Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100237

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Hybrid Advances
journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/hybrid-advances

Review Article

Green threads of progress: Natural fibers reshaping wastewater cleanup

strategies, a review
Yash Sadanand Giri a , Alsha Subash b, c , Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian c, *
a
STES’s Sinhgad College of Science, Ambegaon (Bk.), Pune, 411046, India
b
Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Warun Ponds Campus, Geelong, Victoria, 3216, Australia
c
Nanocomposite Texturing Laboratory, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Ministry of Defence,
Girinagar, Pune, 411025, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The introduction of chemicals, plastics, and toxic pollutants amplified with commercialization and industriali­
Natural fibers zation outpaced the proficiency in accession of these entities away from the planetary borders, leading to the
Adsorption generation of harmful and toxic chemicals that pollutes the atmosphere and water bodies cognate with it. Thus,
Wastewater treatment
treating or alleviating these harmful and perilous materials from the wastewater system using a green modus
Dye removal
Heavy metal ions
operandi became more imperative. Adsorption with various natural and synthetic systems (2D materials, zeo­
lites, nanomaterials, polymers, natural fibers), are employed for the facile and adept removal of toxic matters
such as heavy metals and organic materials from different effluents like textile and industrial. However, the
application of natural fibers (NF) which are renowned for their eco-friendly and sustainable nature opens a new-
fangled and sustainable method in water remediation in integration of the water purification competence of
nature with science and technology. NF is emerging as formidable alternatives to conventional adsorbents and
synthetic fibers in the eradication of diverse contaminants from wastewater matrices. This comprehensive review
delves into the multifaceted application of natural fibers as biosorbents, elucidating their efficacy in sequestering
heavy metals, dyes, toxins, nano-plastics, and an array of pollutants prevalent in industrial effluents and tainted
water reservoirs. Most of the observations are explained in terms of (1) adsorption capacities of various natural
fibers, (2) toxicity assessment of various pollutants, (3) factors such as surface chemistry, kinetics, isotherms,
thermodynamics, and methodologies for augmentation are meticulously evaluated to ascertain and optimize
pollutant uptake, and (4) strategies for regeneration and reuse.

1. Introduction has become a critical disquiet for both well-developed, under-devel­

oped, and developing countries, driven by increased freshwater demand
In recent years, water consumption has nearly quadrupled, while the and the prevalence of waterborne diseases due to contamination [5,6].
global population experiencing water scarcity has surged from 0.24 Despite the use of various methodologies and material systems such
billion to 3.8 billion [1,2]. Projections indicate that by 2025, approxi­ as MXenes, zeolites, 2D materials, polymers, biopolymers, biopolymer/
mately 50 % of the world’s population will reside in areas where water polymer composites, and carbon-based materials to effectively eliminate
demand exceeds supply or where water use is restricted due to poor effluents, there is a lack of comprehensive systems that improve prop­
quality. The unsustainable drive of industrialization contributed to the erties and biodegradability. Many of these materials lack bioactivity,
direct and proliferated discharges of wastewater into the environment biodegradability, biocompatibility, and safety, which are crucial in to­
from various industries [3,4], ultimately resulting in ecological pertur­ day’s environmentally conscious era, limiting their full potential [7–9].
bation of the diversity of aquatic biota and environment. This escalation Adsorption employing biochar, derived from various biomass via py­
in water contamination – drinking, ground, and surface water, led the rolysis, is one of the earliest and most extensively used techniques for
researchers to prioritize the discovery and development of effective adsorbing toxic substances as it is favored for its abundant surface
water treatment methods. Consequently, ensuring access to clean water functional groups, high surface area, and cation exchange capacity. For

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Kandasubramanian).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hybadv.2024.100237
Received 20 April 2024; Received in revised form 10 June 2024; Accepted 19 June 2024
Available online 20 June 2024
2773-207X/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
Y. Sadanand Giri et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100237

instance, researches have showed the competence of biochar-derived functionalities, and prevalent availability [30,31].
from Bagasse to adsorb Pb2⁺ ions, achieving a maximal uptake effi­ The literature review utilized Scopus search engine and the key­
ciency of 12.7 mg/g [10,11]. Moreover, algal species like Chlorella words employed included “natural fibers,” “wastewater treatment,”
pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus obliquus has reported to have norgestrel, “adsorption,” “dyes,” “heavy metal ions,” “organic pollutants” and
progesterone, methane, dyes and pesticides adsorption ability and are “microplastics.” Specifically, articles focusing on wastewater treatment
widely employed inn phytoremediation [12]. using natural fibers, sourced from both plants and waste materials,
Various techniques for eliminating effluent from water involves published between 1997 and 2024 were considered. The details on the
reverse osmosis, ion exchange, membrane separation [13], adsorption whole publications along with the source type, identification of influ­
[14] and chemical precipitation [15]. Amongst divergent water reme­ ential authors, institutions, and countries are represented in Fig. 1. The
diation techniques, adsorption provides substantial benefits including selected articles encompassed various topics including reviews and were
cost effectiveness adaptability, simple design, profitability all while sourced from reputable publishers such as Royal Society of Chemistry,
preventing the formation of secondary pollutant [16]. The efficiency of Nature, American Chemical Society, MDPI, Elsevier, Taylor & Francis,
the adsorption is contingent upon the selection of the absorbent as the Springer, and Wiley Online Library.
success of this method depends heavily upon the specific characteristic This review offers fresh perspectives on the developing application of
and properties inherent to chosen absorbent. A comprehensive investi­ natural fibers that are renewable and biodegradable as environmentally
gation into the solubility characteristics of broad spectrum of powdered acceptable adsorbents to remove different types of aquatic contami­
or granular material, including synthetic resin, activated carbon metal nants. A comprehensive Scopus survey divulged that no review article
oxide, metal organic framework, and highly porous nanostructure, has unveils or explores the potential application of natural fibers as adsor­
been extensively undertaken with the aim of evaluating the effectiveness bent in various toxin irradiation as described in this review. While prior
of these diverse material for the adsorptive amputation of contaminants reviews focused on specific contaminant categories, such as heavy
from used water [17]. However, over the last few decades the detri­ metals or dyes, this study offers a thorough examination of the bio­
mental effects of various chemical adsorbent species have on biological sorption capabilities of natural fibers for several toxins, such as heavy
material have been a matter of prime concern [18,19] and hence more metals like arsenic, uranium, dyes, bacteria, microbes, pesticides, her­
industrial and academic research has been deviated towards natural, bicides, antibiotics and nano-plastics, examining their unique surface
and renewable biosorbents. Designated as a biosorbent, biodegradable chemistries, kinetics, and thermodynamic characteristics from both
adsorbent encompasses a diverse array of material including, agricul­ plant and animal sources. Moreover, the toxicity of various pollutants on
tural wastes, different biomass, microorganisms, divergent poly­ both flora and fauna is overlooked. This article offers unique modelling
saccharide materials and industrial wastes [20–29]. As an emergent analyses and isothermal mathematical explanations of adsorption
category of fibrous matter, natural fibers present distinct merits behavior and mechanisms as well as a unique discussion of regeneration
comprehensive other adsorbents due to high specific cost-effectiveness, methods that have not been thoroughly studied previously, such as
lightweight characterization, biodegradability, tailorable thermal, chemical and biological treatment giving imparting fresh

Fig. 1. Scopus survey on the available articles on Natural fibers for wastewater treatment (a) total number of documents per year, (b) type of article, and (c) number
of documents published country-wise (Based on Scopus survey as on 11 June 2024).

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Y. Sadanand Giri et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100237

perspectives on the benefits and drawbacks of natural fiber in compar­ effects of effluent, establishing the dose response connection and
ison to traditional adsorbents. This review offers a thorough and unique fundamentally formulating exposure [32]. The European Union direc­
summary of the present situation and possible applications of natural tive known as the Water Framework Directive (WFD) prioritizes chem­
fiber biosorption for wastewater treatment in a sustainable manner. ical pollution based on the risk it poses to aquatic biota. This directive
aims to address and regulate the impact of chemical substances on hy­
2. Toxicity assessments of water effluent drosphere within the European Union [33]. The water framework
directive defines a “hazardous substance” as a material that has the
Toxicity assessments encompass the characterization of the harmful ability to exhibit toxicity to environmental biota, and the capacity of

Table 1
Toxicity assessment of various effluents.
Sr. Effluent Normal Physiological function Used Permissible Effect on Plant and animal Reference
no limit
Plant Animal

1. Metal ion Essential mineral for glucose Leather tanning, USEPA = 10 Inhibit the growth of Cytotoxicity and cause [36]
Chromium metabolism textile dying and μg/L. plant apoptosis
metal surface Indian
furnishing Standard
IS10500 50
μg/L
Arsenic Not used Used wood WHO = 10 Inhibition of growth Risk of cancer in animal [37–39]
preservation, μg/l and leaf discoloration,
pesticide, glass and Reduced
manufacturing photosynthesis
. .
Lead Not used Used in production of USEPA = 15 They cause root Neurological effect, lead [40]
lead batteries, μg/L damage’ photosynthesis anemia, renal dysfunction [41]
production inhibition, and reduced
ammunition and the seed germination
firearm
Uranium Not used Used in nuclear USEPA = 30 Reduction in seed Caused Apoptosis [42–46]
power reactor, used μg/L germination, plant Inflammation,
as fuel for electricity growth inhibition, Genotoxic effect,
generation. photosynthesis Metabolic disorder
reduction, genotoxicity.
Copper As vital metal, copper is required Used as an USEPA = 50 Inhibition of root Hemoglobinuria, jaundice, [47–49]
for cardiovascular integrity, iron antimicrobial μg/L growth and leaf genotoxicity, reproductive
metabolism, lung pliability, Anti fouling agent, discoloration and and developmental
neovascularization, fungicide, necrosis, stunting, toxicity.
neuroendocrine function, and
suitable growth,
Molybdenum For activation of enzyme and used as a fertilizer, US EPA = 40 Form legumes, leaves Fatty changes in the liver [50–53]
for detoxification of organism μg/L have shown turn into and the kidney, Pulmonary
WHO = 70 yellow color irritation and
μg/L
Cesium Not used Petroleum US EPA = Growth retardation and Neurological, [54–56]
exploration, as a 200 pCi per physiological defect developmental,
catalyst, electric liter reproductive, genotoxic,
power generation, as and cancerous effect
radiation source.
inPhosphate Skeletal mineralization, including As fertilizer, WHO = 50 Mesophyll cell show Causing ageing in mammal, [57–59]
Herbicide in composition of cell membrane μg/L necrotic symptoms, cell Chronic kidney diseases, [60]
Linuron maintenance, present in nucleic apoptosis Cardiovascular
acid, energy, cell signaling calcification, decreasing
the level of vitamin D.
2. Dye Not used As an herbicide – Chlorosis on the vein of Reproductive toxicity, [61]
Methylene blue leaves, necrosis and neurotoxicity and inhibit [62]
dye death of plant the metabolism in
developing fish
3. Alizarin Not used Stanning, coloring Us EPA = 20 They affect the Genotoxicity, acute toxic [63]
Congo red wool, cotton and μg/L photosynthesis process, effect, [64]
paper. Carcinogenic effect
Bacterial toxin Not used Bone staining, stain – chlorosis Catalase activity change, [65–67]
(cyanobacteria) synovial fluid induced oxidative stress,
staining, modification in structure,
Textile industries Inflammation and
carcinogenic
Plastic nano- Not used Textile industries – Inhibit growth and Gastrointestinal distress, [68]
particle photosynthesis allergic reaction.
4 Not used – – Stunting, chlorosis, Cytotoxin, neurotoxin, [69,70]
necrosis, wilting dermatoxin
5. Not used – Plant development, Structural damage to organ [71,72]
alternation in like liver brain, intestine,
germination and root or gills and effect the
shoot growth metabolic balance,
behavior, fertility.

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persistence as well as the potential to bio-accumulate. Additionally, it through electrostatic attraction [76,77]. Among these various mecha­
includes other substances and groups of substance that induce a com­ nisms, including coagulation, direct flocculation, and the electrostatic
parable level of concern. For this reason, the hazardous identification is patch, adsorption stands out due to its low cost and enhanced efficacy in
the first stage of risk assessment, in context of wastewater, the effluent or removing different toxic effluents [78]. Natural fibers, with their high
hazardous substance are metal ion, herbicide, organic anion, plastic. surface area, ease of processing, and porosity, are viable candidates for
Then further step is identification of their effect on plants and animals, biosorption of toxins through ion exchange, catalytic reduction, surface
in this step the inherent properties of effluent are used to determine the adsorption, or chelation. This makes adsorption particularly attractive
potential harmful impacts and to evaluate the probable adverse effects. for the eradication of diverse toxic pollutants from industrial effluents.
Furthermore, reliant on the substance nature under inspection, the se­ Fig. 2 demonstrates commonly utilized wastewater treatment technol­
lection appropriate analytical tools are essential to obtain profound in­ ogies and Table 2 provides the comparison on commonly employed
formation on the exposure and effect required to elicit chronic toxicity effluent treatment techniques.
and sub-chronic, acute toxicity, and degradation of biotic, bio­ Adsorption denotes a modification in the concentration of a allocated
magnification and bioaccumulation. It is now widely recognized that the substance at interface as compared with the adjacent phase. This process
size of a chemical agent significantly influences mutually the bioavail­ is prevalent in following system: liquid-liquid, liquid-gas, and solid-gas
ability and their resultant effect on the organism [34]. [83] Adsorption occurs through, for example van der Waals forces,
In the water pollution the toxicity induced by effluents like metal which is identified as physisorption, which is a reversible process, and
ions, herbicide, organic anion, plastic, inorganic chemical and various takes place at lower temperature than or nearer to the adsorbate’s
Dye and this toxicity can impacting the aquatic biota and compromising critical temperature. On other hand if the adsorption occurs through the
the water quality. Every effluent has a permissible limit, which it the chemical bonding, it’s called chemisorption. Chemisorption occurs only
Maximum level of exposure of a effluent to which human and other as a monolayer and features strong bonding between the adsorbate and
organisms can be exposed safely over a definite period of time. The adsorbent compared to the physisorption.
Permissible limits for drinking water quality are given by WHO (World The substances that adsorb other substances are adsorbent and the
Health Organization), APHA (American Public Health Association), substances which are adsorbed by the adsorbent are the adsorbates [84,
USEPA, CPCB (Central, Pollution Control Board), Indian Standard 85]. Fig. 3 explain the mechanism of adsorption and various types of
Institution (ISI), and Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) [35]. adsorbents and adsorbate are shown in Fig. 4.
Elevating the level of effluent concentration in water bodies has a Development of adsorption techniques has taken place in different
detrimental effect on the wellbeing of humans, plants and animals. periods of time based on the various types of adsorbents. The adsorption
Detrimental effects such as the growth inhibition of plant, photosyn­ process has various application in industries, medical and environ­
thesis decolorization and cytotoxicity and genotoxicity and neurotox­ mental science.
icity in animals. Table 1 shows the names of effluents their physiological
function, their industrial or other uses, their permissible limits in the
3.1. Isotherms for adsorption
water, and their detrimental effect on plants and animal for example,
chromium is a metal ion which is useful for the essential mineral for
Adsorption isotherms describe the relationship among the adsorbate
glucose metabolism (physiological function) and in industries is mostly
in the neighboring phase and adsorbates that adhere on the surface of
used for the Eather tanning, textile dying and metal surface furnishing.
adsorbent at equilibrium and at persistent temperature, and it are
And their permissible limit in the water is 10 μg/L given by United State
fundamentally essential to enhancing the ability or use of adsorbent by
Environmental Protection Agency. And by the Indian Standard IS10500
illustrating interaction between adsorbate and adsorbent. The greatest
it should be 50 μg/L the elevating the level of chromium show detri­
fitting model is being selected to examine adsorption behavior [87]
mental effect on plant and animal. Its detrimental effects on plants
providing report on the mechanism of adsorption process, which is
include the inhibition of plant growth and cytotoxicity in animals
crucial for the effective designing adsorption system. Additionally, these
resulting in cell death. Table 1 shows the names of effluents their
models may apply the information for the maximum capacity of
physiological function, their industrial or other uses, their permissible
adsorption, that is significant for the enhancing the effectiveness of
limits in the water, and their detrimental effect on plants and animal.
adsorbent [88]. Different adsorption isotherm, their linear and
nonlinear equation, assumptions made and their limitation are shown in
3. Removal mechanism involving various toxic effluent
Table 3.
Adsorption, solvent extraction, ion exchange, chemical precipita­
tion, membrane technology, and electrochemical processes are widely 3.2. Thermodynamics
used methods for effluent treatment [73]. The mechanisms involved in
these processes include coagulation, electrostatic patch, direct floccu­ To expect the temperature range at which process become favorable
lation, polymer-bridge formation, and adsorption. Floccu­ or unfavorable as well as anticipate the spontaneity of process of
lation/Coagulation is a conventional technique that typically engages adsorption and properties of adsorbent and adsorbate in equilibrium is
flocculants - non-ionic/anionic polymers and coagulant - cationic inor­ determined by thermodynamic [89]. In the study of adsorption ther­
ganic metal salts. These methods are effective, extensive, and straight­ modynamic, the determination of key thermodynamic parameters is
forward for treating various effluent and wastewater systems [74,75]. essential. And parameters are enthalpy, entropy, activation energy,
Polymer-bridge formation arises when a low charge density and high isosteric heat of adsorption, activation parameters, and Gibb’s free en­
molecular weight polymeric long-chain adsorb onto a surface. This al­ ergy change.
lows the polymer chains to extend and form long loops that reach a Analyzing the thermodynamic activation characteristics related to
second surface, creating a bridge between the two surfaces through process such as activated entropy (ΔS), activated enthalpy (ΔH), and
attractive interactions [76]. In direct flocculation, often a free energy of activation (ΔG). And all parameters are determined by
high-molecular weight and medium-charge density cationic polymer is Eyring equation (eq. (1)):
employed. This process serves two primary functions: (1) neutralizing
the charge of colloidal particles and (2) forming flocs by bridging k kB ΔS ΔH
ln = ln + − (1)
aggregated, destabilized particles [75]. The electrostatic patch mecha­ T h R RT
nism entails the binding of charged polymers to components with The spontaneity of adsorption procedure is examined by the Gibb’s
opposite charges, thereby initiating coagulation and particle attachment free energy. Calculated as follows:

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Fig. 2. Commonly utilized wastewater treatment technologies. Adapted with permission from Ref. [79]. Copyright 2023; Royal Society of Chemistry.

ΔG0 = − RT ln KD (2)
Table 2
Comparison of commonly employed effluent treatment techniques.
where R is ideal gas constant (8.314 kJ mol− 1), T is temperature, Gibbs’s
Sr. Techniques Advantages Disadvantages Ref. free energy change (kJ.mol− 1), KD distribution coefficient.
No.
Above equation is crucial in adsorption thermodynamics for assess­
1. Chemical Simple & Poor selectivity for [80, ing the possibility of adsorption processes. It quantifies the regular free
Precipitation economically precipitation steps; 81]
energy variation during adsorption when the concentration of adsor­
feasible Large quantity to be
treated; bate, active sites of adsorbate and active sites of adsorbent are both set
Time-consuming. unity as shown by eq. (3):
2. Ion exchange High recovery Pre-treatment is
efficacy’ essential; KD ΔH0
d ln = (3)
Convenient Inadequate resins dT RT2
operation availability;
Difficulty in resin KD = equilibrium constant, ΔH0 = standard enthalpy change, R=
regeneration. Ideal gas constant and T = Absolute temperature.
3. Activated High adsorption High production cost; [81] By Van’t Hoff formula It is possible to determine how the equilibrium
Carbon capacity; Difficulty in
constant changes with temperature by taking into account the rela­
adsorption Large surface area. regeneration.
4. Membrane Small space Complex process; [80] tionship between ΔG0 and KD by eq. (4):
Filtration requisite; Membrane fouling;
High efficiency; High operational cost.
ΔG0 = ΔH0 − TΔS0 (4)
High separation 0 0
(ΔS = standard entropy change, ΔH = standard enthalpy change,
selectivity
5. Solvent High purity; Short Solvent evaporation ΔG0 = Gibbs Free energy T = absolute temperature and).
Extraction operation time; High The standard entropy change (ΔSo) and standard enthalpy change
selectivity. (ΔHo) are interconnected with free energy change (ΔG0) at constant
6. Coagulation & Low cost; Energy Incomplete removal [80] temperature by this eq. (4). Plotting Gibb’s free energy (G0) against
Flocculation efficient; Facile pollutants; Generation
employment. of a secondary sludge.
temperature (T) will result in linear plot where the value of H0 is ob­
7. Biosorption Low cost; green Less selectivity [81] tained from the slope and intercept (i) either ΔS0 or ΔH0 is positive with
technology; facile towards adsorbates. TΔS0 is much higher than ΔH0 (ii) ΔH0 is negative while ΔS0 is positive
biomass or (iii) either ΔH0 or ΔS0 is negative and with ΔH0 outweighing TΔS0.
regeneration;
Entropy change indicates the randomness in adsorption procedure The
Functions over a
varied array of pH adsorption process’s spontaneity is confirmed by whether ΔG0 takes the
and temperature. negative or positive value. ΔH0 provide data about reaction nature of
8. Photocatalysis Simultaneous Limited application [82] process endothermic or exothermic.
removal of dyes and
heavy metal ions;
Less toxic by-
3.3. Adsorption kinetics
products.
Adsorption kinetics involves investigating rate of particles that
adhere to the surface as along with the time required to achieve equi­
librium [90]. For the efficient design and control of industrial adsorption
plants, understanding the equilibrium and kinetics of adsorption is
fundamental. Collecting the definite information about these concepts is
essential for optimal functioning of the plant [91]. The comprehensive

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Fig. 3. Diagrammatic representation of adsorption mechanism involving various dyes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [86]. Copyright 2016; American
Chemical Society.

Fig. 4. Diagram depicting various adsorbents and adsorbates.

adsorption rate on porous adsorbents can be expressed by the mecha­ adsorption process. The point of zero charge (pHPZC) of sorbents,
nism that consists of three steps. The first step is Intraparticle diffusion, determined using zeta potential measurements, is essential for regu­
second one is film diffusion and third one is Adsorption of adsorbate lating adsorption. In wastewater treatment, various adsorption mecha­
molecule of the operational sites of porous adsorbent. Table 4 show nisms are employed to remove contaminants. These mechanisms include
Adsorption kinetics and their equation for adsorption. ion exchange, electrostatic interaction, physical adsorption, and
complexation.
4. Mechanism of adsorption Physical adsorption: Surface or Physical adsorption involves the
removal of effluent as it diffuses into the pores of the adsorbent without
The adsorption mechanism is determined by several factors, the establishment of chemical bond. Physical adsorption generally takes
including the adsorbent’s surface area, porosity, and surface functional place due to the manipulation of weak Van Der Waals forces of attrac­
groups. The molecular properties of dyes, such as molecular size, tion. This multilayer formation diminishes as the temperature increase.
aliphatic versus aromatic structures, and hydrophobicity, along with Ion exchange: Adsorption of effluent through exchange of ioniz­
solution properties like pH, ionic strength, and temperature, also able/cation on adsorbent surface with dissolved effluent is the ion ex­
significantly influence the adsorption process. Interactions between the change mechanism. The efficacy of ion exchange process be contingent
functional groups of the adsorbent and the dyes are crucial in this upon size of effluent and the surface functional group of adsorbents.
mechanism. The surface charges of both the adsorbent and the adsor­ Electrostatics interaction: Electrostatic interaction between sur­
bate, which are influenced by pH, play a critical role in controlling the face charged adsorbent and effluent is another mechanism for the

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Table 3
Different adsorption isotherms, their linear and nonlinear equations, assumptions made and their limitations.
Sr Name of Equation Equation (nonlinear) Assumption Limitation
no. isotherm (linear)

1. Freundlich 1 Surface roughness, inhomogeneity, adsorbate -adsorbate No theoretical foundation,

log qe = log Kf + qe = log Kf Cen
interaction unacceptable at
1 Higher pressure, K and n
n log ce differ with
1 Temperature, it fails at
ln qe = ln Kf +
n log ce elevated concentration
Of the adsorbate
2. Langmuir Ce Ce 1 qm KL Ce All site are equal, mono-layer adsorption only, No interaction hold only at short pressure,
= + qe =
qe Qm Qm b 1 + K L Ce between adsorbate molecule on adjacent site, heat of multilayer adsorption is
1 Ce adsorption is continuous and equivalent for all site, possible,
ln qe = +
KL qm qm Adsorption energy is constant. ignore adsorbate- adsorbate
interaction,
saturation rate of adsorption
rest upon adsorbent
3. Tempkin RT RT RT Uniform distribution of binding energies, Adsorption heat of Not useful for complex
qe = ln KT + ln Ce qe = ln(KT Ce )
br br br all molecules decrease linearly with the growth in coverage of system, extremely low
the adsorbent surface And high concentration
value of adsorbate
In liquid phase ignored
4. Dubinin- qe = Homogeneous surface, monolayer adsorption, uniform energy Does not decrease henry’s
radushkevich ln qe = ln qD − [ ( )]2
distribution, no interaction between adsorbate molecules. law at low pressure
1
− BD RT ln 1+ C
(
1 2
)]
qD exp
e
Isotherm, this model does
BD [RTln 1 + not act as
Ce
Thermodynamically
consistent adsorption
5. Redlich- Ce qe = Heterogenous surface, multilayer adsorption,
ln = β ln Ce − ln A ( )]2
Peterson qe 1
− BD [RTln 1+ C
e
qD exp
6. Toth K T Ce Heterogenous surface, multilayer adsorption,
qe =
( )1
∝T + CZe z

non-ionized carboxyl groups’ chemisorption with hydrogen atoms. Lafi

Table 4
et al. [98] examined the sorption behaviour of modified extracted cel­
Kinetics models and its equations.
lulose (MEC) from Stipa Tenacissima L by cetyltrimethyl ammonium
Sr. Kinetics model Equation Reference bromide. The mechanism underlying MO adsorption on the MEC in this
no
instance may involve hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions.
1. Lagergren’s pseudo- first In(Qe − Q) = InQe − K1 t [92]
order
5. Natural fiber as adsorbents
2. Pseudo Second Order t 1 1 [93]
= +
Qt k2 Q2e Qe t
3. Avrami
(
Qt = Qav 1 − e(kav t)nav
)
[94] In recent years, there has been a notable increase in the utilization of
4. Elovich Qt = βIn(αβ) − In(t) natural fiber as a primary resource, driven by the growing concern for
( )
5. Bangham
Log log
Ct
− Qt m = Log Ko +
environmental sustainability. This heightened interest in natural fiber
Ci has been accompanied by a substantial demand from both the market
Qt Log(t)
6. Boyd kinetic model
(
Qt
and various industries. Natural fiber is sourced from plants and animals.
Bt = − 0.4977 − In 1 − ) Natural fibers have qualities like renewability, biodegradability, diverse
Qe
7. Boyd’s intraparticle 6 ∑∞ 1 [95] characteristics, erraticism, CO2 neutrality, regenerating ability. Natural
F = 1- 2
diffusion model π n=1 n2
fiber has shown promising advancements across various technical do­
8. Mathews and Weber Ct [96]
= ekM&W st mains. Natural fibers are also used in construction, paper, medical, and
(M&W) model c0
food industries. Natural fibers are sourced from animal and plant and are
composed of cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, extractive and inorganics.
elimination of effluent from waste water management. For Example, Natural fibers can be characterized into two different class plant natural
chitosan eradicated color from SRDW (synthetic reactive dye waste­ fiber and animal natural fiber. Plant fibers are derivative of the various
water) [97]. parts of a plant such as the bast, leaf, Fruit and seed. Plant fibers typi­
π-π interaction: Attractive forces among the adsorbate and the cally consist mainly of cellulose and exhibit distinct characteristics,
substrate consequence from the overlap of the electron clouds of the pi including hydrophilic properties, processability, insolubility in
orbitals, which causes this interaction. This process is frequently seen in numerous solvents due to hydrogen bonds and crystallinity, as well as
aromatic molecules adhering to conjugated system surface containing non-toxicity, and the fundamental constituent of natural fiber encom­
aromatic group. passes lignin, pectin, cellulose (α-cellulose), hemicellulose and waxes.
Numerous contact types, including hydrophobic, electrostatic, and Plants like cotton, sisal, jute, bamboo, Kenaf plant, bananas are sourced
hydrogen bond interactions, are involved in the mechanism. The of natural fiber in water-treatment. The water adsorption is contingent
adsorption ability of esparto grass fibres (EGF) for the elimination of TB on the ambient humidity levels. The degree of crystallinity and cellulose
and CV was also examined by Lafi et al. [98–100]. FTIR-infrared Spec­ purity has an impact on the isotherm of cellulosic material. Water can
trophotometry revealed that a number of functional groups, including engage with hydroxyl groups in the amorphous phase, as only a
ester, hydroxyl, and amino groups, were involved in the binding of CV restricted portion of water interacts with the hydroxyl groups on the
and TB on EGF. Binding appeared to be more closely associated with surface of the crystalline phase [101]. Animal fiber is generally

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Y. Sadanand Giri et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100237

composed of protein. These proteins are naturally formed in animals higher adsorbent dosage and ground water temperature, reaching
through the condensation of alpha-amino acid, and they produced optimal adsorption under the pH = 7. The Thomas model anticipated an
repeated polyamide units on the alpha-carbon that have different sub­ uptake capacity of 6.63 mg g− 1 at 25 0C, 3 g adsorbent dose and 100 μg.
stituent. Animal protein has moderate strength and flexibility, they have L− 1As(v) concentration for Fe-kapok. While the Bohart and Adams
excellent adsorption capacity, they have some acid resistance and correlation coefficient exhibited higher reliability (R2 = 0.88–0.99)
anti-static properties because of these qualities they are used in waste­ compared to the Thomas model (R2 = 0.89–0.98). The study also
water treatment. They are classified into wool fiber, silk fiber, avian demonstrated the reusability and regeneration Fe-kapok over 8
fiber [102]. adsorption cycles with the sorbent remaining effective for around 600
Over the conventional adsorbent material, the use of natural fiber as min formerly reaching saturation in the last reuse round.
an adsorbent material much aid resolving the crucial problem of water
pollution. Employing NF for the adsorption of dyes, heavy metals, 5.2. Dye removal
toxins, nano-plastics, and various pollutants in industrial effluents pre­
sents numerous advantages that warrant attention. Natural fibers are Demir et al. [106] In this study they used LCF (luffa cylindrica fi­
derived from renewable resources such as plants (e.g., cellulose fibers bers) for elimination of methylene blue dye. At the point of equilibrium,
from cotton, lignocellulosic fibers from jute) or animals (e.g., wool, silk). the quantity of MB adsorbed by the L. cylindrica remained unchanged by
They are abundantly available and can be sustainably harvested, the temperature of medium. The adsorption of MB on luffa cylindrica is
reducing the environmental impact associated with their production and comparatively reversible reaction indicated by dimensionless equilib­
disposal. The high aspect ratio and porosity, which are essential prop­ rium parameter. This is exothermic reaction and value ΔH0is − 20
erties for adsorption processes allows for greater interaction between the kj/mol. The Langmuir model well defined the L. cylindrica fibers
fibers and pollutants, enhancing adsorption efficiency. Moreover, the adsorption isotherm with the linear regression correlation coefficient
presence of divergent functional groups such as amine (-NH2), carboxyl 0.99. this suggest that luffa cylindrica fibers possess a homogeneous
(-COOH), and hydroxyl (-OH), groups, which can act as binding sites for surface energy adsorption capacity is 49 mg/g and 123 m2/g mean BET
pollutants, facilitating the adsorption of a wide range of contaminants surface area of fiber.
[103]. Kyzas et al. [107] in this study they worked on the adsorption of
basic yellow 37 dye by the 3 bast fiber (flax, ramie, and kenaf). The
5.1. Adsorption of metal ion experiment was conducted under alkaline pH conditions, and the FTR
substantiated the initial findings through observed shifts in the bands
Hu et al. studies the adsorptive removal of uranium from sea water corresponding to the functional groups of the fiber. The adsorption ca­
desalination utilizing PAN (polyacrylonitrile) modified LC (Luffa cylin­ pacity of flax for BY37 is 435 mg g− 1, for kenaf fiber is 327 mg g− 1 and
drica). A series of adsorption tests was arranged to investigate the in­ the ramie fiber are 460 mg g− 1 at 250C. the adsorption capacity of flax
fluence of various factors (such as adsorption time, pH, adsorption was 33 % greater than kenaf fiber and ramie fiber is 40 % higher than
temperature, flocculant, and scale inhibitors) on uranium adsorption. kenaf. And in this study, they worked on the reuse of natural fiber in
They modified the luffa cylindrica to guanidine/oxime co-modified luffa reversed pH condition (from 12 to 2) and they found only ramie fiber
cylindrica fiber and found morphological changes like intricacy of LC had only reduced their 13 % adsorption capacity.
graft increase, the unevenness of the surface channels on the cylindrical Delgado et al. [108] in this work they used jute fiber and henequen
fibers rises for the PAN- based fiber, and surface had been variations for the elimination of effluent like methylene blue, phenol, and cad­
from smooth to a wrinkly longitudinal surface, and they retained their mium. Three activation methods were employed, including physical
fiber structure. This study done under the Scanning Electron Microscopy methods using steam or carbon dioxide, and a chemical method using
(SEM). In this experiment they observed adsorption capacity of PAN-G- zinc chloride. In this research Langmuir and Freundlich model used to
AO 490.20 mgg− 1 and adsorption capacity of WGLC 429.18 mgg− 1 at define adsorption capacity the steam ACC have higher adsorption ca­
298 K and the desorption rate of PAN-G-AO and WGLC reduced by 5.14 pacity it was 146 and 187 mg/g for henequen and jute while other are
% and 11.94 % after 30 days cycle. The outcomes of adsorption exper­ lower than 25 mg/L. The activated carbon cloth exhibit variation in pore
iments conducted at various stages of seawater desalination solution structure based on the activation method employed. The process of
revealed that PAN-G-AO exhibited the highest adsorption capacity in chemical activation leads to the creation of microporous materials,
desalinated seawater. This underscores the potential application of while physical activation primarily generates porosity in the low and
functionalized fiber materials in efficiently adsorbing uranium from micro mesopore range. The sample exhibits a surface area ranging from
concentrated desalinated seawater, demonstrating promise for practical 480 to 1200 m2/g, and the surface chemistry spans from neutral to
utilization. acidic. Functional groups of acids are present in quantities ranging from
Sahu et al. [104] modified the jute fiber with the Fe2O3 nanoparticle 0.03 to 0.35 mq/g. Adsorption capacity of activated carbon for cloth is
is created through the hydrothermal process for the purpose of removing significantly influenced by the surface chemistry and pore size distri­
As(V). The cellulose matrix of jute fiber is combined with Fe2O3 bution. Microporous carbon proves efficient in adsorbing micro­
nanoparticles to create an efficient hybrid adsorbent, referred to as the pollutants such as cadmium and phenol, whereas mesoporous activated
JF@Fe2O3 nanocomposite. Studies are directed to estimate the uptake carbon cloths with an unaltered surface effectively adsorb methylene
capacity of this nanocomposite material. Under pH 3 conditions, the blue. This research suggests that henequen and jute are suitable for the
JF@Fe2O3 nanocomposite exhibits its highest adsorption capacity for production of activated carbon cloths, offering an environmentally
As(V). Corresponding to the Langmuir isotherm, the maximal uptake friendly alternative to synthetic precursors. The morphological analysis
capacity at this pHwas recorded as 48.06 mg/g. was studied using SEM characterization as illustrated in Fig. 5.
Yeo et al. [105], was developed Fe-kapok, by subjecting natural fi­
bers to hydrothermal surface treatment with iron. This innovative sor­ 5.3. Adsorption of toxin produce by bacteria
bent proved highly effective in removing arsenic from groundwater
when employed in a fixed bed column. The Fe-kapok demonstrated Albuquerque junior et al. [109] in this study they used Activated
higher precise BET surface area (3.272 m2/g) and pore volume (0.032 carbon fiber were produced using natural fiber derived from macadamia
cm3/g) than the raw Fe-kapok (0.021 cm3/g and 0.976 m2/g), respec­ nutshell, sugarcane bagasse, pine wood residue, and dried coconut shell
tively, enhancing As(V) adsorption capacity. The study showed decline endocarp unripe coconut mesocarp. And they remove the [ D- Leucine]
in As(V) adsorption efficacy with growing flow rate, and initial con­ MCYST-LR from water within the just 10 min of contact time the ACF
centration of As(V) conversely the elimination efficiency improved with remove 98 % of contaminant. The monolayer adsorption capacity (qm)

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Y. Sadanand Giri et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100237

Fig. 5. SEM observations of jute and henequen natural fibers. Raw fabric (A: jute and D:henequen), and activated carbon cloths (B: ZnCl2 activated jute, C: CO2
activated jute, E and F: steam activated henequen). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [108]. Copyright 2019; Elsevier.

for [D-Leucine1] MCYST-LR on the ACF was found to be 161 μg mg− 1 governed by diffusion and involved both chemisorption and phys­
and 200 accompanied by Langmuir adsorption constant (KL) of 1.23 L isorption mechanism. SEM (scanning electron microscope) and FTIR
mg− 1 and 2.33. (Fourier transform infrared) analyses displayed clear evidence of posi­
tive acetylation and oil adsorption.
5.4. Adsorption of nano-plastic MD j nine et.al This case study explores the innovative use of natural
fibers extracted from waste chestnut shells for oil-water separation and
Asma et al. conducted research on cellulose fibers with surface dye adsorption, highlighting their potential as a cost-effective and eco-
functionalization, employed for the removal of non-plastic particles friendly solution.
from water. In this study they used plantain pith derived cellulose (CE) Chestnut-shell fibers, naturally hydrophobic and oleophilic, are
fibers underwent functionalization with polyethyleneimine (PEI) to derived from the waste generated during chestnut processing. These
create an effective adsorbent for the three widley encounter PNPs. For fibers possess unique chemical and physical properties that make them
the enhancing the adsorption capacity of the fibers they introduce the ideal for separating oil from water and adsorbing dyes. The chestnut-
amino group on the CE fiber surface through PEI grafting. Three lumi­ shell fibers demonstrated remarkable efficiency in both oil-water sepa­
nescent polymer nano-palastic were synthesized and thoroughly char­ ration and dye adsorption applications. They can absorb oil up to 94
acterized to showcase the adsorption capabilities of PEI@CE fibers. times their own weight and show a 99 % separation efficiency for
These fibers exhibit a highest affinity for various PNPs in water various oils, including toluene, engine oil, and petrol, when subjected to
demonstrating exceptional adsorption efficiencies of 97 %, 98 %, and 99 gravity or external suction forces. Additionally, the fibers exhibited high
% for PMMA, PVC and PVAc nanoparticle, respectively. The removal removal efficiency for dyes such as Rhodamine-B (88 %) and Methylene
efficiency of this work is approx. 98 % blue (~91 %) in both static (slow adsorption) and dynamic (instant
adsorption) conditions. The presence of oxygen functional groups im­
parts partial negative charges to the fibers, facilitating the adsorption of
5.5. Adsorption of water treatment oil contaminated water
cationic dyes.
The treated fibers showed a higher specific surface area (3.272 m2/g)
Onwuka et al. focused on treating water contaminated with crude oil
and pore volume (0.032 cm3/g) compared to raw fibers (0.976 m2/g and
using chemically modified natural fibers. In this research they evaluate
0.021 cm3/g), showing their enhanced adsorption capacity. The Thomas
the Adsorption of crude oil from the water by using the unacetylated and
model predicts an uptake capacity of 6.63 mg/g at 25 ◦ C. The fibers
acetylated lignocellulosic fiber. Like OPEFB (Oil Palm Empty Fruit
maintained their performance over multiple cycles of use and could be
Bunch) and CP (Coca Pod) underwent acetylation under the mild con­
regenerated without significant loss in efficiency. The study indicates
dition and compared adsorption capacities of unmodified and modified
that chestnut-shell fibers are a promising solution for environmental
fibers. paired t-test presented there was the substantial change in
remediation. Their high efficiency in oil absorption and dye adsorption,
adsorption capacities. Equilibrium researches presented that CP has
coupled with their reusability, makes them a cost-effective alternative to
higher adsorption capacities than OPEFB (3.04 g/g and 6.48 g/g) and
traditional synthetic materials. The fibers’ natural origin and minimal
acetylation improved the crude sorption capacities of the sorbent. Ki­
processing requirements enhance their sustainability credentials.
netic study presented that the sorption of crude oil by the sorbent was

9
Y. Sadanand Giri et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100237

However, further research is needed to optimize extraction and fabri­ 5.7. Adsorption of anti-inflammatory
cation processes for industrial-scale applications and to test the fibers
under various environmental conditions to ensure consistent perfor­ da costa et al. worked on the adsorption of sodium diclofenac by
mance [110]. using the stearic acid coated luffa cylindrica/polypyrrole. In this study
they modified the luffa cylindrica fiber in LF-PPY(coated with poly­
pyrrole) and in LFPPySAc (coated with spolypyrrole/stearic acid) and
5.6. Adsorption of herbicide they found that the morphological, wettability, and physicochemical
properties of LF altered by the Sac/PPy coating that coating helping in
Alila et al. In this work they used cellulose fiber (esparto) for the interaction with DCF and increasing adsorption capacity of DCF by 80 %
removal of herbicides Alachlor (ACH), Atrazine (ATR) and Linuron (continuous process) and 234 % (batch process). They found that the LF-
(LNR). In diverse settings, the cellulose fiber underwent modification PPySAc permitted its reuse minimum 5 times without trailing in
through the grafting of hydrocarbon chains with varying lengths, each adsorption performance in both continuous and batch processes.
carrying amino terminal functionalities. They observed that the
adsorption capacity of cellulose (20–50 mol g− 1) fiber increased after
modification (400–1000 mol g− 1). Also they worked on reused and
regeneration of used fiber by washing with the ethanol.

Table 5
Various adsorbents and their associated adsorbates, their kinetic models, their adsorption isotherms, thermodynamics, their Adsorption capacity, and the optimum
parameters.
Sr. Adsorbent Adsorbate Modification Kinetic Adsorption Thermodynamics Adsorption Removal optimum Reference
With model isotherm Capacity efficiency parameters

1. Jute fiber Arsenic Hydrothermal – Langmuir – 48.06 mg g Acidic pH (3) [104]

treatment isotherm
1
2. Kapok Arsenic (V) Hydrothermal – – – 6.63 mg g− Neutral pH, [105]
fiber treatment 250C temp
3. Luffa Uranium Functionalization – – – WGLC Temperature [111]
cylindrica 429.18 298 K
mgg− 1, PAN-
G-AO 490.20
mgg− 1
4. Iron/ Cr(VI) Pyrolysis PSO Langmuir – 182 mg g− 1 pH range [112]
carbon gel model between 3 and
8
5. Luffa Methylene dye Pyrolysis Pseudo- Langmuir Exothermic and 49 mg/g Temperature [113]
cylindrica second model Spontaneous 300C and
fiber order 500C
adsorption
1
6. Core fiber Textile dye Coating method – Freundlich – 18.40 mg g− 60–99 % Acidic pH (3), [114]
isotherm 250C temp
7. Luffa DCF PSO D-R isotherm – Vary to type pH should be [115]
cylindrica of coated 5.5
luffa
cylindrica
8. Esparto Herbicide Grafting method Weber and Langmuir Endothermic and 400–1000 250C temp [116]
fiber Moriss model exothermic mol g− 1
equation
9. Chestnut- Oil and Dye – – – – For oil 190.8 88 and 98 Neutral pH [110]
shell fiber ± 4.5 m2/g %
adsorption
capacity
10. Jute and Dye (Acid red) Carbon activation – Freundlich – For dye AR27 Temperature [117]
Coconut and Metal ion isotherm is 62.18 mg/g 293 K, pH is 5
fiber (Cu2+) For Cu2+
57.73 mg/g
11. Coconut Arsenic Cross linking Pseudo Langmuir Exothermic For Arsenic pH range [118]
fiber reaction and second 5–100 mg/l 6.0–8.0
Derivatization order
12. Aspen Phosphate Treated with iron – Langmuir – 4.3 mg/g pH 4.3 to 2 [119]
wood fiber salt solution and
Freundlich
isotherm
13. Coconut α-picoline, Carbon activation Pseudo Langmuir Endothermic α -picoline Temperature [120]
shell fiber β-picoline, method second and 37.59 mg/g, β should be
and γ-picoline order, Freundlich -picoline 10C0
Pseudo first isotherm 96.15 mg/g, ,5C0 and 40C0
order γ-picoline
62.50 mg/g
14. Cotton and Copper ion Treated with citric – – – 1.31 ± 0.14 – [121]
flax fiber acid mmol/g
15. Cotton copper, led, Cotton Pseudo Langmuir – 68.3 for Cu2+ – pH should be [122]
fiber chromium, fibers–MnO2 second isotherm And 174.2 for 4.3
Molybdenum hierarchical order Pb2
composites (C- 109.4 for CR
MHCs) 247.0 for MB,

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Y. Sadanand Giri et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100237

5.8. Removal of picoline 7. Effect of different parameters on adsorption

Dinesh et al. This work investigates the removal of α -, β-, and The efficacy of the adsorption process is governed by various pa­
γ-picoline from aqueous solutions at concentrations ranging from 1 to rameters, including the characteristics of both adsorbates and adsor­
100 mg/L using activated carbons made from coconut shell fibres. FAC bents. Key physicochemical factors such as solution pH, initial solute
(untreated) and ATFAC (acid-treated) activated carbons were the two concentration, temperature, contact time, and the presence of different
types that were assessed. In order to collect the data required for the ions significantly influence adsorbent-adsorbate interactions throughout
establishment of fixed bed reactors, systematic equilibrium and kinetic the adsorption mechanism. Therefore, a thorough investigation of these
adsorption experiments were carried out under varied parameters of pH, parameters is crucial for optimizing the adsorption technique, from
temperature, particle size, and solid-to-liquid ratio. Both the Freundlich selecting to formulating adsorbent materials for effectively targeting a
and the Langmuir models were used, however the Langmuir model specific adsorbate [71,72].
provided a more accurate description of the adsorption process. It
showed that the monolayer adsorption capacity (Q0) rose with tem­ 7.1. Influence of solution pH
perature, supporting an endothermic reaction. Compared to FAC,
ATFAC showed a greater adsorption capability. The order of the One of the critical parameters that estimate adsorption efficacy and
adsorption efficiency was as follows: With all adsorptions, FACR-pico­ significantly influence the chemistry and properties of any adsorbent is
line < ATFACR-picoline < FAC γ-picoline < ATFAC β-picoline < FAC the solution pH [124]. Solution pH plays a crucial role in the dissocia­
β-picoline < ATFAC γ-picoline fitting pseudo-second-order kinetics. tion of functional groups in the adsorbent and the ionization degree of
Parameters such as effective diffusion coefficients, activation energy, the adsorbate in aqueous media [129,130]. The surface charges of the
and entropy of activation were determined to elucidate the adsorption adsorbent are highly dependent on the point of zero charge (PZC) and
mechanisms. It was found that adsorption occurred via particle diffusion the pH of the composite. When the pH is lower than the pHPZC, a higher
at lower temperatures (10 ◦ C and 25 ◦ C) and concentrations (25–50 mg/ removal efficiency of anionic species is observed due to electrostatic
L), except for α -picoline, which followed film diffusion. At higher attraction between the negatively charged pollutants and the positively
temperatures (40 ◦ C) and concentrations (>50 mg/L), film diffusion charged functional groups on the adsorbent surface, and vice versa
predominated. This comprehensive analysis confirms the superior per­ [129]. The pHzpc values are crucial as they enable the assessment of
formance of ATFAC over FAC and underscores the adsorption dynamics electrostatic interactions between substrates and biosorbents. If the so­
influenced by temperature and concentration. Table 5 shows various lution’s pH exceeds the pHzpc, the adsorbent’s surface becomes nega­
adsorbents and their associated adsorbates, their kinetic models, their tively charged; if the pH is below the pHzpc, the surface becomes
adsorption isotherms, thermodynamics, their Adsorption capacity, and positively charged. At pH equal to the pHzpc, the adsorbent’s surface is
the optimum parameters. electrically neutral. de Oliveria et al. demonstrated the effect of pHzpc on
the adsorption efficiency of sugarcane and Cassava bagasse where the
6. Comparison of natural fibers with other adsorbets pHzpc of both the adsorbents was in the basic region, 7.69 ± 0.32 and
9.01 ± 0.75 for SCB and CAW, respectively [131].
To comprehensively evaluate the potential of natural fibers as bio­
sorbents for removing heavy metals, dyes, toxins, nano-plastics, and
other pollutants from industrial effluents, a comparison with other 7.2. Influences of adsorption dosage
commonly studied adsorbent materials is necessary. This comparison
can be viewed from several aspects including economic viability, envi­ Generally, the removal efficiency of biopolymers improves with
ronmental impact, practicality, and adsorption efficiency (Table 6) increased dosage, as a higher concentration in the solution enhances the
[123,124]. SWOT analysis of natural fiber as adsorbent as shown in accessibility of reactive sites for pollutants. However, maximum
Fig. 6. adsorption is achieved at a specific dosage, resulting in an equilibrium
between bound and free ions. Once this equilibrium is reached, the
concentration of free ions remains constant, despite further increases in
biopolymer dosage.

Table 6
Comparison to evaluate the potential of natural fibers as biosorbents with other commonly used adsorbents.
Sr. Properties Natural fiber Synthetic fiber Activated Carbon Nanomaterials Ref.
no

1. Source Derived from plants or They are man made Produced from carbon-rich Engineered at the nanoscale, can [125–128]
animals (e.g., cotton, wool, materials be derived from metals, oxides,
silk) carbon, etc.
2. Adsorption Generally higher adsorption Generally lower adsorption Highly effective across a Extremely high performance for
capacity capacity due to porous capacity due to non-porous wide range of pollutants specific applications
structure and hydrophilic structure and hydrophobic
nature nature
3. Biodegradability Biodegradable and eco- Non-biodegradable, can cause Non-biodegradable, can Non-biodegradable, can cause
friendly environmental pollution cause environmental environmental pollution
pollution
4. Durability Can be less durable and more Generally, more durable Generally, more durable, Generally, more durable,
prone to damage from maintains performance over performance can be maintained
environmental factors multiple cycles under various environmental
conditions.
5. Nature Hydrophilic Hydrophobic Hydrophobic, but can be Hydrophobic, but can be made
made hydrophilic by surface hydrophilic by surface
functionalization. functionalization.
6. Cost Low cost High cost High cost Significantly higher compared to
natural fibers and other
conventional adsorbents.

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Y. Sadanand Giri et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100237

Fig. 6. SWOT analysis of natural fiber as adsorbent.

7.3. Influences of initial adsorbate concentration and contact time contaminated wastewater streams. The research provides a strong
foundation for the practical implementation of ACHB in industrial water
The efficiency of metal ion, dyes, or other organic pollutants removal treatment applications [136]. Tofan et al. studied the desorption and
generally increases with contact time during the initial phase of the degeneration behaviour of hemp fiber for Zn (II) and better desorption
adsorption process. However, the removal rate declines as equilibrium efficiency was demonstrated in acidic medium where the Zn (II) ions
are approached, which is crucial for maintaining an effective and stable adsorbed onto the fiber surface was desorbed due to the action of H+
effluent treatment system. Additionally, the initial concentration of the ions present in the solution. The efficiency of Zn(II) desorption with 0.1
adsorbate significantly influences the adsorption mechanism. Higher M HCl is higher than with an equivalent concentration of H2SO4 and the
adsorbate concentrations lead to the saturation of the adsorbent’s active amount of Zn(II) desorbed by HCl, NaCl and M H2SO4 increases rapidly
sites, thereby decreasing the removal efficiency [132,133]. during the first 15–20 min, after which it remains nearly constant for
0.1 M HCl and slightly increases for 0.1 M H2SO4 and NaCl. The sportive
7.4. Influences of temperature capacity of the hemp tested shows minimal change after three cycles of
Zn(II) sorption–desorption from solutions with a high initial Zn(II)
A cumulative enhancement in biosorption efficacy is observed with concentration relative to the mass of hemp [137].
the escalation of temperature. This phenomenon is prevalent among The selectivity of natural fibers towards various pollutants can be
various fiber-based adsorbents. Elevated temperatures facilitate influenced by different factors, including the surface functional groups
increased ion mobility and induce swelling within the adsorbent’s in­ in natural fiber, the nature of the pollutants (electrophilic or nucleo­
ternal structure. However, a decline in the number of adsorbed ions is philic), and the environmental conditions under which adsorption
attributable to the dominance of the desorption process when the tem­ transpires. Various studies have been carried out based on electrospun
perature exceeds the optimal threshold [133,134]. biodegradable nanofibers of polylactic acid, chitosan, cellulose, to un­
derstand the selectivity of these adsorbent towards various pollutants
8. Regeneration, desorption and selectivity assay [138]. However, more studies should be carried out to understand the
different parameters and the selectivity of natural fibers towards various
The natural fibers could be regenerated there are some techniques toxic pollutants, both nucleophilic and electrophilic.
are sued to regenerate the natural fiber after the adsorption process take
place. Regeneration efficiency of adsorbent [135] can be found by 9. Cost estimation and application OF NF IN real wastewater
subsequent eq. (5):
Economic analysis is essential for assessing the feasibility of an in­
Yreg
Regeneration (%) = × 100 (5) dustry by comparing the costs of production with the benefits of social
Yref
interventions. Ifa et al. investigated the production cost of Sodium Hy­
droxide activated coconut coir fibers (NaOH-CC) for free fatty acid
where the adsorption capacity of the regenerated adsorbent is denoted
reduction (FFA) assuming that the production capacity of NaOH-CC is
as Yreg (mmol g− 1), while Yref (mmol g− 1) represents the initial
7200 tons/annum, NaOH-CC products are vended to encounter domestic
maximum adsorption capacity of the adsorbent before undergoing the
requirements and the industry is sited in Pasang Kayu Regency,
regeneration step. In the process of regeneration effluent undergoes
Indonesia. The CC biosorbent at of 3 % w/v achieved the highest FFA
desorption by Thermal, chemical, and physical method. The regenera­
reduction, with a decrease of 34.62 % after an optimal contact time of
tion process involves adjusting the pH of equilibrium, rinsing with
120 min. When activated with NaOH, this reduction increased to 51.92
acetonitrile and ethanol/water and treating with NaOH to facilitate fiber
%. The estimated production cost for NaOH-CC was 481,874 USD, with a
regeneration for subsequent reuse.
selling price of 95 USD per ton. Annual sales were projected at 684,000
Kalavathy et al. demonstrated, the adsorption behavior of nickel
USD, yielding a net profit of 141,188 USD after tax. The after-tax profit
(Ni) and zinc (Zn) from aqueous systems onto activated carbon derived
margin (POS) was determined to be 20.68 %, with an annual ROR (rate
from Hevea brasiliensis sawdust was investigated through batch and
of return) of 39.49 %. The POT (payback period) was calculated to be
column mode studies under various operating conditions. This study
2.95 years, and the BEP (break-even point) was established at 43.16 %
concluded that activated carbon derived from Hevea brasiliensis
or 3107.52 tons per year. These metrics indicate that NaOH– CC reached
sawdust (ACHB) is a highly effective adsorbent for the removal of Ni and
a break-even state, with no net profit or loss (Table 7) [139].
Zn from aqueous solutions. The adsorption processes, characterized by
isotherm and kinetic models, as well as the successful regeneration and
reuse of the adsorbent, underscore its potential for treating metal-

12
Y. Sadanand Giri et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100237

Table 7 editing, Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization, Resources,

Fixed cost, variable cost, semi variable cost, sales of NaOH-CC biosorbent [139]. Validation.
Sl. Item Unit rate
No (USD) Declaration of competing interest
1 Fixed Cost, FC 79,940
2 Total SVC (Semi-variable Cost) 146,158 The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
SVC = Labor + Maintenance & repairs + General Expenses interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
+ Supervision etc.
the work reported in this paper.
3 VC (Variable Cost) 294,851
VC = Utilities + Raw materials + Packaging & shipping +
Royalty & patent Acknowledgement
4 Total 684,000
The authors express their gratitude to Dr. C. P. Ramanarayanan, the
Vice-Chancellor of DIAT (DU), Pune, for his unwavering encouragement
10. Conclusion & future scope
and support. The first author acknowledges, Prof. Dr. Varsha Kulkarni,
HoD Microbiology and Ms. Jyoti Otageri, Asst. Professor, STES’s Sinh­
In recent years, the exoneration of billion tons of waste matters
gad College of Science, Pune, Maharashtra. The authors are thankful to
straightly into water bodies has prompted significant advancements in
the editor and anonymous reviewer’s whose values comments and
wastewater management to comply with global legislative demands for
suggestions helped in improving the quality of the manuscript.
clean water. This has resulted in enhanced levels of treatment for all
processed wastewater, consequently leading to the increased use of
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