components (Kaya et al., 2001). It clearly showed that the oil
compositions of two taxa are different (Goger et al., 2016). In
conclusion, the essential oil and n-hexane extract of S. tmolea had
different chemical composition. In addition, the chemical composition
in this analysis of S. tmolea was different than a previous study of the
essential oil (Goren et al., 2011a,b). It is the fact that different
geographic regions, seasons, harvest periods, properties of soils and
climatic conditions strongly affect the secondary metabolite content of
the plant species, especially essential oil composition. We also
observed (Demiray et al., 2019) differences in the insecticidal activity.
The n-hexane extract produced 90% mortality whereas the essential
oil showed only 13% mortality against adult Ae. aegypti. Further
studies need to plan on the n-hexane extract of the aerial parts from S.
tmolea to identify the constituents responsible for the activity against
adult Ae. aegypti.

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Volatiles Essent. Oils 3 (1), 31–34.
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Güner, Ö., Akçiçek, E., 2014. Ulus Dagı (Balıkesir-Türkiye)’nın endemik ve nadir
bitkileri. Bag bahçe Bilim Dergisi, 32–38. E-ISSN:2148-4015.
Hajdari, A., Novak, J., Mustafa, B., Franz, C., 2011. Essential oil composition and
antioxidant activity of Stachys sylvatica L. (Lamiaceae) from different wild
populations in Kosovo. Nat. Prod. Res., 1–6. Hochmuth, D.H., 2008. Mass
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Kaya, A., Demirci, B., Baser, K.H.C., 2001. The composition of the essential oil of
Stachys iberica subsp. stenostachya growing in Turkey. Chem. Nat. Comp.
37 (4), 326–328.
Khanavi, M., Hadjiakhoondi, A., Amin, G., Amanzadeh, Y., Rustaiyan, A., Shafiee,
A., 2004. Comparison of the volatile composition of Stachys persica Gmel.
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Koyuncu, O., Yaylacı, Ö.K., Öztürk, D., Potoglu, Erkara I., Savaroglu, F.,
Akcoskun, Ö., Ardıç, M., 2010. Risk categories and ethnobotanical features
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Luna, Emanuela Coutinho, Luna, Isadora Silva, Scotti, Luciana, Monteiro, Alex
France M., Scotti, Marcus Tullius, de Moura, Ricardo Olímpio, de Araújo,
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Mendonça, Ribeiro, Frederico Fávaro, Mendonça, Francisco Jaime Bezerra,
2019. Active Essential Oils and Their Components in Use against Neglected
Diseases and Arboviruses. Oxidative Med. Cellular Longevity 2019, 1–52.
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2017b. A survey of bacterial, fungal and plant metabolites against Aedes
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virus. Open Chem. 15, 156–166.
Ozturk, M., Duru, M.E., Aydogmus-Ozturk, F., Harmandar, M., Mahlicli, M.,
Kolak, U., Ulubelen, A., 2009. GC-MS analysis and antimicrobial activity of
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109–114.
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Flora of Turkey IV. Turk. J. Bot. 33, 191–226.
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significance of the volatiles in the genus Stachys (Lamiaceae): essential oil
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 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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CHAPTER 8

SEPARATION OF ESSENTIAL OILS BY MEMBRANE

PROCESSES

Idil IPEK1 and Ozgur ARAR2

1
Ege Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Kimya Mühendisliği Bölümü, 35100,
İ[email protected]; [email protected] ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-
0001-9405-2482.
2
Ege Üniversitesi, Fen Fakültesi, Kimya Bölümü, 35100, İzmir. ORCID: https://
orcid.org/0000-0002-3687-9534)
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1.0 Introduction
In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the development
and use of natural products. Among these high value compounds,
essential oils (EOs) appear in the great portion during the last decade
owing to their associated biological activities such as antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral and antineoplastic,
etc. (Spricigo et al., 2001). At present, a variety of aromatic plant
essential oils have been considered as important “green natural active
substance”. EOs are the volatile secondary metabolites of natural plant,
which are composed of a wide variety of components, including
terpenes, oxygenated terpenoids, aromatic and phenolic components
(Chen et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2021). EOs consist of complex mixture of
volatile and non-volatile substances, which are lipophilic in nature and
broadly classified into carotenoids alkaloids, phenolic acids,
flavonoids, monoterpenes, isoflavones, and aldehydes (Rehman, et al.,
2021). Table 1 presents the main EOs in world market and their plant
(Silvestre et al., 2019).

Table 1. Main essential oils traded in world market and source plant (Adapted from
Silvestre et al., 2019)
Essential oil Specie(s)
Orange (Brazil) Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck
Cornmint (India) Mentha arvensis L. f. piperascens Malinv. ex
Holmes
Eucalyptus (cineole kind) Eucalyptus globulus Labill., E. polybractea
R.T. Baker;
Eucalyptus spp.
Citronella grass Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt e C. nardus
(L.)
Rendle
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Peppermint Mentha x piperita L.

Clove Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. e L. M.
Perry

Cedar (USA) Juniperus virginiana L. and J. ashei Buchholz

Noteworthy that EOs have a high number of crucial and supportive

roles in various fields such as food, health, cosmetic, pharmaceutical,
and agriculture etc. EOs have particularly application fields for
industry, mainly regarding cosmetics and food industry. The current
trend of reducing the use of synthetic products (particularly pesticides
and synthetic food preservatives) in favor of ‘natural’ alternatives make
the essential oils and their components as subsititute of synthetic
products (Silvestre et al., 2019).

In food industry, EOs are applied also as additives and supporting

agents in biodegradable films and in food preservation, both in direct
application or associated to active packaging due to the ability to be
applied in active packaging to increase the shelf life of the packed
products, to contribute with the aroma, to enhance some package
property, or to act as a barrier to water diffusion (Silvestre et al., 2020).
The active components of EOs act as free radical scavengers and have
an important action for oxidation process during food processing,
transportation, and storage (Rehman, et al., 2021).

EOs intake could reduce the chances of high blood pressure, cancer,
obesity, cardiovascular diseases and diminish the risks of age-related
muscular disorders. Their biological properties in a supportive way
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inside the body, provide a sensation of well-beingness. For instance, it

was observed that rosemary essential oil intake by mice enhanced their
locomotor activity (Rehman, et al., 2021).

EOs are used as flavoring and aromatizing compounds and in the

synthesis of chemicals. Due to the biocide properties, EOs are largely
employed in agriculture to be used as an alternative to the
agrochemicals in order to control agricultural pests, such as fungi and
insects, bacteria (Sivestre et al., 2020).

The main disadvantage of using EOs is their intrinsic volatility and

susceptibility of photodegradation by UV radiation (UVA/UVB),
which turns the EOs and their components ineffective in-field uses and
where there is a high incidence of sunlight (Silvestre et al., 2019;
Silvestre et al., 2020). EOs are mostly produced by steam distillation of
plant parts (leaves, flowers, branches), by mechanical cold-pressing of
the peels of citrus fruits, of by dry distillation, after separation of the
aqueous phase by physical processes (Silvestre et al., 2020). EOs are
industrially processed and their components are purified/separated by
vacuum fractional distillation, mostly. The vacuum is employed to
reduce the boiling point of the EOs, preventing the thermal
decomposition of the thermolabile compounds. However, this is a very
costly process, whose control parameters need to be strictly controlled
for the process to be successful (Sivestre et al., 2020).

The pervaporation is seen as an innovative and economical alternative

to several classic separation processes, such as liquid-liquid extraction,
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distillation (azeotropic, extractive, fractional), and in the purification of

mixtures whose separation is difficult or costly by the traditional
methods. Pervaporation act as a new alternative to obtain EOs and their
components serving less cost and less technologically challenging way,
where the current separation processes are, in general, quite costly
material (Silvestre et al., 2020).

Literature is lack of separation processes and purification of EOs and

their components, as well as the use of purified fractions of EOs and so
that this chapter focuses on the separation of EOs by employing
membrane processes.

2.0 Membrane Processes

Membrane processes are widely employed in various industries such as

the food industry, nono-electronic, chemical, pharmaceutical, textile,
and fuel cell industries (Charcosset, 2021). The broadest definition of
the membrane is a region of discontinuity interposed between two
phases. The role of the membrane in separation processes is to act as a
selective barrier where it should permit preferred passage of a certain
component out of the mixture (Hwang and Kammermeyer, 1975).

Membrane-based processes can be categorized based on the process

driving force. Table 1 shows the driving forces of membrane processes.
Particles and dissolved components are retained (partially) dependent
on size, shape, and charge.
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Table 2. Driving force of membrane processes (Ho and Sirkar, 1992;

Strathmann, 2001; Van Der Bruggen et al., 2003)
Membrane processes Driving Force Transport mode

Microfiltration (MF) Hydrostatic pressure gradient Convection

Ultrafiltration (UF) Hydrostatic pressure gradient Convection
Nanofiltration (NF) Hydrostatic pressure gradient Convection
Reverse osmosis Hydrostatic pressure gradient Diffusion
Dialysis Concentration gradient Diffusion
Electrodialysis (ED) Electrical potential gradient Migration
Pervaporation (PV) Concentration gradient, Diffusion
temperature gradient

2.1 Applications of membrane processes in the essential oil

industry

Essential oils contain the majority of the volatile, low molecular mass
aroma constituents derived from a plant. Because of their economic
value, it is, therefore, necessary to implement a non-destructive
extraction technique for the separation and recovery of essential oils.
Up to now, distillation, solvent extraction, gas stripping, and
supercritical fluids are among the most diffused traditional processes.
Among extraction operations, distillation can be used if aroma
compounds are highly volatile or solvent extraction if they are
hydrophobic and present a higher affinity for an organic solvent than
for the aqueous effluent. Both of the traditional processes named above
present some disadvantages: distillation is a quite expensive process
because it is highly energy consuming and not always adapted to
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thermo-sensitive molecules and solvent extraction requires a high

interfacial exchange area (leading often to a stable emulsion) to enhance
the mass transfer. In the last decades, membrane technology has been
applied to extract aroma compounds from aqueous solutions.
Membrane processes exhibit some advantages, mainly maintaining
lower operational costs and avoiding thermal or oxidative degradation
of products. The PV, VP, NF, RO, and MD are, in particular, the most
representative membrane-based processes applied for bioactive
compounds, aroma, and flavors’ recovery and separation.

2.1.1 Pervaporation (PV)

Pervaporation is a membrane process where certain components in the

feed solution preferentially permeate through a dense or molecular-
sieving porous membrane and evaporate downstream. A feed liquid
mixture contacts one side of a membrane; the permeate is removed as a
vapor from the other side. Transport through the membrane is induced
by the vapor pressure difference between the feed solution and the
permeate vapor. The mass transfer occurs selectively across the
membrane to the gas side. Because various species permeate at different
rates through the membrane, a substance in the feed stream with a low
concentration can be greatly enriched in the permeate. As a result,
separation occurs, with the efficacy of the separation effect determined
by the membrane's physicochemical structure (Baker, 2012; Fleming
and Slater, 1992; Wang et al., 2016). Another advantage of PV is
separation does not require the use of additional chemicals and involves
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no regeneration step, which renders it a promising clean technology for

the extraction of VOCs from aqueous solutions (Du et al., 2021)

Du et al. prepared poly(ether-block-amide, PEBA) and

polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) membranes and applied them for
extraction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in perilla,
namely, limonene, linalool, and perillaldehyde from aqueous solution.
The effect initial concentration of VOC, and operation temperature on
PV. The authors reported that increment on initial concertation
improved the VOC fluxes for both membranes. The authors also stated
that VOC flux and the water flux increased with an increase in the
operating temperature (Du et al., 2021).

Figoli et al. extracted bergamot essential oil from bergapten by using an

ethanol-water mixture and Pervap 1070 membrane. The authors
reported that an enhancement in temperature improved the diffusion
rate of permeating molecules and thus increased the permeating flux.
Moreover, the authors also reported that as the ethanol concentration
increased, the total flux increased as well, owing to increased polymer
swelling (Figoli et al., 2006).

Rostami et al. prepared the polyphenylsulfone/graphene nanocomposite

membrane for the pervaporation separation of cumene from water. The
addition of graphene by 1% (mass percent) to the organic polymer
membrane matrix (polyphenylsulfone ) led to an increase in the cumene
flux from 1.9 to 3.5 gMH .Then, with raising the Gr content to 3.5%,
the cumene flux increased to 9.4 gMH. However, with a further increase
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in Gr concentration and reaching 4% by weight, the cumene flux

decreased significantly and reached 4.6 gMH. Furthermore, increase in
graphene concentration from 0% to 3.5%, the separation factor
increased from 347 to 1566 (Bakhshandeh Rostami et al., 2021). The
various application of PV is summarised in Table 3.

Table 3. Separation of essential oils by PV

Source Main Results Reference
Bilberry juice Enrichment factor increased (Diban et al.,
with higher membrane 2008)
thickness.

Kiwifruit juice The higher temperature (Figoli et al.,

increased the volatile fraction 2010)
permeation fluxes.
Orange juice Feed flow rate had no (Aroujalian and
significant effect on PV Raisi, 2007)
performance.
Increasing feed temperature led
to higher flux and enrichment
factors.
An increment in permeate
pressure caused the flux and
enrichment factor of some
aroma compounds.
Pomegranate aroma Increasing the aroma (Raisi et al.,
compounds concentration in the feed 2009)
solution increases the total and
partial fluxes but the aroma
selectivity dropped. Permeation
fluxes all increase with the
increase in the feed temperature.
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2.1.2 Reverse osmosis (RO)

RO is a pressure-driven membrane process where a semi-permeable

membrane rejects dissolved constituents present in the feed water. Size
exclusion, charge exclusion, and physical-chemical interactions
between the solute, solvent, and membrane all contribute to membrane
rejection (Malaeb and Ayoub, 2011).

The RO processes have been applied to the separation of essential oils.

Spricigo et al., combined supercritical fluid extraction with RO to
separate nutmeg essential oil. The supercritical CO2 first passed through
the essential oil-containing cell then essential oil containing CO 2
reached to RO membrane containing cell and essential oils collected as
retentate. The effect of temperature, applied pressure, and feed stream
essential oil concentration on the separation performance was
investigated. Authors reported that the average retention of essential oil
by the RO membrane was 96.4% and it was not affected significantly
by any of the process variables (Spricigo et al., 2001).

Sarmento et al. tested three different RO membranes (SG, CG, and AG

produced by Osmonics) for the separation of lemongrass, orange, and
nutmeg essential oils. The supercritical CO2 extraction and RO
hyphenated technique were applied for separation. The effect of oil
concentration and transmembrane pressure on essential oils retention
was investigated. Results demonstrated that the performance of SG
membrane was better than other membranes and 88 – 90 % retention of
Lemongrass oil at low pressure (1 MPa) was achieved (Sarmento,
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2004). Table 4 summarizes some other RO application on essential oil

separation.

In such studies, supercritical extraction was applied for the extraction

of essential oils and then RO membranes were used to retentate the
essential oils. Results showed that the supercritical extraction – RO
hybrid technique can be applied for the separation of the essential oils.
Results also showed that retention index (rejection rate) may be
decreased which may be due to affinity between the polymer of the
membrane and the compounds of the oil, promoting the diffusion of the
oil through the membrane during the fractionation process (Donelian et
al., 2016).

Membrane separation methods combined with supercritical extraction

of essential oils may be a viable option for lowering solvent
recirculation costs (Sarmento, 2004). The advantage of supercritical
extraction is the complete removal of the solvent (CO2) when it leaves
the critical point and becomes a gas (Silvestre et al., 2020).

Table 4. Various applications of RO for essential oil separation

Membrane Essential oil Main findings Reference
SG: thin film D-limonene SG membrane (Carlson et al.,
AK: polyamide presented the 2005)
CE: cellulose highest
acetate limonene
retention
factor.
AK membrane
retention factor
dropped to zero
after 80 min.
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HL membrane
reached a
stabilized value
of 0.3 after 75
min
SW-30 polyphenols Retention of (Sarmento,
from cocoa polyphenols by Luiz A.V. et
seeds BW-30 was al., 2008)
greater than
90%.
BW-30 Patchouli oil Retention of (Donelian et
the essential oil al., 2016)
95%
After 30 mins.
retention
slightly drops
at the end of the
separation
process.
CG, SG, and Lemongrass The SG (Sarmento,
AG essential oil membrane L.A.V. et al.,
showed good 2004)
resistance to
the
severe pressure
conditions.
Retention
index of up to
88%.

4.0 Conclusion remarks

Membrane separation processes are very frequently, economically

preferred over classical processes. The membrane separates different
components according to the sizes, interactions with the membrane
surfaces, and other components of the mixture. The membrane
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performance is compared with permeate flux, retention factor (retention

rate), separation factor, and long-term stability. The performance of the
membrane is affected by applied pressure (or transmembrane pressure),
temperature, membrane composition. The quality of the final product is
depending on the retention of flavor and aroma components, which may
have been affected by the selected membrane properties (size and
composition).

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CHAPTER 9

MEDICINAL AROMATIC PLANTS AND THEIR USE IN

MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

Dr. Ceyda SÖBELİ1

1
Manisa Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food
Engineering, Manisa, Turkey ORCID: 0000-0001-8275-8410
e-mail:[email protected]
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1. INTRODUCTION

Aromatic plants and herbs have been widely used in traditional

medicine, gastronomy and religious rituals since ancient times (Socaci
et al., 2019). Medicinal plants are those used in traditional and official
medicine, whereas aromatic plants are those used for their aroma and
flavor, and the majority of them are also known as “medicinal and
aromatic plants” because they have aromatic properties and are used
for medicinal purposes (Giannenas et al., 2019; Gökçe & Efe, 2016).

Meat and meat products are rich in protein and lipids, have suitable
moisture content and thus susceptible to lipid and protein oxidation
regarding to their nutritional composition (Valencia et al., 2008).
Since the oxidative changes in meat have negative impacts on product
quality, they are highly undesirable. To solve this problem of
oxidative decay in meat, synthetic antioxidants such as butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), tert-
butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) and propyl gallate (PG) are
conventionally used (Filipčev, 2019). Plants are generous resources
that provide humans valuable bioactive substances and so different
plant products are valued as natural antioxidants to maintain and
improve the overall quality (Shah et al., 2014).

Aromatic herbs and their derivatives are potential natural alternatives

to synthetic antioxidants and preservatives. Because they are natural,
they are particularly interesting for use to food manufacturers who
prefer “clear labels” in minimally processed foods, organic foods, and
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functional foods, They can be added directly (in fresh or dried state) to
food or their components may be extracted and added to food in the
form of essential oils (EOs) or extracts (Filipčev, 2019).

In this chapter, some of the aromatic and medicinal plants used in

meat and meat products and the effects of them on the quality were
reviewed.
Thyme, Rosemary, Oregano, Sage and Lemonbalm (Lamiaceae
family)

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) is an aromatic plant, has attracted

attention as a medicine and therapeutic agent worldwide. Main
pharmacological effects are attributed to carvacrol and thymol that are
the main bioactive components of thyme (Mehdipour et al., 2013).
Thyme essential oil (EO) contains more than 60 ingredients and most
of them have antiseptic, carminative, antioxidant and antimicrobial
properties (Nieto et al., 2010). Thyme extracts and essential oil was
used as natural antimicrobials especially in broiler diets against
Salmonella and other harmful bacteria. Mehdipour et al. (2013)
concluded that thyme can increase the number of Lactobacillus
bacteria and decrease coliforms; also decrease TBARS and increase
water holding capacity, but it has no effect on the growth performance
of Japanese quail when used as a feed supplement. In another study,
the presence of antioxidant compounds in the thyme-containing diet
delayed discoloration, lipid oxidation and bacterial counts, while also
imparting a better appearance to the fresh lamb meat (Nieto et al.,
2010). Fratianni et al. (2010) concluded that thyme essential oil can
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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effectively reduce the deterioration of chicken meat and extend the

shelf life of the fresh product when stored at 4 °C. In the study by
Solomakos et al. (2008), during storage at 10 °C, an inhibitory activity
against E. coli O157:H7 was observed in thyme essential oil-treated
(at a level of 0.6%) minced beef meat.

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is an evergreen aromatic herb

native to the Mediterranean region, but due to its adaptive nature, can
be readily grown across the world (Alirezalu et al., 2020; Aziz et al.,
2021). Rosemary extracts contain antioxidant compounds, the most
active being phenolic diterpenes such as carnosol, carnosic acid,
rosmanol, epir- somanol isorosmanol, methyl carnosate and other
phenolic acids, such as rosmarinic acid (Hernández-Hernández et al.,
2009; Serdaroğlu & Yildiz-Turp, 2004). Since rosemary is a good
natural antioxidant source, it has been added in foods to extend shelf-
life in the form of fresh or dried leaves, essential oil, and aqueous and
alcoholic extracts from leaves (Hać-Szymanczuk et al., 2017; Yeh et
al., 2019). The beneficial effects of rosemary extract have been
extensively studied and reported on various meat types (Table 1).

Sage (Salvia officinalis) is a variety of aromatic herb widely cultivated

in many parts of the world. Sage is the dried leaf of a mint family. The
major antioxidant compounds in sage include carnosol, carnosic acid,
rosmadial, rosmanol, epirosmanol, and methyl carnosate (Ghorbani &
Esmaeilizadeh, 2017; L. Zhang et al., 2013; W. Zhang et al., 2010).
As being known for its culinary values, sage also is a potential natural
preservative to be used in food applications (Ivanišová et al., 2021).
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Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) is an aromatic Mediterranean plant

like rosemary. The essential oil of oregano mainly consists of
carvacrol, thymol and their precursors, c-terpinene and q-cymene. It
has strongp antioxidant properties and contains molecules that have
specific effects on animal metabolism and physiology. The effect of
oregano is mainly attributed to carvacrol and thymol which make the
bacterial cell membrane permeable and react with lipid and hydroxyl
radicals (Kirkpinar et al., 2014). Oregano as raw material as well as
oregano essential oil is used in various food including salads, meat
products, oils and milk products (Ivanišová et al., 2021).
Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) is a herb with sweet, fresh,and
strong lemon aroma, growing in the Mediterranean region, western
Asia, southwestern Siberia, and northern Africa. (Lara et al., 2011;
Lee et al., 2014). Lemon balm is used in medicine, cosmetics and food
industry (Salamon et al., 2019). Lemon balm is a good potential
source of rosmarinic, caffeic and protocatechuic acid, luteolin,
monoterpenoid aldehydes, essential oils (citral), sesquiterpenes, and
tannins (Lee et al., 2014). Besides antioxidant effect, lemon balm has
antigenotoxic effect and in vitro antimicrobial activity against several
gram- positive and gram-negative microorganisms (Fratianni et al.,
2010).

The studies on the antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of rosemary,

oregano and sage extracts and/or essential oils in meat and meat
products were summarized in Table 1.
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Green tea (Camellia sinensis)

Tea, is a perennial, evergreen and cross-pollinated plant bearing white
flowers and green fruits with two to three seeds and is consumed
usually as the water extract of Camellia sinensis (Quelhas et al., 2010;
Seidavi et al., 2020). Green tea is nutritionally valuable, contains
essential nutrients, including amino acid of which L- theanine
accounts for more than half of the total amino acid, and has
polyphenol catechin which can make up 30% of dry weight (Quelhas
et al., 2010; Seidavi et al., 2020). Green tea is used in more than 160
countries every day, for drinking but recently, has been noted for its
health benefits, especially its potential for preventing and treating
cardiovascular diseases (Kumudavally et al., 2008). Green tea is also
used to improve the preservation of meat products because of the high
polyphenol content. Especially, one of the main polyphenolic
constituents of green tea, epigallocatechin gallate, has the highest
antioxidant capability (Farahat et al., 2016).

The use of green tea in different ways has been investigated in various
studies. The use of dietary green tea extract in broilers increased the
body weight, feed efficiency, carcass weight and dressing percentage
and decreased caecal coliform bacteria count (Erener et al., 2011). The
ethanolic extract of green tea in fresh mutton was found to inhibit
spoilage microflora significantly (Kumudavally et al., 2008). The
effect of green tea marinade was examined on the formation of
heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAs) in pan-fried beef cooked at 180–
200 °C for 4 min each side. In this study, marinating in green tea
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resulted in a significant reduction of PhIP and AαC levels when

compared to unmarinated samples (Quelhas et al., 2010). A novel
approach has been studied to incorporate green tea extract into
polyethylene by extrusion technology. The shelf-life of fresh meat in
active package was significantly extended for 3 days compared to
control samples (Wrona et al., 2017). In another study, addition of
green tea catechin (200 mg/kg) to raw fish oil containing sausages
reduced lipid oxidation significantly after 7 days of storage (Valencia
et al., 2008). Green tea extract (300 mg/kg) reduced lipid oxidation
and redness loss in raw low sulphite beef patties and delayed rancid
flavour development in cooked patties (Bañón et al., 2007).
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Table 1. Application of rosemary, oregano and sage in meat and meat products
Plant Concentration Meat Results Reference
extract type/treatment
Sage 0, 0.05, 0.1 and Chinese-style improved the oxidative (L. Zhang et
0.15% (w/w) sausage stability of Chinese-style al., 2013)
sausage with no negative
effects on sensory attributes.
Oregano and Control, oregano Porcine and significantly reduced the (Fasseas et
sage essential 3% and sage 3% bovine ground oxidation. al., 2008)
oils (w/w) meat samples
Rosemary 0, 0.025, 0.050% Fermented goat 0.050% concentration (Nassu et
(w/w) meat sausage showed an effective al., 2003)
protection against oxidation.
Rosemary 10,000 ppm Dry-fermented decelerated oxidation (Erdmann et
sausages compared to controls. al., 2015)
Rosemary Rosemary (R: Fresh pork R and G improved oxidative (Schilling et
and green tea 1500, 2000, 2500 sausage stability. R2500 and G300 al., 2018)
ppm) and green tea had fewer PPC than the
(G: 100, 200, 300 control Greater consumer
ppm) acceptability scores in R and
G when compared to the
control.
Chitosan– 1% chitosan (C), Turkish fermented Lower TBARS values were (Demirok
thyme and 1% chitosan–thyme sausage (sucuk) determined for CT and CR. Soncu et al.,
chitosan– (CT) and 1% 2020)
rosemary chitosan–rosemary
essential oils (CR)
Rosemary, 2 g/kg Dry-cured an antagonistic activity (Álvarez et
oregano, and fermented sausage against P. nordicum based al., 2020)
thyme on the reduction of the OTA
accumulation.
Rosemary 1 g/kg Dietary Significantly improved the (Liotta et
supplementation polyunsaturated fatty acid al., 2014)
of pigs content of the meat.

Sage, lemon of pig ́s diet Pork The redness a* was (Bahelka et

balm and supplementation improved significantly by al., 2011)
oregano with 100 ml of sage extract. All three
lemon balm or 100 extracts improved
ml of sage or 60 ml significantly antioxidative
of oregano per day stability in 5-days stored
pork
Sage and 0, 0.1 g sage, 0.1 Chicken meat Sage has a sufficient radical (Mariutti et
garlic garlic, 0.1 g sage scavenging capacity al., 2008)
and 0.1 g available for the lipid phase.
garlic/100 g
Sage 0, 2.0% water Chicken The growth of mesophilic Cegielka et
extract from sage, aerobic bacteria and al. (2019)
2.0% 40% (vol/vol) psychrotrophic bacteria,
ethanol extract coliforms, and
from sage, 2.0% Enterobacteriaceae was
70% (vol/vol) significantly restricted by all
ethanol extract sage preparations tested. The
from sage, and most effective inhibitory
0.1% essential oil effect was demonstrated by
from sage sage essential oil, despite
insignificant differences
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between the preparations.

Thyme and 0.5 % thyme EO Chicken breast Both EO reduced DPPH (Fratianni et
lemon balm 0.5 % balm EO slices radical formation in the al., 2010)
essential oils meat, decreased the natural
microflora. Balm EO
significantly limited the
growth of Salmonella sp.,
and thyme EO effectively
inhibited the growth of
Escherichia coli.
Rosemary 30 mg RE/100 g Pork meat patties The patties with natural (Lara et al.,
and meat extracts showed higher a*- 2011)
lemonbalm 100 mg LBE/100 g values than control and BHT
meat samples. RE samples had
the lowest TBARS values
and hexanal content
Myrtle, 10 % for each Beef patties All extracts slowed down (Akarpat et
rosemary, extract the lipid oxidation of beef al., 2008)
nettle, lemon patties. Myrtle and rosemary
balm hot- extracts showed the highest
water antioxidant effects. The
extracts effects ofnettle and lemon
balm extracts were lower
Lemon balm 0,0.1,0.5 and 1.0% Hamburger patties Positive sensorial effect, ( Lee et al.,
extract 1.0% LBE retards lipid 2014)
oxidation significantly

As a result, it can be concluded that green tea is succesfully used in

packaging materials of several meat products (Borzi et al., 2019; Song
et al., 2020; Wrona et al., 2017);with direct addition to meat and meat
products (especially in ground meat or patties) (Lee et al., 2012;
Murali et al., 2012; Mustafa, 2013; Nissen et al., 2004; Schilling et al.,
2018; Zhou et al., 2019) and via feeding treatments of broilers
(Farahat et al., 2016; Hossain et al., 2012; Mirshekar et al., 2009;
Sarker et al., 2010; Zhong et al., 2015).

Onion and Garlic (Allium spp.)

Plants of the Allium family are important sources of dietary flavonols

(Santas et al., 2008). Onion and garlic are two major members of this
family that are widely used to enhance the flavor of meat dishes
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(Yang, Lee, Moon, Paik, & Ahn, 2011). Both garlic and onion possess
strong antioxidant and flavor properties because of their high phenolic
and sulfur compounds, respectively. Allicin is known as the main
ingredient of garlic which rapidly decomposes to several volatile
organosulphur compounds with bioactivities and has antimicrobial
activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
(Kirkpinar et al., 2014; W. Zhang et al., 2010). The studies about the
use of onion and garlic in meat and meat products were focussed on
feeding supplementation (Ao et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2008; Kirkpinar
et al., 2014; Manasri et al., 2012; Onibi et al., 2009; Yan et al., 2011);
direct addition to irradiated meat products (Kim et al., 2014; Yang,
Lee, Moon, Paik, & Ahn, 2011; Yang, Lee, Moon, Paik, Nam, et al.,
2011), sausages (Olesen & Stahnke, 2000; Sallam et al., 2004) , raw
chicken meat(Tareq et al., 2018) and marination (Cao et al., 2013;
Tang & Cronin, 2007).

Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) and Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.)

Pomegranate (Punica granatum) has been used in medicine for many

centuries since it is an important source of bioactive compounds and
(Dua et al., 2016). Several parts of pomegranate has biological
(antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial) properties and regarding to
these properties, pomegranate parts such as seeds, juice, pericarp, bark
and leaves have been used to enhance meat and meat products quality
(Miguel et al., 2010). In the study by Qin et al. (2013), it was found
that pomegranate rind powder had the highest antioxidant activity
among pomegranate juice and pomegranate seed powder. And
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pomegranate rind powder treated group had the lowest standart plate
count in ground pork meat stored at 4°C for 12 days. Naveena et al.
(2008) have reported the antioxidant activity of pomegranate fruit
juice and pomegranate rind powder extract in chicken meat patties. It
was also reported in another study that pomegranate rind powder
extract at the levels of 2,5% and 5% could protect chicken meat balls
against lipid oxidation, retard microbial growth with higher
organoleptic quality (Chandralekha et al., 2012). In the study carried
out by Devatkal et al. (2010), pomegranate rind extract showed
highest antioxidant activity in cooked goat meat patties stored at 4°C
for 12 days.
Grapes (Vitis spp.) are among the world’s most commonly
manufactured fruit crops and economically important plant species
due to its diverse uses in production of wine, grape juice and other
food products (Georgiev et al., 2014; Unusan, 2020). Grape seed and
grape pomace, by-products of wine and grape juice industry, are rich
in flavonoids and proanthocyanidins (Mielnik et al., 2006; Sáyago-
Ayerdi et al., 2009). Many positive effects on human health have been
described for flavonoids including anti-inflammatory, anti-
carcinogenic and cardioprotective properties (Georgiev et al., 2014).
Grape pomace and grape seed extract have been studied in various
types of meat. Some studies on the application of grape by-products in
meat and meat products were summarized in Table 2.
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Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is native from Asia and is extensively

used around the world as a spice, flavoring agent, and herbal remedy
and in traditional medicine (Beristain-Bauza et al., 2019;
Draszanowska et al., 2020; Wen et al., 2020). The most important
bioactive component of ginger are the gingerols that have high
antioxidant and antimicrobial activity (Al-Mashhadani, 2014;
Beristain-Bauza et al., 2019; Wen et al., 2020). Ginger rhizome is
also a good source of “zingibain”, a thiol proteinase (Saranya et al.,
2016). So, ginger is used to enhance the tenderness of meat in several
studies (Abdel-Naeem & Mohamed, 2016; Moon, 2018; Naveena et
al., 2004; Naveena & Mendiratta, 2004; Suryanti et al., 2015; Tsai et
al., 2012) besides prolonging shelf life (Al-Mashhadani, 2014;
Anandh & Lakshmanan, 2014; Barbosa et al., 2009; Cao et al., 2013;
Draszanowska et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2014; Tanabe et al., 2002;
Wen et al., 2020).
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.)
Fenugreek is an annual herb of Leguminasea that is a good source of
dietary protein for human and animal consumption (Mamoun et al.,
2011; Wagh et al., 2015). It is rich in calcium and can be used as
vegetable, herbs, or as spice and applied in medical uses to reduce
blood sugar and to improve digestion (El-Aziz & Abdel-Raheem,
2018). Since fenugreek is a good source of antioxidants such as
coumarin, fenugreekine, nicotinic acid sapogenins, phytic acid,
scopoletin and trigonelline, it is one of the natural feed additives
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(Abdel-Wareth et al., 2021; El-Aziz & Abdel-Raheem, 2018;

Kirubakaran et al., 2016; Mamoun et al., 2011; Pałka et al., 2021;
Qureshi et al., 2016; Toaha et al., 2016). Fenugreek seed extracts have
been also used in patties, burgers and nuggets to inhibit microbial load
and prolong shelf life (Devatkal et al., 2012; Hegazy, 2011;
Hettiarachchy et al., 1996; Kausar et al., 2021; Mc Carthy et al.,
2001a, 2001b). Fenugreek seeds are also used to produce a paste
called as “Çemen” in Turkey (Işikli & Karababa, 2005). Çemen
(cement) as the coating material of Pastirma,a traditional dried meat
product produced from whole muscle, is the major ingredient of the
products and plays an important role on microbiological quality and
charactersitic aroma and flavour (Karabiyikli et al., 2015).
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Table.2 Application of grape in meat and meat products

Concentration Meat Results Reference

type/treatment
Grape 0,0.4,0.8, 1,6 Cooked turkey Oxidative stability (Mielnik et
seed g/kg breast meat improved. al., 2006)
extract
Grape 0, 5, 10, 15 Dietary the highest antioxidant (Chikwanha
pomace and 20% supplementation/ activity and the lowest , Moelich, et
GP/kg DM shelf life of lamb total viable bacterial al., 2019)
meat counts, lipid and protein
oxidation values during
the shelf-life period in
the 20% GP/kg-diet
finished lamb meat
Grape 0, 5, 10, 15 supplementation inclusion of 12.2% GP (Chikwanha
pomace and 20% GP in lamb diets in lamb finishing diets , Muchenje,
improved lamb et al., 2019)
productivity, without
affecting meat quality
Grape 0, 10, 20, or 40 Supplementation As supplementation (Mu et al.,
seed mg/kg BW/day in lamb with GSPs increased the 2020)
proanthoc GSPs. diets/longissimus total antioxidative
yanidins dorsi muscle capacity.
quality
Grape GSE, 50mg Dietary From day 7 of storage, (Guerra-
pomace grape seed treatment/ shelf an improvement in Rivas et al.,
extract kg−1; life of lamb meat TBARS values was 2016)
GP-5, 5% observed for GSE and
dried red grape GP-5, compared with
pomace kg−1) control
Grape 0,50,75,100 % Dietary Lambs fed with GPS (Martins
pomace GPS treatment/ lamb had greater lipidic and Flores et al.,
silage meat quality proteic meat stability 2021)
with no changes in
sensory parameters of
meat.
Grape 5, 15, and 30 Dietary Increased content of GP (Goñi et al.,
pomace g/kg treatment/ in the diet, reduced the 2007)
chicken meat lipid oxidation in breast
quality and thigh meats at 4 and
7 days
Grape 0.01, 0.03, Beef frankfurters Increased level of grape (Özvural &
seed 0.05, 0.1, 0.3, seed extract decreased Vural,
extract 0.5 % TBARS levels 2012)
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Clove and Cinnamon

Cloves are dehydrated and unextended flower buds of Syzigium

aromaticum L. and they are significant aromatic compounds used in
foods. The antioxidant activity of clove has been associated with
tannins, sesquiterpenes, and triterpenoids(Zahid et al., 2020). Clove
buds contain approximately 15 to 20% volatile essential oils
dominated by eugenol (Suliman et al., 2021). Addition of clove
extract in cooked beef patties reduced protein and lipid oxidation
when compared with BHT at refrigerated storage (Zahid et al., 2020).
In another study with clove oil (CO), 2% CO addition to minced meat
extended shelf-life of minced meat to 5 days during refrigerated
storage compared to all groups especially to control (Hassanien et al.,
2016). In the study carried out by Kumar & Tanwar (2011) it was
concluded that for preparation of chicken nuggets, at 0.1% level (w/w)
clove powder can be used in meat emulsion for the beneficial effects
on physico-chemical and sensorial qualities (Kumar & Tanwar, 2011).
In another study, clove essential oil supplementation to bull diets at a
level of 450 mg/kg dry matter was protected meat against lipid
oxidation(Torrecilhas et al., 2021).

Cinnamon (Cinnamomi cassiae cortex) has long been used as a

medicinal herb as well as an ingredient in foods. The essential oils in
cinnamon bark have been found to be primarily composed of
cinnamaldehyde and other biologically active substances such as
cinnamyl acetate, cinnamyl alcohol, eugenol, carvacrol (Sang-Oh et
al., 2013). Regarding to these properties, cinnamon was investigated
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as a feed additive and natural antioxidant in meat and meat products.

Mehdipour et al., (2013) supplemented cinnamon powder and
cinnamon oil to Japanese quail diet and concluded that at a level of
200 mg/kg cinnamon oil could be an alternative as an antioxidant and
antimicrobial. Ciftci et al. (2010) who studied the effect of cinnamon
oil supplementation to broiler diets on the quality of thigh meat is in
agreement with Mehdipour at al. (2013). The antioxidant and
antimicrobial effects of cinnamon oil was also investigated as direct
addition to ground lamb meat and it was concluded that cinnamon
bark oil at the levels of 0.025% and 0.05% has a preservative effect
during cold storage.
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CHAPTER 10

CUMIN (Cuminum cyminum L.)

Lecturer Aliye YILDIRIM KESKINOGLU1

1
Pamukkale University, Seed Breeding and Genetic Aplication and Research Center,
Denizli/ Turkey. ORCID: 0000-0002-8101-0803, [email protected]
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INTRODUCTION

There are approximately 30 species of fruits and seeds that are widely
used as spices in the world (Bagchi and Srivastava, 2003). Spices are
bionutienst that increase the aroma and taste of foods. Their antioxidant
activity also helps to preserve foods from oxidative spoiling, increasing
their shelf-life. The usage areas and amounts of spices vary according to
cultures and countries. Spice are also used for treatment with the
chemical compounds they contain. India is known as the land of spices.
Cumin is a traditional used spice from middle ages because it was an
symbol of love and loyalty. Cumin is the second well-known spice after
the black pepper in the World.

History and origin of cumin

Cumin is a spice that has been used since ancient times. It is known that
cumin was found in the pyramids dated to 5000 years ago. There are
references in the bible (Isaiah 28:27) about the threshing of cumin with
a stick. Cumin is mentioned in the works of Hippocrates and
Dioscorides.

Cumin is native of Egypt and Asia. It was essentially cultivated in Iran

and Mediterranean region. Cumin widely growing in Khorosan, in Iran.

Romans consumed the ground seed for medicinal purposes with bread,
water or wine. During the Middle Ages in Europe, cumin was one of
the most common spices used. Around that time, it was considered a
symbol of love and fidelity. Wedding guests carried cumin in their
pockets, and married soldiers were sent off to war with a loaf of cumin
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bread baked by their wives. Cumin’s use for fortifying is also

represented in certain Arabic traditions in which a paste of ground
cumin, pepper and honey is thought to have aphrodisiac properties.
While cumin is still used extensively in Indian and Middle Eastern
cuisines, it became less popular in Europe after the Middle Ages.
Interest in its health promoting properties are, however, now increasing
interest in this spice worldwide.

Etimology of cumin

The descriptive term could be from Syrian language that would be the
Sumerian word “gamun”. Etymology connects the statement with the
Persian town, Kerman. The common name of this crop is very similar
in most countries,

Table 1: Common names of cumin (Kafi et al., 2006).

Language Names of Cumin
Hindi Jeera, Safaid jeera
Turkish Kimyon, Acem kimyonu, Kemnon
Arabic Kamoun, Kamun
Chinese Kuming, Xiao hui xiang, Zi ran
Bulgarian Kimion, Kimion italianski, Kimion rimski
Greek Kimino
Indonesian Jinten, Jin ten putih
Japanese Kumin, Umazeri
English Green cumin, White cumin, Cumin
Italian Cumino, Cumino bianco
Urdu Jirah, Zeera, Zira
German Kreuzkummel, Weifier Kreuzkummel, Romischer
Kummel, Mutterkiimmel
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Botany of cumin

Cumin belongs to Apiaceae family which also named as Umbelliferae.

Apiaceae is a grand family consisting of around 300 genera and over
3000 numbers of species. Cumin has 2n=14 chromosome number.

Cumin an annual, pubescent (except fruit) and herbaceous plant grown

to a height of 15-50 cm. It produces many branches on stems with long
divided deep green leaves. Inflorescence a compound umbel consists of
three to six radially single umbel each of which has three to five
flowers. The flowers of cumin are tiny, rose or white, and bear in
umbels. The fruit is an oval shaped schizocarp. Seeds of the fruits are
two in number. Cumin seed is elongated approximate 6mm long and
yellowish-brown in colour. Cumin seed resemble caraway (Carum
carvi) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed.

Usage of cumin

Useful parts of cumin plant are leaves, flowers and seeds. Cumin seeds
and its oils are important economic parts of the plant. Cumin seed is a
well-known spice with a strong aromatic odor and warm-bitter taste
(20). The plant and its products have many uses in food, cosmetic,
pharmaceutical industries.

Cumin is commonly used in Indian, Iranian, Mexican, Turkish and

Middle Eastern meals. The seeds are used as whole and are dry or fried
roasted before usage. Cumin is one of the essential ingredient in Indian
curry powder and garam masala. In Mexica it is used with chili con
carne and in Morocco with lamb. Cumin is especially used with Turkish
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street food which is called kokorec (grilled sheep's intestines). Cumin

powder can be added to lemon and olive oil based marinades for
chicken, lamb, pork.

Cumin is common flavor in confectionery and is also used as

preservative in food processing. Mediterranean countries have a strong
tradition of using aromatic plants and essential oils to conserve food.
Cumin seed oil is used as fumigant and additive in the storage of
foodstuffs due to its high antibacterial and antifungal activity against
various patogenic microorganisms (Li and Zi-Tao, 2004).

Cumin-containing beverages such as cumin tea, cumin water, cumin-

flavoured energy drinks are some of the innovative and value-added
products.

Usage of the cumin seed in terms of health have been established based
on its nutrient content. The cumin seeds are a good source of iron, zinc,
manganese, potassium, essential amino acids, proteins, and other
unsaturated fatty acids

Dry plant residues left in the field after seeds at harvest can be used as
animal feed. One ton of dry matter can be obtained from one hectare of
cumin field. A significant amount of cumin forage is obtained annually
in large production areas such as India. Cumin forage added to animal
feed has been shown to provide satisfactory benefits in milk yield, but
there has not been enough research on this subject (Kafi et al., 2006).
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Composition of cumin seed

Cumin is one of the most valuable medicinal plants. It is used both in

the food industry and in the pharmaceutical industry with its many
components important for health. Cumin seed several vitamins and
minarals (Table 2).

Table 2: Nutritional content of 100 g of cumin seeds.

Content Per 100 g
Energy 1.567 KJ (375 Kcal)
Carbohydrates 44.24 g
Sugars 2.25 g
Protein 17.81 g
Dietary fiber 10.5 g
Fat 22.27 g
Saturated fatty acids 1.535 g
Water 8.06 g
Vitamin A 64 μg (7 %)
Vitamin B6 0.435 mg (33 %)
Vitamin B12 0.00 μg (0.0 %)
Vitamin C 7.7 mg (13 %)
Vitamin E 3.33 mg (22 %)
Folate (vit. B9) 10 μg (3 %)
Riboflavin (vit. B2) 0.327 mg (22 %)
Niacin (vit. B3) 4.579 mg (31 %)
Calcium 931 mg (93 %)
Potassium 1788 mg (38 %)
Phosphorus 499 mg (71 %)
Magnesium 366 mg (99 %)
Iron 66.36 mg (53 %)
Zinc 4.8 mg (48 %)
Sodium 168 mg (7 %)
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Composition of cumin volatile oil

There are many factors that affect the quality of cumin essential oil.
Agronomic conditions, method of essential oil extraction, area of
cultivation, date of harvesting, type of cultivars and storage conditions
could affect chemical properties of cumin essential oil. The cumin seeds
include amino acids, aldehyde (60%) fats, glycosides and flavonoids
(22%), volatile oil (2-5%) and the yellow colored fresh oil contains
cuminaldehyde as its major component. Cuminaldehyde, limonene, α-
and β-pinene, 1, 8-cineole, o-and p-cymene, α- and γ–terpinene,
safranal and linalool are main components of volatile cumin oil. There
are many different methods of obtaining essential oils. Major of the
methods are Supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE), Hydrodistillation
(HD), Steam distillation (SD), Superheated water extraction (SWE),
Soxhlet extraction (SE), Combination of organic solvent and steam
distillation (OS-SD) and Microwave extraction (MWE) (Sahana et al.,
2011). Table 3 shows the ratio of components obtained from cumin
essential oil according to the OS-SE method.

Table:3 Contents of Cumin Oil Obtained by OS-SD Method

(Combination of organic solvent and steam distillation) (Sahana et al.,
2011).
No Compounds %
1 Terpene hydrocarbons 30.53
2 Aldehydes/ketones 48.01
3 Alcohols 10,86
4 Oxygenated compunds 0,29
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Cold press cumin seed oil is a rich source of fatty acids and lipid-
soluble bioactive compounds. It contains significant levels of
petroselinic acid and natural antioxidants. Oleoresin from the seeds is
usually applied in crackers, meat, sauces and sausages. The distinct and
strong aroma of the seeds are responsible for its use as spices as well as
other medicinal uses (Allaq et al., 2020).

Agriculture of cumin

According to the latest statistics, 91% of cumin production in the world

is carried out by four countries: India, Syria, Turkey and the United
Arab Emirates. India is the leader with its 70% share in total cumin
production. (8). The shares of other countries in production are: Syria
13%, Turkey 5% and UAE 3%. Cumin production and consumption has
an important place in Iran. There is a rapid increase in cumin
production area and cumin yield in India. Turkey is also among the
important cumin exporting countries (Table 4). The production of
Turkish cumin according to European standards increases the quality.

Table 4: Cumin planted area and yield statistics by years in India and
Turkey (Turkstat, 2021 and DASD, 2021)
India Turkey
Area Yield Area Yield
Year Thousand ha Kg/ha Thousand ha Kg/ha
2006 409,00 432,00 18,30 500,00
2007 429,00 402,00 18,40 480,00
2008 429,00 402,00 19,00 760,00
2009 377,00 415,00 17,10 740,00
2010 508,00 619,00 20,00 660,00
2011 594,00 663,00 22,60 610,00
2012 594,00 663,00 24,70 690,00
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2013 859,00 598,00 22,40 690,00

2014 890,00 546,00 27,00 630,00
2015 808,00 623,00 26,90 690,00
2016 781,00 641,00 26,70 720,00
2017 781,00 641,00 36,20 670,00
2018 996,00 714,00 36,17 670,00
2019 1028,00 682,00 32,18 630,00
2020 1276,00 715,00 21,21 660,00

Cumin varieties

Cumin varieties that adapt to different climatic conditions have been

developed. Rajasthan and Gujarat are the cities where cumin is grown
the most in India. RZ-19, RZ-209 and RZ-223 varieties were developed
at Sri Karan Narendra College of Agriculture (RAU), Jobner through
selection. Gurajat Cumin-1,2,3,4 varieties were devoloped by Spice
Research Centre (SDAU), Jagudan.

Gujarat Cumin-1 variety was devoloped from local germplasm. The

variety is tolerant to wilt disease. Gujarat Cumin-2 was developed
through pure line selection. It matures in 100 days. Gujarat Cumin-3
was devoloped through exotic line selection. It is also resistant to cumin
wilt. Gujarat Cumin-4 variety was devoloped through selection from
Gujarat Cumin-3 and it is tolerant to Fusarium wilt.

There are Egebir-09 and Turkmen-09 cumin varieties registered by

Transitional Zone Agricultural Research Institute by selection in
Turkey.
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Climate and sowing

Cumin is cultivated mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. For good

growt and succesfully production 15-25 ℃ and dry air conditions are
ideal for cumin planting time. Time of sowing is an important agro-
technique for production, disease and pest incidence. Humidity in
atmosphere during flowering and beginning seed stage is not good
because cumin is prone to attack by several diseases. Cumin is also
sensitive to frost damage during flowering and fruit setting. Cumin
production areas are limited to areas with low humidity and where
winters are not severe. The most suitable planting time for cumin in
Turkey is between February 15 and March 15.

Cumin is planted in two ways: row planting and broadcast sowing.

Cumin is traditionally planted as a broadcast, but row planting provides
optimum habitat for plants and facilitates post-planting cultural
operations like weed management. The use of mechanical feeders in
seed drillers, requires a very precise fit between the size of the holes
and thickness of the metering plate and the seeds, making it necessary
to have plates with different characteristics for each seed lot. For these
reasons, cumin seeds are usually discarded (Piri et al., 2019). Soaking
cumin seeds in slow running water one day before planting is
recommended to remove germination inhibitors. In cases where there is
contamination with fungal diseases such as Alternaria and Fusarium,
cumin seeds should be disinfected with fungicides. The high sowing
density can increase the humidity in the canopy and allow the
development of these diseases.
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Before sowing cumin, the field should be prepared for planting by

plowing 3-4 times. For a good germination, care should be taken to
have sufficient moisture in the soil at the time of planting. Optimum
row spacing should be between 15-25 cm, depending on planting time
and precipitation. The optimum seed rate for this crop is 12 to 15 kg per
hectare (Sharma et al., 1999). The sowing depth should not be more
than 1,5 cm and the seeds should be covered with a thin layer of soil
and the soil should be compacted with a suitable tool. Planting the seeds
too deep delays germination.

Irrigation

Cumin is commonly grown as rainfed plant and watering is only aplied

when excess water is available as supplementary irrigation. Sufficient
and timely irrigation increases the quality and quantity of the product
well. A light irrigation should be done immediately after sowing cumin
seeds. The second watering should be done 8-10 days after planting.
Seed emergence starts after the second irrigation. By following the
weather conditions and the water demand of the plant, irrigations made
at intervals of 20-30 days increase the yield significantly (Lal et al.,
2014).

According to the researches, it has been stated that the weight of 1000
seeds of irrigated cumin is less than the weight of 1000 seeds of cumin
grown by rain. This has been associated with more vegetative growth
and less nutrient delivery to the seeds (Kafi et al., 2006).
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Plant nutrition and fertilizers

The necessary fertilizers and their amounts vary according to the

amount of mineral and organic matter in the soil. Soil analysis should
be done to determine the fertility of the soil and the necessary
fertilization program should be made. For cumin 30 kg N, 60 kg P and
30 kg K per hectare is recommended with 15-20 tons per hectare
manure.

Weed management

Just like in other plants, weed is one of the important factors affecting
the yield for cumin. Cumin is not a good competitor to weeds. While
weeds share the nutrients of cumin, they increase the humidity and
prepare suitable condition for diseases. In order to provide a suitable
environment for the development of cumin, the first weed cleaning
should be done 30-40 days after planting. After the first weeding, one or
two more hoeing and weeding is recommended. Chenopodium album,
Sinapis arvensis, Cynodon dactylon, Asphodellus tenifolius, Plantago
pumila, Chenopodium murale, Melilotus indica are the common weeds
in cumin fields. Plantago is the most severe weed. If it is not removed
from the field in time, it is inevitable that Plantago seeds will mix with
cumin seeds at harvest. Weed control and struggle are also carried out
by spraying before and after planting. Oxadiazon, benthiocarb,
fluchloralin and oxadiargyl are recommeded for weed control in cumin
fields.
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Plant protection

Cumin is succeptiple to frost especially inital flowering and seed

formation stage. Agricultural frost events due to sudden temperature
drops during the cumin growing period cause damage to cumin.
Necessary precautions should be taken according to the signs of frost in
the air and the agricultural frost warnings of the meteorology. Irrigation
and creating smoke in some way helps to reduce frost damage.
Application of 0.1% H2SO4 spray has been found effective to protect
the crop against incidence of frost (3).

Major diseases of cumin are blight, wilt and powdery mildew and the
diseases are caused heavy losses in yield and quality of seeds. Plant
protection measures should be applied carefully and in a planned
manner in order to minimize yield loss due to diseases. Using disease-
free seeds, removing sick plant residues from planting areas and crop
rotation are the main cultural measures that can be taken against
diseases.

Blight is a disease caused by Alternaria burnsii and is an important

fungal disease restricting cumin production in many countries. Little
information is known about morphologic, phenotypic and phylogenetic
characteristics of Alternaria burnsii (Bayraktar et al., 2017). The
symptoms of the disease are usually noticeable during the flowering
period and the whitish necrotic areas seen at the tips of the young leaves
spread to other parts of the plants over time, causing the plant to burn
(Bayraktar et al., 2017). Fungicides such as iprodione, captain and
prochloraz applied to the seeds in appropriate doses before planting are
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recommended for chemical control of the disease. Dithane-containing

fungicides, which are applied to the leaves at regular intervals, can
reduce yield loss.

Cumin wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cumini (Foc) is one of

the most destructive diseases (Kanani and Shukla, 2020). This disease
infects cumin at all stages but especially it appears in field when the
crops are one month old. Crop rotation is very effective for control this
disease. Trichoderma applied to seeds reduces the incidence of the
disease. Solarization applied to the production plots is also one of the
disease control methods.

Powdery mildew is caused by Erysiphae polygoni and is usually

appears in late stage of the crop. In severe infection cumin leaves show
greyish-white apperance. Warm and humid weather conditions are very
favorable for the spread of this disease. In chemical control against
powdery mildew, Bavistin is used twice, with powdered sulfur and
sulfex. Two times sprays of Karathane can also reduce the infection and
increase the cumin yield.

Major pests causing damage to cumin are cotton aphid, green peach
aphid, onion thrips, brown mite and luceren caterpillars. In order to
avoid pests, planting time should be chosen carefully, developmental
stages of pests should be known and early control should be done.
Chemical pesticides suitable for pest groups should be applied on time,
correctly and in appropriate doses.
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Harvesting

Cumin reaches harvest maturity 90-120 days after planting, depending

on the variety and environmental conditions. Physiological maturity
stage (not complete drying of plants, complete yellowing of plants) is
the most suitable stage for harvest. In traditional methods, cumin is
harvested by hand and harvested cumin plants are bundled in the field.
Cumin seeds are separated from their stems with suitable tools. In
recent years, cumin harvesting can be done with combines adapted to
cumin.

Cumin for health

Cumin seeds have medicinal properties and are used as astringent,

carminative, stimulant. Cumin herbs are beneficial to the digestive
disorders like morning sickness, biliousness, indigestion, diarrhea. The
spice is valuable in easing sleeplesness.

Kızıl and Sogut (2002) found that the low concentrations of esseantial
oils of coriander and cumin revealed effectively antibacterial effects
against some Gram (+) and Gram (-) bacteria in their study.

Antimicrobial activity has been reported from aqueous extract and

essential oils of cumin. Cuminaldehyde is the major component of
cumin for antimicrobial property. Cumin seed oil decreased creation of
biofilm by Klebsiella pneumoniae (an important virulence factor), and
also increased the activity of ciprofloxacin against multidrug resistant
K. Pneumoniae (Derakhshan et al., 2010) Limonen, eugenol, pinenes
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and some other minor components have been found in cumin essential
oil and suggested as the active antimicrobial agents.

Cumin essential oil has antioxidant properties due to the monoterpene

alcohols it contains (De Martino et al., 2009). Cumin can be used as a
potential source of natural antioxidants in foods.

Cumin is used as an antiseptic in the treatment of the cuts associated

with hemorrhage. Cumin may be a stimulant and furthermore as a noble
herbal medicine for biological progression ailments, stimulate the
discharge of enzymes from the duct gland which might facilitate
absorption of nutrients, increase the liver’s capacity to detoxification,
anti-carcinogenic property, cut back the chance of abdomen and liver
tumor and additionally boost the immune system (Rajput et al., 2021;
Tanvar and Goyal, 2021).

Antioxidant activities of the essential oils had positive correlation with

their phenolic contents that increased at stages of inter-mediate and
premature. In conclusion, the antioxidant activity of cumin essential oil
was considered a useful antioxidative compound in the food industries
(Moghaddam et al., 2015).

Cumin contains a significant amount of iron (approximately 66,00

mg/100 g), which is five times the requirement of iron per day for an
adult. Developing adolescents, lactating women, children and pregnant
ladies require more quantity of iron.
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Cumin trade

Major cumin exporting countries are India, United Arab Emirates,

Turkey, Syria, Ethiopia, Iran. India is the largest cumin exporter
country in world. According to statistics in 2018 India exported about
187,000 tonnes cumin around the world with a net value of about
US$438 million (DASD, 2019). India’s three major markets being
Vietnam, Bangladesh and USA. Although the United Arab Emirates
does not have a significant share in cumin production, it ranks second in
cumin export.

Major cumin importing countries are Vietnam, Bangladesh, United

States, United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Nepal. According to 2018 data,
the total cumin import value was US$415 million and with US$115
million, Vietnam became the country with the highest cumin import.

CONCLUSION
Cumin is one of the most known and widely used medicinal and
aromatic plants in the world. While adding flavor to meals and drinks
with its different and delicious aroma, it increases the nutritional value
of foods with the important compounds it contains. The high level of
iron mineral in its seeds is an indication that it can be used for anemia.
The health-beneficial compounds contained in cumin essential oil are
important in the medicinal use of this plant. Cumin, which can be used
to increase the shelf life of foodstuffs, is an important natural
antioxidant.
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Cumin can be grown in areas with water shortage and can be

recommended to generate more income per unit area than other plants
grown without water. There are not many high-yielding and disease-
resistant commercial varieties of cumin. More research should be done
to develop high-yielding and high-quality cumin varieties with new
techniques.
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Kanani P., Shukla Y.M. (2020). Genetic variability: physiological characteristics,

pathogenicity and molecular diversity of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cumini
infecting Cumin cyminum L. in India. Vegetos, Spinger.
Kızıl S. Sogut T. (2002). An investigation on antimicrobial effects of essential oils of
coriander and cumin at different concentrations. Turkish Journal of Field
Crops, 7:1-5.
Lal G., Saran P.L., Devi G., Deepak B., Raj R. (2014). Advances in vegetable
agronomy. Chapter 37: Production Technology of Cumin (Cuminum
cyminum L.). Post Graduate School Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi, P:223-230.
Li R., Zi-Tao J. (2004). “Chemical composition of the essential oil of Cuminum
cyminum L. from China” Flav. Fragr. J., 19, 311-313
Moghaddam M., Miran S.N.K., Pirbalouti A.G., Mehdizadeh L., Ghaderi Y. (2015).
Variation in essential oil composition and antioxidant activity ofcumin
(Cuminum cyminum L.) fruits during stages of maturity. Industrial Crops and
Products 70 (2015) 163–169.
Piri R., Moradi A., Balouchi H., Salehi A. (2019). Improvement of cumin (Cuminum
cyminum) seed performance under drought stress by seed coating and
biopriming. Scientia Horticulturae, Vol: 257
Rajput R.P.S., Paramakrishnan N., Gangadharappa H.V. (2021). Chapter 20: Cumin
(Cuminum cyminum L.) Seed. Oilseeds: Health Attributes and Food
Applications. Springer Nature Singapore.
Ramadan M.F. (2020). Cold Pressed Oils. Chapter 61. Cold pressed cumin (Cuminum
cyminum) oil. Elsevier. P:695
Rebey I.B., Jabri-Karoui I, Hamrouni-Sellami I., Bourgou S., Limam F., Marzouk B.
(2012). Effect of drought on the biochemical composition and antioxidant
activities of cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) seeds. Industrial Crops and
Products 36 (2012) 238–245
Sahana K., Nagarajan S., Rao L.J.M. (2011). Nuts & Seeds in Health and Disease
Prevention. Chapter 50. P:417-426
320 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Sharma R.K., Bhati D.S., Sharma M.M. (1999). Cumin. In: Bose, T.K., Mishra, S.K.,
Farooqi, A.A. and Sardhu, M.K. (eds) 1:740-745.
Singh R.P., Gangadharappa H.V., Mruthunjaya K. (2017). Cuminum cyminum – A
Popular Spice: An Updated Review. Pharmacogn J.; 9(3):292-301
Tanwar B., Goyal A. (2021). Oilseeds: Health Attributes and Food Applications.
Springer Nature, Singapore.
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CHAPTER 11

THE IMPORTANCE AND GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF CORIANDER (Coriandrum
sativum L.): A REVIEW
Assist Prof. Dr. Zeynep DUMANOĞLU1

1
Bingöl Üniversitesi Ziraat Fak. Biyosistem Mühendisliği Bölümü, 12000, Bingöl
(Orcid No: 0000-0002-7889-9015)/[email protected]
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INTRODUCTION

The Umbelliferae (Apiaceae) family grows in regions of the world

with mostly northern temperate climates and has more than 3000
species and about 300-400 genera (Deniz ve ark., 2018), which are
common in the Mediterranean region in general (Megaloudi, 2005).
Many plants in this family (fennel- Foeniculum vulgare, anise-
Pimpinella anisum, dill-Anethum graveolens, cumin-Cuminum
cyminum, etc.) are in the class of medicinal and aromatic plants
(Keskin, 2015). Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is one of the
precious plants belonging to this family (Kalkan, 2015; Çelik & Ayran,
2020). Coriander farming has evolved from ancient times to the
present day. Its leaves and fruits are mostly used in making spices and
medicines (Arslan ve ark., 1994; Gökduman & Telci, 2018).
Coriander is mentioned in many languages in different ways
(coriander, dhania, dhanya, kuzbara, cilantro, etc.) (Shavandi et al.,
2012). Coriander entered Turkish from Persian (Yalçın, 2016). In
Turkey, coriander is also called with local names (aşotu, kuzbere,
kinzi, kişnit, etc.) depending on the region where it is grown (Baytop,
1994; Arslan ve ark., 2015; Gürbüz, 2010; Konak, 2018).

As a result of the researches, the remains found in 2000 BC show that

the cultivation of coriander has been done since those times and it was
used for the flavoring of medicines, spices and beverages (Nadeem et
al., 2013). The fruits of this plant were placed in the tombs of the
pharaohs, which was expressed as the "spice of happiness" by the
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Egyptians with the thought of having aphrodisiac effects (Shavandi et

al., 2012).

Figure 1. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriander )

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is a herbaceous annual, medicinal

and aromatic plant with an erect, pile root structure (Şarer, 2004; İzgi,
2017; Deniz ve ark., 2018). It has a branching structure from the upper
parts of which the plant height can be about 30-70 cm. Parts of the
plant (leaf, fruit, stem) and essential oils are evaluated by many
sectors (medicine, food, cosmetics, perfumery, etc.). Different
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varieties, including summer and winter, have been developed and sold
to the domestic market and foreign countries (Arslan ve ark., 2015;
Altun, 2020).

Coriander prefers neutral or slightly alkaline soils with high lime

content, sandy-loam, light texture. It can be planted in a well-prepared
seed bed at a depth of 2-3 cm with 30 cm rows and 1.5-2 kg of seeds
per decare between March and April. It is possible to produce from
seedlings as well as from seed. The coriander plant, which starts to
mature approximately 90-120 days after planting, is harvested after
the middle of the summer when the stems begin to turn Brown
(Baydar, 2013; Gürbüz, 2010). It has small, pinkish-white flowers. Its
seeds, which are close to the spherical form, are brown in color
(sometimes in light-ocher tones or green, gray colors) and are about 3-
5 mm in size (Asgarpanah & Kazemivash, 2012). According to the
general classification, Coriandrum sativum L. var. macrocarpum; The
seeds smaller than 3 mm and weighing less than a thousand grains are
Coriandrum sativum L. var. microcarpum DC. is indicated as
(Diederichsen, 1996; Gürbüz, 2010). Coriander fruits are yellow or
brown in color, spherical, fragrant, 2-7 mm in diameter and a
thousand-seed weight varies between 5-18 g (Arslan & Gürbüz, 1994;
Baydar, 2013). According to the researches where planting was done
in different row spacings, 0.5 kg seeds were applied per decare at 40
cm row spacing, 215.5 umbrellas were formed per plant, the number
of seeds per umbrella was 39.5, and the essential oil ratio was 0.533%
(Arabacı & Bayram, 2005). The coriander plant, which is carefully
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harvested in order to prevent seed losses, is then evaluated in product

processing steps such as cleaning, separation and drying.

While mechanization practices are used in the cultivation of coriander

in the world, human labor is used rather than mechanization because it
is done in small areas in Turkey. On the other hand, when the
moisture content of the seeds is below 30%, harvesting with the help
of combine harvesters prevents possible seed losses (20-25%). In
addition, the advance speed of the combine, the rotation speed of the
drummer and its characteristics (fingered or jamb), the length of the
concave, the height of the stubble on the field surface affect the
harvest quality (Sessiz ve ark., 2006).

While 0.03-2.60% essential oil is obtained from coriander

(Coriandrum sativum L.) fruits, linalool ratios can vary between 50-
70%(Telci ve ark., 2006(a); Telci ve ark., 2006 (b)). Due to the
essential oil yield and chemical structure, the leaves and fruit of the
plant may have different sensory properties (Mandal & Mandal, 2015).
The main components of coriander herb are volatile flavonoids and
isocoumarins. In addition to these, it also contains vitamin A, B2
(riboflavin), vitamins C (Paarakh, 2009; Sharma et al., 2010;
Asgarpanah & Kazemivash, 2012). In its fruit, essential oils and fatty
acids come to the fore. The contents of fresh (0.03% to 2.6%) and
dried (9.9% to 27.7%) fruits vary. It may also contain crude protein
(11.5% to 21.3%), crude fiber (28.4 to 29.1%), ash (4.9% to 6%)
(Deniz ve ark., 2018; İsmailoğlu & Özkan, 2021). Studies on its leaves
are limited. Essential oil, flavonoids, phenolic acids and prophenols,
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nonan, C9-16 alkenes, C7-17 alkenols, C10-12 primary alkenols,

oxalic acid, vitamin C, carotene, calcium, capric acid are some
components found in the leaves (Sahib et al., 2013). The content of
coriander varies depending on the environment in which it is grown,
irrigation status and climatic characteristics, and storage conditions
after harvest (Nadeem et al., 2013).

Studies have shown that coriander has antimicrobial, antioxidant,

anthelmintic, diuretic, anticonvulsant, anticancer, anxiolytic, anti-
inflammatory, cholesterol-lowering, antihypertensive,
hepatoprotective effects, as well as memory enhancing and proactive
effects against heavy metal toxicity (Ramadan et al, 2008; Sreelatha et.
al., 2009; Wu et al, 2010; Aissaoui et al., 2011; Rondon et al., 2011;
Mani et al., 2011; Rajeshwari et al., 2012; Momin et al., 2012; Sahib
et al., 2013; Mohammed et al., 2014; Velaga et al., 2014; Deniz ve
ark., 2018).

Coriander is used as a raw material by many sectors such as medicine,

food, spice and cosmetics due to its rich content, smell and usage
possibilities (Bayram ve ark., 2010; Nadeem et al., 2013). On the
contrary, when combined with its current benefits, the fresh and dry
forms of this plant are met with increasing interest by the sectors
(Matasyoh et al., 2009).

CONCLUSION

Since coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is cultivated in Turkey in

the form of collection from nature and production on small lands, the
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amount of product obtained is much lower than it should be. In order

to prevent this situation, it is necessary to cultivate this plant in larger
areas first. It is possible to reach more products with less labor and
input (seed, fertilizer, fuel, etc.) by using mechanization opportunities
in the period from the seed bed to the harvest of the plant. In addition
to these, coriander is a medicinal and aromatic plant that has
commercial importance. However, further increase of this potential
depends on increasing the quality of the plant to be grown. With the
researches to be done, it is possible to determine the needs of this
plant and to make a profit by encouraging the producers to grow this
product.
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REFERENCES

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Nadeem, M., Muhammead Anjum F., Issa Khan M., Tehseen, S., El-Ghorab, A.
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(Coriandrum sativum L.) A Review. Brit. Food J. 115(5):743-755.
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Sreelatha, S. Padma, P. & Umadevi, M. (2009). Protective effects of Coriandrum
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Wu, T.T., Tsai C.W., Yao, H.T., Lii, C.K., Chen, H.W., Wu, Y.L., Chen, P.Y. &
Liu, K.L. (2010). Supperessive effects of extracts from the aerial part of
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Telci, I., Tonçer, O.G. & Sahbaz, N. (2006) (a). Yield essential oil content and
composition of Coriandrum sativum varieties (var. vulgare Alef and
microcarpum DC.) grown in two different locations. Journal of Essential Oil
Research 18(2):189-193.
Telci, I., Bayram, E. & Avcı, B. (2006)(b). Charges in yields, essential oil and
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microcarpum DC.) harvested at different developed. European Journal of

Horticultural Science. 267-271.
Velaga, M.K., Yallapragada, P.R., Williams, D., Rajanna, S. & Bettaiya, R.
(2014). Hyroalcoholic seed exract of Coriandrum sativum (coriander)
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Yalçın, Z. (2016). Bazı kişniş genotiplerinin (Coriandrum sativum L.) Erzurum
koşullarında verim ve başlıca tarımsal özellikleri. Atatürk Üniversitesi Fen
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CHAPTER 12

USE OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS IN DAIRY

PRODUCTS

Dr. Derya SAYGILI1, Assist. Prof. Dr. Aslı AKPINAR2,

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Oktay YERLIKAYA3

1
Izmir Kavram Vocational School, Culinary Program, Izmir, TURKEY,
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5286-4359
2
Manisa Celal Bayar University, Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering
Department, Manisa, TURKEY, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0037-8295
3
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Dairy Technology, Izmir,
TURKEY, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1532-4687
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1. Introduction

Milk is an important drink among all food groups as a food with high
nutritional value with its water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
and minerals required for our metabolism. However, as a difficult
product to store, milk has met with many preservation methods since
ancient times. These methods have opened an important aspect for the
development of new products for the milk and dairy products industry
and allowed the milk to be stored for a longer time. In addition to
yogurt, cheese, butter, kefir, ayran, and ice cream, milk powder, dried
and condensed milk production contributed to the increase in the
diversity of milk and dairy products.

On the other hand, while medicinal and aromatic plants, which have
been known for centuries with their different functional properties, are
included in many productions in the food industry, their use with milk
and dairy products is also very common. Milk and dairy products have
become important carrier matrices for medicinal and aromatic plants
preferred for antimicrobial, antioxidant, or aromatic purposes in
Turkey and the world.

In recent years, due to the increase in health problems and diseases

and the avoidance of treatments with synthetic components, the
orientation to herbal sources in treatments is increasing day by day.
Medicines used in treating many diseases are generally compounds
obtained from natural sources, and plants are among the most used
materials. There are many different forms of use of medicinal and
aromatic plants, which have an extensive usage area, and used as a
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whole, fresh and dry, such as leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, bark,
tubers, or aerial parts, which are also called herbaceous parts, their
crushed or ground forms, and their extracts prepared in different ways
(Akarca et al., 2015; Toker et al., 2015). They are the richest
biological resources for modern medicines, traditional medicines, food
additives, nutraceuticals, chemical units of synthetic medicines, and
pharmacological intermediates. Aromatic plants are the source of
taste, fragrance, cosmetics, and chemical terpenes. Medicinal and
aromatic plants are extracted by various methods, from simple
methods to the most advanced techniques in developing countries and
developed countries, and they are transformed into valuable biological
resources. Industrial evaluation of medicinal and aromatic plants starts
with the extraction of active ingredients using various techniques.
Common methods used for this purpose; maceration, brewing,
leaching, shearing, Soxhlet extraction, extraction with organic
solvents, extraction with microwave aid, supercritical fluid extraction,
ultrasonic extraction, and extraction with hydrofluorocarbon solvents.
Hydrodistillation and aqueous maceration are the most commonly
applied methods for aromatic plants. Much newer techniques are solid
phase microextraction, protoplast extraction, micro distillation,
thermomicro distillation, and molecular distillation (Türk, 2010; Türk
and Giray, 2020). The most widely used medicinal and aromatic
plants are thyme, mint, rosemary, laurel, basil, sage, poppy, garlic,
while plants such as cumin, cinnamon, licorice, anise, ginger, vanilla,
fennel, and sumac are also used in the food sector which enables new
approaches for especially milk and dairy products
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One of the plant species with the broadest distribution globally is the
thyme plant, which is a member of the Lamiaceae family, which
contains about 3000 species belonging to 200 genera (Heywood,
1978). The Lamiaceae family attracts attention with both its health-
supporting use and its species with high essential oil content. It is
known that five important genera belong to the thyme plant. These
genera are listed as Thymus, Origanum, Satureja, Tymbra, and
Coridothymus for the thyme plant, which is especially preferred for
the essential oils in its compositions. The number of species included
in the Thymus is 220 worldwide, and 39 species (58 taxa) exist in
Turkey, 43 species included in the genus Origanum worldwide, and
23 species (27 taxa) exist in Turkey, 30 species in the genus Satureja
included worldwide, 13 species (14 taxa) exist in Turkey, about 12
species of the genus Thymbra included worldwide, two species (4
taxa) exist in Turkey. Only one species belonging to the genus
Coridothymus is included worldwide, and this species is also found in
Turkey (Bozdemir, 2019). Thyme is cultivated for many reasons as a
spice, brewing tea, consuming oil, or for many purposes in landscape
applications. Volatile components called thymol and carvacrol in their
composition attract attention with their antimicrobial effects and
health-supporting properties.

The homeland of mint (Mentha), another member of the Lamiaceae

family, is the Mediterranean coast. Species with high menthol content
are widely cultivated around the world due to their valuable essential
oil. In terms of essential oils, mint plant whose primary component is
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menthol contains limonene (1.0-5.0%), cineole (3.5-14.0%), menthone

(14.0-32.0%), menthofuran (1.0-9.0%), isomentone (1.5-10.0%),
menthyl acetate (2.8%). -10.0%), isopulegol (0.2%), menthol (55.0%),
pulegone (4.0%), and carvone (max. 1.0%) (Balakrishnan, 2015).

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) is a member of the Lamiaceae

family with a strong and pungent aroma. The essential oil composition
in its composition changes depending on many factors such as the soil
in which the plant grows, environmental conditions, and climate. In a
study extracted by hydrodistillation, it was reported that the main
components in its composition were 14.9% a-pinene, 7.43%, 1,8-
cineol, and 14.9% linalool (Gachkar et al., 2007). Volatile components
in their composition are preferred in many sectors, including the food
industry, due to their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties as well
as their pungent aroma.

Laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) leaf, which has an important place among
medicinal and aromatic plants, is preferred for its essential oils besides
its use as a spice. As with all medicinal and aromatic plants, the
composition's variety and amount of essential oil may vary depending
on many factors. 1,8-cineol, sabinene, α-terpinyl acetate, α-pinene, β-
pinene have an important place in the essential oil composition. It is
known that around 90% of the world's laurel leaf production is done in
Turkey (Gölükçü et al., 2019).

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), one of the most widely used essential
oils in the world, is preferred more as a spice in the Lamiaceae family
as well as its essential oils. The main components of basil, which vary
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according to its cultivated conditions, and which contain essential oil

in the range of 0.25-1.79%, are defined as linalool, methyl kavicol,
eugenol, linalool, methyl cinnamate, camphor, and citraline (Katar et
al., 2021).

Sage (Salvia) is an important medicinal, aromatic plant that has been

widely used since ancient times. About 900 species belong to the
genus Salvia worldwide. In addition to the aromatic phenolic
components of sage, whose leaves and essential oil can be used, its
antiseptic and antimicrobial properties are also used in traditional use.
For S. Officinalis L., α-thuion (18-43%), β-thuyon (3-8.5%), camphor
(4.5-24.5%,) 1,8-cineol (5.5-13%) are in its essential oil, parallel to
the increase in drying temperature, α-thujon and 1 ,8-cineol ratios
decrease, camphor and borneol ratios increase.

While vegetable oil is produced from the seeds of Poppy (Papaver

somniferum L.), which is one of the most important plants in the
world, it is also used as an additive in the production of confectionery
and bakery products in the food industry. It is known that the essential
oils found in poppy flowers obtained by the hydrodistillation method
are n-nonadecan, heneicosan, n-pentacosan, n-heptacosan, 1-
heptacosanol, palmitic acid, and 1-nonadecanol (Dilek et al., 2018).
There are much scientific data on the antimicrobial and antioxidant
capacity of the plant, which has blue and white varieties.

The garlic (Allium sativum L.) plant, known as the most effective
antibiotic with its rich composition, has strong antifungal,
antibacterial, and antiviral properties. Besides being consumed
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directly as food, it has an important place in the food industry with its
aroma and anti-agent properties.

Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) is a plant variety that is widely used as

a spice. The active compound of cumin, which is efficient in terms of
essential oil, is known as cumin aldehyde. Known as a necessary spice
for marinating meat and meat products in Turkey, cumin is
indispensable for special flavored cheeses in some countries like
Norway and the Netherlands (Varlı et al., 2020).

2. Functional Properties of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Plant-derived raw materials are increasingly used in the food industry

due to their odor and taste features, health-supporting functions, and
anti-agent properties. In addition to plants that share their unique
aroma with food, herbal raw materials that increase their functional
properties with essential oils obtained by different methods are also
preferred in the food industry, particularly in the production of milk
and dairy products.

The term phytotherapy, which means treatment with medicinal plants,

was first used by the French physician Henri Leclerc. The phrase
"Every problem has a herbal remedy, the point is to find it," said by a
naturalist who lived approximately 2000 years ago, is still acceptable
today. Whether a plant is beneficial to human health or not has been
experienced by observing as a result of its use. In other words, the fact
that it is good for some ailments after consumption has given the view
that plants a useful for the problem in question (Baytop, 1999; Özbek,
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2010). Compounds that can be utilized by the human body occur in

plant metabolism. Primary and secondary metabolites, which are
natural products produced by plants, are basic products that are
important for the industry directly or indirectly (Faydaoğlu and
Driveoğlu, 2011; Arslan et al., 2015). It is possible to examine the
functional properties of medicinal and aromatic plants under four
main titles. We can list these properties as enrichment (taste-aroma),
bioactive component content, antimicrobial and antioxidant capacity.

2.1. Enrichment (Flavor)

No matter how beautiful and healthy a food product is, it is difficult to

prefer it when it is poor in taste. While the consumer defines the five
basic tastes (sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami) in the mouth, the
nose works much harder than the tongue and distinguishes different
odors. The sense perceived by the nose for a product is called smell for
people who have the ability to distinguish tens of thousands of odors,
and people's ability to distinguish odors decreases in the process from
infancy to adulthood. When the same product is taken into the mouth,
the tongue defines the sense of taste, while the nose defines the
product's aroma. When the product is in the mouth, the sense taken
with the nose, tongue, whole mouth, and throat is called flavor. The
taste of the food is one of the most important factors for being chosen
by the consumer.

The history of using herbal raw materials for flavor purposes in foods
goes back to ancient times. The first written document on this subject
is found in Mesopotamia. It is known that dill, cardamom, thyme,
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sesame, and saffron are mentioned in the cuneiform library in

Babylon. The documents containing the benefits of herbal raw
materials, spices, and their recipes were bequeathed to the future by
the Babylonian kings. Although transportation is easy today for spices,
which were an important trade source of the time, the trade wars in the
past should not be forgotten. We can say that many spices that we
frequently prefer today find wide use in world cuisines. For example,
while the use of anise in meals and cumin in bread is very popular,
mint is preferred in meat sauces. While fennel is an indispensable part
of pungent sauces with vinegar, garlic has been recognized as a raw
material consumed by people living in rural areas. In other words, the
consumption of spices has been the expression of wealth and richness
(Mete, 2017). Different herbal sources have been the raw materials
that give the original flavor of our various dishes in our kitchen for
many years. Spices, whose value increased in the table of the nobility
in medieval Europe, were one of the important trade products of the
time. The Spice road stretching from India to Europe remained open
for years as the only gateway for this important trade, but only the
wealthy people had the opportunity to enter through this gate and meet
with spices. The historical Spice route has lost its importance over
time by discovering new ways to access spice-producing monopoly
countries. As for today, we see that every country has a large number
of spice production under the soil and climatic conditions they have
due to their geographical location.
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Medicinal and aromatic plants have been consumed as food and/or

spice for centuries. In the Turkish Food Codex Spices Communiqué of
the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, spices are defined as the
products of various plants used to give color, taste, smell, and flavor to
foods, and obtained by whole and/or crumbling and/or grinding of the
dried "seed, bud, fruit, flower, bark, root, stem, rhizome, tuber, leaf,
stem, onion. When viewed within the scope of this definition, it is
possible to say that spices such as mint, thyme, sage, linden, basil,
cumin, cardamom, black cumin, laurel, and rosemary are the most
preferred medicinal and aromatic plants to enrich the flavor of foods.
Spices come to the fore in discovering new flavors in world cuisines,
especially with the increase of the fusion cuisine perspective, which is
a method that brings together the traditions, production methods, and
raw materials of different cuisines. New herbal raw materials are
blended with more and more different production methods and take
their place in kitchens under fusion kitchen. With the fusion cuisine
approach, which is also called the meeting of bitter and sweet, salty
and sour on the same plate, unique tastes are revealed by blending the
unique herbal flavors of each region and country. Undoubtedly, the
share of spices that come to mind first for herbal raw materials is quite
high in this blend of flavors.

There are many advantages in the use of herbal resources for

enrichment in foods. Each country can choose the herbal resources
specific to the growing region in its climatic conditions. It is very
important that there is no need for high technology in the processing
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stage for easy-to-produce plant raw materials. Another advantage can

be defined as the fact that the material used in terms of taste provides
support with different effects and properties (antioxidant,
antimicrobial effect) and the aroma it gives to the food. Medicinal,
aromatic plants are also used as food additives and colorants. Turmeric
and saffron (yellow), safflower (red and yellow), pomegranate (red-
purple), tomato and paprika (red), marigold (yellow-orange) are
preferred as natural colorants in the food industry.

2.2. Bioactive ingredient content

Although bioactive components are not essential for the growth and
development of living things, they are defined as secondary
metabolites that positively support cellular activities. It is stated that
there are more than 25000 bioactive components in a typical diet
(Hergenç, 2015). Bioactive components of plant origin are defined as
phytochemicals. Although the term bioactive ingredient does not date
back to ancient times, the World Health Organization (WHO)
estimates that approximately 80% of the world's population has
preferred herbal products for health problems for many years. In
developed countries, about 25% of the drugs are herbal-based drugs.
The most frequently used health-supporting herbal resources around
the world are actually legacies from the past. While garlic is preferred
for blood pressure and cholesterol, licorice root, linden, hibiscus, and
cloves are important herbs in colds, coughs, and digestive problems.
For diabetes, bitter melon, mahaleb, myrtle, cinnamon are used, while
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herbal raw materials such as anise, centaury, lemon balm, and

chamomile are used against stress, anxiety, depression.

The traditional use of many substances and products in many countries

for many years indicates that they are reliable ingredients without the
need for written information in this sense. In recent years, many
studies on the medicinal effects of spices and wild herbs, apart from
their aroma-providing functions, have proven health-supporting effects
due to bioactive components in their compositions. In addition to the
content of bioactive components, many studies show the antimicrobial
effects of herbal extracts on different types of microbiological
organisms, including pathogens that cause food poisoning, and
emphasize their antioxidant capacity (Dağdelen, 2010; Köse, 2015).

2.3. Antioxidant capacity

One of the most important storage problems for foods high in fat is
oxidation. Rancidity, which is also defined as a bitter taste, occurs in
oxidized oils. This situation, known as rancidity in oils, causes
changes in the food's color, flavor, texture, and nutritional value. To
prevent this undesirable situation, medicinal and aromatic plants are
often preferred.

Medicinal and aromatic plants are raw materials of great importance as

natural antioxidant sources. In recent years, when the demand for a
more natural, healthier life has increased, medicinal and aromatic
plants with many antioxidant components became important for
consumers. Antioxidants are known as systems that destroy the
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negative effects of free radicals. Free radicals, which are compounds

with high activity, can occur during vital activities or under the
influence of endogenous sources such as respiration, enzyme
reactions, autooxidation reactions, and various environmental sources
such as cigarette smoke, air pollution, UV, ionizing radiation, and
xenobiotics. Free radicals play an important role in forming many
degenerative disorders, diseases such as cancer and similar diseases,
cardiovascular diseases, and Alzheimer's.

Plants have developed protection systems by developing varying

antioxidants against the damage of active oxygen forms that cause
various stresses. In this way, plants provide the repair of cell and
genetic materials with the help of antioxidant enzymes, radical
scavenging compounds, and other synthesized components. Plants are
defined as the main source of natural antioxidant compounds. Many
studies have studied the antioxidant compounds in fruits and
vegetables, spices, herbal teas, and oilseeds. It is stated that the
antioxidant effects in question arise from phenolic compounds and
especially from the flavonoid structure (Diri, 2006).

Naturally sourced antioxidants are phenolic compounds, nitrogenous

compounds, organic acids, and carotenoids found in plants. In
addition, amino acids such as cysteine, methionine, histidine,
tryptophan, and lysine, and thioredoxin protein, which is rich in sulfur,
also show antioxidant properties. Synthetic antioxidants are used to
prevent the deterioration of foods and to extend their shelf life. Today,
BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole), BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene),
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PG (propyl gallate), and TBHQ (t-butylhydroquinone) are known as

the most widely used synthetic antioxidants. However, studies are
showing that synthetic antioxidants and the by-products they create
can cause various diseases. For this reason, studies on finding new
antioxidant substances that can replace synthetic antioxidants from
natural sources have gained importance, and researches in this field
are increasing (Öztürk, 2008).

Antioxidants, which reduce the risk of developing many diseases such

as cancer and cardiovascular diseases that pose a significant risk in
terms of human health or which show positive effects, are a subject
that attracts much attention, and many researches have been carried
out today. Excessive amounts of free radicals, which are formed due to
various metabolic reactions in the body and are highly reactive due to
having one or more unpaired electrons, can cause damage to many
tissues, organs, and systems. In addition, oxidation of lipids may occur
in the processing, storage, and other technological stages of foodstuffs.
Therefore, an additive is needed to increase the durability of these
products. Natural antioxidants are considered more preferable to
synthetic butylated hydroxytoluene and butylated hydroxyanisole
compounds due to the suspicion that they are carcinogenic (Türk,
2010).

While the antioxidant substances in the composition of the plants have

a protective effect until they are consumed in the foodstuff, they
maintain the same function when taken into the body with food. In this
respect, it is a common practice to evaluate different foods by
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determining their antioxidant activity (Dağdelen, 2010). It is known

that hundreds of natural and synthetic compounds have antioxidant
properties. Plants, animal products, enzymes, and some
microorganisms are among the essential natural antioxidant sources,
and it is stated in the literature that such natural substances are more
effective than synthetic antioxidants (Turhan and Üstün, 2006).
Because natural antioxidants are additives that people have consumed
or mixed with foods for hundreds of years, they are seen as safe by
consumers (Bera et al., 2006). Besides the aroma that they give the
food that they were added, It is a well-known practice today that
spices and plants extend the shelf life of the food, thanks to its
antioxidative effect, and by preventing oxidative rancidity with its
antioxidative effect, and by preventing microbial spoilage with its
bacteriostatic effect.

One of the biggest problems that occur during the preservation and
storage of foods is lipid oxidation, which causes rancidity in oils,
deterioration in color, taste, aroma, texture, and consistency, and a
decrease in nutritional quality in other foods containing fat. The use of
antioxidants is necessary for the food industry to prevent or reduce
lipid oxidation, prevent the formation of toxic oxidation products,
maintain nutritional quality, and extend the shelf life of food.
However, many researchers point out that synthetic antioxidants such
as BHA and BHT, which have been used in food processing for a long
time, have carcinogenic effects in living organisms (Cerit, 2008).
While the increase in human welfare has led to diversity in nutrition, it
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has also led to serious expectations for preventing food-borne diseases.

Therefore, human beings want both to eat in the best way and protect
their health simultaneously. For this purpose, some synthetic additives
have been used in food production for a long time. However, it is not
known exactly whether they are safe or not (Kavuncuoglu, 2012;
Ağıroğlu andDriveoğlu, 2013). Due to the increasing concerns over
the safety of synthetic antioxidants, there has been intense interest in
the food industry to obtain natural antioxidants from various plant
materials. This situation has led to the increasing use of medicinal and
aromatic plants, which have great potential as a natural antioxidant
source, to prevent oxidation, especially in fatty foods such as meat,
dairy, and bakery products (Arslan and Kırca, 2006).

2.4. Antimicrobial capacity

The desire of people to keep the food edible for a longer time
necessitated the use of various antimicrobials in the production of
food. Antimicrobial substances, which constitute an important class of
food additives, are added to foods to delay the deterioration of foods
and prevent the development of microorganisms that can be
reproduced in foods. Antimicrobial substances show their effects by
either killing microorganisms or preventing their development
(Guven, 2008). Due to the consumer's question marks against
synthetic preservatives and the legal restrictions against these
preservatives, the sector has entered into new searches regarding long
shelf life in food products and the protection of food from microbial
spoilage. Today, due to the use of a large number of additives to
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protect foods, the potentially toxic substances of these substances, and

the limitations imposed on this issue, the interest in preservation
methods in the food industry, primarily in which natural origin
antimicrobial components are used, has increased day by day. In
particular, various materials obtained from herbal sources are
preferred because they provide natural antimicrobial effects.
Antimicrobial substances obtained from plant sources can be used to
prevent the development of pathogenic microorganisms, yeasts, and
molds in foods, and in this way, the quality of the products can be
preserved for a long time.

Until today, many studies have been conducted on medicinal plants,

which are a rich source of antimicrobial agents. Since they are used as
raw materials in many industries such as medicine, food, perfume, and
cosmetics, natural plants and their essential oils have been the subject
of much researches, especially since 1940 due to their antimicrobial
effects, and important results have been obtained thanks to these
researches (Faydaoğlu and Süroğlu, 2013). It is a well-known practice
today that medicinal and aromatic plants extend the shelf life of food.
Besides the aroma they add to the food, they prevent oxidative
bitterness with its antioxidative effect and microbial spoilage with its
bacteriostatic effect. Many plants are used for their antimicrobial
properties due to the secondary metabolism compounds they
synthesize, and the essential oils obtained from these plants are in the
class of natural preservatives that can be used safely in foods.
Antimicrobial substances characterized by essential oils also have
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value as spices, and these substances are considered safe to use.

Essential oils generally carry the characteristic aroma of plants and
can be obtained from plants by the distillation method. Even if they
are used in minimal amounts, they bring the plant's aroma from which
they are obtained to the product they are applied to. Antimicrobial
activity properties vary depending on the plant species, concentration,
composition, type, and load of the target microorganism, the food
composition, processing and storage conditions. Gram-negative
bacteria are more resistant to the antimicrobial properties of essential
oils than gram-positive bacteria (Bakkali et al., 2008).

The antimicrobial properties of plants and herbal sources depend on

the aldehydes, organic acids, and phenolic compounds in their
composition. Allspice, almond, laurel, black pepper, caraway,
cinnamon, clove, coriander, cumin, garlic, grapefruit, lemon,
mandarin, onion, orange, thyme, rosehip, sage, and marjoram are
plants that essential oils are obtained from, and they have an
antimicrobial effect (Anonymous, 2018). Some of these plants, which
are known to have an effect against microorganisms, and their
essential oils are also used to prevent mold development. The
lipophilic properties of these plants that cause antimicrobial activity
are due to terpenoids (isoprenoids), monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes,
low molecular weight aliphatic hydrocarbons, acids, alcohols,
aldehydes, acyclic esters, or lactones (Djilani and Dicko, 2012).

In a study on essential oils of cinnamon, cloves, allspice, rosemary,

black pepper, marjoram, garlic, and cumin, it was determined that
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clove, cinnamon, allspice, and rosemary were the most effective on

Gram (+) and Gram (–) bacteria (Faydaoğlu and Driveroğlu, 2013).
At the same time, antifungal and antimicrobial activity are caused by
phenolic compounds such as thymol, eugenol, carvacrol, which are
found in high concentrations in plants and essential oils, as well as
components such as linalool, sabinene, menthol, myrcene, and
camphene (Puvača, 2018). It has been found that phenolic compounds
such as tea catechins, oleuropein, ferulic acid, ellagic acid, and
coumaric acid inhibit the growth of some pathogenic bacteria
(Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enteritidis, and Listeria
monocytogenes) and molds (Bin et al., 2011). In a study, they stated
that resistance was lost by destroying the plasmids containing the
resistance genes by using thyme, pomegranate, clove, and lemon balm
extracts in bacteria belonging to S. aureus and Shigella species, which
were found to be resistant only to Ampicillin and/or Chloramphenicol
and/or Tetracycline antibiotics. Jirovetz et al. (2003), in their study on
the antifungal activity of dill (Anethum graveolens L.), showed that
essential oils of dill seeds have high activity against Aspergillus niger
mold and Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans yeasts.

Rosemary is an intensely aromatic herb with antioxidant and

antimicrobial properties. There are phenolic components such as
carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, carnosol, rosmarol, epirosmarol, which
show antimicrobial properties in the structure of rosemary. It has been
reported that the essential oils extracted from rosemary contain
bioactive components such as α-pinene, 1,8-cineol, camphor, and
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borneol, which also show antimicrobial activity (Demirtaş et al., 2011;

Çiftçi et al., 2013). The antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effect of
garlic, which has been used as a remedy for the disease for centuries,
has been reported. The antimicrobial property of garlic was first
identified by Louis Pasteur in 1858. Antifungal, antibacterial, and
antiviral effects of garlic have been found in numerous studies that
were conducted later. It is the allicin compound isolated from diallyl
thiosulphinade, which gives the garlic its typical odor and taste,
showing antimicrobial properties. The amount of allicin in garlic is
between 0.2-0.4%. Another compound with antimicrobial properties
other than allicin is allogen.

Allicin is not formed when the garlic clove is whole, and when it is
crushed, it is created quickly by the effect of allinase enzyme. In the
studies, it has been determined that the effect of garlic on bacteria is
due to the interaction of allicin with -SH groups, and it has been
suggested that it is through lipid synthesis blockade by inhibiting
acetyl CoA synthetase. Its mode of action on fungi is through
inhibition of protein and nucleic acid synthesis and blockade in lipid
synthesis. A study examining the antimicrobial effects of 1/10 extracts
of different Allium species in water, ethanol, and ether using 68
microorganisms and five reference strains determined that garlic was
more effective than other Allium species. In addition, the aqueous
extract of Garlic showed an inhibitory effect against 30 strains of
Mycobacterium at doses of 1.34 - 3.35 mg/ml. It was determined that
an average dose of 1.67 mg/ml showed an inhibitory effect against M.
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tuberculosis (Evren et al., 2006). It has been shown that the use of
essential oils from black pepper, clove, geranium, nutmeg, and two
species of thyme (Origanum vulgare L., Thymus vulgaris L.) has
significant counteracting effects against pathogens even at low levels
(Dorman and Deans, 2000). A study found that garlic, onion,
cinnamon, thyme, wild marjoram, black pepper, clove, and allspice
oils prevented Clostridium botulinum from forming spores (Ismail and
Pierson, 1990).

The plant itself, oil/essential oil, or extract form are used in studies on
medicinal and aromatic plants in dairy products. Most studies aim to
increase the shelf life of products by adding plants with antimicrobial
and antifungal activity to dairy products in different forms. As an
innovative approach in cheese varieties, certain aromatic plants to
prevent the development of undesirable microorganisms in cheese and
protect consumers from the risk of molds forming mycotoxins are
gaining popularity. In addition, these aromatic herbs and spices can be
more effective than commercially used ones used in flavoring and
antimicrobials in the development and flavor in products and the
storage of products (Cuervas-Mons et al., 2013). Essential oils such as
thyme, rosemary, cumin, pepper, and sage, which show antimicrobial
activity against pathogens and spoilage microorganisms that
contaminate cheese, have been used to protect the cheese from ancient
times to the present (Macwan et al., 2016). Mahgoub et al. (2013)
investigated the effect of adding 0.1% and 0.2% (w/w) black seed oil
to Domiati cheese on the inhibition of foodborne pathogens
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(Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli, and

Listeria monocytogenes). As a result of this study, it was determined
that 0.2% black cumin oil added to the cheese showed the maximum
effective antimicrobial potential on pathogens during storage and
improved the physicochemical and sensory properties of the cheese.
Hassanien et al. (2013) found that adding 0.1 or 0.2% black cumin
seed oil to cheese has significant inhibitory effects against certain
pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli ATCC 8739, Listeria
monocytogenes Scott A, Salmonella enteritidis PT4 and
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538). Bahrad et al. (2009) determined
that cinnamon yogurt containing probiotic bacteria inhibited the
growth of Helicobacter pylori in vitro. Elbagory et al.(2019) found
that pomegranate peel extract and Moringa tea leaf extract improved
yogurt's antibacterial, functional, and nutritive properties, and with a
2% concentration of both pomegranate peels and Moringa tea leaves
inhibits its development of E.coli O111:H2 (EHEC O111:H2) during
the storage period. According to the studies, it has been determined
that the shelf life of Labneh cheese, which has a short storage period,
is extended by adding 0.2 ppm of thyme, marjoram, and sage essential
oils (Al. Otaibi and El. Demerdash, 2008).

Today, medicinal plants, which are the natural source of compounds

used against many diseases, contain various chemicals that have
significant biological effects on humans. The therapeutic properties
and antimicrobial effects of plants are due to the chemical compounds
expressed as secondary metabolites. In the modern sense, 25% of the
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active ingredients of drugs produced pharmacologically are obtained

from plants. Another superior aspect of herbal medicines is that
research on new antimicrobial substances has accelerated in recent
years due to the high cost of producing new generation antibiotics and
the increase in resistance against many types of microorganisms that
cause infectious disease agents and hospital infections (Çopuroğlu,
2013).

It has been reported that herbal products stimulate the digestive

system of animals, destroy pathogenic microflora, or increase the
concentration of microbial population in the digestive system, which
leads to better digestion and absorption of nutrients, and significantly
improving feed consumption, feed efficiency, and carcass quality
(Yadkoori et al., 2015). Herbal products are broad-spectrum
antimicrobial agents. It directly or indirectly affects the biochemical
processes of cells and disrupts their physicochemical integrity.
Terpenes, which are especially hydrophobic, interact with the cell wall
and damage the cell wall integrity. The hydrophobic property of
terpenes, their interaction with the lipids in the cell wall causes them
to aggregate together and increase the membrane's permeability.
Naturally, the deterioration of the physicochemical structure will
cause proton movement and electron flow in the cell, thus transporting
disruptions and coagulation of the cell contents (Burt, 2004; Silva and
Fernandes, 2010).

In the literature, the concept of "Hurdle Technology" (barrier

technology) has been defined to prevent microorganisms from
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spoiling food or causing disease. In this technology, more than one

inhibitory factor against microorganisms is used at low doses and one
after the other. The sector has entered into new searches regarding the
long shelf life in food products and food protection from microbial
spoilage (Farag et al., 1989). Plant extracts, which are used as
flavoring and spice agents, have been used therapeutically in foods
and beverages for centuries, and the antimicrobial activity of garlic,
cinnamon, and cloves has been studied since the end of the last
century (Elgayyar et al., 2001).

Antimicrobial activity of spices and essential oils is shown by looking

at the type, concentration, and composition of the spice or derivative,
the type, and concentration of the target microorganism, composition
of the substrate, the production and storage conditions of the food.
Many volatile compounds exhibit significant antimicrobial activity
when tested. This effect can be increased even more (Nostro et al.,
2000, Sadç 2003, Recio and Rios 2005, Hohman et al., 2006).

It is known that natural antimicrobial plants that can be used in the

food industry are extremely safe compared to many antimicrobials.
The extracts obtained by the appropriate method from these also show
antimicrobial effects besides food preservation and aroma-flavor
component. When added to ready-to-eat food products, medicinal and
aromatic plants and essential oils increase food storage time with its
antimicrobial effect. Essential oils with antimicrobial effect against
bacteria and molds belong to marjoram, thyme, sage, rosemary, clove,
black cumin, garlic, and onion. Oils that inhibit yeast and molds
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should be especially rich in phenols, aldehydes, and alcohols (Bruni et

al., 2003; Nair et al., 2005; Benefic and Driveroglu, 2013).

3. Use of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Milk and Dairy

Products

Food fortification is expressed as the addition of components that are

naturally found or not found in the food to foods in greater amounts to
correct or prevent nutrient deficiency in the society or a risk group
(Coşkun, 2012). Fruit, vegetable, and plant sources with different
functional properties can be used to enrich foods. Traditional
medicinal plants are used for obesity and weight control in many
countries, and it is known that herbs and spices in nutrition contain
many phytochemicals with medicinal properties and are used in
alternative medicine (Brahma and Narzary, 2015; Jaradat et al., 2017).

Medicinal and aromatic plants, which have a wide range of uses, are
also widely used in the food industry. The fact that these plants have
functional properties such as antioxidants and antimicrobials has been
effective in increasing the usage area in the food industry. In addition,
the aromatic properties of these plant products are also significant in
the use of these plant products. Medicinal and aromatic plants, which
have a wide area of use, are used as a whole, fresh and dry, and there
are many different forms of use, such as leaves, roots, flowers, seeds,
bark, tubers, or aerial parts, which are also called herbaceous parts,
their fragmented or ground forms, and their extracts prepared in
different ways (Toker et al., 2015; Temel et al., 2018). In studies on
the use of spices in dairy products, the spice itself, its oil/essential oil,
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or its extract form were used. Milk is an easily perishable food with
87% water, 4.7% lactose, 3.4% nitrogenous substances, 3.7% oil, and
0.75% mineral substance content. The application of various herbs in
various forms (i.e., powder, essential oils, etc.) in several dairy
products have been tried successfully. Different dairy products
combined with herbs are discussed later in the chapter.

3.1. Drinking Milk

The use of plant-based products in the production of milk and dairy

products can be for many purposes. In addition to being preferred for
its health-supporting effect and antimicrobial and antioxidant capacity,
R&D studies aiming to add flavor also bring new dairy industry
products to the consumer. Drinking milk is very important for the
consumer with its rich nutritional value and unique taste. Therefore, it
is important to be storable for a longer time for drinking milk that is
sterilized or pasteurized according to the processing technology and
put on the market. For this reason, drinking milk has also been the
subject of scientific studies, albeit relatively less than other dairy
products. The main objective of the studies is to implement practices
that will extend the storage period of drinking milk.

In one of the studies conducted for this purpose, the change in the
shelf life of pasteurized milk was observed by adding cinnamon at
different rates to drinking milk. The study aimed to extend the shelf
life of pasteurized milk, which has a higher nutritional value than
UHT milk. Research findings showed that plain milk was preferred on
the first day of storage, but pasteurized milk with 0.2% cinnamon
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added was preferred as the storage continued. The study reported that
with 0.2%, 0.5%, and 1% cinnamon added, pasteurized milk was
stored at 4ºC for 25 days. It was stated that total aerobic mesophilic,
lactic acid, and Lactococcus bacteria, yeast, and mold counts were
lower in cinnamon added milk than plain pasteurized milk. This study
emphasized that herbal raw materials in drinking milk for enrichment
gained consumer appreciation from the sensory point of view, while
the antimicrobial effect of cinnamon was also emphasized (Akarca et
al., 2015).

3.2. Cheese

In the Agricultural Economics and Policy Development Institute's

Milk and Dairy Products Situation Forecast Report for 2021, it has
been reported that there is an increase in the production and
consumption of milk and dairy products such as raw milk, milk
powder, cheese, butter. Despite the negative impact of COVID 19 on
the milk and dairy products supply chain, it is estimated that milk and
dairy products production will increase worldwide. When we look at
Turkey, it is seen that there is an increase in the amount of milk and
dairy products depending on the amount of milk production. It was
especially emphasized that the said increase was seen in drinking
milk, cheese, skimmed milk powder, and butter. Especially cheese is
an important product that allows enrichment with herbal resources
among milk and dairy products. It is reported that there are around
4000 cheese varieties with different components in terms of taste in
the world, but because some of them are similar varieties thus, fewer
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varieties are known. One of the most important parts of this wide
product range is the plant raw materials included in cheese production.

Many different seasonings for flavor purposes are preferred for the
search for new product development in cheeses or for prolonging the
storage period of the product. Capers, black cumin, ginger, zahter,
cardamom, cinnamon, anise, thyme, rosemary, mint, and basil are the
most common used plant raw materials in cheese production. The
purpose of using spices in cheese production may be to enrich the
product in terms of flavor, benefit from the antimicrobial/antioxidant
effect of spices or essential oils, or promote health-promoting effects.
It is stated that the sensory quality of white cheeses produced
increases by adding plant raw materials such as dill, parsley, thyme,
chives, black cumin, and basil (Paksoy, 2016; Deveci, 2016).

It is known that more than 60 plant species belonging to 9 different

families are used in the production of Van herby cheese, which is a
traditional cheese produced in Turkey. The unique aroma of this
cheese, which is loved and consumed by the local people, comes from
the plant raw materials grown in the region. Species heavily added in
herbed cheese has been defined as plants such as Ferula sp. (Black),
Allium sp. (Sirmo), Chaerophyllum sp. (Mendo), Heracleaum sp.
(Sov), Thymus sp. (Thyme), Prangos sp. (Heliz), Zizophora sp. (Catır)
(Tunçtürk and Tunçtürk, 2020).

Another way of using plant raw materials in cheese production is the

packaging process that uses the anti-agent effects of essential oils.
Edible films and coatings are defined as thin membrane layers that
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allow moisture, oxygen, and fluid movements that the consumer can
eat with food. Edible film and coating applications among dairy
products are mostly encountered in cheese production. It is possible to
see edible film applications enriched with plant sources in cheeses
such as cheddar cheese, curd cheese, and cottage cheese. It is known
that essential oils, which have strong antimicrobial effects due to the
phenolic substances in their composition, are used effectively in edible
film and coating systems. Many active ingredients such as carvacrol,
cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, p-cymene, thymol and menthol, and
essential oils in their composition are considered within the scope of
flavoring substances that are legal to be used in foods by the EU
because they do not pose a risk to consumer health. One of the studies
on this subject is an edible film-coated production trial containing
myrtle essential oil to provide longer storage in cheddar cheese. In the
study conducted by Saygılı in 2015, although it was stated that the
edible film-coated samples containing myrtle essential oil contained
an excessive level of foreign taste and odor in terms of sensory, the
antimicrobial effect of the myrtle plant was found to be high. In the
study, 2% myrtle plant essential oil showed high antimicrobial activity
against E. coli O157:H7 S. aureus and C. albicans in artificially
contaminated cheddar cheese samples.

3.3. Fermented Dairy Products

Fermented dairy products are dairy products produced as a result of

the fermentation of milk by suitable microorganisms and lowering the
pH value in a way that causes or does not cause coagulation, and that
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contains microorganisms in sufficient numbers, live and actively.

Although there are many reasons why milk is fermented, the main
goal is to extend its shelf life. Furthermore, in response to consumers'
search for new taste experiences, countless traditional fermented milk
products have been revived and globalized over the past two decades.
In addition to the many nutritional effects of fermented milk products,
new dairy products have begun to positively affect health. The interest
in these products, called functional dairy products, is increasing
rapidly day by day. In terms of their health effects, functional dairy
products affect many ailments such as cancer, coronary heart disease,
osteoporosis, and food allergy. The most common use method to add
functional properties to fermented milk products is to enrich the
content by using different additives. In this context, studies in which
some fermented milk products are enriched with medicinal and
aromatic plants are briefly summarized below;

In a study on spicy probiotic yogurt, yogurt and probiotic yogurts with

cardamom, cinnamon, and coconut oleoresin added were produced. It
was determined that the probiotic viability of spice oleoresin in
yogurts was not affected, and the antioxidant capacity of the products
was preserved during four weeks of storage (Illupapalayam et al.,
2014). ChingYun et al. (2009) added extracts of some plants grown in
China to yogurt, and pH, acidity, lactic acid bacteria, sensory
properties, acid and bile resistance of yogurts were investigated during
the fermentation and storage period. They determined that plain
yogurt was preferred more in terms of sensory.
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Amirdivani and Baba (2011) investigated the effects of peppermint

(Mentha piperita), dill (Anethum graveolens), basil (Ocimum
basilicum) on yogurt formation, proteolysis, and inhibition of the ACE
enzyme. They determined that the pH levels of yogurts to which
plants were added decreased faster, o-phthalaldehyde (OPA) peptides
with higher antioxidant activity increased, and they had higher anti-
ACE activity. Yogurt containing mint showed the highest ACE
inhibition activity during the storage period. They stated that
consumers could prefer these yogurts due to their functional
properties.

Sarabi-Jamab and Niazmand (2009) investigated the effects of Mentha

piperita L. and Ziziphora clinopodioides essential oils on the growth
of Lactobacillus acidophilus, which is frequently used in the
production of probiotic yogurts. Although there was no significant
difference in the product between the plant concentrations used, they
determined that the number of starter cultures decreased significantly
during storage. Marhamatizadeh et al. (2011) investigated the effect of
dried mint on the growth of Bifidobacterium bifidum and L.
acidophilus in probiotic milk and yogurt. They explained that
increasing mint concentration had a positive effect on the
development of probiotic bacteria.

Hasneen et al. (2020) added ground forms of turmeric, sage, or

marjoram to yogurt and water extracts at zero (control) and 1%, 2%,
or 3% levels. The addition of turmeric, marjoram, or sage stimulated
acid production and the growth of starter bacteria. Streptococcus
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thermophilus count was always higher than Lactobacillus delbrueckii

subsp. bulgaricus . As a result, it was concluded that fortifying nonfat
yogurts with 1-2% level of the mentioned herbs can meet the intended
health benefits.

Chowdhury et al. (2008) used pre-treated leaves of various plants,

including tulsi (Ocimum sanctum L.), pudina (Mentha arvensis L.),
and coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) in the production of probiotic
yogurts. They observed that the presence of plants in the yogurt did
not affect the probiotic population, and there was no significant
difference in total titratable acidity and pH during storage. However,
compared to the control yogurt without any plant, plant-added yogurts
had higher β-D-galactosidase enzymatic activity, while tulsi-added
yogurt had maximum β-D-galactosidase activity.

Many studies show that adding aloe vera gel to yogurt improves
yogurt's functional properties and therapeutic values. Govindammal et
al. (2017) reported that the addition of 15% aloe vera gel to yogurt
increases the overall acceptability according to the sensory evaluation
results of the products in question. Compared to plain yogurt, the
addition of aloe vera gel increased protein, fiber content,
phytonutrients (such as steroids, anthraquinones, saponins, and
phlorotannins) and showed an improvement in vitamin C. It has also
been observed that the texture of yogurt has been improved.

In another study, cinnamon fortified yogurt was high in phenolic

acids, flavanols, and cinnamaldehyde, and cinnamon fortified yogurt
increased total phenolic content by 34.7%. In vitro digestion of
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cinnamon-fortified yogurt resulted in the release of phenolic

compounds from milk proteins, with the higher recovery of phenolic
compounds in cinnamon-fortified yogurt at the end of digestion. It
was also concluded that adding cinnamon to yogurt significantly
increased free radical scavenging behavior, improved gastrointestinal
stability, and could increase the bioavailability of dietary polyphenols
(Halal and Tagliazucchi, 2018).

Azizkhani and Parsaeimehr (2018) stated that the addition of essential

oils obtained from plants such as mint, basil, and zataria to probiotic
yogurt increases antioxidant activity, antiradical activity, and
consumer acceptability. Similarly, yogurt made with Rosmarinus
officinalis oil (0.14; 0.21; 0.29; and 0.36 g/L) was found to have
improved flavor and texture in addition to microbiological and
physicochemical properties. Srivastava et al. (2015) observed that
plants with high antioxidant properties such as ginger and beetroot,
beneficial for human health, were added to yogurt, and ginger or
beetroot extract (2%) changed the antioxidant properties of herbal
yogurt. The highest antioxidant properties were found in goat milk
yogurt with ginger root/stem addition and with beetroot extract.

Foda et al. (2007) added 0.0%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75% and
1.0%(w/v) turmeric (Curcuma longa) powder to set type yogurt and
evaluated the chemical, rheological and sensory properties of the
product. They concluded that using turmeric in yogurt is a good idea,
but using a smaller amount of turmeric is more acceptable and
resulted rheologically better. Marhamatizadeh et al. (2011)
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investigated the effect of dried mint on the growth of B. bifidum and

L. acidophilus in probiotic milk and yogurt. They explained that
increasing mint concentration had a positive effect on the growth of
probiotic bacteria. Ghalem and Zouaoui (2013) added Rosmarinus
officinalis L. oil to the yogurt at the rates of 0.14; 0.21; 0.29, and 0.36
g/L and stored for 21 days. As a result of the sensory evaluation, the
panelists gave the maximum score in terms of taste, aroma, and
texture to herbal yogurt with 0.14 g/L essential oil added. In addition,
the addition of R. officinalis essential oil improves the quality of
yogurt by decreasing the pH values and dry matter while it increases
titratable acidity, proteins, ash, and fat content. In general, the storage
time did not have any negative effect on the Physico-chemical
properties of yogurt.

Tomar et al. (2021) added ethanol extracts of three different plants

(Mentha piperita L., Ocimum basilicum L., and Hibiscus sabdariffa
L.) to mixed type yogurts at different rates (0.1%, 0.3%, and 0.5%). It
was concluded that adding plant extracts had a positive effect on
yogurt's sensory and functional properties. Gurkan et al. (2019) have
produced four different kinds of yogurt by adding water extract and
powder forms [1.0% and 0.4% (w/w)] of purple basil to milk.
Antioxidant capacity, color and total phenolic contents,
physicochemical and rheological properties of yogurt samples were
measured during the 21-day storage period. No adverse changes were
observed in the yogurt samples' titratable acidity, pH, and hardness
parameters. While the addition of basil powder or water extract did
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not significantly affect the general chemical properties of yogurt, the

use of basil powder positively changed the rheological behavior of the
yogurt gel and contributed positively to the antioxidant activity.

Al-Nawawy et al. (1998) emphasized that Streptococcus thermophilus

and L. bulgaricus bacteria decreased with the addition of thyme oil in
Labneh and yogurt, to which thyme essential oil was added. Kum et
al. (2013) prepared yogurt concentrate fortified with crushed mint
leaves at the rates of 2%, 4%, and 6%. They found that adding a 2%
mint level to yogurt was optimal in all senses. In addition, it has been
suggested that the shelf life of yogurt is ten days at 5˚C and that mint-
flavored yogurt can be used in hamburgers, sandwiches, and other
bakery products. Labneh is generally known as a concentrated yogurt
variety that is very popular in the Middle East. Labneh (23.0% TS)
containing 0.2 ppm of thyme, marjoram, and sage essential oils each
had an extended shelf life (21 days over control) at 5°C, while yeast
and mold growth was observed from day 14 of storage on control
Labneh (without essential oil) when stored at 5°C. Labneh (23.70%
TS) containing 0.3% cinnamon essential oil had a longer shelf life
(i.e., more than eight days) when stored at 6°C compared to the
control product (Thabe et al., 2014).

Tarakci et al. (2011) added some herbs (purslane, dill, parsley, cress,
coriander, arugula, mint) to Labneh as fresh and stored at 7-8°C for 30
days. It was found that the addition of plants caused a decrease in L*
and a* values in color analysis. pH decreased, different mineral
contents were determined, no significant change was observed in
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appearance, color, texture in terms of sensory evaluation, but a

decrease in flavor was observed. Labneh samples containing mint and
parsley were preferred over the others, and it was emphasized that
more studies should be done to provide better physicochemical and
sensory properties in the final product. Roushdy and El-Saadany
(2007) added garlic powder, rosemary, and thyme to yogurt and
Labneh in their study. Therefore, it can be said that by using these
plants, products with improved functional properties can be produced,
Labneh with garlic powder is preferred, and that garlic powder has
positive effects on the shelf life.

Potoroko et al. (2014) investigated the preparation of a functional

kefir beverage enriched with alfalfa extract. After the alfalfa extract
was added to the milk, it was fermented at approximately 20°C for 10-
12 hours. Alfalfa extract, which contains organic and inorganic
compounds, amino acids, mono sugars, phenolic compounds, and
trace elements specific to plant materials, as well as humic and other
biologically active substances that are not commonly found in plant
extracts, affects the fermentation rate, intensifying lactose breakdown
and proteolytic reactions,and making kefir drink dietetic.

Skorkina et al. (2015) created a new formulation using hawthorn

puree and stevia syrup in bio kefir production. Hawthorn puree
contains substances that expand blood vessels, increase heart and
oxygen absorption, heart muscle, and arrhythmia relieving properties.
According to the research, the acidity of bio kefir containing natural
additives increased during shelf life and remained within normal
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ranges. Sarabi-Jamab and Niazmand (2009) investigated the effects of

Mentha piperita L. and Ziziphora clinopodioides essential oils on the
development of L. acidophilus. Although there was no significant
difference in the product between the plant concentrations used, they
determined that starter cultures decreased significantly during storage.

Gabriel- Dănut et al. (2009) developed a new probiotic product called

'Rosalact'. This product is produced from pasteurized milk. This
product is enriched with some plant extracts (rosehip, licorice root)
and produced using the probiotic ABT-5 culture. They investigated
that licorice extract contains carbohydrates, and as a result of the
analysis, it is determined that it contains mono and disaccharides,
polysaccharides, organic acids, essential oils, triterpenoids resins,
steroids (β-sitosterol), phenol carboxylic acids and their derivatives,
coumarins, tannins, higher aliphatic hydrocarbons and alcohols, high
oil Iacids and alkaloids.

In another study, licorice extract and sea buckthorn berries were used
to enrich milk-based beverages. Plant extracts were mixed with milk
and fermented at 42°C for 5 hours using ABY-3 culture (B. lactis, S.
thermophilus, L. acidophilus, and L. bulgaricus). As a result, the final
product is enriched with increased vitamin B1, B2, C, E, K, P, and
flavonoids, folic acid, carotenoids, betaine, choline, coumarins, and
glucose, fructose, and phospholipids, macroelements, and
microelements. In addition, the product had a long shelf life (Ehsani et
al., 2018). Kozłowska et al. (2015) investigated the effect of phenolic
compounds of rosemary, hyssop, nettle, cumin, and lemon balm
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extracts on the growth of L. acidophilus and L. delbrueckii bacteria.

Rosemary extract has been shown to suppress the growth and activity
of bacteria. Lemon balm extract has the maximum amount of
antioxidant substances that extend the shelf life of the product.
Therefore, the authors did not recommend using rosemary as a
functional additive for lactobacillus-containing beverages.
Alternatively, they reported that it could be added to the final product
after fermentation.

Dahi and Lassi are traditional fermented milk products widely

consumed in some countries such as India. Many studies have found
that supplementing lassi and genius drinks with aloe vera (Aloe
barbadensis Miller) improves immune-protective properties,
encourages the growth of probiotic bacteria, and increases health
benefits. Similarly, enriched with ginger (2%), turmeric (1%), and
carrot extracts (15%), lassi helps provide phytochemicals and other
nutrients. The functional benefits of Lassi can be enhanced by the
inclusion of probiotic microorganisms and antioxidant-rich plant
juices, which are the body's primary defense system to neutralize free
radicals and prevent damage.

Shrikhand is a semi-soft, sweet-sour, full-fat dairy product prepared

using lactic fermented curd, and there are studies in which plants and
extracts are used without significant changes in their sensory quality.
Ashwagandha powder was added at a rate of 0% to 0.7% by weight of
chaka (concentrated yogurt obtained by partially draining the whey
from yogurt), and 40% cane sugar was used to produce shrikhand.
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Shrikhand prepared using 0.5% ashwagandha powder had superior

organoleptic properties than the experimental shrikhand containing
0.3% and 0.7% powder and control shrikhand (without herbs). Herbal
Shrikhand exhibited acceptable properties for up to 52 days when
stored in cold weather conditions.

3.4. Cream – Butter

In recent years, with the increasing interest in medicinal and aromatic

plants and the active substances obtained from them, the perception
that the essential oils of these plants or themselves can be added to
dairy products such as butter and cream has created both in consumers
and in the industry. Foods fortified with plants with natural
antioxidant properties are a good alternative, especially for people
with Cardio Vascular Disease (Hussain et al., 2015). Two large
groups, namely terpenes and terpenoids in essential oils, and aromatic
and aliphatic contents play a decisive role in the biological properties
of these substances. In particular, the unique smell and taste of plants
come from terpenes. While they have many different functions in
plants and animals, they are also important as aroma components.
Limonene and citral (both found in lemons), camphor, pinene (pine
trees), eugenol (clove), anethole, thymol, geraniol (rose), and menthol
are the most widely known terpenes. Most essential oils are generally
recognized as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status by the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, the use of these
substances in high amounts for preservative purposes is limited
because they change the organoleptic properties of foods (Karatepe,
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2010). Rosemary, sage, sumac, thyme, cloves, ginger, red pepper, and
fennel plants with high antioxidative properties can be used in various
foods (Karatepe, 2010). In their study, Ayar and Özcan (2001) used
sage, rosemary, and thyme extracts to protect butter from oxidation
during storage and determined that the best preservation was provided
by using the sage extract. Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) and Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis L.) are the most commonly used medicinal
plants to extend the shelf life of butter. These plants have much
stronger antioxidant activity than synthetic antioxidants (Butylated
Hydroxy Anisol [BHA], Butylated Hydroxy Toluene [BHT]) (Özcan,
2003; Estévez et al., 2007). Najgebauer et al. (2009) evaluated the
storage stability of butter in a study in which they added 2% sage or
rosemary as a dried herb to butter prepared from sour cream. They
concluded that adding rosemary herb was more effective in delaying
lipolysis in butter than in sage, but both fortified products increased
oxidative stability through storage more than control butter. Farag et
al. (1990) stated that adding thyme and cumin essential oils to butter
prevents the deterioration of butter stored at room temperature and is
more effective than BHT. A study on the antioxidant effects of thyme
in butter determined that butter containing thyme had strong
antioxidant effects resulting from the plant's thymol, carvacrol, and p-
cemen content (Özkan et al., 2007). Medicinal and aromatic plants
have antimicrobial activity not only against bacteria but also against
yeasts. In a study investigating the effect of using spices to prevent the
development of yeasts that spoil in butter, it was concluded that
marjoram and black cumin could be used as antimicrobial agents
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against yeasts that spoil in butter (Sagdic et al., 2010). In studies

carried out by adding medicinal and aromatic plants to butter or cream
to be used in butter making, the plants themselves have been used in
the form of essential oil or extract. As seen in the studies, the plants
prevent oxidative deterioration, which is effective in the storage
period of butter, with their phenolic compounds, prevents microbial-
induced deterioration with their antimicrobial properties, and extends
the product's shelf life.

3.5. Ice cream

Ice cream is a dairy product, which has a complex physicochemical

system, and which can contain fruit, vegetable oil, and pulp,
functional dietary fibers, probiotic microorganisms, and sweeteners in
the mix, in addition to milk and skimmed milk dry matter, cream,
sugar, stabilizer, emulsifier substances, and forms obtained by
traditional and industrial methods (Arslaner and Salık, 2017). Ice
cream is one of the most consumed dairy products globally but is
often poor in natural polyphenols, antioxidants, and colors. For this
reason, many studies are carried out to increase the nutritional values,
rheological properties, and physical properties of ice cream by using
health-beneficial ingredients such as herbs, plants, and spices. During
the freezing stage, Gabi et al. (2017) added ginger to the mix in four
different ways (dough, juice, sugar, and powder). It was determined
that the addition of ginger juice and pulp decreased the dry matter,
while sugar and powder increased it. The addition of different forms
of ginger reduced the fat and protein content (except powder) and
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects | 377

increased the ash and fiber content (except juice) of the resulting ice
cream. Antioxidant activity and total phenols increased significantly
when different forms of ginger were added. In addition, as a result of
the use of ginger, the volume of ice cream decreased, and the melting
resistance was increased.

Çınar (2015) on the ice cream produced by using lemon balm plant
extract in different ratios, it was determined that the ice cream samples
to which 3% lemon balm plant extract was added had a little negative
effect on the physical and chemical analysis results and got the highest
score in the sensory analysis. This study determined that lemon balm
plant extract could be used as a natural additive in ice cream
production. In a study by Javidi et al. (2016), it was determined that
basil seed gum is used as a surface-active polysaccharide to improve
the rheological properties in low-fat ice cream production used as both
an emulsifier and a stabilizer. At the same time, the use of basil seeds
in ice cream gave positive results in the sensory evaluations made by
the panelists. Karaman and Karacier (2012) found that the phenolic
contents of ice cream samples increased with the use of black tea or
herbal teas in their study in which they added black tea, sage, linden,
and chamomile tea to improve the functional, sensory, and rheological
properties of ice cream. However, when evaluated sensorially, black
tea and herbal tea additions other than chamomile were found to have
lower scores than the control sample. Kumar et al. (2013) found that,
as a result of sensory evaluation of ice creams to which Indian basil
378 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

was added at different rates, basil added at 2 and 3% was more liked
by the panelists.

The addition of medicinal and aromatic substances to ice creams is not

only to improve their functional, physical, sensory, and antimicrobial
properties but also natural colorants are preferred instead of synthetic
colorants used in production. For example, the use of natural
cartamidine, obtained from the yellow pigments of the leaves of the
safflower plant, instead of synthetic dyes, in the production of ice
cream increases the value of these products. (Kaptan and Sivri, 2018).
On the other hand, Manoharan et al. (2012) examined the acceptable
ratio of curcumin to be added to ice cream as a natural colorant and
found that the best curcumin powder level was 0.5%. Although the
strength of aroma components in medicinal and aromatic plants differs
for each plant, more studies are needed to determine the ratios used in
milk desserts such as ice cream.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects | 379

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Saygılı, D. (2015). Mersin Uçucu Yağı İçeren Yenilebilir Film Üretimi ve Kaşar
Peynirinin Muhafazasında Mikrobiyal İnaktivasyona Etkisi. Ege Üniversitesi,
Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İzmir, 98s.
Skorkina, I.A., Tretyakova, E.N., Sukhareva, T.N. (2015). The technology of
biokefir production with natural additives functionality. Technologies of
Food and Processing Industry of AIC – Healthy Food 5(1): 79–83. (In
Russian).
Tarakçı, Z., Temiz, H., Aykut, U., Turhan, S. (2011). Influence of wild garlic on
color, free fatty acids, chemical and sensory properties of herby pickled
cheese. International Journal of Food Properties 14: 287-299.
Temel, M., Tınmaz, A.B, Öztürk, M., Gündüz, O. (2018). Dünyada ve Türkiye’de
tıbbi -aromatik bitkilerin üretimi ve ticareti. KSÜ Tarım ve Doğa Dergisi
21(Özel Sayı): 198-214. (in Turkish)
TEPGE, 2021, Süt ve Süt Ürünleri Durum ve Tahmin Raporu. Tarım ve Orman
Bakanlığı, Yayın No : 331. ISBN: 978-605-7599-70-4
Thabet, H.M., Nogaim, Q.A., Qasha, A.S., Abdoalaziz, O., Alnsheme, N. (2014).
Evaluation of the effects of some plant derived essential oils on shelf life
extension of Labneh. Merit Research Journal of Food Science and
Technology 2(1): 8-14.
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Toker, R., Gölükcü, M., Tokgöz, H. (2015). Tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerin gıda
sanayinde kullanım alanları. TÜRKTOB 4(15): 54-59. (in Turkish)
Tomar, O., Akarca, G., Çağlar, A., İstek, Ö., Gök, V. (2020). The effect of plant
extracts on antioxidant potential, microbial and sensory attributes of stirred
yoghurt. Mljekarstvo 71(1): 35-48.
Turhan, S., Üstün, N.Ş. (2006). Doğal antioksidanlar ve gıdalarda kullanımları.
Türkiye 9. Gıda Kongresi, 24-26 Mayıs 2006, Bolu. (in Turkish)
Türk, M. (2010). Bazı önemli tıbbi bitkilerin kimyasal kompozisyonu ve antioksidan
kapasitelerinin belirlenmesinde sub ve süperkritik akışkanların etkisi.
(Doktora Tezi) Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Adana (in
Turkish)
Türk, M., Giray, E.S. (2020). Yıllık pelinotunun (Artemissia annua L.) kimyasal
kompozisyonu ve antioksidan kapasitesinin belirlenmesinde sub ve
süperkritik akışkanların etkisi. Çukurova Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık
Fakültesi Dergisi 35(3): 631-645.
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Potansiyeli ve Biyoyararlılığı. Research Journal of Biomedical and
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Effects of ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract on digestive enzymes and liver
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 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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CHAPTER 13

ETHNOBOTONICAL ASPECTS OF SOME MEDİCAL

SPECIES IN DÜZCE AND ITS VICINITY

Fatma Çiğdem SAKİNOĞLU ORUÇ1, Assist. Prof. Dr. Deniz ORUÇ2

Sadık Hasan ORUÇ3

1
Torbalı District Directorate of the Ministry of Fodd, Agriculture and Livestocki,
İzmir, Turkey [email protected]
2
Duzce Universty, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Social Work, Duzce,
Turkey, [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9771-3394
3
Phytomax Agriculture Industry and Trade Limited Company, Düzce, Turkey
[email protected]
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1. Introduction

All animals, plants and humans in the nature have been outcomes of a
balanced system. In mythology, plants were regarded as the most
valuable gift that gods bestowed to man. In this sense, all plants were
in the service of human being, whose relation with the plants thereby
began from the time of man's existence (Gezgin, 2006). According to
archaeological findings from the earlier ages, people primarily
benefited from the plants to obtain food and recover health problems
(Koçyiğit, 2005). So, treatment with plants was a healing method as
old as human history. The knowledge, experiences, works and beliefs
passed from generation to generation throughout ages have therefore
led the formation of this asset (Bağcı ve ark. 2006). In 21st century,
many unnatural artificial products, besides medicines have entered in
our daily lives or will enter soon. (Bayram ve ark. 2010). Innovations,
and social and political changes brought by technological
developments in early 20th century caused to rapidly decline the use
of plants as medicine. As well as mass production of the synthetic
drugs in pharmaceutical industry has been also effective on this
reduction (Bayram ve ark. 2010).

The developed countries were mainly oriented to plant resources in

the treatments. A substantial portion of medicines used was of natural
origin. The use rate of natural medicines was reported to be 60% in
developed countries whereas it was around 4% in developing
countries. Besides, approximately 80% of the world population were
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also reported to be using traditional medicine and medicinal plants

(Toksoy ve ark.2010).

The ecological and biological diversities in Turkey, formed by the

combination of features from three old continents such as Europe,
Africa and Asia, left behind the other places on 40o N longitude in the
region. In Turkey, three biogeographical regions, Mediterranean,
Europe-Siberia and Iran-Turan have been observed as being
demonstrations of large climatic and topographical ranges. Each
region has its own endemic species and natural ecosystems (Tan,
2010). Thus, Turkey’ flora harbored many plant ingredients which
constitute the entries of medicines, chemicals, additives and cosmetics
in the developed countries. In terms of diversity, 8,988 plants were
natural and 2,991 species were endemic (Bayram ve ark,
2010,Tan,2010). Turkey hosts 75% of plant species distributed in the
Continental Europe, about one third of which are endemic (Özhatay
ve ark. 1997).

According to 2021 TUIK data, the total area of cereals and other
herbal products is 231 451 337 data, while this area was determined
as 35 587 493 data in fruit, beverage, medicinal and aromatic plants..
In medical and aromatic plant agriculture, the perfumery,
pharmaceutical and spice plants were prioritized. In Duzce, Sakarya,
Kocaeli, Yalova and Bolu, the harvest areas of cereals and other
herbal products were 1 250 424 data while the areas of medical and
aromatic plants were limited to 362072 data (TÜİK, 2021).
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This work was attempted to investigate the plant species used by local
people in Duzce province and its vicinities. In this sense, providing
knowledge about regional names, health effects and other use
proposes of local plants, which are indispensable materials for
pharmaceutical industry and also used as foods, will become valuable
resources for scientific community in future studies.

2. Materials And Methods

This study was conducted in 2021, plant species that used by local
people for foods, medicines and various other purposes were
investigated. The collected plants were identified from Turkish Flora
(Anonim, 2021). During field studies, information about plants’ local
names and their use purposes was provided by agricultural engineers,
Mustafa İlyasoğlu and Emrah Ozan Gülkan from Duzce Provincial
Directorate of Agriculture, by agricultural engineers, Aydın Acar,
Hakan Çetin and Abdullah Şener from Duzce Branch of Agricultural
Engineers, by herbalist Eren Keskin in Duzce Province, by Yasemin
Karslıoğlu, Ercan Sak and Rahmi Aydın from Çilimli district of
Duzce Agriculture Industry, and by Halime Zengin (Beyköy-Duzce
center), Yusuf Med (Beyköy district) Ali Uçan (Konuralp district),
Ozan Altundal (Kaynaşlı district), Selçuk Baycan (Cumayeri district)
and Şafak Çavuş (Gölyaka district) from local community. The
identified plant materials were also searched from other relevant
resources (Akçicek ve Vural, 2003; Bağcı, 2000; Duran, 1998; Işık ve
ark. 1959; İlçim ve Varol, 1996; Koçyiğit, 2005; Tan, 2010;
Yıldırımlı, 1994; Yıldırımlı, 1995; Yıldırımlı, 1991). Below the letters
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of the alphabet are the scientific, family and local names of the plants
studied and information about the health effects or purposes of their
use.

3. Results

Althea officinalis L. (Malvaceae) (Gülhatmi): Its flower tea removes

phlegm, relieves respiratory diseases and abdominal/intestinal colds,
and eliminates complaints from colds and coughs.

Arbutus unedo (Ericaceae) (Dağ çileği, kocayemiş): It has

constipating and germicidal effects. Germicidal feature is particularly
effective in urinary tract infections. Its fruits are also diuretic. 20 g dry
leaves are boiled in 1 L of water and consumed three cups a day. It is
mainly consumed as fresh fruit in Duzce, besides its jam is also made.

Beta vulgaris var. Cicla (Amaranthaceae) (Pazı): It protects from

diabetes and cancer, and strengthens bones. In Duzce, it is consumed
as sautéed and has no special medical use.

Brassica oleraceae L. (Brassicaceae) (Kara lahana): It regulates the

proper functioning of nervous system, and reduces the effects and
occurrence of Alzheimer's and other degenerative nervous system
diseases. It is mainly cooked as meal and soup in Duzce.
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Brassica oleraceae L. Capitata (Brassicaceae) (Lahana): Its

fresh/raw consumption is useful for eyes. It has germicidal and wound
healing effects, and reduces blood sugar. Externally, softened cabbage
leaves are wrapped on the wounds. Besides, leaves are also softened
by iron and put on the region with rheumatic pain. Leaves are replaced
by fresh ones at every 10-12 hours. In addition, its juice passed
through cheesecloth has wormreducing effects.

Carpobrotus edulis (Aizoaceae) (Kazayağı): It removes the intestinal

worms, by benumbing, from body. It is used against skin irritations
and pits. It also improves immune system. In Duzce, it is used as
immune system supporter, besides it is cooked as meal and served as
burek.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. (Brassicaceae) (Çoban çantası): It

lowers blood sugar, and stops teeth and nose bleedings if it is brewed
and consumed like tea. A spoon a day from its boiled water removes
kidney stones. In nose bleeding, it stops if the juice is applied in a few
drops into nose. It is used especially for hemorrhoids in Duzce.
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Castanea L. (Fagaceae) (Kestane): It eliminates physical and mental

fatigue, and provides energy. It is also indispensable for winter
evenings in Duzce.

Cephalaria duzceensis (Lythraceae) (Düzce Pelemir otu): Besides

medical use, extracted oil is used as raw material for linseed oil.

Centaurea yaltirikii (Lythraceae) (Peygamber çiçeği): It is also known

as “mavi kantoron” in Duzce. It increases appetite, facilitates
digestion, reduces rheumatic complaints, gives comfort and
refreshment, has analgesic, anti-inflammatory and diuretic effects,
helps remove kidney sands and eliminate toxic substances, and it is
also useful for eye and Nikris disease.
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Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. subsp. vestitum (Wimmer & Grab.)

Petrak., Compositae (Asteraceae), (Devedikeni): It has urine boosting,
fever reducing and appetizing effects if it is brewed like tea and
consumed before meals. Its fruits are sold under the name of thistle
seeds in herbal stores. In Duzce and its vicinities, it is used as bile
enhancer and against liver diseases; its powder is mixed with honey or
fruits.

(Cnicus benedictus (Asteraceae), (Şevketi bostan): It is an edible wild

plant that is collected by cutting the above-ground parts, thoroughly
peeled and cleared of its thorns, then its rosette leaves and roots are
cooked and consumed as a vegetable. In alternative medicine, it is
used as an antipyretic, strengthening, appetite increaser, diarrhea
suppressant, diuretic, liver cleanser, cell regenerator, healing wounds
and relieving digestive problems. Trials were made in Düzce, and it
has been harvested for 2 years.
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Crocus biflorus (Iridaceae) (İki çiçekli safran): It improves appetite,

strengthens memory, gums and body, relieves nerve weakness,
increases uterine movements, eliminates itchiness and acne on skin,
increases sexual desire with stimulant effect, helps get rid of sands as
prepared paste with honey, has sedative and soothing effects, and is
also useful for cough, bronchitis and asthma, and effective in reducing
menstrual pain.

Corydalis wendelboi (Fumariaceae) (Dağ horozu ibiği): If it is boiled,

sweetened with honey and served before meals, it is useful for
hemorrhoids, and stomach and liver fever, and also cleans intestines
and stomach.

Corylus L. (Betulaceae) (Fındık): It eliminates mental and physical

fatigue, and gives vigority. The nuts consumed in healing periods
enable the wounds to be closed faster and the body to recover more
quickly. Hazelnut oil plays a major role in treatment of kidney
disorders. It helps to remove stones and sand in kidneys much faster
and painlessly, and aids to protect heart and vascular health. However,
patients with high blood pressure are not recommended to consume
too much nuts. In Duzce, its production and consumption are very
high.
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Cynara cardunculus (Asteraceae) (Yabani enginar-kenger): It

strengthens stomach and nerves, expels intestinal worms, prevents
gingivitis, and is also useful for tooth pain and effective against
indigestion. Home-made medicines are obtained using plant roots and
leaves. In Duzce, it is mostly used against fatty liver by boiling plant
leaves.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Poaceae (Gramineae) (Ayrık otu): It

helps remove stones, sand and inflammation in bladder and kidneys if
plant roots are boiled and added with lemon. Besides, juice of boiled
plant is used to stop coughing. It is also useful for rheumatic diseases.

Delphinium fissum (Ranunculaceae) (Anadolu hazeranı): It is also

called as “Bitotu” in the region. Today, its internal use is abandoned
since it is too poisonous. Earlier was known to be sedative in diseases
such as tetanus, rabies and epilepsy. It is not thereby used medically in
Duzce.
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Diospyros kaki (Ebenaceae) (Trabzon hurması-Cennet hurması): It

has diuretic effect. In winter months, it is used as phlegm remover. It
heals cough, flu, cold and stomach ailments like ulcer and gastritis.
Both fresh and dry fruits are consumed in Duzce.

Ficus carica L. (Moraceae) (İncir): If dried figs are boiled or taken as

syrup, it has laxative effect. Its milk is used externally to treat warts.
By daily application, warts disappear over time. Mash from fresh
leaves is used externally ripening and piercing the abscess. Dried fig
water softens the chest and expectorates the phlegm.

Hordeum vulgare (Poaceae) (Arpa): Barley juice is used as natural

medicine in treatment of eczema, scabies, fungus, various itchy and
skin diseases, muscle sores, pulmonary tuberculosis, urinary burns,
kidney sores and many other diseases.

Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae) (Ceviz): Dry leaves are boiled with

some water and consumed. This regulates blood sugar and bathing
with this water also relaxes muscles. Fresh and dried leaves are added
to warm bath water to make the skin beautify. It increases appetite,
gives strength and cleans blood. In Duzce and its vicinities, it is
especially given to children in order to improve brain development. It
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is also used as cholesterol lowering agent by consuming fruits, along

with its soaking water, in the morning.

Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae) (Marul): Lettuce has almost same health

effects like other cultivars. Because it is an effective iron deposit, it
strengthens the body against anemia and hair loss caused by iron
deficiency. Besides, iron also helps protect blood and vascular health.

Lamium garganicum L. Lamiaceae (Labiatae) (Ballıbaba): As

blooming started, plants are collected and dried in the shade. It is
useful for constipation, wounds and cold. In particular, its brewed tea
is used against bed-wetting problems in the elderly.

Lathyrus undulatus (Lythraceae) (Nazende-yabani bezelye): It reduces

stomach cancer risk, strengthens immune system, regulates blood
sugar, facilitates digestion, and is also useful for digestive system. It is
an endemic species, however there is no medical use in Duzce.
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Lavandula angustifolia (Lamiaceae) (Lavender): It has a relaxing

effect on the nervous system. It is an antiseptic that can be applied
directly to the skin to heal wounds and burns. The oil obtained is
antispasmodic, aromatic, carminative, gallbladder, diuretic, sedative,
sedative, stimulant, stomachache reliever and tonic. It is a very
effective restorative. It is good for headache. It can be added to bath
water. It is a powerful antidote to snake venom. For the first time this
year, it was harvested in Düzce as a result of the trials.

Lonicera caucasica (Caprifoliaceae) (Doğu Kafkas hanımelisi): Its tea

is useful for colds, bronchitis and shortness of breath. Consumption of
boiled leaves, shells or dried flowers stops coughing, and is good for
stomach discomfort and kidney swellings.

Lythrum anatolicum (Lythraceae) (Anadolu aklar otu): It has blood

clotting and astringent effects. It is used as mash prepared from plant
leaves.

Malus sylvestris Mill. (Rosaceae) (Elma): Healing cold-caused cough

and throat irritations, whole apple is cooked to soften on the stove, and
its hot shells are peeled off and eaten. Apple juice is useful for
diarrhea. Besides, apple cooked in the cinders is also consumed for
goiter.

Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae (Ebegümeci): Its flowers stop

coughing. Mash prepared from fresh leaves -in cheesecloth- is applied
on the skin to relieve the pain of abscesses and sores. Its leaves are
consumed as fresh vegetable and also cooked. In Duzce, it is mostly
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used in treatments of stomach diseases. Its tea is useful for cold and
bronchitis, stops coughs, and prevents nausea and vomiting.

Mentha aquatica L., Lamiaceae (Labiatae) (Toros nanesi): Its juice

from boiled leaves is used for nausea, gas releasing in stomach and
nerve soothing. It prevents cheesemaking if it is put on the fresh milk.
It is chewed with Peganum harmala (üzerlik) getting rid of hiccups. If
some mint is boiled with lemon and consumed like tea, it is useful for
stomach burn and sour. In Duzce and its vicinities, it is most
commonly used for dental inflammation and against colds.

Muscari auchieri (Asparagaceae) (Dağ sümbülü-kedi nanesi): It is

used for stress, insomnia, regla cramps and intestinal discomforts.

Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae) (Virjinia tütünü): Nicotine causes

different stimuli in human brain, thereby its effects are diverse and
complex. It increases bowel and stomach movements, and gastric
emptying, consequently it triggers diarrhea. It was widely cultivated
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until beginning of 2000s in Duzce but today it is not grown anymore.

There is no medical use because it is so damaging than usefulness.

Ocimum basilicum L. Lamiaceae, (Labiatae) (Reyhan otu): Its seeds

are used to stop coughs, and are also useful for indigestion and
dizziness. It is not used medically in Duzce but used as spice in salads
and soups.

Ononls spinosa L. (Leguminosae) (Yandak kökü-Kayışkıran kökü): It

is used as urine enhancer and stone remover. Externally, it is also used
in treatments of eczema and similar skin diseases due to its antiseptic
and wound healing effects. In Duzce, it is mostly used internally in
treatments of stomach and intestinal wounds by drinking 2-3 cups a
day.

Oryza L. (Poaceae) (Kasaba Pirinci): It is a high energy source. Rice

bran oil can be used as massage oil because it bears skin softening
effect. In Duzce, it is an indispensable dish for meals.
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Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) A.W.Hill., Apiaceae, (Umbelliferae)

(Maydanoz): Mash of plant leaves is applied on the inflamed wounds.
It is chewed to swallow getting rid of onion and garlic smell. In
Duzce, its most widespread use is to drink juice from boiled leaves
and stems at frequent intervals to reduce the kidney and bladder stone
and sand.

Platanus occidentalis (Platanaceae) (Kavlan-çınar yaprağı): It is useful

for joint calcification, rheumatic disorders, and waist and neck hernia.
In Duzce, it is mostly consumed as tea to treat rheumatic disorders.

Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae) (Semizotu): It is good for

constipation problems. It is particularly useful in diabetic patients. It
aids in removal of kidney stones. In Duzce, it is highly consumed as
sautéed or cooked as meal.

Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae) (Turpotu): Its leaves are the best cure
for iron deficiency. It is used for removing urine, increasing appetite,
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strengthening liver and gums, reducing stone and sand, softening

chest, expelling phlegm, improving nervous system, insomnia, sexual
power and semen, facilitating digestion, and is also useful for kidney
and gall bladder inflammation and sand, rheumatic, sciatica and joint
pains, asthma and shortness of breath, bronchitis, and mouth sores. It
is usually consumed in salads.

Rosa canina (Rosaceae) (Kuşburnu-gül burnu): It supports immune

system against colds and flu. In Duzce, its tea is used against bone
losses and colds.

Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiaceae) (Biberiye): It has more germicidal

effect than antibacterial products on the skin because of its deep
penetration property. It is a diuretic and removes menstrual blood. In
Duzce, its tea is consumed for losing weight.

Rubus canescens DC. var. Canescens (Rosaceae) (Böğürtlen): Its juice

from boiled roots is used to remove kidney and bladder sand, and also
used for diabetes, hemorrhoids and urine removal. Mash prepared
from smashed leaves is applied on eyes in the eye pains. In a belief by
folk, if plant branches are hung on the door, no evil eye, magic and
amulet can effect to that home community. Its cultured species started
to be newly cultivated in Duzce and its vicinities, however its fresh
consumption as fruit is at forefront rather than medical use.
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Salvia officinalis (Laminaceae) (Sage): Today, it is mostly used

internally and externally due to its tonic, potent, antiseptic (in throat
and nose diseases) and stimulating effect. Age herb has been taken
since 2019 by making trials in Düzce.

Sempervivum armenum (Crassulaceae) (Gelin parmağı): Its leaves are

consumed raw. It is also useful for wounds externally. However, there
is still no medical use in Duzce.

Seseli resinosum (Apiaceae) (Horoz Gözü): It is usually considered as

stimulant and strengthener, and has also facilitating effect in digestion.
It is also endemic to Duzce, however its use is not reported.
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Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae) (Hardal): It is very good energy and

magnesium source. It helps relieve hardening problems in muscles and
respiration disorders, reduces joint pains and diabetic risk, removes
phlegm and toxic agents, prevents tumor formation, pneumonia,
cardiovascular disease development, asthma and spot baldness,
alleviates pains in regla period, regulates metabolism, aids in body fat
decrease, supports the activities of blood vessels, immune and
digestive systems, and weight control, eliminates drowsiness and
weakness, has treatment properties for skin diseases like psoriasis and
contact dermatitis, relaxes nerves, protects skin and hair health, delays
aging effects, regulates cholesterol, and functions as pain reliever. In
Duzce, its seeds are mostly used for restless legs syndrome. Sorghum
bicolor var.

Saccharatum (Poaceae) (Şeker darısı): It is known to be a high energy

source, which is used in sugar production being alternative to the
sugar beet. In Duzce, it is prepared as jam as well as its seeds are used
as animal food.
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Spinacia oleracea (Amaranthaceae) (Ispanak): It facilitates weight loss

and is also useful for digestive system. Its abundant vitamin A content
is a source of healing for many diseases, making significant
contributions especially for vision improvement and eye health. It is
effective in wide ranges from the protection of bones to the health of
blood cells. It is highly used as a fry or burk.

Taraxacum officinale Weber, Compositae (Asteraceae) (Karahindiba):

It has diuretic effect and increases breast milk. Teeth can be cleaned
with the milk leaked from freshly broken sprouts. Its ground roots can
be also added in coffee. In Duzce and its vicinities, it is used for fatty
liver.

Tilia argentea Desf. ex DC. ( Tiliaceae) (Ihlamur): Its tea softens

chest, eliminates coughs and expectorates phlegm. It is useful for
colds and flu. Its hot consumption sweats, relaxes and causes sleep.
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Chewing barks is good for high blood pressure. In Duzce, it is widely

used against colds.

Thlaspi Jaubertii (Brassicaceae) (Batı Karadeniz Akçiçeği): It

facilitates digestion, eliminates constipation, softens chest and helps to
stop coughs. It has emetic properties and is also used in rheumatic
pains. However, there is no medical use in Duzce.

Thymus longicaulis C. Persl., Lamiaceae, (Labiatae) (Kekik): Its tea is

useful for asthma, bronchitis, stomach discomforts, gum irritation and
diarrhea. In coughing and upper respiratory tract inflammation, its tea
should be consumed and gargling be done. Its tea also relieves the
painful cramps in menstruation and regulates menstrual bleeding.

Trachystemon orientalis (Boraginaceae) (Hodan, Galdirek, Kaldırık,

Odan otu, Kalduruk, Galdirik): It has diuretic effect and opens urinary
tract. It is a good expectorant especially for smokers and also believed
to be useful for throat-tonsillitis inflammation. In Duzce, it is widely
cooked as meal and prepared as pickle.
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Trifolium pratence (Fabaceae) (Kırmız yonca): Flower groups are

used in treatment of respiratory organ diseases.

Triticum vulgare (Poaceae) (Buğday): Fiber foods are the basis of a

healthy diet. Bran removed from wheat grain is usually consumed
with foods like corn flakes. Cookies made from whole wheat flour
support the proper intestinal movement and prevents constipation.

Urtica pilulifera L. (Urticaceae) (Isırgan): Its tea is good for stomach,

intestine and kidney diseases. Young sprouts are eaten cooked like
spinach. It regulates menstruation bleeds. It is also thought that
consumption of its seeds is good for cancer diseases.

Vitis Labrusca L. İsabella (Vitaceae) (Kara üzüm- muhacir üzümü): It

strengthens immune system, provides quick energy, promotes kidney
and liver without damaging stomach, melts fats, makes body resistant
to viruses, accelerates gut metabolism, shows the skin fresh and alive,
and prevents inflammation in allergies and calcification. The cream,
which is produced from grape by a private firm in Duzce, is used in
delaying skin wrinkles. As well as, cyme vinegar is also produced
from grape and helps to lose weight.
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Zea mays L. Poaceae (Gramineae) (Mısır): Fresh corncobs have

diuretic effect. Corn tassel tea helps to lose weight. It also helps the
child and elderly who wet his/her bed.

4. Conclusion

The replacement of pharmaceutical treatments with medicinal plants

not discussed. However, it is clear that plants have some advantages
over synthetic drugs because they contain biologically active
substances. These active substance are easily metabolized by human
body, compared to synthetic materials, as they are products from the
metabolism of a living organism (Bağcı ve ark. 2006). Thus,
biological activities of those active substances in medicinal plants
should be investigated. In addition, research on the subject takes more
attention since the active substances extracted from herbal plants are
cheaper than the ready-made drugs. However, unfortunately, studies
have demonstrated that Turkey could not show enough improvement
in the medicinal plant agriculture, despite the fact that it is an
agricultural country. For this reason, plants of medical importance
have been started to be researched in our country, especially by
examining the plants in Düzce and its surroundings, but they could not
be brought to the sector at a sufficient rate. In this study, the plants in
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Düzce and its surroundings were examined, and their local names and
various usage areas among the people were compiled. It is hoped that
present work will pave the way for further ethnobotanical studies on
the subject.
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5. Refrences

Akçiçek, E., Vural, M. (2003) Kumar Mountain (Afyon) and some of the
surrounding plants have their local names and ethnobotanical features, Ot
Sistematik Botanik Derg, 10, 2, 151- 162.
Bağcı, Y. (2000) Ethnobotanical features of Aladağlar (Yahyalı, Kayseri) and its
surroundings, Ot Sist. Boat. Derg. 7, 1, 89-94.
Bağcı,Y., Savran, A., Dural, H. (2006) Local Names and Ethnobotanical Features of
Pozantı (Adana) and Some Plants in Its Environment, S Ü Fen Ed Fak Fen
Dergisi, KONYA, Sayı 27 (2006) 77- 8.
Bayram, E., Kırıcı, E., Tansi, S., Yılmaz, G., Arabacı, O., Kızıl, S., Telci, İ.(2010)
Possibilities of Increasing Production of Medical and Aromatic Plants, Ziraat
Mühendisliği VII. Teknik Kongresi, Bildiriler Kitabı-1, 11-15,Ocak 2010,
Say. 437-457, Ankara.
Duran, A. (1998) The local names and ethnobotanical characteristics of some plants
in Akseki (Antalya) Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi, 5, 1, 77-92.
Gezgin, D. (2006) Plant Mythos. Sel Publishing.
Anonim (2021). Türkiye Kültür Portalı, Düzce,
https://www.kulturportali.gov.tr/turkiye/duzce/TurizmAktiviteleri/duzcenin-
endemk-btk-potansyeller, (Date of access:21.08.2021)
TÜİK (2021). Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu,
https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Search/Search?text=Parf%C3%BCmeri, (Date of
access:15.08.2021)
Işık, S., Gönüz, A., Arslan, Ü., Öztürk, M. (1959) Ethnobotanical characteristics of
species in Afyon province, Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi, 2, 1; 161-166.
İlçim, A., Varol, A.(1996) The ethnobotanical characteristics of some plants in
Hatay and K. Maraş (Turkey)Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi, 3, 1; 69-74.
Keskin, M., Alpınar, K. (2002) An ethnobotanical research on Kışlak (Yayladağı-
Hatay) Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi, 9, 2, 91-100.
Koçyiğit, M. (2005) An Ethnobotanical Research in Yalova, Graduate Thesis,
Istanbul University Institute of Health Sciences.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 417

Özhatay, N., Koyuncu, M., Atay, S., Byfield, A. (1997) A Study on the Trade of
Natural Medical Plants of Turkey
Sayar, A., Güvensen, A., Özdemir, F., Öztürk, M. (1995) The ethnobotanical
properties of some species in Mugla (Turkey) Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi,
2, 1; 151-160.
Tan A. (2010) Turkey Food and Agriculture Situation of Plant Genetic Resources
Turkey Second Country Report on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of
Plant Resources for Food and Agriculture. www.pgrfa.org/gpa/tur/docs
/turkey2_tur.pdf.
Toksoy D., Bayramoğlu M. and Hacisalihoğlu S. (2010) Usage and the economic
potential of the medicinal plants in Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey.
Journal of Environmental Biology _September, 2010.
Yıldırımlı, Ş.(1994) The trees and shrub types of Munzur Mountains (Erzincan-
Tunceli) and their usage values, Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi, 1, 1; 23-40.
Yıldırımlı, Ş.(1985) The local plant names of Munzur Mountains (Erzincan-Tunceli)
and the use of some of them, Doğa Bilim Dergisi, Seri A2, 9, 3, 593-597.
Yıldırımlı, Ş. (1991) Medical and Industrial Plants of the Bolkar Mountains,
Symposium on Medical and Industrial Plants of Fırat Basin, Fırat Üniv.
Yayınları, 83- 102 Ankara, Turkey.
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 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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CHAPTER 14

THE EFFECT OF SOWING DATES ON GROWTH AND

YIELD PARAMETERS OF BLACK CUMIN (Nigella sativa L.)
CULTIVARS IN KIRŞEHIR SEMI-ARID CONDITIONS

Assoc. Prof. Dr. İsmail DEMİR1

1
Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Field Crops,
Kırşehir, Turkey. Orcid ID:0000-0002-8950-5253
E-mail:[email protected]
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INTRODUCTION

Black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) is native in South Europe, East

Mediterranean, Middle East and Western Asia, and also annual
herbaceous seed spice and medicinal crop belonging to the family
Ranunculaceae. It is known that black cumin has been used since
ancient times (Yimam, Nebiyu, Mohammed, & Getachew, 2015). The
indicative of its use since ancient times black cumin seeds was
discovered in Tutankhamun’s tomb in the Valley of the Kings. It was
used by Hippocrates (460-370 BC), who is considered the founder of
modern medicine, to strengthen the liver and relieve digestive system
complaints (Ermumcu & Şanlıer, 2017). It is also mentioned that the
seeds of the plant were used by Hippocrates for snake and scorpion
bites and skin rashes, head inflammations and colds (Majid, 2018). It
is seen that the black cumin plant is also used in Ibn Sina's book called
'Canon medicinae'. In the book, it has been reported that this plant has
a positive effect against lethargy and low resistance, stimulate the
metabolism and to relieve asthenia, lethargy and accelerates
metabolism (Ceylan, 1997). Nigella sativa has been called by many
different names in different regions. The seeds and oil of nigella
sativa, known as black seed, black cumin, have been used in folk
medicine for a long time, especially by the people of the Middle and
Far East. Most common uses for illness including asthma,
hypertension, infections, dysentery, pain, and gastrointestinal
problems etc. (Al-Rowais, 2002; Salem, 2005; Schleicher & Saleh,
1998).
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Nigella sativa is a rather pilous annual flowering plant grows at 20-90

cm tall with finely divided leaves; the flowers are white, yellow, pink,
pale blue, or pale purple colour, with 5-10 petals. The fruit of black
cumin is a large and inflated capsule consists of 3-7 united follicles
with each containing several seeds. (Goreja, 2003). N. sativa seeds are
2-3 mm long, 1.5-2 mm wide and 1 mm thick, with 3 surfaces, non-
matte black. When the seeds are rubbed, they have a sharp smell and
the weight of a thousand grains varies between 1.9-2.6 g. The diploid
chromosome number is 2n=2x=12 and it has a high rate of cross-
pollination. The biggest pollinator factor in pollination is insects,
especially honeybees. Black cumin reproduces with itself and forms a
fruit capsule which consists of many white trigonal seeds becomes
black colour in maturity phase (Schleicher & Saleh, 1998; Telci,
1995).

Chemical composition of black cumin; varies according to the harvest

season, variety, climate and growing region of the plant (Ermumcu &
Şanlıer, 2017; Güllü & Gülcan, 2013; Heshmati & Namazi, 2015;
Sultan et al., 2009). The N. sativa seeds, depending on the variety and
grown region, contain a yellowish volatile oil (0.01%–0.5%), a fixed
oil (20%–40%), proteins, saponin, terpenoids, quinones (such as
thymoquinone, nigellone, and thymohydroquinone), minerals (such as
iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc and copper (1.79%–
3.44%)) and vitamins (vitamin A, B1, B2, B6 and C) thiamine, niacin,
pyridoxine and folate (Güllü & Gülcan, 2013; Salem, 2005; Sultan et
al., 2009). Black cumin seeds contain other ingredients, including
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nutritional components such as carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, mineral

elements, and proteins, including eight of the nine essential amino
acids (Ghosheh, Houdi, & Crooks, 1999; Salem, 2005). Nigella sativa
can be used in various forms, as a powder, oil or extract in traditional
treatment (Ermumcu & Şanlıer, 2017; Heshmati & Namazi, 2015;
Salem, 2005).

Thymoquinone, which is one of the most important bioactive

components of N. sativa and is responsible for its many biological
effects, was first synthesised in 1959 and it was reported that
thymoquinone exists as a volatile oil in a proportion of 18.4%–24.0%
(Ali & Blunden, 2003; Yüncü, Şahin, Bayat, & İbrahim, 2013).
Nigella sativa and its active component thymoquinone have positive
effects on health, and their mechanism of action depends on the type
of disease (Ermumcu & Şanlıer, 2017; Salem, 2005). The other use of
N. sativa seeds is as seasoning for foodstuffs like bread, donut and
pastry, especially widespread among Turkish people (Baydar, 2009;
İlisulu, 1992). For this reason, the interest in black cumin cultivation
is increasing in Turkey, especially in the Central Anatolian region.
Although the consumption of black cumin is high in the world and in
Turkey, it is made especially from regional populations in the
cultivation of the plant, and the low number of registered varieties is
an important research problem. There are also few studies with the
populations of the plant in order to obtain high yield and quality
products. However, the combined effects of growing factors on yield
and oil rate have not been examined in Kırşehir (Turkey). The aim of
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present study was to evaluate the effect of sowing times of different

black cumin cultivar’s yield and yield parameters and some quality
characters of the seeds such as oil content.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

This study, in which the appropriate sowing time and variety of black
cumin (Nigella sativa L.) were determined, was carried out for 2 years
in the 2019-2020 vegetation period in Kırşehir Ahi Evran University
Faculty of Agriculture Research and Application Field. This
experimental field in Kırşehir province is located at 39.15° Northern
latitude and 34.11° Eastern longitude at 1014 meters above sea level.

Table 1. Soil properties of the experimental field at 0-30 and 30-60 cm depth
Soil parameter 0-30 cm depth 30-60 cm depth

Saturation (%) 55 55
pH 7.59 7.63
Soil EC (mmhos/cm) 0.52 0.56
CaCO3 % 27.9 28.39
Phosphor (P2O5 kg/da) 2.14 2.29
Organic Matter (%) 1.81 1.64
Potassium (K2O kg/da) 66.62 51.47
Total salt (%) 0.02 0.02

Experimental areas soil has a clay-loam structure, and it is poor in

organic matter. It is alkaline character, calcareous and non-saline. The
amount of phosphorus of soil is sufficient and rich in potassium
content.
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The meteorological data collected from Meteorological Service of

Kırşehir which was 1.5 km away from the experimental area for two
years period (Table 2).

Table 2. Meteorological data of the study area

Mean Temperature Relative Humidity
Total Precipitation (mm)
(°C) (%)
1980- 1980- 1980-
2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020
2020 2020 2020
January 42.2 42.0 44.3 0.8 1.2 -0.1 79.3 71.2 79.0
February 42.8 60.9 31.6 4.2 2.5 1.3 71.4 73.1 74.1
March 10.2 15.4 36.7 6.3 8.0 5.6 56.4 61.6 67.2
April 29.0 25.3 42.4 9.7 10.8 10.9 64.0 55.2 63.3
May 17.1 42.1 45.6 17.5 15.9 15.4 52.7 56.6 61.3
June 84.7 38.3 36.4 21.8 20.6 19.7 56.1 49.3 55.5
July 8.7 9.7 8.9 22.4 25.6 23.3 47.5 41.1 48.9
August 59.7 8.8 23.4 24.0 23.4 49.9 35.5 48.1
Septembe 21.3 7.9 14.5 19.2 22.8 19.1 49.0 43.2 51.6
r
October 1.1 9.1 30.4 16.0 17.1 13.1 52.8 45.7 62.7
Novembe 30.4 20.3 41.6 8.5 6.5 6.3 60.6 64.1 72.4
r
Decembe 61.9 47.1 3.9 6.8 2.0 80.8 62.0 79.0
r
Total/
409.1 271.0 388.2 12.8 13.5 11.7 60.0 54.9 63.6
Mean

While the total amount of precipitation was 409.1 mm in 2019, it was

271.0 mm in 2020. Considering the growing period of black cumin, it
was 149.7 mm in 2019 and 130.8 mm in 2020. Even though there was
a significant difference between years in total annual precipitation,
there was no significant difference in black cumin growing period.
Both 2019 and 2020 were warmer than long-term monthly average
temperature and 2020 was warmer than 2019. Relative humidity
values, however, ranged between 35.5% (August 2020) and 64.4%
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(April 2019) and the mean relative humidity of 2020 growing period
was dryer then 2019 and long term mean (Table 2).

Experimental materials: Çameli black cumin cultivar was obtained

from Eskişehir Transitional Zone Agricultural Research Institute and
Burdur black cumin population from Burdur farmer. This cultivar and
population of black cumin were selected as it was widely produced in
the country.

Treatment and experimental design: The experiment consisted of two

kind of cultivars (Çameli and Burdur) and five levels of sowing dates
(1st and 15th March, 1st and 15th April, and 1st May). These sowing
dates were chosen based on climate and soil conditions of Kırşehir.
Treatments were laid out in Randomized Complete Split Block Design
(RCBD) with three replications. Main plots were cultivars and
subplots were sowing date.

All parcels fertilized phosphorus at 60 kg P2O5 ha as triple super

phosphate at sowing time. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied in two parts,
one half nitrogen fertilizer (50 kg/ha N) Urea (%46N) at first sowing
time, and the rest of the nitrogen (50 kg/h N) was given in the form of
ammonium nitrate (33%) during the stem elongation.

In the study, seeds were planted with the calculation of 10 kg per

hectare. Hoeing was done for the purpose of controlling weeds when
the plants had 3-4 leaves, and in case of new weed, weed control was
carried out every 15 days. Harvesting was carried out by hand
following at full maturity.
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Data were recorded on some growth, yield and quality parameters

including emergence, flowering and harvest date, plant height (cm),
number of branches (branches/plant), number of capsules
(capsules/plant), number of seeds in the capsule (seed/capsule),
thousand seed weight (g), seed yield (kg/ha), harvest index (%), crude
oil rate (%) and oil yield (kg/ha) were recorded on randomly selected
twenty plants and plot basis depending on the traits to be measured.

Days to emergence: The number of days elapsed between date of

sowing and date of 75% emergence in each plot was computed and
expressed as average number of days to emergence.

Days to 50% flowering: The number of days elapsed from sowing to

date of 50% flowering was computed and expressed as average
number of days to flowering.

Plant height (cm): The distance from the soil level to the top of plant
at physiological maturity stage from twenty randomly selected plants
in each plot. The values measured in centimetres are expressed as
mean values.

Number of branches per plant: The primary branches on main stem of

randomly selected twenty plants were counted and averaged

Number of capsules per plant: On plant basis, number of capsules in

the 20 randomly selected plants counted from each plot was
determined and averaged.
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Number of seeds per capsule: The number of seeds in 20 randomly

selected capsules from each plot was counted on individual capsules
basis and average was expressed as number of seeds per capsules.

1000 seed weight (g): It was calculated by counting 100 seeds from
each plot four times and weighing them on a 0.001 sensitive balance
and multiplying the average weight found by 10.

Seed yield per hectare (kg): Seeds separated from all plants in the
harvest area of the plot were weighed, seed yields were determined,
and these values were calculated as seed yields by converting them to
hectare over the plot area.

Harvest index (%): Harvest index was calculated by dividing seed

yield by the total biological yield. Means expressed in percentage.

Crude oil rate (%): Seed samples from each plot were milled and 5 g
of sample was weighed for extraction and placed in cartridges. It was
extracted with hexane for 4 hours in a Soxhlet extraction device and
the dry weight was determined in the oven as a result of the extraction.
Predetermined moisture rates, fat percentages of weight loss before
and after extraction were determined. Except for the predetermined
moisture rates, the % oil ratios of the weight losses before and after
extraction were determined.

Oil yield (kg/ha): Oil yields per hectare were calculated by using plot
yield and crude oil ratios.

The obtained data were subjected to variance analysis in MSTAT-C

package program according to the split plots trial method in
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randomized blocks (Russell, 1986). The differences between the

applications were evaluated by grouping according to Duncan
(P<0.01) multiple comparison test (Düzgüneş, Kesici, Kavuncu, &
Gürbüz, 1987).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Growth components recorded during the two-years research and

overall statistical analyses results showed that there were significant
(p<0.01) effects of sowing date (Table 3).

Table 3. Analysis of variance and mean comparison of days to emergence,

flowering, and maturity.
Source DF Emergence Flowering Maturity
Year (Y) 1 3.75ns 38.02ns 3.27ns
Replication 2 1.13ns 22.67ns 5.42ns
Cultivar (A) 1 18.15* 56.07* 11.27ns
Y*A 1 0.15ns 1.67ns 1.35ns
Error 1 1 1.5 5.27 3.13
Sowing date (B) 4 484.93** 1064.9** 3623.43**
Y*B 4 0.67ns 5.33ns 1.77ns
A*B 4 1.23ns 3.57ns 2.32ns
Y*A*B 4 0.57ns 1.33ns 3.10ns
Error 32 0.96 2.26 3.82
CV (%) 4.95 2,05 1,56
Year
2019 20.07 69.8 126.5
2020 19.57 68.47 126.13
Cultivars
Çameli 19.27 b 72.17 b 125.37
Burdur 20.37 a 74.10 a 124.53
Sowing Date
SW1 (1st March) 28.75 a 85.83 a 145.67 a
SW 2 (15th March) 23.08 b 79.33 b 137.67 b
SW 3 (1st April) 19.42 c 71.17 c 124.50 c
SW 4 (15th April) 14.75 d 66.67 d 114.33 d
SW 5 (1st May) 13.08 e 62.67 e 102.50 e
LSD 1.09 2.17 2.82
*: significant at the 5% level, **: significant at the 1% level, ns: not significant.
Means followed by the same letter(s) in a column are not significantly different.
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DF= degrees of freedom; CV= coefficient of variation; LSD= least significant

difference SW= Sowing date.

Significant variations were observed in emergence day of cultivars by

sowing dates. Cultivar Çameli had early emergence period then
Burdur genotype. According to the change in sowing date, the
emergence period of black cumin changed between 13.08 and 28.75
days (Table 1). It is clear from the mean values of the data that crop
sowed on 1st March took maximum days to emergence, while plots
sown on 1st May took minimum days to emergence. In other words,
while early sowing date resulted in late emergence, late sowing
resulted in early emergence. High temperature during late sowing
could be the possible reason for fewer days to emergence in case of
1st May sowing.

It was determined that emergence day differences were 5 days

between the first sowing date and the second sowing date, 4 days
between the 2nd sowing time and the 3rd sowing date, 5 days between
the 3rd and 4th sowing dates, and lastly and minimum time difference
(1 day) between the 4th and 5th sowing dates.

Figure 1. Daily temperature anomaly and emergence period of sowing dates.

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The average air temperature is calculated from the date of sowing to

the emergence and the emergence day of 1st sowing date (1st March)
was 28 days with an average 7.4 °C/day, the 2nd sowing date (15 th
March) was 23 days with an average 7.9 °C/days, the 3rd sowing date
(1st April) was 19 days with an average 9.4 C/day, the 4th sowing
date (15 th April) was 14 days with an average 10.0 °C/day and 5th
sowing date (1st May) was 13 days with an average 13.1°C/day
(Figure 1). Among all environmental factors, temperature has a very
important role in seed germination and seedling growth (Steinmaus,
Prather, & Holt, 2000). The germination process starts when seeds
received a significant amount of heat. Below this temperature
threshold that is known as the seed’s base temperature (Elias,
Copeland, McDonald, & Baalbaki, 2012) there can be no seed
germination (Bewley, Bradford, Hilhorst, & Nonogaki, 2013). In
germination period, base temperature of black cumin was considered
as 5.5 °C (Ghamarnia, Miri, & Ghobadei, 2014). The number of days
which daily mean temperature is 5.5 °C and below were calculated.
Despite of the daily mean temperature differences between 1st and
2nd sowing period was 0.4 C, the emergence date was 5 days more
than 2nd sowing. This differences related to the number of the base
temperature days. The first sowing date (1st March) had 9 days, and
second sowing date (15 th March) had 5 days below the base
temperature of two years (2019 and 2020) mean.

Flowering day of black cumin cultivars significantly effected from

sowing dates (P<0.01) and cultivars (P<0.01). Days to flowering
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decreases with delay in sowing. More days to flowering (85.83) were

recorded in plot sown on 1th March while fewer days to
flowering (62.67) were recorded in plot sown on 1th May (Table
3). Early sowed black cumin had more time for vegatative growth up
to 57 days in March sowing, whereas, this period reduced to 49 days
in mid april and may sowing.

Maturity period was significantly (P<0.01) effected from sowing date

of black cumin. As with the emergence and flowering periods, the
maturation period was shorter in late sowings. The longest maturity
days (145,67) were recorded in plot sown on 1th March while the
lowest maturity days (102,50) were recorded in plot sown on 1th
May of research (Table 3). Early planted black cumin had more time
after flowering for seed fiiling and maturity up to 60 days, whereas,
this period reduced to 40 days after mid april and may sowing.

Plant height was significantly affected by cultivars (P<0.05) and

sowing dates (p<0.01) (Table 4). Çameli cultivar was higher than
Burdur genotype. Plant height drastically decreased from sowing date
of 1st March to 1st May. Maximum plant height was 37.25 cm
recorded in 1st March sowing parcels. The lowest plant height was
19.50 cm obtained in plots sown on 1st May. Plant height decreased
with delayed sowing date was obtained and lowest plant height on last
sowing date (1st May) during the both year. Acording to the analysed
plant height data, the tallest plant was 37.25 cm sown on 1st March
parcel which was 47.7, 37.6, 21.1 and 6.7 per cent higher than plant
sown at 1st May, 15th and 1st April and 15th March respectively. The
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height of black cumin plant ranges from 30 to 80 cm (Baydar, 2009;

Baytop, 1984). Plant height of black cumin in different ecological
conditions and regions studies varied in a wide ranged and Toncer
and Kizil (2004) found an upper range 64.9 to 71.5 cm, and
Rahnavard, Sadeghi, and Ashrafi (2010) observed a lower range, up to
15.01 cm. The result was supported by Haq, Hossain, Haque, Das, and
Huda (2015); Javadi (2008); Mehmet Fuat and Seyfi (2020); Rassam,
Naddaf, and Sefidcon (2007) who reported that delay sowing
significantly reduce the plant height.

Table 4. Analysis of variance and mean comparison of plant height, number of

lateral branches, number of capsules per plant and seed per capsule.
Source DF PH NLB CPP
Year (Y) 1 33.75ns 0.82ns 2.38ns
Replication 2 44.5ns 1.57ns 1.35ns
Cultivar (A) 1 79.35* 0.15ns 0.69ns
Y*A 1 0.42ns 0.02ns 0.17ns
Error 1 1 7.53ns 1.13 2.18
Sowing Date (B) 4 672.38** 51.65** 164.92**
Y*B 4 1.04ns 0.48ns 1.46ns
A*B 4 2.14ns 0.4ns 0.66ns
Y*A*B 4 0.38ns 0.27ns 1.24ns
Error 32 4.93 0.85 1.95
CV (%) 7.73 19.27 19.85
Year
2019 29.50 4.90 7.24
2020 28.00 4.67 6.84
Cultivars
Çameli 29.90a 4.83 6.93
Burdur 27.60b 4.73 7.14
Sowing Date
Sw1 (1st March) 37.25a 7.33a 11.49a
Sw2 (15th March) 34.75b 6.50a 10.34a
Sw3 (1st April) 29.00c 4.33b 6.08b
Sw4 (15th April) 23.25d 3.25c 3.91c
Sw5 (1st May) 19.50e 2.50c 3.36c
LSD (0.01) 2.31 1.03 1.55
*: significant at the 5% level, **: significant at the 1% level, ns: not significant.
Means followed by the same letter(s) in a column are not significantly different.
434 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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DF= degrees of freedom; CV= coefficient of variation; LSD= least significant

difference SW= Sowing date; PH = Plant height (cm); NPB = Number of lateral
branches per plant; CPP = Capsule per plant.

Lateral branches per plant are an important yield contributing

character and it was statistically (P<0.01) effected sowing date of
black cumin. The highest lateral branch number was 7.33 in 1st March
sown, which was statistically similar to 15th March (6.50) sown.
Significantly the lowest lateral branch number was 2.50 that obtained
from 1st May sown. Also 1st May was statistically similar with 15th
April sown and the number of lateral branch in 15th April sown parcel
was 3.25. Number of lateral braches decreased with delayed sowing
date and the highest number of lateral branch was 7.33 pices at sown
on 1st March parcel which was 65.9, 55.7, 40.9 and 11.4 per cent
higher than plant sown at 1st May, 15th and 1st Apriland 15th March
respectively (Table 4). Haq et al. (2015); Toncer and Kizil (2004);
Tuncturk et al. (2011) reported number of branches 3 to 7 per
plant and which was almost similar to finding. It might be
depended on genetical as well as environment.
In the number of capsule per plant, the difference between the years
(8.8-10.5 capsule plant-1) and cultivars were found not to be
statistically significant (Table 4). On the other hand the difference
between sowing date and number of capsule per plant was
statisticallay significant (P<0.01). In the sowing date average, The
highest number of capsules per plant was 11.48 in 1st March sown,
which was statistically similar to 15th March (10.34) sown. The
lowest value was obtained as 3.36 pieces in the 1st May sown parcel
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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and it was statistically similar to 15 th April sown parcel (3.91)

(Table 4). In different studies, researchers found that the number of
capsule for black cumin were in the ranges of 2.1-14.6 (Nimet, Katar,
& Baydar, 2015; Telci, 1995; Tunçtürk, Yilmaz, Erman, & Tunçtürk,
2005). Golparvar, Amin Hadipanah, and Salehi (2014) found an upper
range 66 to 85 capcules per plant.

Significantly (P<0.01) differences were found among sowing date

in number of seed per capsule (Table 5). The highest number of
seed per capsule was 50.00 and it was obtained from 1st March sown
parcels. Also 1st Marc, 15th March and 1st April sown were
statistically similar and number seed per capsule were 50,00, 49,25
and 49,17 repectivelly.

Table 5. Analysis of variance and mean comparison of seed per capsule,

thousand seed weight (g), seed yield (kg/ha).
Source DF SPC TSW SY
Year (Y) 1 2.27ns 0.01ns 12606.01ns
Replication 2 9.57ns 0.01ns 4948.97ns
Cultivar (A) 1 13.65ns 0.01ns 15629.66ns
Y*A 1 25.64ns 0.01ns 731.57ns
Error 1 1 8.63ns 0.01 8410.43
Sowing Date (B) 4 64.2** 0.08** 776503.28**
Y*B 4 5.22ns 0.01ns 310.52ns
A*B 4 4.8ns 0.01ns 6077.38ns
Y*A*B 4 0.87ns 0.01ns 238.84ns
Error 32 6.81 0.01 2988.24
CV (%) 5.13 1.48 8.78
Year
2019 47.8 2.27 636.84
2020 48.17 2.3 607.85
Cultivars
Çameli 47.53 2.3 638.49
Burdur 48.43 2.27 606.21
Sowing Date
Sw1 (1st March) 50.00a 2.36a 912.82a
Sw2 (15th March) 49.25ab 2.37a 853.40a
Sw3 (1st April) 49.17ab 2.29b 580.13b
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Sw4 (15th April) 46.75bc 2.24c 429.76c

Sw5 (1st May) 44.75c 2.17d 335.63d
Lsd (0.01) 2.75 0.04 61.11
*: significant at the 5% level, **: significant at the 1% level, ns: not significant.
Means followed by the same letter(s) in a column are not significantly different.
DF= degrees of freedom; CV= coefficient of variation; LSD= least significant
difference SW= Sowing date; SPC = Seed per capsule; TSW = Thousand seed
weight (g); SY = Seed yield (kg/ha).

The lowest number of seed per capsule was determained from 1st May
sown parcels and this result significantly similar wit 15 April sown
(44.75 and 46.25 respectivelly) (Table 5). In fact, the number of seeds
per pods is the reservoir capacity of the plant. Photosynthetic material
and ultimately biomass increases related to ecological and genetical
conditions was effect capsul number and seed number per capsule.

Data regarding thousand seed weight are presented in Table 5.

Thousand seed weight is an important yield contributing character and
it was significantly effected by sowing date change. Thousand seed
weight was significantly decreased with delay in sowing date. Heavier
weight (2.37g) of thousand seed was produced in plots sown on 15th
March however, thousand seed weight produced in 1st March
was statistically at par with each other. Minimum thousand seed
weight was 2.17g and it was obtained last sowing date of 1st May
parcels. The result was similar to findings of Haq et al. (2015);
Shah (2007); Tuncturk et al. (2011); Yimam et al. (2015).

Data pertaining seed yield are reported in Table 5. Seed

production of black cumin were significantly affected by the effect of
sowing dates. Seed yield was found maximum in early sown plots.
Maximum seed yield was 912.82 kg ha -1in early sown plots on 1st
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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March whereas lowest seed yield was 335.63 kg ha-1 in late sown
plots on 1st May. With delayed sowing, significant losses are
experienced in seed yield. While a 6.5% seed yield loses was observed
between March 1 sowing and March 15 sowing, this decrase rate up to
%36.4 between March 1 sowing and April 1 sowing. Even more
important losses was obtained from 15th April and 1st May sowing
compared to 1 March sowing seed yield , and this decrease rate is up
to 52.9% and 63.2% respectively. Similar finding was supported by
Haq et al. (2015); Rahnavard et al. (2010); Sardooyi, Shirzadi, and
Naghavi (2011) who reported that, delayed sowing couse to
decrease at seed yield.

Table 6. Analysis of variance and mean comparison of fixed oil rate (%), oil
yield(kg/ha) and harvest index (%).
Source DF FOR OY HI
Year (Y) 1 1.44ns 1030.2ns 1.98ns
Replication 2 0.77ns 736.35ns 0.17ns
Cultivar (A) 1 3.04ns 3488.13ns 31.02*
Y*A 1 0.23ns 202.84ns 3.69ns
Error 1 1 0.53 1166.25 3.27
Sowing Date (B) 4 21.02** 128728.23** 23.76**
Y*B 4 2.06ns 204.17ns 0.37ns
A*B 4 0.09ns 977.16ns 0.85ns
Y*A*B 4 0.15ns 53.18ns 0.99ns
Error 32 0.33 404.16 4.52
CV (%) 1.55 8.56 1.88
Year
2019 36.95 239 28.4
2020 37.7 230.71 28.03
Cultivars
Çameli 37.55 242.48 28.94a
Burdur 37.1 227.23 27.49b

Sowing Date
Sw1 (1st March) 38.89a 355.02a 26.65c
Sw2 (15th March) 38.43a 327.93b 27.25bc
Sw3 (1st April) 37.13b 215.30c 27.80b
Sw4 (15th April) 36.44c 156.25d 29.56a
438 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Sw5 (1st May) 35.74d 119.77e 29.82a

LSD (0.01) 0.64 22.47 0.71
*: significant at the 5% level, **: significant at the 1% level, ns: not significant.
Means followed by the same letter(s) in a column are not significantly different.
DF= degrees of freedom; CV= coefficient of variation; LSD= least significant
difference SW= Sowing date; FOR = Fixed oil rate (%); OY= Oil yield (kg/ha); HI=
Harvest index (%)

The fixed oil rate of black cumin seeds are given in Table 6. In the
research, sowing date changes effect on fixed oil rate was found
significant. No significant differences between the years and cultivars
were found. The fixed oil rate of the cultivars were found to be very
close to each other with 37.55% from Çameli cultivar and 37.10%
from Burdur genotype (Table 6). The highest fixed oil rate was
38,89% and it was obtained from 1st March sown parcels. Also 1st
Marc and15th March sown were statistically similar and fixed oil rate
of 15th March sown parcel was 38.43%. The lowest fixed oil rate was
obrained from 1st May sown parsel with 35.74%. Delayed sowing
date resulted decrease in fixed oil rate of black cumin. Many
researchers determined that the fixed oil of black cumin vary between
30.4% and 37.7% (Matthaus & Özcan, 2011; Sener, Kusmenoglu,
Mutlugil, & Bingol, 1985) and this results also partially similar our
findings. Kulan, Turan, Gülmezoğlu, Kara, and Aytaç (2012) found
an upper range 38.91%-40.58% and Üstun, Kent, Cekin, and
Civelekoglu (1990) observed a lower range oil contents of black
cumin seeds collected from the Kutahya, Denizli and Konya provinces
were 24.4%, 29.5%, and 29.7%, respectively.

The oil yield is obtained by multiplying the seed yield with the oil
ratio. Therefore, seed yield and oil rate change are significantly
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 439

effective on oil yield count (Table 6). Oil yield decreased by 7.6%
between the 1st sowing date and the 2nd sowing date. This decrease
rate was increased every 15-day delaytion in sowing date. Delaying in
sowing date (3rd, 4th and 5th) was compared with the first sowing
period, the oil yield decreased by 39.4%, 56.0% and 66.3%
repectivelly. This decrease rate higher than seed yield decrease in
postponed sowing. Yilmaz, Biyik, and Dökülen (2020) reported that
27 black cumin genotypes in Tokat-Niksar conditions oil yield varied
was ranged 316-557 kg/ha. Many researchers determined that the
fixed oil yield of black cumin vary between 320.2 and 527.3 kg/ha
(Tavas, Katar, & Aytaç, 2014; Telci, 1995) and this results also
partially similar our findings.

Harvest index was found to be significantly influenced by the sowing

date (p<0.01) and cultivars (P<0.05) (Table 6). The highest harvest
index (28.94%) was obtained from Çameli cultivar. The highest
harvest index (28.82%) was determained at last sowing date (1st May)
however, harvest index obtained in 15th Apirl was statistically at
par with each other. The lowest harvest index was 26.65% from 1st
March sowing parcel. Delayed sowing was resulted higher harvest
index rate. This means that the seed weight has decreased more than
whole plant weight. It also indicates that there is not enough time and
suitable conditions for the development of the seed.

CONCLUSION

A field study was conducted at Central Anatolian region of Turkey in

Kırşehir province with the objective of determining the effect of
440 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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cultivars and sowing dates on growth, yield and yield components of

Black Cumin in 2019 and 2020. Treatment combinations of cultivar
(Çameli cultivar and Burdur genotype) and 5 levels of sowing dates
(1st,15th March, 1st,15th April and 1st May) arranged in RCBD with
three replications. Results revealed that more than cutivars, sowing
date changes significantly (p<0.01) effected on growth and yield
parameters.
Statistical differences between cultivars were observed in the
parameters of day to emergence and flowering, plant height and
harvest index. Çameli cultivar had earlier emergence and flowering
date, higher plant height and harvest index. Sowing date had a
statistically significant effect on all parameters examined. As the
sowing date was delayed, earlier emergence, flowering and maturation
and higher harvest index were observed. Early sowings had higher
plant height, number of branches, number of capsules, number of
grains per capsule, 1000 seed weight, seed yield, fixed oil ratio and oil
yield. According to these results, early planting provides suitable
conditions for plant development as well as sufficient time for growth
and development. Sowing black cumin in the earliest period, when the
risk of frost is lower in rainfed agricultural areas, provides more
benefit to growth and yield from the rainy and cool period.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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CHAPTER 15

FERTILIZATION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC

PLANTS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mahmut TEPECİK1
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza ONGUN2

1
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant
Nutrition, İzmir, Turkey.
ORCID ID: 0000-0001-6609-4538, e-mail: [email protected]
2
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant
Nutrition, İzmir, Turkey.
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-5244-2770, e-mail: ali.riza.ongun @ege.edu.tr
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 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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INTRODUCTION

Medicinal and aromatic plants; They are plants that have many uses
such as food, medicine, cosmetics and spices and are known to have
been used for similar purposes since the beginning of human history
(Demirezer, 2010). When it comes to medicinal and aromatic plants, it
covers a very large area in terms of both plants, active substances and
consumption areas. In this respect, although there is no standardized
grouping today, they can generally be grouped according to their
families, the active substances they contain, their consumption and
use, the organs used and their pharmacological effects. However, the
most commonly used grouping is based on active ingredients (Ceylan,
1995). There are 50.000–75.000 plant species used in traditional and
modern medicine worldwide (Schippmann et al., 2006). Around 2000
medicinal and aromatic plant species and products are in used in
Europe (Kathe et al., 2003). Medicinal properties can be obtained
from the following plant parts: leaves, bulbs, essential oil, fatty acid,
flowers, fruit, gum, stem, roots, rhizome, seed, tuber and wood. Plant
secondary metabolites are thought to be responsible for the
antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and insecticidal
activities of plant extracts (Kumar et al. 2005). Medicinal and
aromatic plants called medicine, shell, leaves, flowers, dried roots,
root-stem, tuber, woody structure, bark, seeds and herbs are referred to
as drugs (Anonymous, 2005).

Peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) belongs to the Labiatae family and is

widely distributed crops around the world. It is commonly used both
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in folk medicine and in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food, and

animal feed industries. Peppermint is one of the oldest medicinal
plants (Petrovska, 2012). The medical uses of peppermint appear in
the forms of peppermint tea and peppermint oil (McKay, and
Blumberg, 2006).

Mentha species of Lamiaceae family are well-known and commonly

used annual species worldwide (Trevisan et al. 2017). In general,
important Mentha species include peppermint (Mentha piperita L.),
menthol mint (Mentha arvensis L.) and spearmint (Mentha spicata L.)
(Kumar et al. 2011). Mentha piperita is generally defined as
peppermint, which is involved in numerous products manufactured in
various industries (aroma and fragrance products, cosmetics, aroma
therapy and phyto-medics) (Mahendran and Rahman, 2020).
Peppermint (Mentha xpiperita L.), belonging to the Lamiaceae family,
is one of the most important aromatic and medicinal herbs. The
essential oil obtained from the leaves is a valuable source of
pharmaceutically and cosmetically important compounds such as
menthol and menthone (Gupta et al. 2017). Lemon balm, locally
known as Melissa officinalis L. is a perennial herbicous plant and
belongs to Lamiaceae family (Ceylan et al. 1994). It is naturally grow
in Mediterranean flora and is a significant essential oil plant. The plant
is widely collected especially in Northern and Western regions of
Turkey (Sarı and Ceylan, 2002). Lemon balm is a medicinal plant
with various antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal impacts (Leung and
Foster, 2003; Dukic et a., 2004; Silva et al., 205).
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 449

The Ocimum genus belonging to the Lamiaceae family is

characterized by a great variability of both morphology and
chemotypes (Lawrence, 1988; Marotti et al. 1996). Among all the
species, Ocimum basilicum L. (basil or sweet basil) has the most
economic significance and is cultivated and utilized throughout the
world (Marotti et al. 1996). Sweet basil is used in traditional
medicines, in cosmetic industry, as culinary herb and as insect
repellent (Prakasa Rao et al., 2007; Nazim et al., 2009). Chamomile
(Matricaria chamomilla L.), which belongs to the Asteraceae family,
is a well-known medicinal plant and the fifth highest selling herb in
the world. Medicinal value of this plant depends on the active
substances, mainly accumulated in the flowers (Singh et al. 2011;
Shams et al., 2012).

Chamomile, a well-known old time drug, is known by an array of

names, such as Baboonig, Babuna, Babuna camornile, Babunj,
German chamomile, Hungarian chamomile, Roman chamomile,
English chamomile, Camomilla, Flos chamomile, Single chamomile,
sweet false chamomile, pinheads, and scented mayweed, suggesting
its widespread use (Leung and Foster, 2003; Franke, 2005).

Nutrient availability has a key role in improving biomass productivity

and qualitative properties of essential oil in medicinal and aromatic
plants (Machiani et al., 2019). Nutrient availability in soils is related
to physical and chemical soil attributes. Soil reaction (pH) and parent
material are the major factors moderating the content and availability
of mineral elements in the soil. In soils with high pH reaction and high
450 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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content of lime, availability of most mineral elements decreases

(Catizone et al. 1986). Most crops have shown significant interactions
between nutrients and water, in that water deficiency are often
claimed to influence plant’s use of nutrients negatively. As a
consequence, in the arid and semi-arid areas of the world, more
fertilizer is used when water for irrigation is available, and under
rainfed Mediterranean conditions, fertilizer recommendations are
tuned to the average rainfall incidence (Sivakumar and Huda 1984).
The so-called three elements of fertility, namely nitrogen (N),
phosphor (P) and potassium (K) are taken into account, since they are
usually the most used in agricultural practice. Different ratios of
compound NPK fertilizers were used and there is a significant
increase in dry matter yield with increasing the ratio of nutrients
(Sheykholeslami et al. 2015). Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and
potassium (K), the so-called three fertility elements, are taken into
account because they are often the most used in agricultural practice
(Carrubba, 2015). This is especially true for nitrogen, that in most
cases is top-dressed in 2 or 3 fractions, allowing plants to extract it
from soil in concordance with their needs along the growth cycle.
Otherwise, P and K, claimed to have a scarce mobility throughout soil
profile, are usually supplied before transplant (at the time of soil
preparation) and distributed deeply enough to be absorbed by the roots
during their elongation. Of course, in decision-making concerning
fertilization, factors related to environment, plant genotype, goals of
cultivation, and farm, must be kept into account. (Arnon, 1992). One
of the main cultural practices that play an important role in the
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 451

growth, development and yield is the application of fertilizers (Dzida

et al., 2018). It is well known that fertilizers are applied to cultivate
medicinal and aromatic plants. Fertilizers have a positive effect on the
fresh and dry herb yield and essential oil content (Ipsilandis et al.,
2020; Lima et al., 2020). However, fertilizers can have positive and
negative impacts on phenolic compounds in plants (Amarowicz et al.,
2020; Portilla et al., 2020). According to Kazimierczak et al. (2021),
the phenol content in plants depends on the type of fertilizer applied.
Two different kinds of fertilizers are often used in the cultivation of
medicinal and aromatic plants, organic and mineral fertilizers. Organic
fertilizers are mostly recommended for the cultivation of medicinal
plants (Sodré et al., 2012). These contain all the micro and
macronutrients essential for plants and have a positive effect on
microorganisms, the structure of the soil, and soil water availability
(Hirzel et al., 2018). Mineral fertilizers are used in the cultivation of
medicinal plants in some areas. They are cheap and contain
substantially higher amounts of macronutrients that are readily
available to plants (Timsina, 2018). Nitrogen (N) and potassium (K)
play key roles in plant metabolism and have effects on the synthesis
and accumulation of nutrients and secondary metabolites. Nitrogen is
an important yield enhancing primary nutrient and is necessary for
building amino acids, structural elements of proteins as well as
pyrimidin and purin bases, nucleotides and nucleic acids. Potassium is
an alkaline cation, which balances charges of organic and inorganic
anions, and activates more than 50 enzymes (Nurzynska-Wierdak et
al., 2011).
452 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Application of NPK fertilizer at optimum levels play a key role in

growth and development of most physiological processes in the plant
as described by Lambers et al. (2008). Nitrogen has an essential role
in plants as constituent of proteins, amino acids, nucleic acids,
chlorophyll and growth hormones as reported by Russel (1988). The
lack of nitrogen used by plants caused depressed of protein synthesis
and as a result the plant growth is affected. Phosphorus plays specific
roles in the conservation and transfer energy in plants. Also
Phosphorus is involved in root development processing (Yagodin,
1982). Potassium is known to be linked with carbohydrates
metabolism, sugar translocation and cell division and development.
Also, potassium increases the resistance of plants versus the drought,
pests and diseases (Mengel and Kirkby, 1987).

Fertilization recommendations should be made according to soil

analysis results, NPK requirement and the amount of elements
removed by plants. Soil testing is always recommended, and the
opportunity to add fertilizers should be carefully evaluated based on
the goals of farmers. Please see Table 1 for fertilizers
recommendations for medicinal plants based on soil analysis results
(Boroomand and Grouh, 2012).

1. FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATION FOR PEPPERMINT

Based on peppermint optimum yield values of previous studies

(peppermint fresh herb yields of between 670-1350 kg da-1), plant
nutrient requirements were determined as 28 kg da -1 N, 20 kg da-1
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 453

P2O5 and 28 kg da-1 K2O and applied accordingly (Mitchell and

Farris., 1996; Scavroni et al., 2005). In organic farming, N is given as
17 kg da-1. For Phosphorus and potassium, as stated above, soil
analysis, target yield, N, P, K content of the inputs and amounts of
plant nutrients uptake by basil (100 kg ha -1 N, 40 kg ha-1 P2O5, 120 kg
ha-1 K2O) are taken into account (Erşahin, 2006).

Mineral nutrients are essential for plant growth and production of

essential oils in Mentha (Stanev and Zheljazkov 2004). The published
results reveal that mint requires approximately 180 kg N ha-1to
support optimum growth. Phosphorus removed with harvest ranges
from 40 to 80 kg P2O5 ha-1, and remove over 275 Kg K2O ha-1(Brown
et al. 2003).

2. FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATION FOR LEMON BALM

In calculation of fertilizer amounts, soil analyses and plant nutrient

uptakes for targeted yields were taken into consideration. Calculations
were made for optimum lemon balm yield (green herb yield of 1500-
4000 kg da-1) and recommended nutrients were calculated respectively
as 17 kg/da N, 14 kg/da P2O5 and 14 kg/da K2O (Blank et al. 2006).
Fertilization with 90-120 kg/ha N, 13-18 kg P and 66-83 kg/ha K
assured highest yields of lemon balm in Poland (Kordana et al. 1997).
In Hungary, after manuring 60 kg/ha N, 10-13 kg/ha P and 58-66
kg/ha K are advised for the practice (Bernáth, 2000). A large scale
experiment in Germany, Bomme and Nast (1998), reported that 1000
454 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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kg fresh shoot of lemon balm extract 4.9 kg/ha N, 1.4 kg/ha P 2O5, 7.6
kg/ha K2O and 0.9 kg/ha from the soil.

3. FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATION FOR BASIL

In calculation of fertilizer amounts, soil analyses and plant nutrient

uptakes for targeted yields were taken into consideration. Calculations
were made for optimum Ocimum basilicum L (green herb yield of
421-3197 kg da-1) and recommended nutrients were calculated
respectively as 10 kg/da N, 4 kg/da P2O5 and 12 kg/da K2O (Runham,
1998; Erşahin, 2006; Blank et al. 2006).

An important factor affecting the quantity and quality of the harvested

basil yield is to find the optimum level of fertilization. The level and
the amount of fertilization naturally depend on the soil (Hiltunen and
Holm, 1999). Similar results were achieved in a Hungarian study. On
a sandy soil of low humus and nutrient content, the best fresh and dry
herb yield (40 t/ha and 7.3 t/ha, respectively) from two harvests were
achieved with medium doses of NPK elements (120;100;100 kg/ha).
The essential oil yield was highest (40.5 kg/ha) at this fertilization
level as well. No beneficial effects of higher doses were found.
Increasing N-doses gave a considerable rise both in the fresh and dry
yield of sweet basil (Wahab and Hornok, 1982). Halva and Puukka
(1987) reported application of NPK 40–16–68 kg/ha as optimum basic
fertilization. In addition basil received a benefit from the N-top
dressing 80 kg/ha. Due to the cold weather, the fresh yields were quite
low. Additionally, in cool and moist conditions the N-top dressing
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 455

increased the susceptibility to fungus diseases (Pythium sp., Fusarium

sp., Sclerotinia sclerotionun). The heavier fertilized the crop-stand, the
more infected plants there were in both experimental years (Halva,
1987). According to the results of Tesi et al. (1995) Genovese” sweet
basil, the application of different ratios of N, P2O5, and K2O showed
that a ratio of 1:1:2 gave the best growth result. According to Hornok
(1992) the Hungarian fertilization advice includes three applications:
basic fertilization in the autumn N=40–60 kg/ha, P=60–80 kg/ha and
K=120–140 kg/ha are recommended. In India, in the practical
cultivation, NPK=20–40–40 kg/ha basic fertilization is recommended
before the soil preparation. 40 kg/ha nitrogen fertilization is applied as
top dressing in two equal doses (Srivastava, 1980). In Egypt 35–40
t/ha organic manure and 35 kg/ha P are applied as basic fertilization.
As top dressing, 35 kg/ha nitrogen is applied two times, four and
seven weeks after sowing/planting. In addition 35 kg/ha N is applied
after each harvest (Hiltunen, and Holm, 1999).

4. FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATION FOR CHAMOMILE

In calculation of fertilizer amounts, soil analyses and plant nutrient

uptakes for targeted yields were taken into consideration. Calculations
were made for optimum Matricaria chamomilla L.yield (green herb
yield of 950–2640 kg da-1) and recommended nutrients were
calculated respectively as 10 kg da-1 N, 5 kg da-1 P2O5,15 kg da-1 K2O
(Erşahin, 2006; Grejtovský et al., 2006; Grejtovský and Pirc, 2000).
456 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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Asteraceae family, Ahmad et al. (2011) showed that application of

NPK rates at 15:10:10 g m-2 caused the maximum values of plant
height, flowers length flowers fresh weight and flowers diameter for
marigold plant. The similar results were in family Asteraceae by
Ahmed et al. (2017) and Ayemi et al. (2017) who found that NPK
fertilization improved growth characteristics and essential oil of
yarrow, chrysanthemum and gerbera plants, respectively.

A few studies have been conducted on the effect of N fertilization to

the yield and the essential oil of chamomile. It was found that the
increase in N-fertilization results to higher flower yield and the
indicated optimum N fertilization level for the yield of chamomile was
60 kg ha-1 (Johri et al., 1992). Singh et al., (2011) observed that
application N in the form of ammonium sulphate at 40 kg ha -1
significantly increased the yield of fresh flowers.

Table 1: NPK recommendations based on soil analysis results for medicinal plants
Available NPK Response to NPK
Level
levels in soil fertilization
Total N (%) < 0.2 (% O.C < 1) High
0.2 – 0.5 (% O.C = 1-2) Medium
> 0.5 (% O.C > 2) Low
Available P (mg kg-1) < 10 High
10 – 15 Medium
> 15 Low
Available K (mg kg-1) < 50 Very high
50 – 100 High
100 – 200 Medium
> 200 Low
O.C; Organic Carbon
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 457

Table 2: Fertilizer amounts required by some selected medicinal and aromatic

plants (Data from Karamanos 2000; Beyaert 2006; Basso 2009; Carrubba, 2015).

Species N (kg ha-1) P2O5 (kg ha-1) K2O (kg ha-1)

Matricaria chamomilla L. 30-50 to 80
30-50 20
(German chamomile) (in spring)
Melissa officinalis L. (Lemon balm)
1st year 0 to 70, in 2 splits 70 to 100-120 100-120
2nd year and following 70 to 100-130 to
0 0
250, in 2-3 splits
Mentha spp. (Mints)
Japanese mint
150-160 40-50 30-40
(Mentha arvensis L.)
Peppermint 100-120 to 50-80 to
50 to 150-200
(M. x piperita) L. 150-200 100-120
Ocimum basilicum L. (Basil) 40 40 40

Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients needed by plants for

growth. Information on the role of nitrogen in plant physiology is
plentiful in literature. Nitrogen is involved in many physiological
processes in plants including growth and photosynthesis.
Consequently, nitrogenous fertilizers are among the most used
fertilizers in the world. Nevertheless, excessive use of N can have
negative economic and the environmental implications. Intensive N
fertilization can lead to toxic N levels in plant tissues and herbivores.
Thus, there are calls for implementation of better nitrogen use
efficiency (NUE) (Masclaux-Daubresse et al. 2010).

Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients needed by plants; it is

an important element for the formation amino acids, it is essential for
plant cell division, it is directly involved in photosynthesis, it is an
important component of vitamins and it aids in the production of
carbohydrates. Physiologically, N is mostly available to plants in the
458 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
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forms of ammonium and nitrate and preference for one of the two
forms to be taken up by plants tend to be influenced by the plant
species and soil conditions, including pH and soil temperatures
(Masclaux-Daubresse et al. 2010; Boczulak et al. 2014).

Generally speaking, the primary effect of N fertilization is to promote

plant development. Literature shows many examples of this: herbage
yield was found to increase with increased N applications in Scotch
spearmint (Mentha gracilis Sole) (Kothari and Singh 1995),
peppermint (Piccaglia et al. 1993), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)
(Rangappa and Bhardwaj 1998), and many others. The relationship
between root and shoot dry matter accumulation per year and the N
fertilization rate often takes the shape of a quadratic curve (Beyaert
2006). As a matter of fact, N is the element that exerts the greatest and
most evident effect on crops, in this explaining the farmers’ tendency
to spread high, and sometimes excessive, doses (Arnon 1992;
Neeteson et al. 1999). In the field practice, as P and K are scarcely
mobile along soil’s profile, they are generally applied to perennials
with the first soil works, allowing roots to find them as long as they
grow (Arnon 1992). Very often, a local distribution of these elements
at sowing time (“band” fertilization) is suggested (Kothari et al. 1987).
Phosphor was proven to have a positive influence on development of
generative organs and stimulation of flowering (Radanovic´ et al.
2004). Moderate P supplies led to significant increment of plant
height, number of branches, fresh and dry weights (Naguib 2011). In
this last species, the peak in phosphor demand was observed at the
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 459

seed formation stage, i.e. later than that detected for nitrogen
(Karamanos 2000). Potassium is claimed to exert a positive effect on
roots development and elongation, that is useful for several Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants a (Radanovic´ et al. 2004; Basso 2009).
Nevertheless, many evidences exist that a balanced ratio between
nutrients may be more important in determining several yield traits,
than the absolute quantities of the elements themselves. In
chamazulene-yielding species (chamomile), when N:K ratio is too low
(unbalanced towards K), flowers are bigger but oil quality is reduced
due to an increase in bisabololoxide; otherwise, proportionally high N
and low K lead to a high content in bisabolole (Catizone et al. 1986).
Similarly, the mutual interference of nutrients is probably the reason
why P fertilization was found to have the maximum effect when P was
applied with N, as seen e.g. in lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.)
(Sharafzadeh et al. 2011).

There are at least three factors that may modify the response of plant.
They are: (1) a change in dry matter production; (2) a change in the
proportions of organs; (3) a modification in the accumulation level
(Bernath 1992).

CONCLUSION

Fertilizing medicinal and aromatic plants is important. Fertilization

programs should be prepared according to soil and plant analysis,
especially taking into account soil, plant and climate characteristics.
Since fertilization is made with organic and chemical fertilizers, these
460 | Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects

fertilizers have a very important role in agricultural production

systems.
 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
Economics Production Agricultural Ultilization and Other Aspects| 461

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CHAPTER 16

DROUGHT-MEDIATED CHANGES IN GROWTH,

PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY OF MEDICINAL
PLANTS

Assoc. Prof. Ilkay YAVAS1

1
Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Kocarli Vocational School, Department of
Crop and Animal Production, Aydin, TURKEY, (ORCID. 0000-0002-6863-9631),
[email protected]
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1.Introduction
Drought
Drought is one of the most important threats to plant production all
over the world, it is a physiological form of water deficiency, in which
the available water for plants is insufficient and adversely affects plant
metabolism. Due to the increase in population, the expansion of
agriculture, energy and industrial sectors, the demand for water is
increasing (Saeidnejad et al., 2013). Demand for water will also grow
to meet the needs of a growing population. However, the increase in
demand for water is faster than population growth. For example, while
the world population has tripled in the last century, the demand for
water resources has increased sevenfold. While the total water
consumption in the world was 1,000 billion m 3 in 1940, this amount
doubled in 1960; In 1990, it was 4.130 billion m 3 (Yildiz, 2007).
Drought is expected to increase further as a result of expected climate
changes. Arid conditions prevent plant growth, disrupt plant-water
relations, reduce water use efficiency and adversely affect
physiological processes in the plant. Drought stress in plants results
from disruption of water flow in the xylem. Obstruction of water flow
leads to a reduce in cell turgor pressure. Decreased turgor influences
mitosis, cell elongation and expansion. Consequently, growth and
development are also significantly impressed and plant production
decreases.

Plants respond to many morphological (narrow leaf area, short stem

length, defoliation, waxiness, effective rooting), physiological
(transpiration, water use efficiency, osmotic adjustment, stomatal size
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and activity) and biochemical responses (proline, polyamine, trehalose

accumulation, increased nitrate reductase activity, storage of
carbohydrates) (Elena et al., 2019).

In drought conditions, stomata close and CO2 uptake is significantly

reduced. Due to the decrease in CO2 fixation, an excess of NADPH2
occurs. The synthesis of reduced components such as isoprenoids,
phenols or alkaloids takes place in the plant (Kleinwächter and
Selmar, 2015). It is also known that the ability of a plant to cope with
abiotic stress is mainly related to its changing biochemical content and
produces various secondary metabolites (SM) (Zhu et al., 2009). One
of the most basic responses of the plant to arid conditions is the
increase in the amount of abscisic acid (ABA) (Bano et al., 2012).
When plants are subject to drought stress, stomatal changes,
scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS), metabolic changes are
observed and photosynthesis is affected. Dehydrins include heat shock
proteins (HSPs), late embryogenesis-abundant proteins (LEA) (Lipiec
et al., 2013), osmolytes such as proline, trehalose and sugars (Ilhan et
al., 2015), protective proteins such as glycine and betaine (Wang et
al., 2010). In arid conditions, some signaling molecules such as
polyamines (Rangan et al., 2014) and inositol (Sengupta et al., 2008)
and hormones such as ABA (Saradhi et al., 2000), ethylene and
methyl jasmonate (Bartels and Sunkar, 2005) are synthesized.

Drought stress causes dehydration, closure of stomata and limited gas

exchange in the plant followed by inhibition of metabolism and
photosynthesis and finally death in the plant (Jaleel et al., 2008 a).
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In Cassia angustifolia plants exposed to drought yield decreased while

proline and glutathione reductase activity increased (Khammari et al.,
2012).

Drought stress in various ways leads to a decrease in the yield of

medicinal and aromatic plants. The first is that photosynthetically
active radiation reduces canopy absorption, limiting leaf area,
transient leaf wilting and curling under severe stress conditions and
premature leaf senescence. Second, the efficiency of
photosynthetically active radiation absorbed by the plant to produce
new dry matter is reduced. Third, drought stress reduces the harvest
index of medicinal and aromatic plants (Sharafzadeh and Mahdi Zare,
2011).

Due to drought, researchers will have to improve new varieties for

medicinal plants in the coming years, using new genomic approaches
such as classical breeding or molecular marker assisted breeding,
transgenic or genome technologies. In order to achieve success under
stress conditions, plant perception mechanisms, signaling pathways,
and genes responsible for stress tolerance need to be identified (Elena
et al., 2019).

How does drought affect medicinal plants?

In Melissa officinalis L. water stress decreased the height, diameter,

fresh and dry weight of the plants, while no significant difference was
detected in root length, fresh and dry mass. Water stress decreased the
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flavonoid content of the plant, whereas the rosmarinic acid

concentration increased (Radacsi et al., 2016).

In arid conditions biological yield, leaf yield, plant height, tiller

number, stem diameter, stem yield, internode length, and essential oil
(EO) yield decreased in Melissa officinalis L. (Farahani et al., 2009).
Under severe water stress conditions, plant height, number of
secondary branches, dry and fresh weight, root mass, root length and
thymol percentage decreased while proline content increased in
Thymus vulgaris (Babaee et al., 2010).

Water stress reduced the growth of Hypericum brasiliense Choisy

(Nacif de Abreu and Mazzafera, 2005) and Bupleurum chinense DC
(Zhu et al., 2009).

Salt stress adversely affected the germination of seeds of Ocimum

basilicum, Eruca sativa, Petroselinum hortense, Chamomilla recutita,
Origanum majorana and Thymus maroccanus (Miceli et al., 2003;
Ramin, 2005; Ali et al., 2007; Belaqziz et al., 2009).

According to Moradi et al. (2014) emphasized that Thymus serpyllum

is more tolerant to arid conditions than Thymus daenensis, T.
kotchyanous, T. vulgaris, T. serpyllum, T. capitata and T. zygis, while
T. vulgaris is the most sensitive species.

Drought-induced biomass increases are accepted as a criterion for

tolerance to arid conditions (Purcell et al., 2000).
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Although drought stress is generally accepted as the main factor

responsible for serious yield losses in agriculture, this situation is
different for spice and medicinal plants (Kleinwächter and Selmar,
2015).

Salvia officinalis L. exposed to drought increase the amount of

salicylic acid and decrease the level of photosynthetic pigments and
jasmonic acid (Abreu and Munne-Bosch, 2008).

In Digitalis lanata Ehrh plant exposed to drought stress, chlorophyll a

and chlorophyll b contents remained unchanged, β-carotene content
increased by 25%, and xanthophyll lutein, neoxanthine and
violaxanthin contents decreased by 15-30% (Stuhlfauth et al., 1990).
Fock et al. (1992), on the other hand, emphasized that conductivity,
net photosynthesis rate and transpiration decreased, CO 2 uptake and
photorespiration were less affected in the leaves of plants under water
stress. The closure of stomata due to drought caused an increase in the
amount of CO2. In plants under severe stress, the rate of
photosynthesis decreased by more than 70% and the photosystem
quantum efficiency reduced. This prevented excessive reduction of
photosynthetic electron transport chain of plants under stress
conditions. Gray et al. (2003) reported that the chicoric acid content in
the roots was higher during the first flowering period of Echinacea
purpurea L. Moench grown in arid conditions. In addition, it was
determined that the total alkamide content in the roots was not
affected by the stress conditions, the total amount of phenolic acid
increased by 67% and the dry weight of the roots increased by 70%.
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Penstenton barbatus tolerated arid conditions with an increase in

root/shoot ratio and a decrease in stomatal conductivity. Lavandula
angustifolia and Penstemon × mexicali tolerate moderately dry
conditions while rapid deaths occur in severe droughts. Shoot dry
weight decreased by 50-84% in Gaillardia aristata and by 47-99% in
Leucanthemum superbum (Zollinger et al., 2006).

In arid conditions, the osmotic pressure of plants increases, PEP

carboxylase activity and oil biosynthesis are induced (Singh et al.,
1997).

Daily dew application to Melissa officinalis plants under water stress

improved photosynthesis rate and leaf pigment content. While the
chlorophyll content decreased in dry conditions, α-tocopherol
increased (Munne-Bosch and Alegre, 1999). Drought tolerance of
Hippophae rhamnoides is highly correlated with antioxidant capacity,
water use efficiency and leaf nutrient content (Yang et al., 2010).

According to Korkmaz et al. (2015) emphasized that there were

significant decreases in shoot dry weight, leaf area, chlorophyll
content, leaf water content, gas exchange characteristics and PSII
activity but membrane permeability and lipid peroxidation increased
in pepper seedlings in dry conditions. In other study, Said-Al Ahl et
al. (2009) emphasized that water stress causes a decrease in
photosynthesis in thyme and chamomile plants.

As the water content in the soil decreases, the height, stem diameter,
leaf number, leaf area, leaf area index, plant yield and leaf chlorophyll
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content decrease and the amount of anthocyanin and proline increases

in Ocimum basilicum plant (Moeini Alishah et al., 2006).

In plants exposed to drought stress higher amounts of secondary

metabolite are produced while biomass decreases. This applies to
alkaloids, cyanogenic glucosides or glucosinolates as well as phenols
and terpenes (Selmar, 2008). Similarly, drought stress increases the
percentage of EO, but causes a decrease in shoot biomass and
therefore EO content (Aliabadi et al., 2009). de Abreu and Mazzafera
(2005) emphasized that SM were more common in Hypericum
brasiliense Choisy grown in arid conditions. The amount of betulinic
acid in dry conditions gave similar results to the control conditions.

Hypericum brasiliense plant exposed to drought stress increased the

concentration of dihydroxy-xanthone (300%) and betulinic acid (60%)
(de Abreu and Mazzafera, 2005). Also for Camellia sinensis,
significantly higher epicatechins were observed in plants under water
stress (Hernaendez et al., 2006). Drought increased the amount of SM
in Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) DC plant (Chung et al., 2006).

Total flavonoid and rosmarinic acid content were not affected in

Melissa officinalis L. and Thymus vulgaris L. grown under different
water stress conditions. Melissa officinalis L. plants on the other hand
gave lower biomass weight at low water stress (Nemeth-Zambori et
al., 2016). Fresh and dry weights of Ocimum basilicum L. and
Ocimum americanum L. plants were negatively affected by water
stress. Under water stress the amount of EO of plants, the main
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components of EO, proline and total carbohydrate content increased

while the content of N, P, K and protein decreased (Khalid, 2006). In
arid conditions, it was determined that the antioxidant activity of
Cuminum cyminum L. seeds was high (Rebey et al., 2012).

On the other hand, Ozturk et al. (2004) reported that the EO ratio of
Melissa officinalis L. was positively affected by increasing water
stress. Arid conditions improved the EO content from 0.12% to
0.16%. In Mentha piperita L. water deficit caused a significant
decrease in growth, EO yield and percentage (Khorasaninejad et al.,
2011). Carnosic acid (CA) content was detected in Rosmarinus
officinalis and Salvia officinalis species exposed to drought, but not in
Melissa officinalis (Munne-Bosch and Alegre, 2003). Ascorbic acid
level increased in chloroplasts. Also, along with other low molecular
weight antioxidants, carnosic acid was effective in preventing
oxidative damage in the chloroplasts of plants exposed to water stress.
Water stress led to a significant increase in cyanogenic glucosides in
Eucalyptus cladocalyx (Woodrow et al., 2002).

In arid conditions the concentration of berberine, jatrorrhizin, and

palmatin in Phellodendron amurense increased, plant growth was
adversely affected and the alkaloid content was significantly reduced
(Xia et al., 2007). Jordan et al. (2003) emphasized that in Thymus
hyemalis Lange harvesting should be done in winter for EO extraction
in low water application.
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In dry conditions, superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD),

catalase (CAT) activity and proline content were increased in
Capsicum annuum L. Resistant cultivars showed higher antioxidant
enzyme activity, but decreased lipid peroxidation. In addition,
moisture content was preserved and osmolite accumulation occurred.
Therefore, these plants provided better growth and yield (Anjum et al.,
2012).

Moderate drought stress in Melissa officinalis L. has been observed to

be beneficial for balsam EO (Abbaszadeh et al., 2009). According to
Halil et al. (2010) reported significant morphological and biochemical
changes in the bacillus plant in arid conditions. Antioxidant enzyme
activity decreased in Hippophae rhamnoides grown under severe
water stress (Liu et al., 2017), while POD decreased in Calendula
officinalis L. while SOD and CAT activity increased (Sedghi et al.,
2012). In another study, lower terpenoids were obtained in Melissa
officinalis and Nepeta cataria in arid conditions (Manukyan, 2011). It
was observed that the quality of Silybum marianum L. seeds increased
due to increased silymarin accumulation with drought stress
(Keshavarz Afshar et al., 2015). Drought stress enhanced production
of rosmarinic acid (phenolics) of Melissa officinalis (Tóth et al.,
2003). In Glycyrrhiza uralensis, exposure to drought significantly
impacted synthesis of glycyrrhizic acid and liquiritin (Li et al., 2011).
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Drought applied to the Bunium persicum during the stem elongation

and flowering period decreased the yield and yield components of the
plant. Due to the decreased seed yield, EO yield was also adversely
affected. In drought stress, phenolic compounds accumulate due to
changes in the phenylpropanoid pathway, and many of the key genes
in this pathway are induced by drought stress (Jan et al., 2021). It has
been reported that Bunium persicum shows high tolerance to drought
(Saeidnejad et al., 2013).

In Thymus citriodorus plants exposed to drought geraniol and

diisobutyl phthalate content increased while pseudophytol decreased.
Thymol and carvacrol on the other hand increased only under severe
drought stress (Tátrai et al., 2016). Similarly, under moderate
irrigation conditions Thymus zygis subsp. gracilis dry matter
production, EO yield and thymol content increased (Sotomayor et al.,
2004).

Dry conditions contributed to the EO content of Satureja hortensis L.

(Baher et al. (2002). In another study, similar results were observed
for Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) (Petropoulos et al., 2008). In
Satureja hortensis, arid conditions affected protein synthesis and
degradation, affecting protein content and photosynthesis process,
resulting in a decrease in sugar content (Yazdanpanah et al., 2011).

The accumulation of SM is highly dependent on environmental factors

such as light, temperature, soil moisture, soil fertility and salinity (Jan
et al., 2021). Due to drought, secondary metabolite production
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increases in the plant (Valizadeh and Mirzapour, 2021; Yadav et al.,

2021). In dry conditions, phenolic compounds in Trachyspermum
ammi (Azhar et al., 2011), flavonoids in Glechoma longituba, thymol,
γ-terpinene and proline content in Carum copticum, rutin, quercetin,
betulinic acid and artemisinin in Hypericum brasiliense and Artemisia
increased (Verma and Shukla, 2015).

Drought increased the accumulation of codeine in Papaver

somniferum (Szabó et al., 2003) and glycyrrhyzin in Glycyrrhiza
glabra (Nasrollahi et al., 2014). Water deficit stress disrupts the
balance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and
antioxidant defense, thus leading to accumulation of ROS in proteins,
membrane lipids and other cellular compounds, which creates
oxidative stress. It also significantly inhibits stomatal functioning and
photosynthesis. Arid conditions adversely affect the growth
parameters associated with roots and above-ground parts, resulting in
significant reductions in growth, yield and quality of plants. Although
there are many researches on the influence of drought on growth, yield
and quality of field crops, such studies on medicinal and aromatic
plants are scarce (Moinuddin et al., 2012).

2.Conclusion
Drought triggers different morphological, physiological and
biochemical responses in medicinal plants. Medicinal plants do not
only respond to drought with a decrease in biomass, but also their
chemical content, especially SM, are changed. Due to drought, signals
are transmitted from roots to leaves via xylem vascular bundles and
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partial closure of stomata is observed. This causes a decrease in the

CO2 level in the cell. The amount of NADPH+ and H+ decreases,
causing free radicals such as hydrogen peroxide and superoxide, and
reactive oxygen species (ROS) to increase. As a result, the
biosynthesis of reduced secondary compounds such as phenols,
terpenoids, alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides and glucosinolates,
which affect the EO percentage and content of medicinal and aromatic
plants, occurs in arid conditions to prevent cell membrane damage,
protein denaturation and plant growth inhibition.
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ISBN: 978-625-8007-73-2