CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

OFDM (Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing) is the dominant air
interface standard for wireless communication system. Now a day, the demand of
high data rate with high efficiency is very difficult to achieve. One of the favorable
of this is to combine MIMO and OFDM system as MIMO-OFDM. MIMO is the
multiple inputs and multiple output system which is used for multiplying the
capacity. MIMO OFDMs increases the data rate rather using a single input single
output system. OFDM uses multiple carrier signals to transmit information in
parallel over the channel which improves the data rate as well as bandwidth
efficiency.

The wireless channel mainly suffers from frequency selective fading due to
multipath propagation of the transmitted signal, which makes it difficult for the
receiver section to determine the transmitted signal unless some less attenuated
replica of the signal are provided to the receiver. Transmitting the replica of the
original message signal is called diversity. A successful scheme to reduce the effects
of the signal fading is that introduction of channel diversity to the system. This
principle behind channel diversity is to transmit multiple copies of the signal of
interest to the receiver which is transmitted over independently fading channels, thus
the probability that the entire signal components will fade simultaneously is
considerably reduced. Spatially separated multiple antennas reduce the probability
of losing the signal, which combines the antenna signals in order to increase the
received average power and the OFDM modulation is implemented using IFFT.

1
 Wireless communication system offers different sources of diversity. diversities
should be properly exploited by coding and transmission scheme. The main diversity
schemes are temporal diversity, frequency diversity and spatial diversity. Spatial
diversity is obtained by using space-time codes and multiple antennas. Space- time
block coding (STBC)is an efficient method for achieving a near optimal transmitter
diversity gain in MIMO system.

Transmit diversity is a new method, which enables the system designerto

move the diversity burden from the mobile units to the base station. Space frequency
block coding (SFBC) achieves similar diversity gain as STBC-OFDM inSlow fading
channels. Here the coding is applied in frequency domain rather than intime domain.

Figure 1.1 OFDM Block Diagram

2
 OFDM is essentially a discrete implementation of multicarrier modulation,
which divides the transmitted bit stream into many different sub streams and sends
them over many different subchannels.

Typically, the subchannels are orthogonal and the number of subchannels is

chosen such that each subchannel has a bandwidth much less than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel. Thus, inter symbol interference (ISI) on each subchannel
is very small. Fig.1.1 shows a simplified block diagram of an N-tone OFDM system.
First, the incoming bits are mapped to data symbols according to some modulation
scheme such as QPSK or QAM. Then the serial data stream is converted into a
number of parallel blocks, and each of them has length-N. Then, each block of
symbols (including pilot symbols, which are used for channel estimation or
synchronization) will be forwarded to the IFFT and transformed into an OFDM
signal. After that, theOFDM signal will be appended with a cyclic prefix by copying
the last Ncp samples to the top of the current OFDM block. By choosing the length
of the cyclic prefix larger than the maximum path delay of the channel ISI can be
eliminated. Afterward, the OFDM blocks will be converted to serial signals and sent
out. At the receiver, assuming a perfect timing and carrier frequency
synchronization, the received signals will be first converted to parallel signals and
then the cyclic prefix will be removed.

After going through the DFT block, the data symbols are detected with the
estimated channel information. After demodulation, the transmitted bit stream is
recovered. OFDM is a specialised FDM having the constraint that the sub-streams
in which the main signal is divided, are orthogonal to each other. Orthogonal signals
are signals that are perpendicular to each other. A main property of orthogonal
signals is that they do not interfere with each other.

3
When any signal is modulated by the sender, its sidebands spread out either side. A
receiver can successfully demodulate the data only if it receives the whole signal. In
case of FDM, guard bands are inserted so that interference between the signals,
resulting in cross-talks, does not occur. However, since orthogonal signals are used
in OFDM, no interference occurs between the signals even if their sidebands overlap.
So, guard bands can be removed, thus saving bandwidth. The criteria that needs to
be maintained is that the carrier spacing should be equal to the reciprocal of the
symbol period.

OFDM is usually a new and attractive modulation program with strongly

efficient throughout bandwidth usage, immune to be able to multipath fading
environment, a smaller amount ICI and ISI, superior spectral and power proficiency.
Because a problem obtained in high-speed communication is inter-symbol disturbance
(ISI). It is occurs whenever a transmission interferes with itself and also the receiver
cannot decode the particular transmission correctly. Throughout communication
terminology, this is known as multipath. OFDM has higher capacity transmission and
adjustable carrier modulation technique, that was chosen for digital sound recording
broadcasting (DAB), terrestrial electronic digital video broadcasting – TELEVISION
(DVB-T), asymmetric digital Prospective Subscriber Lines (ADSL), ultra-wideband
technique. OFDM has also been standardized for the reason that physical layer for the
particular wireless networking standard “HIPERLAN2” in Europe so when the IEEE
802.11a, the gadget guy standard in the networking typical “HIPERLAN2” in Europe
and as the IEEE 802.11a, standard in the US, promising raw data rate of between
6 and 54Mbps.

4
1.2 MIMO-OFDM

MIMO-OFDM is the most popular air interface standard for 4G and 5G

wireless communications. It combines multiple input, multiple output (MIMO)
technology and OFDM. MIMOs multiplies capacity of radio by transmitting
different signals over multiple antennas and orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) divides the channel into a large number of closely spaced sub
channels to provide multipath propagation at high speeds. MIMO-OFDM has the
greatest spectral efficiency, therefore it delivers the highest capacity and data
throughput. So this is the foundation for most wireless local area network (Wireless
LAN) and mobile broadband network standards. That is, by using multiple antennas
and precoding the data, different data streams could be sent over different paths.
Studies conducted byRaleigh concluded that the processing required by MIMO at
higher data rates would be most manageable using OFDM Because OFDM converts
a high-speed datachannel into a number of parallel, lower-speed channels.

OFDM enables reliable broadband communications by distributing user data across

a number of closely spaced, narrowband subchannels. This arrangement makes it
possible to eliminate the biggest obstacle to reliable broadband communications,
inter symbol interference (ISI). ISI occurs when the overlap between consecutive
symbols is large compared to the symbols’ duration. Normally, high data rates require
shorter duration symbols, increasing the risk of ISI. By dividing a high-rate data
stream into numerous low-rate data streams, OFDM enables longer duration symbols.
A cyclic prefix (CP) may be inserted to create a (time) guard interval that prevents
ISI entirely. If the guard interval is longer than the delayspread—the difference in
delays experienced by symbols transmitted over the channel then there will be no
overlap between adjacent symbols and consequentlyno inter symbol interference.

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 A set of sinusoidal subcarrier generators and demodulators were used in
OFDM earlier, which imposed a high implementation complexity. Later, modulation
and demodulation are performed by inverse discrete Fourier transforms (IDFT) and
discrete Fourier transforms (DFT), which significantly reduces the implementation
complexity of OFDM. The main advantage of OFDM is, multiple symbols can be
transmitted in parallel, while maintaining a high spectral efficiency. To maintain
robustness against frequency-selective fading, channel coding techniques are
introduced in OFDM system, where errors are encountered at specific subcarriers in
the frequency domain. It is a cost-effective approach to obtain high throughput for
wireless communications.

Mobile devices have become very intelligent communication tools that

behave as sensors in a cloud computing environment. Several enhancements have
been applied to the core network to provide a high quality of service (QoS) and to
handle novel diversified access technologies. With the introduction of the IEEE
802.22 norm, cognitive radio (CR) networks have become more relevant to the
efficient management of the available spectrum resources, with less interference
between adjacent users.CR has the capability to change its parameters; so, it is
possible for other users to access the available communication resources.
Nevertheless, CR is only one functionality that software defined radio (SDR) offers
as an emerging architecture concept. In SDR systems, several selected functions
previously implemented at the hardware level have migrated to software blocs.

In fact, SDR technologies implement wireless functionalities in programmable

devices: the digital signal processor (DSP) and the field programmable gate array
(FPGA). The implemented smart logic is further fused with modem software and
radio frequency transceivers to manage the use of the available frequency spectrum
and provide new innovative services to end users. It represents the architecture of an
SDR transceiver.
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 The SDR architecture is composed of a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx).
The hardest things in the hardware part are the digital/analogue converter
(ADC/DAC) relative sampling rate issues. To attain an optimal performance, the
ADC/DACs are placed near an intermediate frequency section. Nowadays, multiple
input multiple output (MIMO) systems have become a widely adopted technology;
they are considered to be a strong candidate for 5G wireless communication systems.
The ascendant number of users and the necessity to increase the data rate have driven
scientific and industrial collaborators to further boost the network capacity by
adopting several new technologies. Massive MIMO is one innovative technology that
consists of several antennas which enhance the spectral efficiency. On the transmitter
side, the incoming data are passed through a baseband signal processing block.
Afterwards, the signals are modulated with an IF carrier signal; the IF signal is
converted to an RF signal, and finally, it is transmitted to an antenna which will inject
it into the communication channel.

At the receiver, the RF signal is filtered and down-converted into an IF signal.

Subsequently, the IF signals are digitized, demodulated, and baseband-processed to
finally extract the originally transmitted information. Another famous massive
MIMO LTE system testbed is the Open Air Interface test bed, which is relatively
smaller than the ones already discussed. The platform applies a time-division duplex
(TDD) reciprocity channel calibration to obtain accurate CSI channel information. It
supports up to 64 antennas with a bandwidth of 5 MHz, a center frequency of 2.6
GHz, and a sampling rate of 7.68 MS/s. In addition, the number of used subcarriers
is 300, the duration of one time slot is 0.5 ms, and the maximum number of
simultaneous users is four. The suggested design supports up to 100 antennas and
more than 50 FPGAs. It is allowable to have up to 12 users at the same
time/frequency slot with an OFDM modulation in a time-division duplex (TDD)
(LTE-like TDD) strategy.

7
 The platform could be reached remotely through VPN by academic and
industrial researchers. Several additional studies could be classified as being in the
educational platform and testbed category, which is mainly designated for a general
and a fast prototyping of MIMO systems with more simple architectures and high
performance. Moreover, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
combined with MIMO has given an interesting performance. MIMO-OFDM systems
have drawn the attention of researchers over the last decade. Several MIMO-OFDM
review papers and surveys. The radio spectrum resources must be efficiently allocated
and managed to assure the QoS for the end users while minimizing interference.
Cognitive radio is an intelligent system which occasionally discovers an available
spectrum part that can be allocated in a time/space and frequency manner. The
spectrum allocation is time- and space-dependent.

Figure 1.2 MIMO-OFDM

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1.3 SPACE TIME BLOCK CODED (STBC) OFDM

ST coding is a powerful scheme that combines coding with transmit diversity

to achieve high diversity performance in wireless systems. Such a coding scheme
can in general be classified into two major classes: ST trellis codes and ST block
codes. In an ST trellis coding scheme, an information stream is encoded via MT
convolutional encoders to obtain Mt streams of symbols that are transmitted from
Mt antennas simultaneously.
Space-time block codes (STBC) are a generalized version of Alamouti scheme.
These schemes have the same key features. Therefore, these codes are orthogonal
and can achieve full transmit diversity specified by the number of transmit antennas.
In another word, space-time block codes are a complex version of Alamouti’s space-
time code , where the encoding and decoding schemes are the same as there in the
Alamouti space-time Introduction 5 code in both the transmitter and receiver sides.
The data are constructed as a matrix which has its rows equal to the number of the
transmit antennas and its columns equal to the number of the time slots required to
transmit the data. At the receiver side, when signals are received, they are first
combined and then sent to the maximum likelihood detector where the decision rules
are applied. Space-time block codes were designed to achieve the maximum
diversity order for the given number of transmit and receive antennas subject to the
constraint of having a simple linear decoding algorithm. This has made space-time
block codes a very poplar scheme and most widely used. Space-time block codes
and indeed many other space-time techniques including STTCs are designed for
coherent detection where channel estimation is necessary.

9
 A special case of ST trellis coding is Delay Diversity (DD). For DD, the first
antenna transmits the information stream is called as {sn, sn+1}, whereas the second
antenna transmits the stream delayed by D symbol intervals are called as {sn- D, sn-
D+1,}. One problem of ST trellis coding is that the decoding complexity increases
exponentially as a function of the diversity level and transmission rate. For
broadband wireless systems, the MIMO channels experience frequency selective
fading, which complicates the design of ST codes because of ISI. To address this
issue, OFDM can be combined with MIMO systems, and this is referred to as MIMO-
OFDM. In order to obtain the additional multipath diversity in MIMO- OFDM
systems, ST trellis coding was mainly considered in an OFDM framework where the
incoming information symbols are trellis coded across both the OFDM subchannels
and transmit antennas. Although the rate is reduced because of the mapping, the
simple single-symbol ML decoding is admitted due to the orthogonal of the code
matrix. Specifically, the information symbols are transmitted in a different order from
two transmit antennas with some modification. ST coded OFDM can exploit the
space diversity, the potential multipath diversity offered by frequency-selective
fading channel is not exploited. Multiple antennas when used with appropriate space-
time coding (STC) techniques can achieve huge performance gains in multipath
fading wireless links. The fundamentals of space-time coding were established in the
context of space-time Trellis coding. Since then space-time coding has soon evolved
into a most vibrant research area in wireless communications. Recently, space-time
block coding has been adopted in the third generation mobile communication
standard which aims to deliver true multimedia capability. Space-time block codes
have a most attractive feature of the linear decoding/detection algorithms and thus
become the most popular among different STC techniques.

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1.4 SPACE FREQUENCY BLOCK CODED OFDM

This strategy, which consists of coding across antennas and OFDM

subchannels, is called SF coding. A straightforward way of realizing SF coding for
two transmit antennas is to directly spread the Alamouti code over two subchannels
in one OFDM block. SF coding approach can only achieve space diversity gain,
whereas the maximum diversity gain in frequency selective MIMO channels. To
exploit the full diversity in MIMO multipath fading channels, an SF code design
approach was proposed by multiplying the input information stream with a part of
the DFT matrix. The resulting SF codes can achieve full diversity at the expense of
a large bandwidth efficiency loss. space-time block codes using binary phase-shift
keying (BPSK), quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), and quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM). Then, we investigate Tarokh’s joint detection scheme with no
channel state information thoroughly, and also propose a new general joint channel
estimation and data detection scheme that works with QPSK and 16-QAM and
different numbers of antennas. Next, we further study Yang’s channel estimation
scheme, and expand this channel estimation scheme to work with 16-QAM
modulation. After dealing with complex signal constellations, we subsequently
develop the equations and algorithms of both channel estimation schemes to further
test their performances when real signals are used (BPSK modulation). Then, we
simulate and compare the performances of the two new channel estimation schemes
when employing different number of transmit and receive antennas and when
employing different modulation methods.

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 Recently, a systematic design of high rate SFBC was proposed to achieve
the rate-Mt and the full diversity in MIMO-OFDM systems for any number of
transmitsantennas, because zero padding matrix has to be used when N is not an
integer , the symbol transmission rate Mt cannot always be guaranteed. In two-branch
SFBCscheme, the data symbol vector. e performance of space-time block codes using
16-QAM, QPSK, and BPSK modulation schemes. The performance of bit-error-rate
using BPSK modulation is better than the performance of space-time block codes
using QPSK and 16-QAM modulations. The performance of space-time block codes
using QPSK modulation is better than the performance of space-time block codes
using 16-QAM modulation. This better performance is due to the number of bits that
each modulated symbol can take. All BPSK modulated symbols can take only one
bit at a time. However, QPSK modulated symbols take two bits and 16-QAM takes
four bits per modulated symbol.

X = [X0, X1 ……., XN-] Tis coded into two vectors XI and X2 by the Space-
frequency encoder and mapped to the two antennas as
X1 = [ X0 ,-X *,………,XN-2,-X*]T

X2 = [X1 , X *,…,XN-10,-XN-2*]T

Figure 1.3 MIMO Block Diagram

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 LINEAR ADAPTIVE CHANNEL EQUALIZATION FOR

MULTIUSERMIMO- OFDM SYSTEMS

This paper presents a linear adaptive equalization method for innovative Multi
User MIMO-OFDM systems. The author uses various linear adaptive equalizers
Least Mean Square (LMS), Normalized Least Mean Square (NLMS) and Recursive
Least Square (RLS) for MIMO-OFDM systems. Computational results are carried
out using a training sequence method. The proposed equalization method
automatically equalizes the behavior of the channel and reduces the distortions of
channel response. RLS algorithm supersedes LMS and NLMS in context to mean
square error and lesser number of for convergence. The BER is reduced by RLS
algorithm.

2.2 A REDUCED COMPLEXITY PTS BASED PAPR REDUCTION

SCHEMEFOR OFDM SYSTEMS
In this reduced complexity PTS based scheme a cost function Qn is generated
by summing the power of the time-domain sample at time n in each subblock. Only
those samples with greater than or equal to a preset threshold are used for peak power
calculation during the process for selecting a candidate signal with the lowest PAPR
for transmission. To ensure good performance, an appropriate threshold was derived
such that correct peak detection in all candidate signals would be guaranteed for a
given probability. This scheme gives better PAPR performance and BER
performance With less computational complexity. These features make it attractive
for use in practical applications.

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2.3 BEAM-DOMAIN FULL-DUPLEX MASSIVE MIMO:REALIZING
CO- TIME CO-FREQUENCY UPLINK AND DOWNLINK TRANSMISSION
IN THE CELLULAR SYSTEM

This paper proposes a BDFD massive MIMO scheme to realize CCUD

transmission in the cellular system. By exploiting exploiting the compressibility of
beam-domain channel, the BDFD scheme can eliminate SI due to CCUD
transmission efficiently. The simulation results show that the BDFD massive MIMO
scheme outperforms the TDD/FDD massive MIMO and FD massive MIMO with
linear transceiver significantly in the macro-cell environment. Due to the above
advantages, BDFD massive MIMO as a potential enabling technology for evolution
toward future wireless cellular system.

SPACE-FREQUENCY
2.4 BLOCK CODE FOR MIMO-OFDM
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS WITH RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNAS

Space-frequency (SF) block coding scheme for a multiple-input multiple-

output (MIMO) orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) system using
antennas with reconfigurable radiation patterns. In this system, each Element of the
antenna array at the transmitter side is assumed to be reconfigurable so that it can
independently change the physical characteristics of its radiation pattern. The
proposed block code is full rate and benefits from spatial, frequency, and
reconfigurable radiation pattern state diversity over frequency-selective Fading
channels. The performance of the proposed block coding technique and make
comparisons with that of the previous SF coding schemes in MIMO-OFDM systems.
The results indicate that the proposed code achieves higher diversity and coding gain
compared to other available SF codes.

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2.5 HYBRID TIME-SWITCHING AND POWER SPLITTING SWIPT FOR
FULL-DUPLEX MASSIVE MIMO SYSTEMS: A BEAM-DOMAIN
APPROACH

The hybrid time switching (TS) and power splitting (PS) simultaneous
wireless information and power transfer (SWIPT) protocol design in a full-duplex
(FD) massive MIMO system. In this system, an FD base station (BS) serves a set of
Half - duplex (HD) users and a set of fixed HD sensors. The whole protocol can be
divided into two phases based on the idea of TS. The first phase is Training Phase,
which is designed for uplink training and sensors energy harvesting as well as
downlink training. Specifically, users transmit uplink pilots for beam-domain (BD)
uplink channel estimation at the BS, and the BS transmits energy signals to sensors.

Based on the idea of PS, sensors utilize the received energy signals for energy
harvesting and BD downlink channel estimation. In the second phase, that is
Information Transmission Phase, the BS intelligently schedules users and sensors
based on the BD distributions of channels to mitigate self-interference and improve
transmission spectral efficiency (SE). Then, the BS forms transmit beamformers for
transmitting information to users and receive beamformers for receiving signals
transmitted by sensors.

2.6 AN APPROACH TO MINIMIZE BER USING HYBRID

EQUALIZATIONTECHNIQUE IN MIMO-OFDM SYSTEM

The paper discussed the existing survey how to minimize the effects Of ISI
on the system performance by drawing a comparative synthesis table of existing
equalization processes. Based on this perspective to minimize ISI and improve error
rate performance, the author proposed an idea to build an equalizer which is the
combination of linear and non-linear equalizer. By combining MMSE (linear) with
SIC (nonlinear) equalizer, the results prove that BER has reduced at improved SNR.
But further improvement of SFTBC is shown in our proposed system design.

15
 CHAPTER 3

PROPOSED WORK

3.1 SPACE TIME FREQUENCY CONJUGATE CANCELLATION

The ST-OFDM applies the ST transmitter diversity technique in a per-OFDM

symbol basis. In a [2x1] system, two length N consecutive blocks are formed as input
data vectors at the transmitter as follows

At time t and t+T, d 1 and d2 , and -d2 * and d1 * , are sent to two parallel
IFFTs and transmitted with CP via transmit antennas Tx1 and Tx2, respectively.
Atthe receiver, CPR is performed first. The two received signal vectors at time t and
t+T after FFT are

The channel at time t may be modeled as h1 for transmit antenna Tx1 and h2
for transmit antenna Tx2. Assuming that fading is constant across two consecutive
symbols in the rest of this paper, the decision variables are obtained as follows

16
 where H1 and H 2 are two diagonal matrices whose diagonal elements are
FFTs of respective channel impulse responses, h1 and h2

Figure 3.1 ST-OFDM transceiver

Since both the ST-OFDM and CC are techniques in a per OFDM symbol basis,
they can be integrated naturally. A simplified block diagram of the STCC- OFDM
transceiver. At the transmitter, two length N consecutive blocks are formed as input
data vectors at the transmitters as follows

Where de and do are the even and odd components of data symbols over the2N
period. At time t, and t+T, d e and do, and *o -d and *e d are sent to two parallel
branches for upper IFFT and lower IFFT and conjugate operation ( )*, respectively.
At the receiver baseband, the upper branch employs a FFT for demodulating the
received signal from Tx1 while the lower branch employs a conjugate operator first
and then FFT for demodulating the received signal from Tx2. Note that the receiver
needs to perform operations—for example,

17
 Where H2 is a diagonal elements are the N-point FFTs of the conjugate of
channel impulse response h2. Results of the FFT of the conjugate operation of the
received signal r2 at the lower branch is

Figure 3.2 Regular STFCC-OFDM Transceiver

In summary, the total computational requirement of the STCC scheme is the same
as that of the ST scheme without increasing complexity, regardless of whether it is a
two-branch or sequential one-branch implementation.

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 Space-time frequency conjugate cancellation (STFCC) is a technique used in
wireless communication systems to mitigate the effects of multipath interference and
improve signal quality. It is particularly effective in scenarios where there are
multiple transmit and receive antennas. Conjugate Gradient (CG) algorithm is a
technique originally developed to minimize quadratic functions which was later
adapted for the general case .

Its main advantage is its speed as it converges in a finite number of steps. In

the first iteration it starts estimating the gradient, as in the steepest descent (SD)
method, and from there it builds successive directions that create a set of mutually
conjugate vectors with respect to the positively defined Hessian (in our case the
autocorrelation matrix R in frequency domain). The mean square error minimization
of the multichannel signal with respect to the filter coefficients is equivalent to the
Wiener-Hopf equation −1 w Rr . To maximize the STC-OFDM system efficiency,
the problem of CCI introduced by the space-time coding must be solved. Adaptive
antenna arrays are an attractive solution because they can suppress CCI and mitigate
the effects of multipath fading . Regarding to beamforming techniques for STC-
OFDM systems, some research attempts have been mainly focused on the transmit
beamforming in downlink since the fact that download intensive services and
wireless web browsing are to be introduced in the next generation . Study on receive
beamforming which is widely applied to uplink of cellular mobile systems has also
attracted attention to both suppress CCI and minimize fading effects. This MIMO
wireless systems incorporating a beamforming method before space-time decoder
can effectively mitigate CCI while preserving the space-time structure. The
beamforming method called the minimum variance distortion response (MVDR)
beamformer is used as a CCI canceller in OFDM systems using space-time trellis
codes in reverse link. One disadvantage of the MVDR beamformer is based on
accurate estimation of the desired DOAs and degrade obviously when there are
errors in desired DOA.
19
 In a wireless communication system, when a signal is transmitted, it
propagates through the environment and encounters various obstacles such as
buildings, trees, or other reflecting surfaces. These obstacles cause the signal to be
reflected and arrive at the receiver through multiple paths. This phenomenon is
known as multipath propagation. Multipath propagation leads to interference
between the different paths, resulting in signal distortion and reduced signal quality.
The STFCC technique aims to overcome these challenges by exploiting the spatial,
temporal, and frequency characteristics of the received signals. The main idea of
frequency domain adaptive filter is to frequency transform the input signal in order
to work with matrix multiplications instead of dealing with slow convolutions . This
is especially interesting when using long filters as in our case. The frequency domain
transform employs one or more discrete Fourier transforms (DFTs) and can be seen
as a pre-processing block that generates decorrelated output signals. In the more
general FDAF case, the output of the filter in the time domain can be seen as a direct
frequency domain translation of the Block LMS (BLMS) algorithm

The basic principle of STFCC involves transmitting a known training

sequence from multiple antennas and using the received signals to estimate the
channel response for each transmit-receive antenna pair. The estimated channel
responses are then used to construct a cancellation filter, which is applied to the
received signal to suppress the interference caused by the multipath propagation.The
cancellation filter is designed to exploit the correlation properties of the multipath
channels and cancel out the interference in both the spatial and frequency domains.
By applying the cancellation filter to the received signal, the distorted components
caused by multipath propagation can be significantly reduced, resulting in improved
signal quality and increased data rates.

20
 Simulations are conducted to access the BER performance of the ST-OFDM
and STCC-OFDM schemes with different coding rates and different transmission
antennas. The COST207 channel parameters are utilized by means of 6-path. typical
urban (TU) and bad urban (BU) areas. These slow (TU) and fast (BU) frequency
selective mobile channel parameters are applied in our system. All simulations are
performed at a symbol rate of 220 symbols/second and a sampling time of Ts = 2-
20 sec. The FFT size is chosen by N = 256 samples. A quarter of N samples is utilized
as the cyclic prefix. QPSK modulation is used throughout all simulations.

Case I: ST and STCC with coding rate 1 and fmax = 300 Hz in TU channel It
is assumed that the channel responses, h11 and h12 for 2x1 ST and STCC systems,
and h11, h12, h13, and h14 for 4x1 ST and STCC systems, are estimated and remain
constant for two and four-time slots, respectively. Conjugate Gradient (CG)
algorithm is a technique originally developed to minimize quadratic functions which
was later adapted for the general case . Its main advantage is its speed as it converges
in a finite number of steps. In the first iteration it starts estimating the gradient, as in
the steepest descent (SD) method, and from there it builds successive directions that
create a set of mutually conjugate vectors with respect to the positively defined
Hessian (in our case the autocorrelation matrix R in frequency domain).

The mean square error minimization of the multichannel signal with respect
to the filter coefficients is equivalent to the Wiener-Hopf equation −1 w Rr .
It indicates the average BER comparison with the maximum Doppler frequency
fmax = 300 Hz in TU area.

21
 STCC outperforms the related ST scheme significantly because of the ICI
conjugate cancellation. Moreover, 4x1 ST-OFDM provides poor performance
almost similar to 2x1 ST-OFDM system. However, as CC is added to 4x1 ST-
OFDM, the final 4x1 STCC-OFDM compensates the non-orthogonal effect of 4x4
complex transmission matrix for ST-OFDM. Where { } H R xx = E represents the
autocorrelation matrix and { } * r x = E d the cross-correlation vector in the time
domain. In each m-block iteration the conjugate gradient algorithm will iterate k NK
=1, , min , K ( ) times; where N represent the memory of the gradient estimation, N
K≤ . In a practical system the algorithm is stopped when it reaches a user-determined
mean square error (MSE) level. To apply this conjugate gradient approach to the
PBFDAF algorithm the weight actualization must be modified as w wv [m mm +=
+ 1] [ ] α [ ]. In order to be able to generate nonzero direction vectors which are
conjugate to the initial negative gradient vector, a gradient estimation is necessary .
This gradient estimation is obtained by averaging the instantaneous gradient
estimates over N past values. The ∇ operator is an averaging gradient estimate with
the current weights and N past inputs X and d , This alternative approach does not
require knowing neither the Hessian nor the employment of a linear search. Notice
that all the operations are vector operations that keep the computational complexity
low. This known as the Hestenes-Stiefel method but there are different approaches
for calculating β k .

22
3.2 PARTIAL TRANSMIT SEQUENCE

In broadband wireless communications high bit rate transmission is required for high
quality communications. OFDM is a very attractive technique for high speed data
transmission over multipath fading channels. The PAPR problem is one of the most
important issues for developing multicarrier transmission systems . Recently many
works have been done in developing a method to reduce the PAPR. The simple and
widely used method is clipping the signal to limit the PAPR below a threshold level.

Selected mapping (SLM) and partial transmit sequence (PTS) were proposed
to lower the PAPR with a relatively small increase in redundancy but without any
signal distortion..

Table 3.3 Partial Transmit Sequence Algorithm

23
 Simulated work is concluded in the way, QAM modulation scheme i.e. 16-
QAM has been used in OFDM simulation, as QAM is very effective modulation
techniques in 4G technologies having a bandwidth conserving modulation technique.
The no of sub-carriers is N=64 having a sampling frequency of FS = 1000Hz, satisfies
the condition of orthogonality. PAPR0 of the original OFDM is computed by
oversampling the no. of sub-carriers N=64 by the oversampling factor of L=4, by
insertion of (L-1) N zeros to reduce the ISI. This Algorithm used to increase the Spectral
efficiency and decrease the PAPR.

3.3 SPECTRAL EFFECIENCY

The signal strength will be wakened when it meets obstacles. Especially, hills,
trees and metal objects have more obvious influence on shielding and blocking wireless
signal. In addition, the wireless signal is subject to other energy loss and various noise
interferences. Therefore, under such bad communication environments, how to ensure
real-time and accurate data communication has become a research hotspot . Deployment
of communication systems in harsh environments, such as highspeed trains, subways,
aircraft, deserts, underground mining, etc., must be specially constructed to withstand
extreme. Spectrum efficiency describes the amount of data transmitted over a given
spectrum or bandwidth with minimum transmission errors. cellular network's spectral
efficiency is equivalent to the maximum number of bits of data that can be transmitted
to a specified number of users per second while maintaining an acceptable quality of
service.

Spectral efficiency in wireless communications speeds is affected by the

number of users accessing the network concurrently. In this scenario, the data transfer
rate depends on the transmission device's bandwidth and the transmitted signal or
the signal-to-noise power ratio. When the signal-to-noise ratio is improved, it also

24
 boosts spectral efficiency and channel capacity. To put it simply, more data must be
sent over the available spectrum to use it efficiently.

There are many ways to improve spectral efficiency. However, it is not as simple as
adding more antennas, as this can potentially increase interference. To avert any
potential interference, massive multiple input, multiple output (MIMO) systems that
use beamforming techniques can be used to boost the effectiveness of transmissions.

3.4 PEAK-TO-AVERAGE POWER RATIO

In OFDM systems, because the transmitted signal is the sum of a set of

modulated signals, the peak power of the transmitted signal can be very high
compared to its average power. Although occurring only with low probability, such
large peaks have negative ramifications for the overall system. For instance, the HPA
for RF transmission has to have a large linear range, which, however, is inefficiently
used. Moreover, the distortion incurred by the nonlinearity of the HPA leads to in-
band distortion and out-of-band radiation. The in-band distortion leads to increased
BER On the other hand, the out-of-band distortion may severely interfere with the
signal transmitted in the adjacent frequency bands. The PAR of the transmitted
signal can be defined as the ratio of the instantaneous power over the average power
of the transmitted signal.

where E {・} represents the mean value of (・). On the other hand, the
PAR problem can also be measured by using the baseband equivalent signal x(t).
Because max |xc(t)| ≈ max |x(t)|.

25
 We have PAR xc(t) ≈ 2PARx(t). The above definition of the PAR can be
called the continuous-time PAR. In practical situations, usually the PAR is calculated
based on the oversampled baseband equivalent signal Xn obtained. The PAPR
problem in OFDM was considered, and bounds on the probability that the PAPR of
one OFDM symbol will exceed a given value were sought. We found a general upper
bound on the probability that turned out to be tight for a low-pass OFDM system, so
that it allows an accurate estimation of the probability. We used the central limit
theorem to find the following results for systems with a large number of carriers: a
limiting expression of the bound that allows its simple computation, an upper bound
based on the envelope of the signal that is tighter. OFDM signal has a very special
feature that it comprises of various independent modulated subcarriers which have
different phases and amplitudes. These subcarriers possess distinctive spectra in the
frequency area and are transmitted exactly at the same time . At the point when those
subcarriers are summed up, the prompt peak power of an OFDM signal will be much
greater than the average power, which results in a large PAPR (peak-to-average
power ratio). Disadvantage of large peak to average power ratio is that it reduces the
efficiency of radio-frequency power amplifiers.

The other major disadvantage of high PAPR is that it increases the complexity
of convertors that are used for analog to digital and digital to analog conversion
purpose. Partial transmit sequence (PTS) as a Peak to average power ratio (PAPR)
reduction technique of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) works
very efficiently. In this paper, the working of PTS technique has been discussed.
Partial transmit sequence technique searches all possible rotation phase
combinations. As it looks for all the possible combination so the computational
complexity of the overall system increases significantly. To reduce PAPR and
computational complexity many researchers suggested some algorithms named as
binary-coded genetic algorithms. To further decrease the PAPR of OFDM signal,
this paper suggests one refined PTS method named as real-valued genetic algorithm
26
(RVGA). One cost function is decided that too depends upon the amount of peak to
average power ratio. This new PTS approach works as optimization solution. In this
paper, the results shows that RVGA is not able to make any improvement in PAPR
but it is able to reduce the overall computational complexity In a nonlinear region of
amplifiers, the sub-carriers of OFDM operates in large dynamic range and suffer
from high PAPR. Due to high PAPR component cost increases. In this paper, by
reducing the complexity of IFFT architecture, the PAPR of OFDM Signal reduction
scheme has been discussed. There are a lot of unnecessary multiplications and
additions with zero in IFFT architecture. Power degradation and spectral spreading
are the two main issues that are caused due to high Peak to average power ratio of
OFDM.

This PAR distribution is referred to as the discrete-time PAR in this project.

that Nyquist sampling (J = 1) may not capture all peaks of x(t). Therefore,
oversampling is necessary to approximate the continuous-time PAR by using the
discrete-time PAPR. that for an acceptable approximation, the oversampling factor
J is required to be J ≥ 4.If Xk are independent, identically distributed (i.i.d) random
variables, the PAPR of an OFDM system is al = N. Therefore, in practice, a statistical
definition of PAPR is more frequently used. An OFDM signal is said to have a peak
at _ withprobability Pc if
Pr[PAR(X) ≤ _] = Pc.

The PAPR Complementary Cumulative Distribution Function (CCDF), also

called the clip probability, is defined as P (_) = Pr[PAPR(X) > _] = 1 − Pc; i.e., the
probability that PAPR exceeds _is 1 − Pc. For example, the PAPR distribution for
different oversampling factors and for different, which show that J = 4 can provide an
acceptable approximation to the continuous time PAPR distribution.

27
 It is worth mentioning here that PAPR is evaluated per OFDM symbol. It
illustrates how a high peak is obtained by adding four sinusoidal signals with different
frequencies and phase shifts coherently. The resulting signal’s envelope exhibits high
peaks when the instantaneous amplitudes of the different signals have high peaks
aligned at the sample. Hence, oversampling by a factor greater than 1 is used to
increase the accuracy. It is found that the PAPR of the oversampled discrete-time
signal offers an accurate approximation of the PAPR of the continuous-time OFDM
signal if the oversampling factor is at least provide a detailed discussion about the
relationship between the oversampled OFDM signal’s PAPR and the continuous
signal’s PAPR. Although PAPR is the classical and most widely used metric to
quantify the envelope fluctuations, another metric known as cubic metric (CM) has
been proposed and adopted by the third generation partnership project (3GPP). This
metric was considered in some recent contributions . The motivation behind the CM
lies in the fact that a major part of the distortion introduced by the nonlinearity of the
PA is due to the third order intermodulation product, which can be expressed as the
convolution of the signal and the third order nonlinearity of the PA model.

While PAPR considers only the main peak of power, CM accounts for the
secondary peaks of power that affect the PA performance due to the cubic term. and
rms is the root mean square value. The terms RCM ref and K are the reference RCM
of the wideband code division multiple-access voice reference signal and the empirical
slope factor, respectively. These two terms are constants for each multicarrier system.
For example, in downlink LTE RCM ref |dB = 1.52dB and K = 1.56 . Since PAPR is
by far more popular and widely used in the literature compared to CM, CM will not
be discussed further here. The performance of a PAPR reduction scheme is usually
demonstrated by three main factors: the complementary cumulative distributive
function (CCDF), bit error rate (BER), and spectral spreading.

28
 Figure 3.4 PAPR Distribution for Different Oversampling Factors, N = 128

3.5 PAPR REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

Several PAPR reduction techniques have been proposed in the literature.

These techniques are divided into two groups. These are signal scrambling
techniques and signal distortion techniques.

Signal Scrambling Techniques

Block Coding Techniques
Selected mapping (SLM)
Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS)

29
3.6 WALSH–HADAMARD TRANSFORM

The Walsh–Hadamard transform is a non-sinusoidal, orthogonal

transformation technique that decomposes a signal into a set of basis functions. These
basis functions are Walsh functions, which are rectangular or square waves with values
of +1 or –1. Walsh–Hadamard transforms are also known as Walsh, or Walsh-Fourier
transforms. The lower envelope fluctuations in single-carrier frequency-division
multiple access (SC-FDMA) signals yield low peak-to-average power ratios (PAPRs).
Thus, SC-FDMA is currently being used in long-term evolution (LTE) uplink
communications . However, PAPR increases in SC-FDMA systems when the
modulation order is increased. To sustain high PAPR, power amplifiers with a large
linear range are required and they reduce the power efficiency. Additionally, high-
resolution analog -to-digital (A/D) and digital-to- analog (D/A) converters that
increase system complexity and cost are required. This is a serious problem in uplink
communications as the mobile devices are power limited Accordingly, the PAPR
needs to be reduced.

In sinusoidal transforms as an alternative to the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) for

orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) systems. The energy
compaction property of the discrete cosine transform (DCT) enables it to pack most
of the signal energy in the first few samples, thus decreasing inter-symbol interference
(ISI) due to relatively small amplitudes at high-frequency indices. This leads to a lower
bit error rate (BER) compared with DFT. Furthermore, it uses real arithmetic
operations instead of complex arithmetic operations used in the DFT. This allowed
auto propose a new SC-FDMA system based on DCT Type .The DCT SC-FDMA
system is better than the DFT SC-FDMA system in terms of its BER performance.
However, the PAPR of the DCT SC-FDMA system is slightly higher than that of the
DFT SC-FDMA system. In a new transceiver design for the SC-FDMA system based
on discrete Wavelet transform (DWT) has been proposed.

30
 The DWT-based SC-FDMA system has superior BER and PAPR
performances compared with the DFT SC-FDMA system. The Walsh-Hadamard
Transform (WHT) is the most well-known non sinusoidal orthogonal transform that
can be computed using real additions and subtractions . It has gained prominence in
various digital signal processing applications, as its hardware implementation is
simple. In the application of WHT to generalized frequency-division multiplexing
(GFDM) improved its BER performance. In the application of WHT to non-
orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) resulted in improved BER, throughput, and
PAPR performances. As the application of various transforms improved the
performance of SC-FDMA system, and the application of WHT improved the
performances of GFDM and NOMA systems, this motivated us to study the
performance of the WHT-based SC-FDMA transceiver.

Although there are many available techniques used to limit PAPR-like pulse
shaping , selected mapping , partial transmit sequence , precoding , and predistortion
companding is an attractive technique with low complexity that does not require any
side information. One of the most extensively used techniques to limit PAPR is μ-law
companding . The μ-law and the new error function companding techniques have been
used to mitigate PAPR in SC-FDMA systems, but they increase the average power of
the companded signal. In authors proposed a companding technique to reduce the
PAPR of the SC-FDMA signal by approximating its distribution without significant
degradation in the BER performance. An exponential companding technique was used
in to reduce PAPR in OFDM systems without increasing the average power of the
companded signal. Thus, we use the exponential companding technique in the WHT
SC-FDMA system to reduce its PAPR without degrading the BER performance.

31
 The Walsh–Hadamard transform returns sequency values. Sequency is a more
generalized notion of frequency and is defined as one half of the average number of
zero-crossings per unit time interval. Each Walsh function has a unique sequency
value. It can be used to estimate the signal frequencies in the original signal. Three
different ordering schemes are used to store Walsh functions: sequency, Hadamard,
and dyadic. Sequency ordering, which is used in signal processing applications, has
the Walsh functions in the order shown in the figure above. Hadamard ordering,
which is used in controls applications, arranges them as 0, 4, 6, 2, 3, 7, 5, 1. Dyadic
or gray code ordering, which is used in mathematics, arranges them as 0, 1, 3, 2, 6,
7, 5,4.

The Walsh-Hadamard transform is used in a number of applications, such as

image processing, speech processing, filtering, and power spectrum analysis. It is
very useful for reducing bandwidth storage requirements and spread-spectrum
analysis. Like the FFT, the Walsh-Hadamard transform has a fast version, the fast
Walsh- Hadamard transform Compared to the FFT, the FWHT requires less storage
space and is faster to calculate because it uses only real additions and subtractions,
while the FFT requires complex values. The FWHT is able to represent signals with
sharp discontinuities more accurately using fewer coefficients than the FFT. Both
the FWHT and the inverse FWHT are symmetric and thus, use identical calculation
processes. space–time block coding (STBC) with WHT matrix of order two, and
thus achieves a diversity gain of two. Unlike, the conventional communication
schemes like GFDM and STBC. The use of WHT in SM is not straight forward due
to the two information carrying domains, i.e. antenna index, and transmitted
symbols. A simple WHT of the SM symbols causes a degraded bit error rate (BER)
performance due to the fact that the WHT of these symbols results in some transmit
symbols having zero energy.

32
 0 11111111
1 1 1 1 1 -1 -1-1-1
2 1 1 -1-1-1-1 1 1
3 1 1 -1-1 1 1 -1-1
4 1 -1-1 1 1-1-1 1
5 1-1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1
6 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
7 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1

Table 3.1 Walsh–Hadamard Transform Returns Sequency Values

where i = 0,1, …, N – 1 and WAL (n,i) are Walsh functions. Similar to the
Cooley-Tukey algorithm for the FFT, the N elements are decomposed into two sets
of N/2 elements, which are then combined using a butterfly structure to form the
FWHT. For images, where the input is typically a 2-D signal, the FWHT coefficients
are calculated by first evaluating across the rows and then evaluating down the
columns. To overcome this problem, we use the phase shifting trick.

For the following simple signal, the resulting FWHT shows that x was
created using Walsh functions with sequency values of 0, 1, 3, and 6, which are the
nonzero indices of the transformed x. The inverse FWHT recreates the original
signal.
x = [4 2 2 0 0 2 -2 0]
y = fwht(x)
x = 4 2 2 0 0 2 -2 0
y=11010010
x1 = ifwht(y)
x1 =4 2 2 0 0 2 -2 0

33
3.7 ARTIFICIAL BEE COLONY ALGORITHM

ABC is a powerful, efficient, swarm-based, optimization algorithm .

However, there are some aspects of the ABC algorithm that need to be strengthened
including exploitation, which can be defined as the ability to improve the best
solution at a local minima. Recently, the PABC algorithm has been proposed to
eliminate this disadvantage of the ABC algorithm . ABC and PABC algorithms are
considered for the enhancement of the diversity gain in the OFDM-AIM scheme.
Enhancement of the diversity gain is a 2 p × K-dimensional optimization problem,
because S ∈ C 2 p×K. Therefore, ABC and PABC algorithms optimize a total of 2
pK constellation points of the subcarriers in a subblocks set. A. Structure of ABC
Algorithm ABC algorithm based subblocks set design is summarized in Algorithm .
In the ABC algorithm, a subblocks set S i and its fitness value fit (S i ) represent the
position of a source in the search space and the amount of nectar, respectively, where
S i = [S i,(1)S i,(2) · · · S i, (2p ) ], i = 1, 2, . . . , Pop, where Pop denotes the
population size. The fitness value is calculated via ABEP based on unconditional
PEP (UPEP). Initially, S i is created randomly, and its fitness value is calculated by
fit(S i ) = 11 + ABEP(Si) where ABEP(S i ) denotes the ABEP value of the S i . It
can be seen from lower ABEP values correspond to higher fitness.

where g = 1, . . . , G and Sg = diag (sg) ∈ C K×K. hg and w represent part of

the h and w, respectively, as connected to the g th subblock. Finally, the maximum
likelihood (ML) detection is performed to determine the corresponding subblock
(Sˆ g) from the look-up table where k·k stands for the Euclidean norm. The spectral
efficiencies of the proposed ABC-OFDM-AIM and PABC-OFDM-AIM schemes
are the same as that of the other OFDM-IM based schemes and can be calculated as
m/(N +Lcp) [bits/s/Hz] .

34
 Figure 3.5 Artificial bee Colony Algorithm

Assuming that the subblock Sg is transmitted and it is erroneously detected as

Sˆ g for the channel model , the conditional PEP (CPEP) can be expressed by

we compare the ABEP performance of the ABC OFDM-AIM, PABC-OFDM-

AIM and GA-OFDM-AIM schemes for SCABC = 1000, SCP ABC = 1000 and
SCGA = 12500 iterations, respectively. The spectral efficiencies all of the schemes
are SE = 0.8889 [bits/s/Hz]. although the ABC-OFDM-AIM and PABC-OFDM-
AIM schemes only have an 8% search complexity of the GA-OFDM-AIM, a
significant improvement in the progress of ABEP can be achieved at both low and
high iteration numbers. This improvement shows that the proposed ABC-OFDM-
AIM and PABC-OFDM-AIM achieve an additional diversity gain compared to the
GA-OFDM-AIM

35
3.8 PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHM

Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)-based dummy sub-carriers are inserted with

the data to reduce PAPR without transmitting side information. The incorporation of
PSO-based Dummy Sub-carriers Insertion (DSI) method on this system is performed by
measuring the PAPR at the IFFT output (Inverse Fast Fourier Transform) after adding 6
adaptive sub-carrier sequences to the input data of IFFT. The PSO-based dummy
algorithm decides to send the data once the PAPR of this data sequence and dummy sub-
carrier is under a specific threshold. PSO solves problems by having a population (called
swarm) of candidate solutions (particles). Each particle searches for a potential solution
in a multi-dimensional search space. The search space is the range in which the algorithm
computes the optimal control variables L, where L is the number of dummy sub-carriers
in this paper. The PSO starts with a randomly initialized population and moving in
randomly chosen direction, each particle goes through L (the searching space) and
remembers the best previous position of itself and its neighbor (swarm).

Figure 3.6 Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm

36
 SI, a substantial branch of optimization techniques, is the characteristic of a
system where agents interact locally with their environment so that their collective
behaviours render the emergence of cohesive functional global patterns. Unlike
Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs), SI techniques are inspired by agents’ plain behaviours
and self-organizing interactions, such as fish schooling, honey bees, bacterial growth,
animal herding, bird flocking, ant colonies foraging, and so on. Indeed .The rife SI
algorithms include Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) and Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO) . Less widespread SI algorithms are Bacterial Foraging Optimization (BFO) ,
Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) , Firefly Algorithm (FA) , and many others. SI algorithms
were primarily developed for steady optimization problems. However, dynamic
environments involve several real-world optimization problems .

Typically, a swarm is defined as a vast number of simple, homogeneous agents

interacting locally with their environment, as well as themselves, with decentralized
control to authorize the emergence of a global important behaviour. Swarm-based
techniques have recently arisen as a family of swarm-based, nature-inspired
algorithms that have the ability to produce robust, fast, and low cost solutions to
numerous complex problems . Therefore, SI can be figured out as a major category of
Artificial Intelligence (AI) that is utilized to model the collective behaviour of natural
social swarms, such as honey bees, bird flocks, and ant colonies. These agents (swarm
individuals or insects) are relatively gullible with simple own capabilities. However,
they perform cooperatively tasks substantial for their survival through interacting
together in particular behavioural manners. Socially, swarm individuals can directly
or indirectly interact among themselves . Direct interaction can be through audio or
visual contact (e.g., a waggle dance of honey bees), while indirect interaction is
evident when the environment is changed by one individual and the other individuals
react to the new environment (e.g., pheromone tracks of ants that look for food sources
through depositing on their way).

37
 This indirect pattern of interaction is known as “stigmergy”, which denotes
communication through the environment. The research area presented in this thorough
paper focuses on SI. More specifically, this review strives to explore one of the most
popular models of SI, PSO.
PSO is a swarm-based stochastic algorithm proposed originally by Kennedy and
Eberhart , which exploits the concepts of the social behaviour of animals like fish
schooling and bird flocking. In PSO, each potential solution to a given problem is
viewed as a particle with a certain velocity flying through the space of the problem
just like a flock of birds. Each particle then combines – with some random disturbances
– some aspect of the record of its own historical best location and current location with
those of one or more agents of the swarm to determine its next movement through the
search space.

PSO has eventually gained prevalent vogue amongst researchers and

emerged to provide high performance in an assortment of application areas, with the
potential to hybridize and specialize and demonstrate some appealing emergent
behaviours. PSO has a main advantage of having fewer parameters to tune. PSO
obtains the best solution from particles interaction, but through high-dimensional
search space, it converges at a very slow speed towards the global optimum. Moreover,
in regard to complex and large datasets, it shows poor-quality results. If there is a large
number of dimensions in the problem at hand, PSO usually fails to discover the global
optimum solution. This phenomenon is caused not only by the presence of local optima
trap, but also the potential fluctuation of the velocities of particles such that the
successive range of trials is bounded within a sub-plain of the whole search hyper-
plain .
The local optima issue in PSO has been discussed and diverse variants of
PSO algorithm were developed to tackle that issue. For example, some of these
variants have been developed by incorporating the capabilities of EAs (e.g., the
adaptation of PSO parameters, hybrid versions of PSO, etc.), thereby producing
38
adaptive PSO versions. Other researchers have taken on incorporating evolutionary
operators, such as crossover, mutation, selection, as well as the Differential Evolution
algorithm (DE) itself, into PSO. Consequently, hybrid versions of PSO have been
tested and produced, including the hybrid evolutionary PSO , Genetic Algorithm (GA)
and PSO , genetic programming-based adaptable evolutionary hybrid PSO , and many
others . Such improvements perform well with PSO and have the potential to avoid
getting stuck at local optima. However, the problem of premature convergence in some
high-dimensional complex problems still exists, even if the local optima obstacle is
absent.

Hence, PSO does not always work properly for high-dimensional models .
To this point, the performance of PSO has generally been improved by developing
different variants of the algorithm. However, few review papers and technical surveys
have systematically addressed the PSO literature . Consequently, the primary objective
of this work is to present a systematic survey by reviewing the PSO algorithm and its
different methods, as well as a wide variety of indicative application domains.
Moreover, some of the addressed studies have highlighted the main approaches of PSO
applications, including health-care, environmental, industrial, commercial, smart city,
and general aspects.

The key solicitude of those PSO methods and applications is satisfying

quality standards: services arising from PSO methods and applications should support
user’s requirements that cover the quality metrics of accuracy and efficiency, such as
convergence rate, computational cost, consistency, stability, diversity, etc. In other
words, this paper aims to present a timely, compendious, systematic and an in-depth
overview of the PSO algorithm between 2017 and 2019 and the opportunities and
challenges imposed during this period.

39
 CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE REQUIRED

For developing all the above Programs a higher configuration PC/laptop support
with higher Random Access Memory and support of higher Graphical Processing
Unit with a Central Processing Unit is required. The OS processor used need to have
64 bits per second speed of data transmission, for efficient development MATLAB®
is a programming platform designed specifically for engineers and scientists to
analyze and design systems and products that transform our world. The heart of
MATLAB is the MATLAB language, a matrix-based language allowing the most
natural expression of computational mathematics.

40
 CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND EVALUATION

Enter the Data

(Enter only the ASCII characters within single quotes) :'123456789877'
min_papr =
3.3771
index_tx =
3
max_seq =
1.4400e+03
index_rx =
3
64 carriers:
STFCC PAPR
0.3861
Original PAPR
0.5856
Efficiency
34.0723

41
 Fig 5.1 PAPR with STFCC and without STFCC

By using STFCC the above X axis (PAPR) and Y axis (BER) has been plotted and
results obtained successfully. In output, there exist a sudden decrease of PAPR when
we apply STF with conjugate cancellation whereas, without conjugate cancellation
STF, original PAPR is higher.
The Obtained original PAPR is 0.5856 decibels, STFCC PAPR is 0.3861 decibels
and Efficiency is 34.0723 in bits/s/Hz.

42
Fig 5.2 Partial Transmit Sequence with 64 subcarriers.

Fig 5.3 Particle Swarm Optimization

43
 Fig 5.4 Comparison of PTS with ABC and PSO Algorithm

While Comparing the PTS (Partial Transmit Sequence) with the ABC (Artificial bee
Colony) and PSO (Particle Swarm Optimization) the graph has been plotted and
results obtained successfully.
The obtained results are:

44
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

In this project, the 2 × 1 systems, SF-, STF-, STFCC-, and WHSTFCC-OFDM

are designed and compared. The BER performance of the STF-OFDM system is
betterthan that of the SF-OFDM system when the normalized Doppler frequency Εd
is small, specifically, when OFDM block size N is small, in the TU area. The
precoded 2 × 1 WHSTFCC-OFDM has the best BER, and the STFCC-OFDM,
and the STF-OFDM follow in order.

Additionally, 2 × 2 STFCC- and WHSTFCC-OFDM are designed and

compared. Both the new precoded 2 × 1 and 2× 2WHSTFCC-OFDM systems have
a substantial BER performance improvement over the 2 × 1 and 2 × 2 STFCC-OFDM
schemes in the frequency selective fading channel, specifically in the small
normalized Doppler frequency and high Eb/No. This is due to the fact that within the
OFDM block, WHT provides high diversity among subcarriers, while CC scheme
provides ICI cancellation. Hence a much higher SNR and diversity gain areachieved
in the frequency selective fading channel.

While Comparing the PTS (Partial Transmit Sequence) with the PSO (Particle
Swarm Optimization) and ABC (Aritificial bee Colony) algorithm , the result shows
that in PTS , the PAPR reduction decibel value is lower than the other Which implies
that the spectral efficiency of the PTS is higher than the others.

45
 CHAPTER 7
FUTURE SCOPE

In this project, we have implemented the Space Time Frequency with

Conjuagate Cancellation in 64- QAM and reduce the bit error rate and PAPR and
increases the Spectral efficiency. Further, the aim is to develop a 128-QAM in the Space
Time Frequency architecture with Conjugate Cancellation . Also this aims to increase
the spectral efficiency further more and to decrease the original PAPR. In Future even
whenthe data generations transition from 4G to 5G ,5G to 6G….so on. There is a need
to make the signal Better. It can be achieved by using the STFC. some potential areas
where the utilization of STF with 128-QAM can bring benefits:

Increased Spectral Efficiency: By employing 128-QAM, which allows for higher data
rates compared to lower-order modulation schemes, combined with STF techniques, the
spectral efficiency can be further enhanced. This means more data can be transmitted
within the available frequency spectrum, leading to improved capacity and throughput
in future wireless systems.

Enhanced Error Performance: STF techniques, such as Conjugate Cancellation, can

help mitigate the effects of interference, multipath fading, and other channel
impairments. By incorporating these techniques with 128-QAM, the overall error
performance of the system can be improved, resulting in lower bit error rates (BER) and
better signal quality.

46
 CHAPTER 8
REFERENCES

[1] X. Xia, K. Xu, D. Zhang, Y. Xu, and Y.Wang, “Beam-domain full-duplex

massiveMIMO: Realizing co-time co-frequency uplink and downlink transmission
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49
50
 CHAPTER 9

APPENDICES
clear all;
close all;
clc;

N=128;
nbitpersym = 52;
disp('Enter the Data');
data=input('(Enter only the ASCII characters within single quotes) :');
ascii_values=double(data);
for i=1:1:length(ascii_values)
bit_string=dec2bin(ascii_values(i),8);
for k=1:8
data_bits((i-1)*8+k)=str2num(bit_string(k));
end
end
Nofdm=1;
nbitpersym=27*8;
no_pad_bits=Nofdm*nbitpersym -length(data_bits);
unpad=length(data_bits);
data_bits=[data_bits zeros(1,no_pad_bits)];

Scrambler_bits=[];
buffer=[1,0,1,0,1,1,1];

for i=1:1:length(data_bits)
Temp=xor(buffer(4),buffer(5));
Scrambler_bits(i)=xor(Temp,data_bits(i));
j=7;
for k=1:6
buffer(j)=buffer(j-1);
j=j-1;
end
buffer(1)=Temp;
end

t = poly2trellis(7, [133 171]); % Define trellis.

51
ConvEncoder_bits = convenc(Scrambler_bits, t);

%3/4 puncturing
i=1;
k=5;
for j=4:6:432
e(i)=ConvEncoder_bits(j);
e(i+1)=ConvEncoder_bits(k);
i=i+2;
k=k+6;
end
i=1;
for j=1:6:432
Puncutured_bits(i)=ConvEncoder_bits(j);
i=i+4;
end

i=2;
for j=2:6:432
Puncutured_bits(i)=ConvEncoder_bits(j);
i=i+4;
end

i=3;
for j=3:6:432
Puncutured_bits(i)=ConvEncoder_bits(j);
i=i+4;
end
i=4;
for j=6:6:432
Puncutured_bits(i)=ConvEncoder_bits(j);
i=i+4;
end

s=3;
for k=0:1:287
i=(288/16)*mod(k,16)+floor(k/16);
q=s*floor(i/s);
r=i+288-floor(16*i/288);
52
t=q+mod(r,s);
Interleaved_bits(t+1)=Puncutured_bits(k+1);
end

j=1;
for i=1:1:48
if(Interleaved_bits(j)==0 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==0)
Mod_Real(i)=-3;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==0 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==1)
Mod_Real(i)=-1;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==1 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==1)
Mod_Real(i)=1;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==1 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==0)
Mod_Real(i)=3;
end
j=j+3;
if(Interleaved_bits(j)==0 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==0)
Mod_Imaginary(i)=-3;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==0 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==1)
Mod_Imaginary(i)=-1;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==1 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==1)
Mod_Imaginary(i)=1;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==1 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==0)
Mod_Imaginary(i)=3;
end
j=j+3;
end

j=1;
for i=1:1:52 %Insert pilot bits at -21,-7,7,21
if(i==5 || i==19 || i==34 || i==48)
Pilot_Real(i)=1;
Pilot_Imaginary(i)=1;
else
Pilot_Real(i)=Mod_Real(j);
Pilot_Imaginary(i)=Mod_Imaginary(j);
j=j+1;
end
end

53
Complex=complex(Pilot_Real,Pilot_Imaginary);
complex_temp=Complex;
l=1;k=2;
for i=1:1:10
Complex=complex_temp;
for j=l:5:50
Complex(j)=Complex(j)*-2;
end
for j=k:5:50
Complex(j)=Complex(j)*-2;
end
[peak,avgp,papri] = ifft_power(Complex);

papr(i)=papri;
papr1(i)=papri;

if (i>1)
if(papr1(i)> (papr1(i-1)))
papr1(i)=papr1(i-1);
else
complex_min=Complex;
end
else
complex_min=Complex;
end
k=k+1;
if (k==6)
l=l+1;
k=l+1;
end
end

% papr
[min_papr index_tx]=min(papr)
%index
%complex_min.........finding ifft for multplied sequence with min PAPR....
IFFT=ifft(complex_min,N);
IFFTReal=real(IFFT);
IFFTImaginary=imag(IFFT);

54
j=48;
for n=1:16
CyclicReal(n)=IFFTReal(j);
CyclicImaginary(n)=IFFTImaginary(j);
j=j+1;
end

j=17;
for n=1:128
CyclicReal(j)=IFFTReal(n);
CyclicImaginary(j)=IFFTImaginary(n);
j=j+1;
end

TransmitSignal=complex(CyclicReal,CyclicImaginary);

ReceivedSignal=TransmitSignal;
ReceivedReal=real(ReceivedSignal);
ReceivedImaginary=imag(ReceivedSignal);

j=17;
for n=1:128
DeReal(n)=ReceivedReal(j);
DeImaginary(n)=ReceivedImaginary(j);
j=j+1;
end

Rx_Complex=complex(DeReal,DeImaginary);
Fft=fft(Rx_Complex,N);
FftReal=(real(Fft));
FftImaginary=(imag(Fft));

for i=1:1:52
yn(i)=Fft(i);
end
yn_temp=yn;

l=1;k=2;
for i=1:1:10
55
 yn=yn_temp;
for j=l:5:50
yn(j)=yn(j)/(-2);
end
for j=k:5:50
yn(j)=yn(j)/(-2);
end

for x=1:1:52
test(x)= yn_temp(x)-yn(x);
end

tr=real(test);
ti=imag(test);

for y=1:1:52
out1(y)=tr(y)*tr(y);
out2(y)=ti(y)*ti(y);
out(y)=out1(y)+ out2(y);
end
sum=0;
for j=1:1:52
sum=sum+out(j);
end
sum_seq1(i)=sum;
sum_seq(i)=sum;

if (i>1)
if(sum_seq1(i)< (sum_seq1(i-1)))
sum_seq1(i)=sum_seq1(i-1);
else
xn=yn;
end
else
xn=yn;
end
k=k+1;
if (k==6)
l=l+1;
k=l+1;
end
end
% sum_seq
56
[max_seq index_rx]= max(sum_seq)
xn_real=real(xn);
xn_imag=imag(xn);

j=1;
for i=1:1:52
if(i==5 || i==19 || i==34 || i==48)
k=0;
else
Real(j)=round(xn_real(i));
Imaginary(j)=round(xn_imag(i));
j=j+1;
end
end

i=1;
for j=1:1:48
if(Real(j)==-7)
Demodulated_bits(i)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=0;
elseif(Real(j)==-5)
Demodulated_bits(i)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=1;
elseif(Real(j)==-3)
Demodulated_bits(i)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=1;
elseif(Real(j)==-1)
Demodulated_bits(i)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=0;
elseif(Real(j)==1)
Demodulated_bits(i)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=0;
elseif(Real(j)==3)
Demodulated_bits(i)=1;
57
 Demodulated_bits(i+1)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=1;
elseif(Real(j)==5)
Demodulated_bits(i)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=1;
elseif(Real(j)==7)
Demodulated_bits(i)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=0;
end
i=i+3;

if(Imaginary(j)==-7)
Demodulated_bits(i)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=0;
elseif(Imaginary(j)==-5)
Demodulated_bits(i)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=1;
elseif(Imaginary(j)==-3)
Demodulated_bits(i)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=1;
elseif(Imaginary(j)==-1)
Demodulated_bits(i)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=0;
elseif(Imaginary(j)==1)
Demodulated_bits(i)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=0;
elseif(Imaginary(j)==3)
Demodulated_bits(i)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=1;
elseif(Imaginary(j)==5)
Demodulated_bits(i)=1;
Demodulated_bits(i+1)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=1;
elseif(Imaginary(j)==7)
Demodulated_bits(i)=1;
58
 Demodulated_bits(i+1)=0;
Demodulated_bits(i+4)=0;
end
i=i+3;
end

for j=0:1:287
u=(j+floor(16*j/288));
i=s*floor(j/s)+mod(u,s);
k=(16*i) -(287*floor(16*i/288));
Deinterleaved_bits(k+1)=Demodulated_bits(j+1);
end

ss=1;m=1;
cc=1;
for k=1:1:72
for j=1:1:6
if(j==4 || j==5)
Depunctured_bits(ss)=e(m);
ss=ss+1;
m=m+1;
else
Depunctured_bits(ss)=Deinterleaved_bits(cc);
ss=ss+1;
cc=cc+1;
end

end
end

t = poly2trellis(7, [133 171]); % Define trellis.

Viterbi_bits = vitdec(Depunctured_bits,t,9, 'trunc', 'hard');

Descrambler_bits=[];
buffer=[1,0,1,0,1,1,1];

for i=1:1:length(data_bits)
Temp=xor(buffer(4),buffer(5));
Descrambler_bits(i)=xor(Temp,Viterbi_bits(i));
j=7;
for k=1:6
buffer(j)=buffer(j-1);
59
 j=j-1;
end
buffer(1)=Temp;
end

unpadded_data = [Descrambler_bits([1:unpad])].';
Decoded_data=[];
for i=1:8:length(unpadded_data) % picking in terms of 8 bits per
character
bit_string=dec2base((unpadded_data(i:i+7)),2).'; % bit sring is got for 8 bits
Decoded_data=[Decoded_data char(bin2dec(bit_string))];
end

% Decoded_data

papro = 0:.5:8;y = 10.^(papro(:).*0.001);

clear all;
close all;
clc;

N=128;
nbitpersym = 52;
disp('Enter the Data');
data=input('(Enter only the ASCII characters within single quotes) :');
ascii_values=double(data);
for i=1:1:length(ascii_values)
bit_string=dec2bin(ascii_values(i),8);
for k=1:8
data_bits((i-1)*8+k)=str2num(bit_string(k));
end
end
Nofdm=1;
nbitpersym=27*8;
no_pad_bits=Nofdm*nbitpersym -length(data_bits);
unpad=length(data_bits);
data_bits=[data_bits zeros(1,no_pad_bits)];

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%SCRAMBLER%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Scrambler_bits=[];
60
buffer=[1,0,1,0,1,1,1];

for i=1:1:length(data_bits)
Temp=xor(buffer(4),buffer(5));
Scrambler_bits(i)=xor(Temp,data_bits(i));
j=7;
for k=1:6
buffer(j)=buffer(j-1);
j=j-1;
end
buffer(1)=Temp;
end

t = poly2trellis(7, [133 171]); % Define trellis.

ConvEncoder_bits = convenc(Scrambler_bits, t);

%3/4 puncturing
i=1;
k=5;
for j=4:6:432
e(i)=ConvEncoder_bits(j);
e(i+1)=ConvEncoder_bits(k);
i=i+2;
k=k+6;
end
i=1;
for j=1:6:432
Puncutured_bits(i)=ConvEncoder_bits(j);
i=i+4;
end

i=2;
for j=2:6:432
Puncutured_bits(i)=ConvEncoder_bits(j);
i=i+4;
end

i=3;
for j=3:6:432
Puncutured_bits(i)=ConvEncoder_bits(j);
i=i+4;
end
i=4;
61
for j=6:6:432
Puncutured_bits(i)=ConvEncoder_bits(j);
i=i+4;
end

s=3;
for k=0:1:287
i=(288/16)*mod(k,16)+floor(k/16);
q=s*floor(i/s);
r=i+288-floor(16*i/288);
t=q+mod(r,s);
Interleaved_bits(t+1)=Puncutured_bits(k+1);
end

j=1;
for i=1:1:48
if(Interleaved_bits(j)==0 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==0)
Mod_Real(i)=-3;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==0 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==1)
Mod_Real(i)=-1;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==1 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==1)
Mod_Real(i)=1;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==1 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==0)
Mod_Real(i)=3;
end
j=j+3;
if(Interleaved_bits(j)==0 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==0)
Mod_Imaginary(i)=-3;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==0 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==1)
Mod_Imaginary(i)=-1;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==1 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==1)
Mod_Imaginary(i)=1;
elseif(Interleaved_bits(j)==1 && Interleaved_bits(j+1)==0)
Mod_Imaginary(i)=3;
end
j=j+3;
end

j=1;
for i=1:1:52 %Insert pilot bits at -21,-7,7,21
if(i==5 || i==19 || i==34 || i==48)
62
 Pilot_Real(i)=1;
Pilot_Imaginary(i)=1;
else
Pilot_Real(i)=Mod_Real(j);
Pilot_Imaginary(i)=Mod_Imaginary(j);
j=j+1;
end
end

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% STFCC BLOCK

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

Complex=complex(Pilot_Real,Pilot_Imaginary);
complex_temp=Complex;
l=1;k=2;
for i=1:1:10
Complex=complex_temp;
for j=l:5:50
Complex(j)=Complex(j)*-2;
end
for j=k:5:50
Complex(j)=Complex(j)*-2;
end
[peak,avgp,papri] = ifft_power(Complex);

papr(i)=papri;
papr1(i)=papri;

if (i>1)
if(papr1(i)> (papr1(i-1)))
papr1(i)=papr1(i-1);
else
complex_min=Complex;
end
else
complex_min=Complex;
end
k=k+1;
if (k==6)
l=l+1;
k=l+1;
end
end
63
% papr
[min_papr index_tx]=min(papr)
%index
%complex_min.........finding ifft for multplied sequence with min PAPR....
IFFT=ifft(complex_min,N);
IFFTReal=real(IFFT);
IFFTImaginary=imag(IFFT);

j=48;
for n=1:16
CyclicReal(n)=IFFTReal(j);
CyclicImaginary(n)=IFFTImaginary(j);
j=j+1;
end

j=17;
for n=1:128
CyclicReal(j)=IFFTReal(n);
CyclicImaginary(j)=IFFTImaginary(n);
j=j+1;
end

TransmitSignal=complex(CyclicReal,CyclicImaginary);

ReceivedSignal=TransmitSignal;
ReceivedReal=real(ReceivedSignal);
ReceivedImaginary=imag(ReceivedSignal);

j=17;
for n=1:128
DeReal(n)=ReceivedReal(j);
DeImaginary(n)=ReceivedImaginary(j);
j=j+1;
end

Rx_Complex=complex(DeReal,DeImaginary);
Fft=fft(Rx_Complex,N);
FftReal=(real(Fft));
64