Recording: Anthropology 103 Farming Economies​

Duration: 111 Minutes​

2300642​
Feedback: https://form.jotform.com/220622168705048

LECTURE

Review
●​ Jared Diamond and James C. Scott
○​ Jared Diamond suggests that agriculture, while wonderful, has drawbacks.
■​ Anthropological Goals
●​ The primary goal of anthropology is to identify social challenges
and problems worldwide and contribute to finding solutions.
○​ You have to know the cause or origin of the problem to be
able to find solutions
○​ Social Problems
■​ Poverty
■​ Poor health
■​ Violence
■​ Warfare
■​ Discrimination
■​ Other forms of inequities
○​ These were not prevalent in foraging societies before the advent of agriculture.
●​ N!ai
○​ She is a member of the community
■​ Visual ethnography
●​ The full scope of her life and the transition her community made
from one of foraging to one of farming is seen
○​ Nai's life turns for the worse once her community is
deprived of practicing their traditional way of life, of
practicing foraging.
○​ Why is it that agriculture ever gets created anyway?
■​ It is a human invention
●​ Human beings invent to meet and face certain challenges.
○​ What would have been a challenge for human communities that would have
prompted the innovation of agriculture?
■​ Kung and Baumung-Buti
●​ It isn't that these communities did not know how to do farming, but
they chose not to be farmers because farming requires a lot of
additional work.
○​ What would have made farming seem like a good invention to put into daily
practice?
■​ Domestication of Dogs
●​ The example of dogs as an early form of agriculture indicates that
foraging societies understood basic agricultural principles through
practices like domesticating animals.

Agriculture
●​ Intentional Effort
 ○​ Agriculture comprises real practices and activities conducted by farmers to meet
their needs.
○​ Farmers aim to manipulate the environment to enhance food production.
○​ Intentional Domestication
■​ Human beings engage in intentional and conscious efforts to manipulate
the physical environment for increased food production.
■​ This manipulation can involve both plant-based and animal-based food
sources.
○​ Practices of Intentional Domestication
■​ Land Preparation
●​ Clearing landscapes (e.g., forests) to create fields for farming.
○​ Burning
○​ Cutting down trees
■​ Crop and Livestock Care
●​ Deliberate planting of seeds.
●​ Tending to crops by watering and enriching the soil with manure.
●​ Attempting to induce multiple growth cycles in a year, contrary to
natural seasons.
■​ Animal Management
●​ Corralling and fencing animals.
●​ Controlling reproductive cycles by specific mating to increase
population size.
○​ Controlled Reproduction
■​ Trait Selection
●​ Selecting specific traits in plants and animals to suit human needs.
●​ Example
○​ Breeding less aggressive members of an animal
population to reduce aggression in offspring.
■​ Harvesting and Culling
●​ Controlling the end date of a plant's life cycle.
●​ Implementing culling practices in animals is a polite term for killing
or slaughtering.
●​ Outcome: Domestication of Animals
○​ Domestication involves the control and manipulation of characteristics to align
with human preferences and needs.
○​ Observable Biological Changes
■​ Domestication results in actual, observable biological changes in both
plants and animals.
■​ These changes are evident in the DNA and physical form of the
domesticated plant or animal.
■​ Domesticated versions appear different from their wild counterparts.
○​ Accidental Domestication
■​ Dogs and Wolves
●​ Domestication can occur accidentally.
●​ Foraging-based cultures unintentionally domesticated wolves,
leading to the creation of dogs.
●​ Wolves, being social animals, displayed varying degrees of
friendliness and curiosity.
●​ Friendly wolves naturally interacted with humans, leading to the
unintentional selection of friendly traits.
 ●​ Over time, the population of wolves near humans became
increasingly friendly through natural breeding.
■​ Goats
●​ Goats might have been domesticated before the widespread
adoption of agriculture.
●​ Goats' tendency to eat anything, coupled with human communities
providing ample food sources, contributed to their accidental
domestication.
●​ Human populations were likely unintentionally selected for
friendliness and adaptability in goats.
○​ Biological Changes and Traits
■​ Selective Breeding
●​ Accidental domestication involves unintentional selective breeding
for specific traits.
●​ Example
○​ Selecting for friendliness in wolves and adaptability in
goats.
■​ Population-Level Changes
●​ Over time, unintentional domestication results in a population with
shared traits.
●​ Example
○​ A population of friendly wolves or adaptable goats.
○​ Compatibility with Humans
■​ The accidental domestication process often arises from the compatibility
of certain species with human communities.
●​ Example
○​ Wolves becoming friendly due to their compatibility with
humans.
■​ Unplanned practices, driven by unintentional interactions, lead to
populations with specific traits.
■​ Food Availability:
■​ Accidental domestication often involves animals attracted to human food
sources.
●​ Example
○​ Goats are drawn to the food waste produced by humans.

○​

●​ Outcome: Domestication of Plants

 ○​ Intentional efforts to make the environment overproduce also lead to the
intentional domestication of plants or animals.
○​ Example: Square Watermelons
■​ Japanese farmers intentionally engineered square watermelons.
■​ Achieved through controlled cross-pollination and growth in
square-shaped molds.
■​ The purpose was practical, making it easier to stack watermelons in
refrigerators.
○​ Real Biological Change
■​ Domestication involves intentional practices that result in a real biological
change in the population.
■​ Square watermelon serves as an example of this intentional modification.
○​ Study of Domestication through Morphology
■​ Morphology refers to the study of shapes.
■​ Applied to the examination of plants and animals to understand
domestication.
■​ Plant Morphology
●​ Comparison between wild and domesticated versions at a cellular
level reveals significant differences.
●​ Even seeds can exhibit noticeable distinctions.
●​ Trained archaeobotanists can differentiate between wild and
domesticated plant seeds dating back thousands of years.
○​ Animal Morphology (Zooarchaeology)
■​ Zooarchaeology specializes in studying the morphology of animal
remains.
■​ Skilled zooarchaeologists can analyze bone shapes and subtle structural
changes.
■​ They can differentiate between bones from wild and domesticated animal
populations.
○​ Comparison Method
■​ Archaeologists use a comparison method.
■​ Sample bones or seeds from wild and domesticated versions, then
compare with archaeological finds to determine domestication status.

○​

Origin of Agriculture
●​ Despite the success of foraging, the mystery lies in the independent development of
agriculture in multiple regions around 10,000 years ago.
●​ Neolithic Era
○​ The period of agricultural development is referred to as the Neolithic era.
 ○​ "Neolithic" means new, and "lithic" refers to stone, indicating the presence of new
stone tools associated with farming.
●​ Global Development of Agriculture
○​ Agriculture independently developed in at least seven places worldwide around
the same time.
○​ Each circle on the map represents an independent origin of agriculture, not a
diffusion of the idea from one region.
●​ First Domesticated Plants
○​ The map highlights the first domesticated plants in various regions:
■​ Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East
●​ Weeds
■​ Northern China
●​ Millet
■​ Southern China
●​ Rice
■​ Papua New Guinea
●​ Taro
■​ South America
●​ Potato
■​ Mesoamerica and North America
●​ Maize or Corn
○​ Commonality: Starchy Carbohydrates
■​ All the first domesticated plants share the characteristic of being starchy
carbohydrates.
■​ A hypothesis suggests that starchy carbohydrates could be fermented to
produce alcohol.

○​
●​ Beer Revolution Hypothesis
○​ An anthropologist, Barning, proposed the idea that the agricultural revolution
might be akin to a "beer revolution."
○​ Suggested that the goal of agriculture was to produce alcohol for human
enjoyment.
 ○​

Forced to Adopt Agriculture (Plants)

●​ Younger Dryas Climate Event
○​ Despite knowledge, the adoption of agriculture took time.
○​ Questions arise about the delay if agriculture is so beneficial.
○​ Around 12,000 years ago, the global climate changed, known as the Younger
Dryas.
○​ Colder and drier conditions led to a scarcity of water, creating a crisis for human
and animal populations.

○​
●​ Oasis Patchwork Model
○​ The model suggests clusters of oasis areas became crucial during the Younger
Dryas.
○​ Oasis areas with water, plants, and animals attracted both humans and animals
in search of resources.
○​ Increased Population Pressure
■​ Human populations gathered around oasis areas exceeded the carrying
capacity of the land.
■​ Carrying capacity is a mathematical formula determining the maximum
population a land area can support based on available resources.
●​ Transition to Agriculture
○​ To feed growing populations, humans started practicing agriculture.
○​ Transition from nomadic to sedentary lifestyles.
●​ Selective Breeding for Taste
○​ As agriculture progressed, humans began selectively breeding plants for
improved taste.
○​ Example
■​ Cross-breeding teosinte with another plant to create a more palatable and
larger version of maize or corn.
 ■​
●​ Challenges in Farming
○​ Farmers faced challenges such as soil depletion due to overgrowing specific
crops.
○​ Solutions like the Three Sisters (squash, maize, and beans) were devised to
maintain soil fertility.
●​ Dependence on Few Plants
○​ Many farming communities became reliant on a few domesticated plants.
○​ This led to a less diverse diet compared to traditional foragers.
●​ Darker Side of Agriculture
○​ Like any human invention, agriculture had a darker side.
○​ Excessive use or misuse of farming practices can have negative consequences.
●​ Diversified Diet vs. Increased Production
○​ Agriculture, while increasing production, did not necessarily lead to a more
diversified diet.
○​ Traditional foragers had a more diverse diet compared to early farmers.
●​ Positive Impact of Agriculture
○​ Agriculture, during the Younger Dryas crisis, likely saved human communities
from famine.
○​ Despite its downsides, agriculture played a crucial role in providing food security
during challenging times.

Forced to Adopt Agriculture (Animals)

●​ Selective Breeding in Sheep
○​ Farmers engaged in selective breeding to achieve desired traits.
○​ Reduction in the size of natural weapons (horns) for safety.
○​ Focusing on fleece quality for fabric production.

○​
●​ Transformation of Domesticated Sheep
○​ Domesticated sheep transformed to have shorter, less intrusive horns.
○​ Selective breeding for a thin layer of hair and thick, fluffy fleece.
○​ The desire for friendliness in domesticated sheep to ease handling.
●​ Negative Consequences of Domestication (Chris the Sheep)
 ○​ An example of a wild sheep named Chris illustrates potential negative
consequences.
○​ Domesticated sheep's fleece doesn't naturally stop growing; it requires shearing.
○​ Chris nearly died due to excessive wool causing strain on his body.

○​
●​ Dependency on Humans
○​ Domesticated animals like sheep are entirely reliant on humans.
○​ Cannot self-propagate or maintain health without human intervention.
○​ Domesticated plants, like leeks, also require human assistance for propagation.
●​ Examples of Lost Sheep
○​ Chris's story is not a unique case; similar incidents happen to Prickles from
Australia.
○​ Prickles, a sheep lost for nearly seven years, emphasizes the recurring issue.
○​ Both sheep required significant shearing upon rediscovery.

○​
●​ Consequences Beyond Wool Production
○​ Negative consequences extend beyond wool production.
○​ Over-manipulation in domestication can impact the overall health and well-being
of animals.
●​ Human Intervention in Animal Breeding
○​ Dogs, despite being beloved domesticated animals, also face negative
consequences.
○​ Bulldogs, specifically, experience reproductive challenges due to human-driven
selective breeding.
○​ Human intervention, while shaping animals for specific purposes, may have
unintended and harmful consequences for the organisms involved.

Jared Diamond's Perspective on Agriculture

●​ Larger populations from agriculture contribute to creative innovations.
●​ Highlights the positive side of agriculture in fostering human progress.
●​ Dark Side of Agriculture
○​ Diamond introduces a darker side, suggesting agriculture might be one of the
worst decisions.
 ○​ Negative consequences and unintended outcomes associated with agriculture.
○​ There is a need to recognize and address the negative impacts of agriculture.
●​ Ripple Effect of Agriculture
○​ Agriculture is a ripple effect, changing various aspects of society and culture.
○​ It changes in subsistence economy influence:
■​ Population size
■​ Nomadism
■​ Social structure
■​ Leadership
■​ Overall economy
○​ Underlines the interconnectedness of cultural elements.
●​ Changes in the Physical Environment
○​ Agriculture alters the environment irreversibly.
○​ The transformation of the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East due to thousands of
years of farming.
○​ Anthropogenic landscapes are human-made and contribute to environmental
destruction.

○​
●​ Impact on Atmosphere and Seas
○​ Farming, especially livestock raising, contributes to atmospheric and aquatic
pollution.
○​ Cows' methane production and manure contribute to atmospheric toxins and
nitrogen levels.
●​ Positive Changes during COVID-19 Lockdowns
○​ There are positive changes in air quality and environment during COVID-19
lockdowns.
○​ Reduction in human activities resulted in improved air quality and wildlife
returning to urban areas.
○​ It only highlights the direct impact of human actions on the environment.

○​
●​ Biodiversity and Extinction
○​ Agriculture leads to the extinction of plant and animal species.
 ○​ Destruction of rainforests contributes to species extinction, with estimates
suggesting a loss every 20 minutes.
●​ Shift in Human Perception
○​ The shift from foraging to farming changes how humans perceive their
relationship with the earth.
○​ Foragers see the forest as a provider, while farmers may see it as a resource to
control.
●​ Social Stratification and Inequality
○​ N!ai's life transition illustrates social stratification, gender inequality, domestic
violence, and physical fights in a farming-based community.
○​ It argues that these features were absent in foraging-based cultures.

○​
○​ Equation: Agriculture to Violence
■​ Increased food production leads to larger populations and specialized
labor.
■​ Specialization fosters wealth disparities, social stratification, and
competition, potentially resulting in violence and warfare.

Dietary Deficiencies in Agricultural Societies

●​ Breakdown of Reciprocity
○​ Transitioning to farming breaks reciprocal relationships in society.
○​ No longer reliant on neighbors for food sharing.
●​ Breakdown of Physical Bodies
○​ Diamond argues that farming leads to harm to physical health.
■​ More food doesn't necessarily mean better food.
■​ Economic factors contribute to the quality of food.
●​ Malnutrition in Farming Communities
○​ Malnutrition is not just about being thin; it includes various physical outcomes.
○​ Over 50% of the U.S. population is malnourished but overweight.
○​ Factors that contribute to malnutrition:
■​ Cheap food
■​ High-fat
■​ Carbohydrate-rich foods
■​ Foods lacking crucial minerals and vitamins
●​ Health Issues and Exposure to Viruses
○​ Farming communities, even historically, suffered from malnutrition.
○​ Increased disease exposure and virus prevalence in populations.

Osteobiography
●​ Anthropologists read bones and teeth like a story of an individual's life.
●​ Bones and teeth provide clues about overall health and well-being.
●​ Reading Bones
 ○​ Sex determination is possible through pelvis width.
○​ Age determination is possible through growth benchmarks and bone density.
○​ Breaks and trauma in bones reveal activities and events in life.
○​ Some diseases like cancer leave distinct marks on bones.
●​ Repetitive Activities and Cultural Markers
○​ Repetitive activities leave cultural markers on bones.
○​ Examples include:
■​ Arthritis in toes from grinding maize and tooth wear in weavers.
■​ Foot binding in Chinese culture is a permanent physical alteration.
●​ Dietary Information from Bones
○​ Bones reveal information about an individual's diet.
○​ Isotopes in bones indicate the types of plants or animals consumed.
○​ A bone can create a "food web" indicating dietary habits.
●​ Diamond emphasizes that bones can also indicate what an individual lacks in their diet.

●​

Diseases and Deficiencies in Agricultural Societies

●​ Diseases from Animals
○​ Farming practices involve close contact with animals, leading to the transmission
of diseases.
■​ Measles and tuberculosis
●​ Introduced to humans through cattle.
■​ Influenza
●​ From pigs and ducks, smallpox from camels.
■​ COVID-19
●​ Possibly from bats or bats via camels.
●​ Population Density and Waste Management
○​ Larger populations living in one place produce significant waste, including human
waste.
○​ Accumulation of waste creates breeding grounds for bacteria and viruses.
○​ Pollutes waterways and soils, leading to potential health issues.
●​ Impact of Poor Sanitation - Leprosy
○​ Pleurisy (leprosy) is a disease caused by poor sanitation.
○​ Sedentary lifestyles in agricultural societies lead to challenges in maintaining
cleanliness.
○​ Consequences of being unable to leave dirty environments.
 ●​

Dietary Deficiencies and Dental Health

●​ Diamond emphasizes a change in dental health due to agricultural practices.
●​ Dental caries (cavities) become prevalent in agricultural societies.
●​ Causes of Dental Caries
○​ Dental cavities result from consuming starchy carbohydrates, including refined
sugar.
○​ Historical sources of cavities include domesticated plants like wheat, maize, and
rice.
○​ The interaction of starchy carbohydrates with saliva enzymes creates acidic
conditions in the mouth.

○​
●​ Consequences of Dental Caries
○​ Caries can be incredibly painful and potentially life-threatening.
○​ Infections from cavities can spread systemically through blood vessels.
○​ Lack of access to dental care in ancient times increased the severity of dental
issues.
●​ Reflection of Dietary Habits
○​ The presence or absence of cavities reflects an individual's diet.
○​ A high incidence of cavities indicates a diet rich in starchy carbohydrates.
○​ Ancient foragers had better dental health due to different dietary habits.
●​ Universal Nature of Dental Health Issues
○​ Similar dental health issues were observed in animals (e.g., dogs and cats) due
to their diet.
○​ Dental problems in pets are attributed to the starchy carbohydrate content in their
food.
 ●​
●​ Significance of Dental Health
○​ Dental health is seen as a significant aspect of overall well-being.
○​ Historical evidence suggests better dental health among foragers compared to
agricultural societies.
○​ Dental health impacts mortality, emphasizing the importance of understanding
dietary implications.

Likelihood of Deficiencies in Farmers Based on Diet

●​ Enamel Hypoplasia
○​ Result of a poorly balanced diet during tooth development.
○​ Signs include:
■​ Discoloration
■​ Brown color
■​ Horizontal lines on teeth
○​ Calcium deficiency or inadequate caloric intake affects enamel formation.
○​ Permanent markers indicating childhood nutritional stress.
○​ Common in farming communities compared to foraging communities.

○​
●​ Harris Lines in Bones
○​ Visible in X-rays, representing gaps in bone growth due to dietary stress.
○​ Occurs during childhood when the bone matrix doesn't reach proper density.
○​ May result from severe dietary stress or excessive caloric expenditure.
○​ Presence in farmers, absence in foragers.
 ○​
●​ Cribra Orbitalia
○​ Indicates long-term iron deficiency (anemia) at any stage of life.
○​ The body's response to iron deficiency involves producing more red blood cells.
○​ Increased red blood cells can lead to pressure on the bone, especially in the
orbital layer.
○​ Pressure causes lesions or pitting on the skull, creating distinctive features.
○​ Common in individuals lacking sufficient iron in their diet.
○​ Farmers may show signs of Cribra Orbitalia due to dietary factors.

○​

○​
●​ Farmers' Diets and Deficiencies
○​ Arthritis
■​ Resulting from repetitive activities, common in farmers.
■​ Visible in skeletal remains, especially in:
●​ Lower backs
●​ Legs
●​ Wrists
■​ Indicates trauma to bones due to excessive stress and inflammation.
■​ Foragers show less trauma compared to farmers.
 ○​ Bone Thickening from Labor
■​ Bones adapt to support heavier muscles developed through labor.
■​ Visible in X-rays, providing insights into individuals' activities.
■​ Farmers engaging in activities like:
●​ Pulling animals
●​ Digging
●​ Carrying heavy loads
■​ Foragers generally exhibit less bone thickening due to less strenuous
activities.

Anthropological Comparison between Foragers and Farmers

●​ Indian Knoll (Foragers) vs. Hardin Village (Farmers)
○​ Objects at Indian Knoll:
■​ Bone hooks
■​ Weights for fishing
■​ Projectile points
■​ Shell beads
■​ Wild walnuts
○​ Objects at Hardin Village:
■​ Structural posts
■​ Pottery
■​ Domesticated maize (corn)
●​ Health Comparison
○​ Anthropologists studied:
■​ Oral Health
■​ Life expectancy
■​ Infant mortality
■​ Anemia
■​ Growth arrests
■​ Infections
■​ Bone inflammation
■​ Tooth decay
■​ Abscessing
○​ In all categories, foragers demonstrated better health outcomes compared to
farmers.
●​ Foragers had:
○​ Longer life expectancy
○​ Lower infant mortality
○​ Less anemia
○​ Fewer growth arrests
○​ Fewer infections
○​ Less bone inflammation
○​ Fewer dental issues

Conclusion
●​ Is Jared Diamond right?
○​ Diamond's argument is supported by anthropological evidence.
■​ Agriculture introduced health issues like iron deficiency, arthritis, and
dental problems.
■​ Foragers demonstrated overall better health compared to farmers in
various health indicators.
○​ Diamond's message is seen as a call to find solutions based on understanding
the causes.