1
An EARTHQUAKE is the sudden shaking or vibration of the Earth that occurs when energy
is released when its lithospheric crust or tectonic plates move.
: when tectonic plates collide, one rides over the other or slides past each other,
causing orogeny (mountain building), trenches, earthquakes, and volcanoes.
The Earth's lithosphere is divided into several large (Eurasian, Pacific, North American,
South American, African, Australian, Antarctic) and rigid tectonic plates (PH, Juan de Fuca,
Nazca, Cocos, Scotia, Caribbean) that constantly move and interact with each other. These
movements create stress along the boundaries of these plates, known as plate boundaries.
There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform
boundaries.
THREE MAIN TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
● tectonic plates move away from each other
● creates tensional stress, leading to the stretching and thinning of the
lithosphere
● ocean ridges and rift valleys
CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
● tectonic plates move toward each other and collide
● lead to compressional stress, causing the lithosphere to deform and buckle
● mountain ranges, trenches, and volcanic arcs
TRANSFORM BOUNDARY
● tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally in a lateral motion
● generates shear stress, causing rocks to grind and fracture along fault lines
STRESS is a force that squeezes rocks together, stretches or pulls them apart, and pushes
them in different directions. It accumulates as the plates move and interact, leading to the
deformation of the Earth's crust.
2
FORESHOCK
● is a smaller seismic event that precedes a larger earthquake. It serves as a precursor,
indicating the buildup of stress along a fault line before the mainshock occurs.
MAINSHOCK
● is the largest earthquake in the sequence. It releases the most accumulated stress
along a fault line, causing the most significant ground shaking and potential damage.
AFTERSHOCK
● it is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, which is the mainshock
● in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude
● formed as the crust adjusts to the effects of the mainshock
ANATOMY OF AN EARTHQUAKE
1. Focus (hypocenter)
- a point inside the earth where the seismic waves originate
- it is the part of the fault that has the greatest movement
2. Epicenter
- the point at the surface of the earth directly above the focus
3. Fault Plane
- flat surface along which there is a slip during an earthquake
WEST VALLEY FAULT
- Runs approximately 90 kilometers (about 96 miles) through the Manila
Area
- considered a major active fault system and is capable of generating
large-magnitude earthquakes
- Moves every 400 to 600 years
- Last moved in the year 1658 – which is 366 years ago
4. Plates
- massive rocks that make up the outer layer of the Earth's surface and whose
movement along faults trigger earthquakes.
3
FOUR MAIN REASONS WHY EARTHQUAKES OCCUR
● Movement of Geological Faults
● Volcanic Eruptions
● Mine blasts
● Nuclear tests
a. Movement of Geological Fault
A geological fault is a fracture in the Earth's crust where rocks on opposite sides
move due to compressional or tensional forces.
Geological faults cause earthquakes when the rocks on either side suddenly slip past
each other due to built-up stress. This sudden movement releases a huge amount of
energy, creating seismic waves that make the ground shake.
b. Volcanic Eruptions
The movement of magma and the resulting pressure changes and rock shifts are the
primary ways that volcanic activity generates earthquakes.
c. Mine blasts
The extraction of materials from deep underground, the blasting, and the resulting
instability and stress on the Earth's crust are the main ways that mining and fracking
can induce earthquakes.
d. Nuclear tests and blasts
The explosive force of a nuclear test disturbs the delicate balance of pressure and
friction holding the Earth's tectonic plates in place, causing them to slip and generate
earthquake shaking.
5. Seismic Wave
- is a mechanical wave of acoustic energy that travels through the Earth or
another planetary body. It can result from an earthquake, volcanic eruption,
magma movement, a large landslide and a large man-made explosion that
produces low-frequency acoustic energy.
4
TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES:
● BODY WAVES: travels through the interior of the Earth.
1. P (PRIMARY) WAVES
- particle motion is parallel to wave direction.
- compression waves
2. S (SECONDARY) WAVES
- particle motion is perpendicular to wave direction.
- shear waves
● SURFACE WAVES: propagate only at the interface between two different media, like
the interface between Earth and atmosphere (i.e. the surface of the Earth).
● RAYLEIGH WAVES: surface waves that move in an elliptical motion,
producing both vertical and horizontal components of motion in the
direction of wave propagation.
● LOVE WAVES: surface waves that move parallel to the Earth’s surface
and perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
HOW SEISMIC WAVES ARE MEASURED?
Seismic wave behavior can be measured by:
1. SEISMOGRAPH: A seismograph is a scientific instrument used to detect, measure,
and record seismic waves generated by earthquakes or other geological events. It
consists of a mass attached to a fixed base, which moves during an earthquake, while
the mass remains relatively still. This movement is recorded by the seismograph,
providing valuable data for scientists to analyze and understand seismic activity.
2. SEISMOMETER: A seismometer is the sensing component of a seismograph. It is
responsible for measuring the ground motion caused by seismic waves. The
seismometer converts these vibrations into electrical signals that can be recorded
and analyzed.
3. SEISMOGRAM: A seismogram is the graphical representation of the data recorded by
a seismograph or seismometer. It displays the amplitude (size) and duration of
seismic waves over time, providing visual evidence of an earthquake or other
geological event's occurrence and characteristics.
EARTHQUAKE MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING
5
Nobody can predict earthquakes, but we can forecast them: An earthquake prediction
requires, in advance, specific time, location and magnitude of a future quake. However,
earthquake prediction has never been achieved successfully. A forecast tells you the chance
or the probability of a range of future earthquakes in a given region. This includes how big
the quakes may be , and how frequently they will occur over a specified time period.
PHIVOLCS (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology)
- provides national information about volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis
● SEISMOLOGY: the scientific study of earthquakes and related phenomena such as
volcanic eruptions, and tsunami
: It includes the study of the origin, geographic distribution, effects, and possible
forecasting of earthquakes.
● SEISMOLOGISTS: are Earth scientists, specialized in geophysics, who study the genesis
and the propagation of seismic waves in geological materials.
: simply the ones who study earthquakes and seismic waves.
● SEISMIC NETWORK: are a group of stations working together jointly for monitoring
ground motion caused by earthquakes, volcanic activity, or other sources.
: The Philippines has a total of 65 seismic stations, 29 are unmanned, 30 are manned,
and 6 volcano stations.
: A special application of a seismic network is to make an early warning system
● EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS: they detect ground motion as soon as an earthquake begins
and quickly send alerts, giving people crucial seconds to prepare.
: Early warning systems can vary in sophistication and effectiveness depending on
the technology and infrastructure available in a particular region.
: Globally we have the android earthquake alert system by google. And on the west
coast of the United States, such a system is called ShakeAlert.
: In the Philippines, the PAG-ASA disseminate informations to NDRRMC and then
forward it to LGUs and Municipalities and barangays.
6
● MAGNITUDE: measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake.
: It is a single value, indicating the overall strength of the earthquake without
specifying its direction.
: Determined from measurements on seismographs.
■ Seismograph: is an instrument used to record the ground motion during an
earthquake.
■ Richter Scale: used to rate the magnitude of an earthquake. It was devised in 1935
by American seismologists Charles F. Richter and Beno Gutenberg.
- It is a base-10 logarithmic scale, meaning that each order of magnitude is 10
times more intensive than the last one.
ex. : a two is 10 times more intense than a one and a three is 100 times greater.
● INTENSITY: measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain
location. It varies from place to place.
7
■ Mercalli scale: used to determine the intensity based on observable earthquake
damage like its effects on people, human structures, and the natural environment.
- It is given as Roman Numerals and there are 12 degrees of intensity.
- Invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1884 and expanded to include 12 degrees of
intensity in 1902 by Adolfo Cancani. It was then modified again by Harry O.
Wood and Frank Neumann in 1931.
- Mercalli scale is subjective, making the magnitude scale or Richter scale more
accurate.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
Structural damage to buildings and infrastructure
8
● Ground Shaking: a term used to describe the vibration of the ground during an
earthquake.
: Ground shaking is caused by body waves and surface waves.
● Liquefaction: takes place when loosely packed, water-logged sediments at or near
the ground surface lose their strength in response to strong ground shaking.
Liquefaction occurring beneath buildings and other structures can cause major
damage during earthquakes.
➢ For example, the 1964 Niigata earthquake caused widespread liquefaction in
Niigata, Japan which destroyed many buildings.
➢ Also, during the 1989 Loma Prieta, California earthquake, liquefaction of the
soils and debris used to fill in a lagoon caused major subsidence, fracturing,
and horizontal sliding of the ground surface in the Marina district in San
Francisco.
● Ground Rupture: surface rupture (or ground rupture, or ground displacement) is
the visible offset of the ground surface when an earthquake rupture along a fault
affects the Earth's surface. Surface rupture is opposed by buried rupture, where
there is no displacement at ground level. It entails vertical or horizontal movement,
on either side of a ruptured fault. Surface rupture can affect large areas of land.
Human Casualties and Injuries
● Human Impacts: physical damage from an earthquake will vary depending on the
intensity of shaking in a given area and the type of population. Undeserved and
developing communities frequently experience more severe impacts (and longer
lasting) from a seismic event compared to well-developed communities.
● Loss of critical community services including hospitals, police, and fire stations
● General property damage
● Fires: are a major source of damage after earthquakes. Ground rupture and
liquefaction can easily rupture natural gas mains and water mains, both
contributing to the ignition of fires and hindering the efforts to control them.
➢ In an amazing example of this, during the 1994 Northridge earthquake there
were actually places where water was pouring down streets from broken
water mains -- and at the same spot and same time, fire was roaring out of
ruptured gas mains! Shaking also contributes to starting fires, by knocking
down power lines, spilling flammable liquids from storage containers, and
tossing hot coals from barbecues and stoves.
➢ In the 1923 Kanto earthquake in Japan nearly 100,000 people died -- over
70,000 of them due to fires which swept the area after the earthquake. And of
course most of the damage in San Francisco from the 1906 earthquake was
caused by the subsequent fires.
Environmental Impacts
9
● Landslides: earthquakes can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major
geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are
attempting rescue work.
: The term "landslide" encompasses five modes of slope movement: falls,
topples, slides, spreads, and flows. These are further subdivided by the type
of geologic material (bedrock, debris, or earth). Debris flows (commonly
referred to as mudflows or mudslides) and rock falls are examples of
common landslide types.
● Tsunami: are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or
abrupt movement of large volumes of water—including when an earthquake occurs
at sea.
Precautionary measures before, during, and after an earthquake:
Before an Earthquake
1. Know what to do before, during and after an earthquake.
- Before an earthquake happens, you should be prepared for it. You should know
what you need to do before, during and after it. Do not delay and act right away to
be prepared for any earthquake.
2. Identify safe places and spots.
- Identify safe places and spots and take note of them so that you can think of them
and go to whichever of them is the nearest when an earthquake occurs.
3. Prepare emergency kits
- These kits should be placed in conspicuous places in your home, office and vehicle
so that you can get them easily. It should induce a flashlight, portable radio with
fresh batteries, first aid kit, three days’ supply of fresh water, non-perishable ready
to eat food and an adjustable wrench for turning off gas and water. You should also
group with it a fire extinguisher which is Class C which is designed for safe use on
any type of fire like electrical, grease and gas.
4. Make your house ready and safe.
- Place heavier objects on lower shelves.
- Secure things that might topple.
- Strap water heaters with metal plumbing tape to wall studs.
- Locate master or main switches for utilities and know how to turn them off.
10
5. Know what to do during an earthquake, familiarize and even rehearse them.
During an Earthquake
1. Stay calm, stay put, do not run.
- Panicking can cause you to run. Running around will expose you to more danger.
The more space you cover, the more you are putting yourself at risk of falling
objects, breaking walls or floors and possible fires from electricity and gas leakage.
2. Drop, cover and hold on.
- After staying calm, staying put and not running. drop down to the ground and cover
your head with your arms. If possible, quickly look for a strong table, go under it and
hold on to it by its leg. But do not go too far looking for one. If this is not possible just
go down and cover your head with your arms.
3. (if inside) Stay away from windows, mirrors, bookcases and anything that can
topple or break.
4. (if outside) Avoid being near buildings, walls, trees, posts and objects that may fall.
5. Stop and get out of elevators.
- If you are inside an elevator, immediately stop it and get out of it on the very next
floor down or up.
6. Stop your vehicle.
- If you are driving a vehicle or a passenger in it, have it stopped immediately where it
is not near a building, tree or tall fixtures.
7. Stay away from overpasses and bridges.
After an Earthquake
1. Get your emergency kit and go outside to a safe place.
2. Expect aftershocks.
3. Put out fires.
4. Check for possible wounds or injuries and treat them.
5. Check gas, water, electrical lines and appliances for damage.
6. Do not turn gas or electricity on again until the power company is able to check them.
11
7. Avoid lighting matches, using flames, turning on electrical switches or appliances until
you are sure that there are no gas leaks.
