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THE COMPLETE
REMOTE PILOT
SECOND EDITION
Bob Gardner and David Ison
THE COMPLETE
REMOTE PILOT
SECOND EDITION
Bob Gardner and David Ison

TM

AVIATION SUPPLIES & ACADEMICS, INC.

NEWCASTLE, WASHINGTON
The Complete Remote Pilot
Second Edition
by Bob Gardner and David Ison

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

7005 132nd Place SE
Newcastle, Washington 98059
[email protected] | 425-235-1500 | asa2fly.com

See the ASA website at asa2fly.com/reader/rpt for the “Reader Resources” page containing
additional information and updates relating to this book.

Copyright © 2018-2022 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording,
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. While every
precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher, Bob Gardner, and
David Ison assume no responsibility for damages resulting from the use of the information
contained herein.

None of the material in this book supersedes any operational documents or procedures issued
by the Federal Aviation Administration, aircraft and avionics manufacturers, flight schools,
or the operators of aircraft. The chart excerpts contained in this manual are reproductions for
example only and are not intended to be used for navigation.

ASA-RPT2-PD
ISBN 978-1-64425-210-9

Additional formats available:

Softcover ISBN 978-1-64425-207-9
eBook EPUB ISBN 978-1-64425-209-3
eBundle ISBN 978-1-64425-208-6 (print + eBook PDF download code)

Cover photos—Front: Jacques Tarnero/Shutterstock.com. Back: only_kim/Shutterstock.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Names: Gardner, Bob, 1928-2021 author. | Ison, David C., author.
Title: The complete remote pilot / Bob Gardner and David Ison.
Description: Second edition. | Newcastle, Washington : Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.,
[2022] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022009299 (print) | LCCN 2022009300 (ebook) | ISBN 9781644252079
(trade paperback) | ISBN 9781644252093 (epub) | ISBN 9781644252109 (pdf) | ISBN
9781644252086
Subjects: LCSH: Drone aircraft. | Drone aircraft—Government policy—United States. | Drone
aircraft—Study and teaching—United States. | Air raffic rules—United States.
Classification: LCC TL685.35 .G37 2022 (print) | LCC TL685.35 (ebook) | DDC 629.133/39—
dc23/eng/20220316
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022009299
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022009300
Contents

Foreword...........................................................................................................................vi
About the Authors..........................................................................................................vii
Getting Started...............................................................................................................viii

1 Uncrewed Aircraft Systems: Learning the Language of Drones.... 1

A Very Brief History of Uncrewed Aircraft Systems (UAS)........................................ 1
Terms and Abbreviations................................................................................................. 2
Types of UAS..................................................................................................................... 4
UAS Components............................................................................................................. 5
Common Uses of sUAS.................................................................................................... 9
Summary..........................................................................................................................11
Review Questions............................................................................................................12

2 Regulations: Remote Pilot Certificate sUAS Rating Privileges,

Limitations, and Flight Operations...................................................13
Government Regulations and Other Procedures Publications.................................13
Chart Supplements U.S. .................................................................................................27
Advisory Circulars..........................................................................................................27
QR Codes.........................................................................................................................28
Notices to Air Missions (NOTAMs).............................................................................28
Aviation Media................................................................................................................28
Review Questions............................................................................................................30

3 Airspace and Navigation.................................................................. 35

Aeronautical Charts........................................................................................................35
Geographical Coordinates.............................................................................................36
Time..................................................................................................................................36
Statute and Nautical Mile Scale.....................................................................................37
Magnetic Variation.........................................................................................................37
Correcting for Wind Drift.............................................................................................38
Ground Speed vs. Airspeed...........................................................................................39
Chart Reading..................................................................................................................39
Airspace............................................................................................................................40
Terminal Radar Service Area........................................................................................46
Special Use Airspace.......................................................................................................46

iii
 Air Defense Identification Zones..................................................................................48
Wildlife Refuge Area......................................................................................................48
Review Questions............................................................................................................49

4 Airport and Off-Airport Operations................................................. 53

The Airport......................................................................................................................53
Crosswind Operations....................................................................................................57
Wake Turbulence.............................................................................................................58
Operations at Non-Tower Airports..............................................................................58
Operations at Airports with Control Towers..............................................................60
Off-Airport Operations..................................................................................................62
Flying at Night.................................................................................................................65
Review Questions............................................................................................................66

5 Radio Communication Procedures.................................................69

Radio Procedures............................................................................................................71
Radio Use at Non-Tower Airports................................................................................72
Communication at Airports with Operating Towers.................................................73
Air Traffic Control Radar Services................................................................................74
ADS-B...............................................................................................................................74
Remote Identification (RID)..........................................................................................75
Radio Communication Phraseology and Technique.................................................76
Review Questions............................................................................................................79

6 Weather: General Weather Theory, Aviation Weather Sources,

and Effects of Weather on sUAS Performance...............................81
Fronts................................................................................................................................84
Stability.............................................................................................................................86
Cloud Families.................................................................................................................86
Thunderstorms................................................................................................................87
Wind Shear......................................................................................................................89
Fog.....................................................................................................................................90
Structural Icing and Frost..............................................................................................91
Cold Weather Operations..............................................................................................91
Lake Effect Snow.............................................................................................................92
Using Your Weather Knowledge...................................................................................92
Learning More About Weather.....................................................................................92
Overview..........................................................................................................................94
The AWC Home Page.....................................................................................................94
Textual Weather Products............................................................................................104
Automated Weather Reporting Stations....................................................................106
Other Less Frequently Used Resources .....................................................................107
Practical Sources for the Remote Pilot.......................................................................108
Summary........................................................................................................................109
Review Questions..........................................................................................................110

7 Performance...................................................................................... 113
A Very Brief Introduction to Aerodynamics.............................................................113
Weight and Balance......................................................................................................115
Weight and Balance Calculations...............................................................................116

iv Contents
 Performance...................................................................................................................117
Density Altitude............................................................................................................117
Takeoff and Climb Performance.................................................................................118
Endurance......................................................................................................................120
Landing Distance..........................................................................................................120
Aerodynamic Effects.....................................................................................................120
Vortex Ring State...........................................................................................................121
Ground Effect................................................................................................................121
Trim ...............................................................................................................................121
Review Questions..........................................................................................................123

8 Emergency Procedures................................................................... 125

Contingency Planning..................................................................................................125
Ground Emergencies....................................................................................................125
Inflight Emergencies.....................................................................................................126
Emergency Communications......................................................................................130
Other “Surprises”..........................................................................................................130
Review Questions..........................................................................................................132

9 Human Factors................................................................................. 133

Health and Environmental Factors.............................................................................133
Decision-Making and Judgment.................................................................................135
Refresher Training........................................................................................................136
Positive Control.............................................................................................................137
Risk Management and Aeronautical Decision Making ..........................................137
Review Questions..........................................................................................................139

10 Maintenance and Preflight Inspection Procedures..................... 141

Regulatory Requirements............................................................................................141
Preflight Inspection Considerations...........................................................................141
Postflight Inspection Considerations.........................................................................142
Inspection Intervals......................................................................................................142
Battery Maintenance.....................................................................................................143
Flight and Maintenance Logs......................................................................................144
Maintenance, Repair, and Replacement of Components.........................................144
Review Questions..........................................................................................................145

Appendix A: Glossary.......................................................................147

Appendix B: Chart Supplements U.S.: Airport Facility

Directory Legend............................................................................. 155

Appendix C: Chart Supplements U.S. Excerpts............................175

Appendix D: Additional Full-Color Illustrations............................179

Seattle Sectional Chart Excerpts and Legend............................................................179
North Alabama Sectional Chart .................................................................................184
Airport Signs ................................................................................................................186

Index...................................................................................................187

Contents v
Foreword

I have always loved stuff that is up in the air. When I has its own terminology, and to make it even more
was a child, my father was also a big fan, so we went challenging, so much of it is referred to with acronyms.
to air shows, flew model airplanes, and would pull Authors Bob Gardner and David Ison have laid all of
over and stop alongside the road in our rural area to this out for you, organized it well for future reference,
watch big Stearmans spraying the farm ground. My and included great graphics.
fascination with model airplanes never left, and many I remember watching an entire battalion surrender
years later I find myself making a living out of my to a drone on the nightly news in late 1990 and think-
hobby. If you’re considering the same, this publica- ing that all of those bad guys threw their hands up to a
tion is for you. model airplane. Well, sort of…. The connection is real,
You can fly sUAS (small uncrewed aircraft systems) and it’s been very gratifying to see so many drone pilots
platforms professionally, but there are required steps for the military come out of the model airplane ranks.
you must take and information you have to know. In Today, the technology of multi-rotors and their built-
fact, you have to become an aviator. The lines between in stabilization allow flying by many more operators
a UAV (uncrewed air vehicle) flight and a piloted air- with fewer “stick and rudder” skills. This knowledge,
craft are really becoming blurred. To fly an sUAS, however, is still a major part of being an aviator. David
you will need to understand weather, the National Ison and Bob Gardner have written a great flight plan
Airspace System, airport operations, and other items to obtain all of the aviation knowledge required for
previously held for crewed aircraft. One of the largest becoming “The Complete Remote Pilot.”
tasks ahead will be learning a new language. Aviation Enjoy your flight!

Bill Pritchett
Director of Education
Academy of Model Aeronautics

vi
About the Authors

Bob Gardner David Ison

Robert Gardner began his flying career in Alaska in Industry expert David C. Ison, Ph.D., has been
1960 while in the U.S. Coast Guard. By 1966, Bob involved in aviation for more than 35 years, during
earned his Private Land and Sea, Commercial, Instru- which he has flown as a flight instructor and as an ATP
ment, Instructor, CFII and MEL. Over the next 16 for both regional and major airlines flying domestic
years, he was an instructor, charter pilot, designated and international routes. He holds ATP Multi-Engine
examiner, corporate and freight captain, and director Land, Commercial Single-Engine Land and Sea, Gold
of ASA Ground Schools. Seal Certified Flight Instructor, Instrument Flight
Bob held an Airline Transport Pilot Certificate with Instructor, Multi-Engine Flight Instructor, Ground
Single-Engine and Multi-Engine Land ratings; a CFI Instructor—Instrument and Advanced, Remote Pilot,
certificate with Instrument and Multi-Engine ratings; and Aircraft Dispatcher certifications.
and a Ground Instructor’s Certificate with Advanced Dr. Ison has been in aviation higher education for
and Instrument ratings. In addition, Bob was a Gold more than 15 years and currently holds the position
Seal Flight Instructor and was recognized as a Flight of Professor, Graduate School, at Northcentral Univer-
Instructor of the Year in Washington State. To top off sity. He graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Avia-
this impressive list of accomplishments, Bob was also tion Management from Auburn University, a Master of
a well-known author, journalist, airshow lecturer and Science in Aeronautical Science–Operations Special-
long-admired member of the aviation community. ization from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University,
and a Ph.D. in Educational Studies/Higher Education
Leadership with a specialization in Aviation Education
from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln.

vii
Getting Started
INTRODUCTION
by David Ison and Bob Gardner

It is hard not to want to explore the possibilities of Regulations website (eCFR) at ecfr.gov and peruse
becoming a drone pilot. Drones, officially referred to Title 14, which covers everything aviation-related. In
as uncrewed or unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), particular, you will want to read through 14 CFR Parts
provide tremendous opportunities for commercial 91 and 107. Part 91 covers general operations require-
and personal use. They provide a unique view of our ments for aircraft and pilots, while Part 107 is specific
world, are relatively simple to use, and have become to UAS. It is also recommended that you read FAA
increasingly affordable. While UAS have often been Advisory Circular (AC) 107-2A, Small Unmanned
viewed as toys, they have become very sophisticated Aircraft System (Small UAS), which expands upon
vehicles capable of performing a range of tasks. This the various requirements for sUAS operations in the
increase in capabilities and utilities has resulted in United States.
more common use of UAS, with them oftentimes For those of you who are seeking to fly only rec-
sharing airspace with crewed aircraft. Thus it is nec- reationally, you technically do not need a Remote
essary for UAS operators, or remote pilots, to be aware Pilot certificate, but it is wise to familiarize yourself
of the various requirements, regulations, and opera- with the aforementioned information. Additionally,
tional principles associated with crewed aircraft so as you will want to get a copy of FAA Advisory Circular
to safely and responsibly operate in the airspace above 91-57B, Exception for Limited Recreational Operations
the United States (referred to as the National Airspace of Unmanned Aircraft. You may also want to join the
System or NAS). Academy of Model Aeronautics (AMA), which pro-
For many of you, this may be the first time you have vides tremendous resources for hobbyist pilots.
been exposed to the sometimes confusing and com- While the FAA provides some free online training
plex nature of aviation and piloting knowledge. Even if and documents for aspiring remote pilots (including
you are a crewed aircraft pilot, you may be unfamiliar those who already hold a crewed pilot certificate), a
with the intricacies associated with UAS operations more comprehensive reference is necessary to fully
and how they fit in with crewed aircraft. Reading this understand UAS and how to safely use them in U.S.
book is your first step in the path to become a compe- airspace. Thus, this book was written to help guide
tent, knowledgeable, responsible, and safe remote pilot you through the process of becoming an educated,
as well as prepare for the Federal Aviation Administra- responsible, and safe remote pilot.
tion (FAA) written knowledge test. Note: The FAA and aviation community are in the
The first step is to collect some information that is process of transitioning from use of the terms manned
readily available from the FAA. Since UAS operations and unmanned to crewed and uncrewed. Many FAA
are covered by FAA regulations, it is a good idea to regulations and documents still use the former, and
get your hands on a copy of these important docu- these terms are used interchangeably throughout
ments. Since these rules have been fairly dynamic, I this book, but you can expect to see increasing use of
would suggest you visit the Electronic Code of Federal crewed and uncrewed over time.

viii
REMOTE PILOT CERTIFICATE prepare for flying UAS recreationally or for business.
Unfortunately, most miss many of the nuances associ-
There are two primary pathways to becoming a cer-
ated with aeronautical knowledge and often simply
tificated Remote Pilot. First, if you are not a current
regurgitate, in overly terse text or outline form, what
crewed aircraft pilot (e.g., Private Pilot, Commercial
the FAA has released. These resources don’t provide
Pilot, or ATP with a current flight review), you will
the most efficacious or efficient way to become a com-
need to successfully pass the FAA Remote Pilot knowl-
petent remote pilot. This text is designed to not only
edge exam. (Note that a Student Pilot certificate does
prepare you for the exam, but also to help you learn
not suffice.) This exam covers a range of topics, many
how UAS fly, how to intelligently talk about them
of which are likely to be unfamiliar to both crewed and
and their components, and to be well-versed in the
uncrewed aircraft pilots. Therefore, you will need to
aeronautical knowledge required to fly these systems
do some studying before attempting the exam. Study-
in the same airspace as large commercial jets.
ing is critical to success. At a cost upwards of $175
Our goal is to provide important details in down-
for each attempt, you do not want to have to take the
to-earth language. Whether or not you already know
exam more than once; moreover, the FAA requires
a thing or two about flying, this book will bring things
you to wait 14 days to retest if you fail. In order to
into perspective specifically for the remote pilot. Avia-
take the Remote Pilot exam, you must be at least 16
tion has its own language, much of which remote pilots
years of age, and you must receive a score of at least 70
need to know to understand the intricacies associated
percent to pass. Prior to taking the exam, you should
with flying. Sometimes the terms, maps, and reports
create an Integrated Airman Certification and Rating
available to the crewed aircraft world are somewhat
Application (IACRA) account by visiting iacra.faa.gov.
complex and confusing. That’s what this book is
After passing the exam, you will complete your IACRA
for—to guide you through this unfamiliar territory
application for the Remote Pilot certificate with an
(or refresh your memory about it) so you never have
sUAS rating. A temporary certificate, good for 120
to feel lost.
days, will be issued. Once your application has been
Here are some examples of things you need to
officially processed, you will receive a permanent cer-
know, but may not yet be prepared to perform:
tificate in the mail.
The second pathway applies to certificated crewed • Did you know that you should not typically fly UAS
aircraft pilots (excluding Student Pilots) who are cur- within 5 nautical miles of an airport with a control
rent per 14 CFR §61.56. Additionally, you will need tower?
to complete the FAA’s online Part 107 training course • How do you know you’re within 5 nautical miles?
which, upon completion, will provide you with a cer- • What is a nautical mile?
tificate as evidence of the achievement. You will then • How do you know if an airport has a control tower?
need to apply via a Flight Standards District Office
(FSDO), designated pilot examiner, airman certifica- These are just a few examples of questions you will
tion representative, certificated flight instructor, or be able to answer with the help of this book. And this
other person authorized by the FAA administrator. is just one tiny bit of aviation knowledge from the
You will be issued a temporary certificate that is valid plethora of information with which you must be famil-
for 120 days, after which you will receive a permanent iar. Fear not, however, because we’ll guide you through
certificate in the mail. it all. Best of all, each lesson has review questions to
ensure you understand the material, as well as to help
prepare you for your written exam. You may also want
WHAT WILL THIS BOOK DO FOR to purchase ASA’s Remote Pilot Test Prep book to focus
YOU? in on the exam itself, and additional information and
A quick search of the Internet and popular online updates relating to this book are available on the
retailers will display almost endless numbers of reader resources webpage at asa2fly.com/reader/rpt.
resources to study for the Remote Pilot exam and to Well, let’s get started!

Getting Started ix
 LESSON 1

Uncrewed Aircraft Systems: Learning

the Language of Drones

A VERY BRIEF HISTORY OF than 12,000 target drones used to assist aerial gunners
and pilots practice their shooting skills.
UNCREWED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS Most of the UAS activity from World War II to
(UAS) Vietnam continued to be in the form of target flights
Here is a question to get us started: when was the first or flying bombs. Eventually, the latter evolved into the
drone (which we will refer to as UAS) flown? What’s modern-day cruise missile. UAS were later used for
your guess? Would you believe that it was in August reconnaissance, typically launched from an airborne
of 1849? While the Austrians were laying siege to the platform such as a Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Follow-
city of Venice, Italy, they concocted a plan to send ing the Vietnam War, the United States dramatically
balloons with attached explosives to bombard the city. slowed its drone research and production, but other
While one could argue that these were not UAS as we countries, notably Israel, made leaps and bounds,
imagine them, they were one of the first uses of an paving the way for the UAS age as we know it.
aerial system to complete a mission of sorts. Similar Around 1990, the United States became increas-
tactics were employed during the U.S. Civil War but ingly interested in using UAS to perform missions
were not entirely effective. In 1896, Samuel Langley that would typically be too boring or dangerous for
launched an uncrewed aircraft, the Aerodrome, off of crewed aircraft pilots. Thanks to the Global Position-
a catapult housed on his floating barge. It wasn’t until ing System (GPS) and advances in sensors, compu-
World War I that a guided, pilotless winged aircraft tational power, and other components, UAS could
was flown. Between 1916 and 1917, the first of these be accurately guided to precise target locations and
types of aircraft were flown—some to serve as targets perform a range of missions from reconnaissance to
and others to deliver bombs, the latter which were attack. By 1994, companies were producing uncrewed
referred to as aerial torpedoes, guided by rudimentary war machines. UAS such as the now-familiar Preda-
autopilots. tor and Global Hawk came to fruition. Since 2000,
World War II brought forth a slew of UAS from the U.S. military has rapidly increased its use of UAS
both Axis and Allied forces. Germany’s V-1 “buzz to perform tactical missions across the globe. Today,
bomb” had a simplistic guidance system that would headlines frequently highlight the U.S. military’s use
cut the engine when assumed to be in the target area. of UAS. However, these types of UAS are not com-
The United States also experimented with remote monly seen in the United States (although they do
control technologies to convert existing crewed air- fly here—for training, special missions, and border
craft into UAS. One example was Project Aphrodite, protection purposes), and they do not resemble the
in which B-17 bombers were made into flying bombs. types of systems most remote pilots will operate.
Pilots were on board to take off and to arm the war- While militaries were figuring out how to utilize
head. After remote control was engaged, the pilots UAS for war, radio-controlled aircraft as we know
would parachute out. Probably the most prolific use them today were concurrently being developed. In
of UAS during this period was as targets, with more fact, the technologies went hand in hand. The ability

1
to control an object via radio came about in 1898, AGL Above ground level—the height, in feet, of
thanks to Nikola Tesla. A more sophisticated con- an object (e.g., tower or UAS) above the
trol system was tested in 1903, using radio waves to underlying local area terrain.
execute specific commands on a robot. By 1917, such AIM Aeronautical Information Manual—An
technologies were being used in UAS. Throughout FAA publication applicable to all types of
the period of the World Wars, remote control air- aviation/aerospace operations. Provides
craft became more sophisticated and popular. In the detailed information on topics such as air
1950s, gas- and battery-powered, remote control air- traffic control, weather, airports, and other
craft truly sparked the hobby flying market. By 1968, subjects critical to remote pilots.
there were even remote-controlled helicopters. As
batteries have improved, computers and other com- AIRMET Airman’s Meteorological Information—
ponents have shrunk, and as prices of these items have a current and forecast weather warning
become more reasonable, the world of remote control covering a specific area that is applicable
flying has become more accessible to a wider audience. to small aircraft and UAS (e.g., for windy
While much of the remote control flying done before conditions, turbulence, low visibilities).
the early 2000s was for recreation or as a hobby, it AOA Angle of attack—the angle between the
quickly became apparent that UAS has much more middle of an airfoil (i.e., wing or rotor
capability and potential. Fast-forward to today, and blade), referred to as the chord line, and
UAS are technologically advanced tools that can be the relative wind. Relative wind is opposite
used to perform a very wide range of functions, from to the direction the aircraft/wing/rotor is
simple photography to assisting farmers through the moving.
use of precision agricultural sensors. There is no limit ATC Air traffic control—a service provided
to what modern UAS can do. The only limit is your by ground-based personnel in charge of
imagination. Of course, a UAS is only as good as its separating aircraft in controlled airspace.
pilot, so let’s start digging into the details on how to Remote pilots may have to contact ATC in
become one. specific situations.
ATCT Air traffic control tower—a facility respon-
TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS sible for handling departures, arrivals,
Both the crewed and uncrewed aircraft worlds have and ground operations at an airport (or
their own set of terms and abbreviations. Wouldn’t airports).
you be a little nervous if you asked a doctor, “Hey
ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service—
doc, what are the results of my thoracic CT scan?”
a continuous broadcast of non-control
and he looked at you puzzled, responding “A what
aeronautical information. Provides weather
kind of scan? What is a CT?” Similarly, you want to
information for the transmitting airport.
be able to use and understand the UAS/aviation talk.
This is essential to being a knowledgeable remote BVLOS Beyond visual line of sight—anytime a
pilot, but it can also be a critical part of communica- drone is operated out of view of the remote
tion with other UAS operators and personnel as well PIC and visual observer. Special authoriza-
as conversations you may need to have with pilots tion is required for BVLOS operations.
and air traffic controllers. CFI Certificated Flight Instructor—an individ-
Below are some of the most common UAS and ual who is licensed to provide flight and
aviation-related terms and abbreviations that will be ground instruction.
important for you to know.
CFR Code of Federal Regulations—the codifica-
AC Advisory Circular—an advisory document tion of the general and permanent rules and
released by the FAA to provide additional regulations published in the Federal Reg-
guidance on important subjects that goes ister. Title 14 of the CFR applies to areas
beyond the explanations in the regulations of operation and certification of UAS and
and other documents. other aviation/aerospace vehicles.

2 The Complete Remote Pilot

COA Certificate of Waiver or Authorization—a example, Russia has its own system called
special waiver or authorization by the FAA GLONASS.
to allow operations beyond those defined IFR Instrument flight rules—the set of FAA
by Part 107. Operators with COAs are rules that applies to aircraft flying on IFR
allowed to continue to operate under them flight plans and that allows aircraft to fly in
until they expire. poor weather (less than 3 SM visibility and
CT Control tower—see ATCT. cloud heights below 1,000 AGL; referred to
DPE Designated Pilot Examiner—a person des- as instrument meteorological conditions,
ignated by the FAA to represent the admin- or IMC). IFR aircraft primarily navigate
istration in the issuance of pilot certificates with sophisticated instruments and navi-
and to conduct practical exams. gation systems, such as GPS.

FAA Federal Aviation Administration—gov- KTS Knots—nautical miles per hour.

ernment entity charged with regulation, LAANC Low Altitude Authorization and Notifica-
enforcement, and promotion of the avia- tion Capability—a collaboration between
tion/aerospace industry in the United the FAA and private sector to provide UAS
States. Also charged with ensuring safe operators a means of requesting authoriza-
operations in the NAS. tion to operate in airspace that otherwise
FPV First-person view—the ability of a remote would exclude such operations.
pilot to utilize a camera onboard a UAS METAR Aviation Routine Weather Report—a
to see from the perspective of the UAS in weather report, usually distributed each
flight. The view is displayed on a screen hour, from airports with weather observa-
that is part of the controller, on a tablet/ tion capabilities.
smartphone, and/or in FPV goggles worn MOA Military Operations Area— a type of special
by the remote pilot. use airspace, designed to separate military
FRIA FAA-Recognized Identification Area—the aircraft training and activities occurring in
only locations uncrewed aircraft (drones the designated area from non-military air
and radio-controlled airplanes) may traffic. sUAS typically should avoid operat-
operate without broadcasting remote ID ing in MOAs.
message elements. Usually sponsored by NAS National Airspace System—the various
community-based organizations or schools. types of airspace as well as the airports,
FSDO Flight Standards District Office—a local ATC facilities, technology, and related rules
field office serving as a representative of and regulations that exist in the United
the FAA, providing services and handling States.
compliance relating to aviation/aerospace NM Nautical mile—a distance of 6,076 feet or
for a specific geographic area. approximately 1.15 statute miles. NMs are
FSS Flight Service Station—the provider of used for most aviation navigation distance
flight and weather services to pilots. FSS measurements.
can be accessed via the Internet or phone. NOTAM Notice to Air Missions—a notification of a
GCS Ground control station—the ground-based change to expected or documented proce-
means of controlling a UAS. Also known as dures or operations. Examples may include
the controller. if a control tower frequency has changed
GPS Global Positioning System—a U.S.-based or airspace is restricted due to the Presi-
network of satellites that provides very dent being in the area. Be sure to check
accurate position information to aircraft for NOTAMs before each flight to avoid
and some UAS. GPS is one of several Global unwanted attention from the FAA or law
Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). For enforcement.

Lesson 1 Uncrewed Aircraft Systems 3

NTSB National Transportation Safety Board—the States. The TSA will vet potential remote
government agency in charge of investigat- pilots prior to the FAA issuing permanent
ing transportation accidents in the United certificates.
States. TWY Taxiway—pavement used by crewed air-
PIC Pilot-in-command—the person in charge craft to taxi to and from runways.
of the operation of an aircraft. In the case of UA Uncrewed aircraft—term used to describe
UAS, they are referred to as the remote PIC. the actual aircraft that is part of a UAS (i.e.,
Note that the remote PIC does not neces- excludes the ground station/controller).
sarily have to be at the controls of the UAS.
UAS Uncrewed aircraft system—the total system
RID Remote Identification—the ability of a associated with an uncrewed aircraft,
drone in flight to provide identification and including the ground station/controller,
location information that can be received sensors, processors, and other compo-
by other parties. nents. UAS is also used generically to refer
RPAS Remotely piloted aircraft system—the term to a drone or remote-controlled aircraft.
used by many countries outside the United Previously referred to as unmanned aerial
States to describe UA or UAS. RPAS is gen- vehicles (UAV).
erally synonymous with UAS. UTC Universal Time Coordinated—a standard
RPIC Remote pilot-in-command—the person in time used in aviation operations based
charge of the operation of a UAS. Note that upon the time in Greenwich, United King-
the remote PIC does not necessarily have dom, uncorrected for daylight saving time.
to be at the controls of the UAS. Given in 24-hour (military) format. Also
RWY Runway—pavement used by crewed aircraft referred to as Zulu time. UTC is used in
for takeoff and landing. communications, NOTAMs, and weather
forecasts.
sUAS Small uncrewed aircraft system—a UAS
that weighs less than 55 pounds (25 kg). VFR Visual flight rules—the set of FAA regula-
tions that dictate operations by aircraft not
SIGMET Significant Meteorological Information—a flying under IFR. VFR flight requires good
weather warning covering a specific area weather conditions (i.e., more than 3 SM
and that is applicable to all types of aircraft visibility and cloud ceiling heights above
and UAS (e.g., for extreme and dangerous 1,000 feet). VFR aircraft navigate with the
conditions). assistance of visual cues.
SM Statute mile—a distance of 5,280 feet. VLOS Visual line-of-sight—the ability of the
Commonly referred to as miles in non- remote pilot to see the UAS without any
aviation contexts. SM are sometimes used aids to vision (such as using FPV or bin-
for distances in aviation, such as in aviation oculars).
weather reports (METARs and TAFs).
VOR Very High Frequency Omnidirectional
TAF Terminal Area Forecast—an aviation Range—a navigational aid used by aircraft,
weather forecast for a specific airport. often to define aircraft routes or position.
TFR Temporary Flight Restriction—a restriction WX Weather—a common abbreviation used
to flight operations issued via NOTAM. when referring to aviation weather
Flight into a TFR can have dramatic conse- conditions.
quences usually involving law enforcement
or government agencies. Be careful to avoid
these. TYPES OF UAS
Just as there is a cornucopia of crewed aircraft, UAS
TSA Transportation Security Administra-
come in various sizes, shapes, and configurations.
tion—the government entity charged with
With few exceptions, at least in the near-term, most
the safety of transportation in the United

4 The Complete Remote Pilot

civilian UAS remote pilots will be operating small UAS
(sUAS), which are defined as those weighing less than
55 pounds. This text will focus on sUAS operations,
though most of the details outlined are also applicable
to larger UAS.
UAS are divided into two primary categories:
fixed-wing and rotor-wing. Fixed-wing UAS gener-
ate the lift necessary to fly from a wing, just like a
conventional aircraft. Rotor-wing UAS generate the
lift needed to go aloft through rotors (essentially pro-
pellers oriented horizontally to provide lift vertically),
just like a helicopter. Rotor-wing UAS are classified
by the number(s) of rotors that they utilize for flight; QUADCOPTER
for example, a UAS with a single rotor is considered
a helicopter, while one with several rotors is referred
to as a multicopter. A common configuration of four
vertical propellers/rotors is referred to as a quadcopter.
Figure 1-1 shows typical UAS configurations.
UAS use one of two types of engines to produce
power to fly—internal combustion or electric. Internal
combustion engines are typically used in larger UAS as
well as in hobby/model aircraft, while electric seems
to be the power source of choice for sUAS, particu-
larly for multicopters. Obviously, internal combustion
engines require some kind of fuel, a means to store
it, and a way to induce combustion. Electric engines
require a fuel of sorts, as well, in the form of batteries FIXED-WING
(or even solar panels). Because most of the various
components needed for sophisticated sUAS use elec-
tricity, and conserving size as well as weight is impor-
tant, batteries are the ideal choice for powering sUAS.

UAS COMPONENTS
Just like crewed aircraft, UAS are comprised of numer-
ous subsystems that allow for controlled flight as well
as more utilitarian functions such as providing navi-
gation and position information, speed and altitude
measurements, and the ability to take pictures and
videos. Figure 1-2 shows the “guts” of a typical quad-
copter. While internal components of sUAS vary in
regards to size and capability, in general the innards
of UAS are very similar. For example, all UAS have
flight controllers, systems to manipulate the engine(s),
a power source (battery or fuel), and a means to com-
municate with the ground station/controller, which
the remote pilot uses to fly the UAS.
HEXACOPTER
Figure 1-1. Typical UAS configurations.
(Halftermeyer; commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parrot_fleet_
of_Drones.jpg; CC BY-SA 4.0)

Lesson 1 Uncrewed Aircraft Systems 5

Flight Controller speed of the motor(s) to execute the commands of the
The brain of the UAS is the flight controller. This device remote pilot or autopilot. It also is used to manipulate
interprets the inputs from sensors and the remote other sensors, such as the onboard camera. If installed,
pilot’s controller commands. Onboard sensors often a GPS module can provide extremely accurate position
include GPS, an inertial measurement unit (IMU), an information that can be used to superimpose the UAS
altimeter, and a magnetometer (i.e., a fancy compass). position on a map (such as on a controller display or in
Additionally, some UAS have autopilots to allow for FPV). GPS is available just about anywhere on Earth as
autonomous navigation, which can be programmed long as the UAS has a clear “view” of the sky, thanks to
to fly pre-planned routes, circle objects, or follow the the constellation of satellites that constantly transmit
remote pilot. The flight controller manipulates the the data needed for the GPS module to determine its

A
A—GPS module
B—Electronic speed controller (ESC)
C—Receiver
D—Brushless motor
E—Propeller
F—Boom
G—Flight controller
H—Battery
I—Landing gear

G B

Figure 1-2. Typical quadcopter components.

6 The Complete Remote Pilot

location. Obviously, GPS will not work indoors, so Sophisticated, combustion-engine UAS may employ
remote pilots should familiarize themselves with onboard electric power generation through a genera-
any limitations to UAS use when GPS is not avail- tor or alternator. UAS batteries must be lightweight
able. Many UAS use GPS to stabilize their positions, and able to deliver enough power to operate the
making it very simple to fly and essentially allowing vehicle for a reasonable period of time; thus, they
for “hands off ” loitering. Some UAS can become less are generally high-capacity nickel-cadmium (NiCad)
stable when GPS is unavailable. Another useful fea- or lithium polymer (LiPo) types. LiPo batteries have
ture of GPS is that it allows a UAS to note the posi- gained popularity with sUAS because they are lighter,
tion where it launched and automatically return to have larger capacities, and can deliver higher discharge
this “home” location if commanded to do so or in rates. Unfortunately, LiPo batteries must be used with
abnormal situations (such as controller signal loss or caution because if damaged or mishandled, they can
getting too far from the controller transmitter). One explode or catch fire (see Chapter 10 for more details).
caveat is that the Return to Home function of most Batteries are marked with various numbers that
UAS is not aware of trees or buildings that may exist provide details about their capabilities. A LiPo battery
between the UAS’s current position and the remote cell has a nominal voltage of 3.7 volts (V). To increase
pilot. You do not need much imagination to under- capacity, multiple cells are combined inside a battery,
stand how that could ruin your day. When beyond and this will be indicated on its cover. For example, a
visual line-of-sight (BVLOS) operations are permit- 2S battery indicates that two cells are installed in series
ted, GPS can assist the remote pilot in flying the UAS (S) giving a total voltage of 7.4 V (3.7 V × 2). Electric
long distances from the launch point and in tracking motors are rated by kilovolts (kV), which translates to
specific routes. For example, a UAS operation could rotations per minute (RPM) per volt. More volts equals
include the UAS launching from a safe vantage point, higher motor speeds. Battery capacity is measured in
flying over a dangerous chemical leak, loitering, taking milliampere-hours (mAh), which can be thought of
pictures or video, maybe even using infrared or other as the size of the “fuel tank.” Capacities vary depend-
sophisticated sensors, and flying home—all with little ing on the manufacturer and UAS platform type. If a
or no input from the remote pilot. battery is marked with 5,000 mAh, this means that
the battery can provide one amp (A) for an hour for
Communications Components every 1,000 mAh (after all, a milliamp is 1/1000 of an
For the UAS to communicate with the ground station/ amp). Thus a 5,000 mAh battery can supply 1 A for
controller, it must have an antenna and a receiver. The five hours, 2 A for two and half hours (5,000 mAh ÷ 2
antenna may be obvious, appearing like a little pencil A = 2.5 hours; remember, 2 A = 2,000 mAh), 5 A for
or whip extending from the top (or other part) of the one hour, and so forth.
UAS, or it can be integrated into the structure of the Another number you will see on batteries is the
UAS. The receivers on most UAS are the types used on discharge capacity, denoted by the letter “C.” For
remote control (RC) aircraft, with different numbers example, 50C means that the discharge capability of
of channels based upon needs. (Channels are neces- the battery is 50 times the capacity in amps. Sup-
sary to send different messages to components, such pose we have a 5,000 mAh (i.e., 5 A) battery with a
as motors and cameras.) 50C discharge rating. In that case, it can sustain a
maximum continuous output of 250 A (50 × 5 A =
Batteries 250 A). Battery charge rate, also noted on the bat-
Both electric and internal combustion UAS utilize bat- tery, is rated in terms of “C.” Utilizing the same afore-
teries. For UAS with electric engines, the battery is the mentioned formula, if a 5,000 mAh battery has a 5C
primary source of power for the engine(s), flight con- charge rating, it can safely be charged at 25 A (5 × 5
troller, servos (if applicable; these move flight controls A capacity = 25 A).
or other parts), autopilot, and sensors. Some UAS have A battery monitor is often installed on a UAS to
a stand-alone camera with its own battery while on track the status of the battery, providing feedback to
others, the camera is powered by the primary onboard the remote pilot. The current battery capability is typi-
power source. On simple, internal-combustion UAS, cally displayed somewhere on the controller and/or
fuel is used to power the engine, but batteries are still causes the UAS to perform certain commands (e.g.,
used to power servos and other onboard components. return home) when the battery is low. As is evident

Lesson 1 Uncrewed Aircraft Systems 7

 Antenna

Elevator and
aileron
control stick

Throttle and
rudder
control stick

Rudder trim

Throttle trim Elevator trim Aileron trim

Figure 1-3. Controller. This configuration is the most commonly used setup. However, some controllers
allow for customization of switches and stick functions.
(Lucasbosch; commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FrSky_X9D_Taranis_plus_2.4_GHz_handheld_RC_transmitter.jpg; CC BY-SA 3.0)

from these descriptions, batteries are complicated to the frame (fuselage) of the UAS via motor mounts.
components of UAS, and further discussion is beyond The latest technology uses brushless motors, which
the scope of this book. It is wise for remote pilots to are quieter and more reliable than older motors that
become familiar with the various attributes and capa- employed brushes.
bilities of the batteries onboard their specific UAS. Fixed-wing UAS have very simple motor arrange-
ments, rotating propellers to either push air (when
Electronic Speed Controllers the propellers are mounted on the back of the UAS)
Electronic speed controllers (ESCs) for each electric or pull air (when mounted on the front). Multicopters
motor are connected to the flight controller. ESCs have more complex setups with multiple motors spin-
convert onboard direct current (DC) power to the ning propellers in different directions to counteract
alternating current (AC) used by UAS motors. They torque. Considering Newton’s third law—for every
also control the motor speed and direction. Each ESC action, there is an equal and opposite reaction—if all
is connected to the motor it controls. Motors attach propellers rotated in the same direction, it would be

8 The Complete Remote Pilot

problematic to control the UAS. Also, the propeller speed; pushing the stick to the left yaws the aircraft
rotation is arranged so that some propellers push and left, and pushing it right yaws the UAS to the right.
others pull. In a quadcopter, the propellers in the “front” When manipulating the right stick, pushing for-
of the UAS pull (also referred to as tractor propellers) ward will cause the UAS to move forward (multi-
and the ones at the rear push. Multicopters with more copter) or nose down (fixed-wing), and the opposite
motors become more intricate. Of course, a propeller occurs when the stick is pushed backward. Pushing the
that rotates in a clockwise direction cannot be the same right stick left or right will cause the aircraft to move
as one that rotates counterclockwise. Essentially, the or bank in the same direction as the stick is pushed.
propeller blade angles are reversed so that thrust (lift- Individual controllers may include various other
ing power) is appropriately generated. UAS manufac- extra buttons and controls. On some models, there
turers mark the propellers and motors to ensure they is a switch to change between control modes, which
are properly matched. For fixed-wing UAS, control typically include a more stable mode or modes for
comes from the movement of flight controls similar beginners and a less stable mode or modes for those
to crewed aircraft. These are electrically actuated by with more operating experience. A common feature
servos linked to the flight controller/receiver. is a “headless” mode, which allows the user to control
the aircraft without having to consider which way it is
Additional Component Options “facing” (i.e., the joystick on the controller will direct
UAS usually have some type of landing gear, which the UAS to the right, left, forward, or backward from
can be as simple as a skid or a pole, or more complex the user’s perspective, regardless of the UAS’s orienta-
involving wheels or the ability to retract (or both). tion). This may be helpful because without headless
Additional features may include a camera or other mode, when the aircraft is flying towards the remote
sensors. Simple UAS have cameras fixed to the body pilot, the left/right control inputs need to be reversed,
of the aircraft, giving them minimal utility since the because a stick input for a right bank/movement will
remote pilot must aim the aircraft appropriately to get cause the aircraft to move towards the remote pilot’s
the desired picture or video. Advanced UAS employ left (since the aircraft’s right is to the user’s left).
cameras that can be controlled by the operator via a Additional control features may allow for flying
gimbal motor and control unit, providing the ability with or without GPS inputs (if installed), although
to tilt the camera left and right, and perhaps up and flying with GPS inputs typically provides much more
down. The ideal installation includes a gimbal, which stability and the capability to fly “hands off ” the con-
is a stabilization feature that helps dampen vibration trols. Additional switches or controls may be available
effects and potentially keep the camera image level as to control the gimbal/camera, if installed. Some con-
the UAS maneuvers. Some cameras are integral parts trollers have status screens or even first-person view
of the UAS (i.e., provided by the manufacturer), while displays. It is also typical to have control “trim,” which
other UAS allow for the attachment of a user-provided allows for fine adjustments to the yaw and turning
camera or other sensor. controls in case the aircraft drifts when the remote
pilot releases the controls.
Controller
The controller serves as the interface between the COMMON USES OF SUAS
remote pilot and the UAS. Figure 1-3 shows an
Flying sUAS can certainly be a fun hobby. The advent
example controller. While controller features vary,
of first-person view (FPV) technology allows the user
they commonly all have two primary control “sticks.”
to be fully immersed in the aircraft. Also, sUAS pro-
These sticks control the motor(s) and movement of
vide a means to take photographs and videos from
the UAS. In the “standard” configuration (Mode 2),
perspectives not previously possible without spending
the left stick controls the motor (thrust) and the yaw
lots of money or becoming a crewed aircraft pilot.
(nose left/right) of the aircraft while the right stick
Even “drone” racing has caught on to the point that it
controls the pitch (nose up/down) and bank/roll (wing
is receiving sponsors and television coverage. In addi-
and side angles left/right) of the aircraft (Figure 1-4).
tion to the many fun things you can do with sUAS,
With the left stick, pushing it forward (up) increases
these devices have many practical applications, as well:
motor speed, and pulling it back decreases motor

Lesson 1 Uncrewed Aircraft Systems 9

 A YAW
Vertical axis
(directional stability)

PITCH
Lateral axis
(longitudinal stability)

ROLL
Longitudinal axis
(lateral stability)

B
RUDDER — YAW
Vertical axis
(directional stability)

ELEVATOR — PITCH
Lateral axis
(longitudinal stability)

AILERON — ROLL
Longitudinal axis
(lateral stability)

FIXED-WING PRIMARY AIRCRAFT AXIS OF

STICK / MOVEMENT CONTROL SURFACE MANEUVER ROTATION
Right / Left-Right Axis Aileron Roll Longitudinal
Right / Up-Down Axis Elevator Pitch Lateral
Left / Up-Down Axis Throttle Thrust —
Left / Left-Right Axis Rudder Yaw Vertical

Figure 1-4. Control inputs and axes for (A) multicopter and (B) fixed-wing UAS.

10 The Complete Remote Pilot

• Real estate agents are using sUAS to survey and • Firefighters use sUAS to monitor fires, track fire
photograph the properties they are selling. suppression processes, and even extinguish fires.
• Farmers are using these systems for precision agri- • Delivery of time-sensitive and consumer goods is
culture, allowing them to see which crops need increasingly being conducted with sUAS.
more water or fertilizer and even which crops are This is by no means an exhaustive list; many other
being weakened by pests. potential uses exist. Essentially, if you can imagine it,
• Search and rescue personnel use sUAS to find lost you can probably do it with an sUAS. The only real
hikers and missing animals. limitations are those imposed by aircraft performance
• Game wardens employ sUAS to protect endangered as well as federal, state, and local regulations.
species and track down poachers across the globe.
• Scientists use these systems to monitor the envi- SUMMARY
ronment, study animal life, and collect other types Now that you have been introduced to the basic
of data. sUAS terms, components, and uses, the next step is
• Companies deploy sUAS to inspect and monitor to explore the specifics of aeronautical knowledge with
their assets such as powerlines, plants, and trans- which remote pilots should be familiar. It would cer-
mission towers. tainly be much more fun to simply go fly our systems
• Security and law enforcement personnel utilize whenever and wherever we wanted, but this would
both fixed-wing and multicopter sUAS to provide not be a responsible way to operate. Just as we would
surveillance and monitoring to protect the public not hop in a car without learning the rules of the road,
or specific assets. signage, and basic safety practices, we cannot launch
• News crews are adopting sUAS to assist in aerial into the same airspace occupied by airliners full of
coverage and to provide unique aerial perspectives. people without learning the various particulars and
• Film makers also utilize sUAS for aerial views, pro- peculiarities of the environment.
viding amazing footage that otherwise would have
been impossible or would have required elaborate
equipment or crewed aircraft.

Lesson 1 Uncrewed Aircraft Systems 11

LESSON 1
Review Questions

1. The ________ is responsible for the operation 4. What is the nominal total voltage of a 3S LiPo
and safety of an sUAS. battery?
A—owner A—3.7V
B—operator B—3V
C—remote pilot-in-command C—11.1V

2. The concept of keeping an sUAS within visual 5. If your sUAS battery is rated at 7,500 mAh and
sight of the remote pilot-in-command is referred consumes an average of 30 A per hour, how long
to as will the battery last?
A—VLOS A—120 minutes
B—VSPIC B—30 minutes
C—UASVS C—15 minutes

3. An sUAS has a maximum weight of _________.

A—55 kg
B—55 lbs
C—55 oz

1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C, 5-C

Answers:

12 The Complete Remote Pilot

 LESSON 2

Regulations: Remote Pilot Certificate

sUAS Rating Privileges, Limitations,
and Flight Operations
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS Aeronautical Information Manual:
AND OTHER PROCEDURES Basic Flight Information and ATC
PUBLICATIONS Procedures (AIM)
As you progress with your pilot training, you will come The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) con-
across what will seem to be a never-ending series of tains information on a host of aviation subjects and
instructions, procedures, methods, restrictions and is an essential reference for flyers of both crewed and
advisories, and you will wonder how you will be able uncrewed aircraft. This list of chapter headings will give
to remember it all. You don’t have to. The Government you some idea of the extent of coverage. (For each, I’ve
Printing Office (GPO) distributes hundreds of publi- indicated in parentheses if it has low, medium, or high
cations on aviation subjects and you should become relevance to sUAS; note that no section is irrelevant).
familiar with what is available. All government pub- 1. Navigation Aids (low)
lications are available from the Government Printing 2. Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual
Office in Washington, D.C., and GPO bookstores in Aids (medium)
major cities, but you will find that your local pilot 3. Airspace (high)
supply store carries many of them. Private publish-
4. Air Traffic Control (high)
ers offer reprints that are more convenient to use and
considerably less expensive than the government 5. Air Traffic Procedures (high)
publications (but no less official). The ASA editions 6. Emergency Procedures (high)
of the Federal Aviation Regulations and Aeronauti- 7. Safety of Flight (high)
cal Information Manual are excellent examples. The 8. Medical Facts for Pilots (medium)
FAA publications are also available in electronic form, 9. Aeronautical Charts and Related Publications
which has the additional benefit of the search function (high)
(so you can search any single or multiple documents
10. Helicopter Operations (low)
for a specific word or topic). Many of these publica-
tions are available online. The web addresses in this Figure 2-1 is an example of the type of detailed infor-
book are only suggestions—there are many sources. mation on procedures available in the Aeronautical
You can find almost any FAA publication by going to Information Manual. The AIM also includes a Pilot/
faa.gov and typing the name of the desired publication Controller Glossary, so that you will know exactly
into the search window. Warning: Do not rely on the what the controller means when instructions are given
accuracy of FAA documentation provided by third (controllers have an identical glossary in the Air Traf-
parties for use on electronic devices. Those sources fic Control Handbook). The AIM is updated every two
are frequently found to be incomplete. Always refer years, with changes every six months, and is avail-
to the FAA website for the latest information. able by subscription from the Government Printing
Office. You will also find it for sale by ASA, combined

13
 Chapter 4: Air Traffic Control 4–3–2

Section 3 Airport Operations

4–3–1 General
Increased traffic congestion, aircraft in climb and
descent attitudes, and pilot preoccupation with
cockpit duties are some factors that increase the
hazardous accident potential near the airport.
The situation is further compounded when the
weather is marginal, that is, just meeting VFR re-
quirements. Pilots must be particularly alert when
operating in the vicinity of an airport. This section
defines some rules, practices, and procedures
that pilots should be familiar with and adhere to
for safe airport operations.

4–3–2 Airports with an Operating

Control Tower
a. When operating at an airport where traffic Note: This diagram is intended only to illustrate
control is being exercised by a control tower, pi- terminology used in identifying various compo-
lots are required to maintain two-way radio con- nents of a traffic pattern. It should not be used
tact with the tower while operating within the as a reference or guide on how to enter a traffic
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface area un- pattern.

Ch 4
less the tower authorizes otherwise. Initial callup c. The following terminology for the various
should be made about 15 miles from the airport. components of a traffic pattern has been adopted
Unless there is a good reason to leave the tower as standard for use by control towers and pilots
frequency before exiting the Class B, Class C, (See Figure 4-3-1):
and Class D surface areas, it is a good operat- 1. Upwind leg. A flight path parallel to the
ing practice to remain on the tower frequency for landing runway in the direction of landing.
the purpose of receiving traffic information. In the 2. Crosswind leg. A flight path at right an-
interest of reducing tower frequency congestion, gles to the landing runway off its takeoff end.
pilots are reminded that it is not necessary to re- 3. Downwind leg. A flight path parallel to
quest permission to leave the tower frequency the landing runway in the opposite direction of
once outside of Class B, Class C, and Class D landing.
surface areas. Not all airports with an operating 4. Base leg. A flight path at right angles to
control tower will have Class D airspace. These the landing runway off its approach end and ex-
airports do not have weather reporting which is tending from the downwind leg to the intersection
a requirement for surface based controlled air- of the extended runway centerline.
space, previously known as a control zone. The 5. Final approach. A flight path in the direc-
controlled airspace over these airports will nor- tion of landing along the extended runway center-
mally begin at 700 feet or 1,200 feet above ground line from the base leg to the runway.
level and can be determined from the visual aero- 6. Departure. The flight path which begins
nautical charts. Pilots are expected to use good after takeoff and continues straight ahead along
operating practices and communicate with the the extended runway centerline. The departure
control tower as described in this section. climb continues until reaching a point at least 1/2
b. When necessary, the tower controller will is- mile beyond the departure end of the runway and
sue clearances or other information for aircraft to within 300 feet of the traffic pattern altitude.
generally follow the desired flight path (traffic pat- d. Many towers are equipped with a tower radar
terns) when flying in Class B, Class C, and Class display. The radar uses are intended to enhance
D surface areas and the proper taxi routes when the effectiveness and efficiency of the local con-
operating on the ground. If not otherwise autho- trol, or tower, position. They are not intended to
rized or directed by the tower, pilots of fixed-wing provide radar services or benefits to pilots except
aircraft approaching to land must circle the airport as they may accrue through a more efficient tower
to the left. Pilots approaching to land in a helicop- operation. The four basic uses are:
ter must avoid the flow of fixed-wing traffic. How- 1. To determine an aircraft’s exact loca-
ever, in all instances, an appropriate clearance tion. This is accomplished by radar identifying
must be received from the tower before landing. the VFR aircraft through any of the techniques
available to a radar position, such as having the
aircraft squawk ident. Once identified, the air-
craft’s position and spatial relationship to other

ASA 721

Figure 2-1. Example from a page of the AIM.

-FARAIM2022.indb 721 6/23/21 8:16 AM

14 The Complete Remote Pilot

Figure 2-2. Federal Aviation Regulations in ASA’s FAR/AIM series.

with the Federal Aviation Regulations, at your pilot using the sUAS as a certificated remote pilot (i.e.,
supply store (Figure 2-2). ASA provides a free online commercial or other non-recreational use), or are you
Update (asa2fly.com/farupdate) to keep pilots current going to fly as a hobbyist (i.e., for recreational use)?
on changes in regulations and procedures. Under statutory exception for limited recreational
Every new edition of the AIM contains a list of operations of unmanned aircraft, the recreational use
changes since the previous edition, and there are of an unmanned aircraft is recreational use, Title 49 of
always many. Be very suspicious of information from the United States Code §44809. FAA Advisory Circu-
a copy of the AIM that is more than a year old, unless it lar 91-57B restates the statutory conditions to operate
contains at least one change. The AIM may be viewed under the exception and provides additional guidance
online at faa.gov/air_traffic/publications. on adhering to those conditions. If the operation does
not meet the conditions for an exception for limited
Federal Aviation Regulations recreational use, then you must adhere to the regula-
The FAA expects you to be familiar with all of the tions governed by Part 107.
Federal Aviation Regulations that apply to your flight
operations, but as you read through the regulations,
you should be able to distinguish between those that What is Recreational Flight?
are nice to know but do not affect your day-to-day Many people assume that a recreational flight is
flying, and those which you must know (e.g., basic not operated for a business or any form of com-
weather requirements or right-of-way rules). This pensation. However, that is not always the case.
lesson will discuss those regulations that require expla- Financial compensation, or the lack of it, is not
nation or illustration for complete understanding, but what determines if the flight is recreational or
all of Part 107 of the regulations apply to you when commercial. The following information can be
acting as a certificated remote pilot of sUAS. Before used to help you determine what rules you should
you say, “I can’t find it in the regs,” be sure that you be operating under. Remember, the default regu-
have checked all sources. Note also that the regula- lation for drones weighing under 55 pounds is
tions list things you cannot do—if a regulation does Part 107. The exception for recreational flyers
not prohibit something, it is permitted. A searchable only applies to flights that are purely for fun or
version of all of the regulations can be found on the personal enjoyment. When in doubt, fly under
FAA’s website.1 Part 107.2
Prior to flying, you must determine the purpose
of your planned activity. Simply, are you going to be
2. “Recreational Flyers & Modeler Community-Based Organization,”
1. “Regulations & Policies,” Federal Aviation Administration, United Federal Aviation Administration, United States Department of
States Department of Transportation, https://www.faa.gov/regula- Transportation, last modified January 5, 2022, https://www.faa.
tions_policies/. gov/uas/recreational_fliers/.

Lesson 2 Regulations 15
14 CFR Part 107—Small Unmanned • Control station means an interface used by the
Aircraft Systems remote pilot to control the flight path of the small
To use sUAS for commercial or other non-recreational unmanned aircraft.
missions and serve as the remote pilot-in-command • Corrective lenses mean spectacles or contact lenses.
(remote PIC), you must gain your Remote Pilot certi- • Declaration of compliance means a record submit-
fication, which requires a fair amount of aeronautical ted to the FAA that certifies the small unmanned
knowledge that, unless you are already a crewed air- aircraft conforms to the Category 2 or Category 3
craft pilot, will likely not be very familiar to you. Fur- requirements under subpart D of this part.
ther, in order to safely fly in the same skies as crewed • Small unmanned aircraft means an unmanned
aircraft (ranging from general aviation up to airlin- aircraft weighing less than 55 pounds on takeoff,
ers), you will need more subject matter proficiency including everything that is on board or otherwise
than just the minimum required to pass the written attached to the aircraft.
Remote Pilot Knowledge Exam. So welcome aspir- • Small unmanned aircraft system (small UAS) means
ing remote pilot (or curious current remote pilot)! a small unmanned aircraft and its associated ele-
The first task at hand, as is almost always the case in ments (including communication links and the
anything related to aviation, is to understand all the components that control the small unmanned
regulations associated with sUAS and your intended aircraft) that are required for the safe and efficient
use for them. operation of the small unmanned aircraft in the
Regulations covering non-recreational sUAS flying national airspace system.
can be found in 14 CFR Part 107. Part 107 is divided • Unmanned aircraft means an aircraft operated
into five subparts: (A) General, (B) Operating Rules, without the possibility of direct human interven-
(C) Remote Pilot Certification, (D) Operations Over tion from within or on the aircraft.
Human Beings, and (E) Waivers.
• Visual observer means a person who is designated
Part 107, Subpart A—General by the remote PIC to assist the remote PIC and the
14 CFR 107.1 Applicability. This part of the regu- person manipulating the flight controls of the small
lations sets the stage as to what is covered by Part UAS to see and avoid other air traffic or objects
107. Exceptions to this applicability include air car- aloft or on the ground.
rier operations, any aircraft subject to the provisions 14 CFR 107.5 Falsification, reproduction, or alter-
of 49 U.S.C. §44809 (recreational use), those with an ation. To summarize this section: Don’t mess with
exemption under Section 333 of Public Law 112-95 the FAA. Any fraudulent or intentional false reports/
or 49 U.S.C. §44807, and any operation that a person records to show compliance with Part 107, as well as
elects to conduct under Part 91 where an airworthi- any reproduction or alteration of certificates, ratings,
ness certificate has been issued. If you don’t know what authorizations, or reports under Part 107, can land you
Section 333 exemptions are, then they most likely don’t in hot water. If you do any of the aforementioned, you
apply to your operations. can be denied from applying for a Remote Pilot cer-
14 CFR 107.2 Applicability of certification pro- tificate or a certificate of waiver, have your certificate
cedures for products and articles. This simply or waiver suspended or revoked, or face civil penalty.
states that Part 21 of Title 14 does not apply to small 14 CFR 107.7 Inspection, testing, and demonstra-
unmanned aircraft systems operated under Part 107 tion of compliance. Any remote PIC (a remote pilot
unless the sUAS will be operating over human beings certificate holder responsible for and the final author-
in accordance with 14 CFR §107.140. ity as to the operation of the sUAS), owner, or person
14 CFR 107.3 Definitions. This section makes official manipulating the controls of an sUAS must, if asked
the definitions of certain terms that are used in the by the Administrator (i.e., the FAA), present their
rest of the regulations. It is important to note that if remote pilot certificate with sUAS rating and any other
anything in this section conflicts with definitions in document, record, or report required under Part 107.
14 CFR §1.1 (general definitions for all regulations), These same individuals are required, upon request, to
those found in Part 107 are “controlling”—i.e., the allow the Administrator to make any test or inspec-
ones you should use. tion to determine compliance with Part 107. This part

16 The Complete Remote Pilot

includes the requirement to allow the FAA to inspect Just like in crewed aircraft accidents, the National
the sUAS. Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), which is charged
14 CFR 107.9 Accident reporting. In order for the with investigating transportation accidents, may need
FAA to get a better sense of the actual level of safety to be involved: FAA reports are not a substitute for
that exists within sUAS flying, rather than relying only separate accident/incident reporting required by the
on forecasts and projections, it is important to report NTSB under 49 CFR §830.5.” According to the NTSB,
any accidents, per this regulation. It may sound scary an unmanned aircraft accident is defined in
to report an accident to the federal government, but 49 C.F.R. § 830.2 as an occurrence associated
such reports are not intended to be a means of enforce- with the operation of any public or civil
ment or penalty, but for information purposes. (That unmanned aircraft system that takes place
said, you should not be doing anything contrary to between the time that the system is activated
regulations, as you may be penalized.) So if something with the purpose of flight and the time that
bad happens, the remote PIC has 10 calendar days the system is deactivated at the conclusion of
after the event to file a report to the FAA. Not every its mission, in which: (1) Any person suffers
little thing has to be reported; in fact, only two condi- death or serious injury; or (2) The aircraft has
tions require such a report: (1) if someone received a maximum gross takeoff weight of 300 pounds
serious injury or anyone is knocked unconscious, and/ or greater and sustains substantial damage.3
or (2) there is damage to property (other than the An example of a public sUAS is one operated by a
sUAS), unless the cost of repair (including labor and government agency, while a civil sUAS is one operated
materials) does not exceed $500 or the fair market by a private individual or entity (used for non-hobby/
value to replace the property does not exceed $500 (if non-recreational purposes). The official definition of
determined to be a total loss). For example, let’s say substantial damage, as provided in 49 CFR §830.2, is
you’re out flying your $1,000 sUAS at a park and you
fly it into someone’s car. It causes around $500 in paint damage or failure which adversely affects the
damage. Do you have to report this as an accident? It structural strength, performance, or flight
depends. If the total cost of repair including labor is characteristics of the aircraft, and which would
$500 or less, no report is required. But if there were normally require major repair or replacement of
labor costs on top of the $500 in damages, then yes, it the affected component. Engine failure or damage
would need to be reported. You may be asking, “Wait, limited to an engine if only one engine fails or
but my drone is $1,000 and it’s ruined!” Remember is damaged, bent fairings or cowling, dented
that the cost of or damage to the sUAS is not a factor in skin, small punctured holes in the skin or fabric,
accident reporting. The FAA’s sUAS accident reporting ground damage to rotor or propeller blades, and
system can be found at faadronezone.faa.gov. damage to landing gear, wheels, tires, flaps, engine
Although the FAA does not specifically describe it accessories, brakes, or wingtips are not considered
in Part 107, the term “serious injury” does appear in ‘substantial damage’ for the purpose of this part.
other regulations and documents. This level of injury Immediate notification of the NTSB is required
is defined as “any injury which: (1) requires hospital- upon the occurrence of an accident, with a formal
ization for more than 48 hours, commencing within 7 report being filed no later than 10 days after the event.
days from the date an injury was received; (2) results So let’s say you’re flying your quadcopter sUAS
in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of to photograph the scenery at a beachfront location
fingers, toes, or nose); (3) causes severe hemorrhages, when one of the propellers shatters for no apparent
or nerve, muscle, or tendon damage; (4) involves any reason. Does this require NTSB notification? Techni-
internal organ; or (5) involves second- or third-degree cally the answer is no, because an sUAS is less than
burns, or any burns affecting more than 5 percent of 300 pounds. If you were flying a 300-pound UAS and
the body surface” (FAA Order 8020.16 and 49 CFR this type of propeller failure occurred, it would require
§830.2). notification. The NTSB does have the discretion to
It is critical to note that while the FAA requires
3. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), Office of Aviation
accident reports under the aforementioned circum- Safety, “Advisory to Operators of Civil Unmanned Aircraft Systems
stances, additional reporting may also be required. in the United States” (2016). Retrieved from www.ntsb.gov/investi-
gations/process/Documents/NTSB-Advisory-Drones.pdf

Lesson 2 Regulations 17
investigate what it views as non-safety critical occur- aforementioned certificated pilot who has the abil-
rences. What if your sUAS suffers an uncontrolled ity to immediately take over control as necessary.
fly-away and crashes into a bystander, breaking the The Administrator (i.e., FAA) may allow an airman
person’s arm. Do you have to tell the NTSB? Yes, this to operate a civil foreign sUAS, consistent with the
meets the definition of a serious injury, so you would appropriate international standards, without an FAA-
need to make the report. issued remote pilot certificate.
Additional parts of 49 CFR §830.5 apply to UAS 14 CFR 107.13 Registration. This section discusses
operations, including the following occurrences which the requirement to comply with 14 CFR §91.203 (a)
require notification of the NTSB:4 (2), which refers to the requirement to register your
• Flight control system malfunction or failure: For sUAS. Regardless of your purpose of flying (recre-
an uncrewed aircraft, a true “fly-away” would ational or not), any sUAS over 0.55 pounds must be
qualify. A lost link that behaves as expected does registered. You can register online at faadronezone.
not qualify. faa.gov.
• Inability of any required flight crewmember to 14 CFR 107.15 Condition for safe operation. The
perform normal flight duties as a result of injury FAA does not want remote pilots flying sUAS that are
or illness. Examples of required flight crewmem- not in a safe condition to fly. Before each flight, the
bers include the remote pilot, or visual observer, remote PIC must check/inspect the sUAS to ensure
if required by regulation. This does not include an it is fit to fly.
optional payload operator.
14 CFR 107.17 Medical condition. Although no med-
• Inflight fire, which is generally associated with ical exam is required to be a remote pilot, such as is
batteries. required to be a crewed aircraft pilot, the person who
• Aircraft collision in flight. is manipulating the controls of an sUAS cannot have
• More than $25,000 in damage to objects other than (or have reason to believe that they have) a physical
the aircraft. or mental condition that would interfere with the safe
• Damage to helicopter tail or main rotor blades, operation of the sUAS. The same standard applies to
including ground damage, that requires major the remote PIC, visual observer, or direct participant
repair or replacement of the blade(s). in the operation.
• An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have been 14 CFR 107.19 Remote Pilot in Command. The
involved in an accident. person designated as the remote PIC before and
It is important to note that no NTSB notification is during the flight of an sUAS is directly responsible
required for occurrences involving hobby/recreational for and is the final authority as to the operation. Addi-
use of UAS. tionally, this individual is responsible for ensuring
that the sUAS does not pose any hazard to people,
Part 107, Subpart B—Operating Rules aircraft, or property in the event of the loss of control
14 CFR 107.11 Applicability. This part doesn’t really of the aircraft; that the operation complies with all
tell us anything we don’t already know, which is that applicable regulations; and that they have the ability
the following operating rules apply to civil sUAS users to direct (control) the sUAS to ensure it complies with
covered under Part 107 (i.e., non-hobby/non-recre- the aforementioned and other parts of the regulations.
ational users). 14 CFR 107.21 In-flight emergency. During an
14 CFR 107.12 Requirement for a remote pilot cer- emergency (one that is urgent and requires immedi-
tificate with a small UAS rating. In order to manip- ate response), the remote PIC can deviate from any
ulate the controls of a sUAS, a person must have a rule as needed to deal with the emergency. Anyone
remote pilot certificate with a small UAS rating issued who deviates from regulations per the aforementioned
under Part 107 and be compliant with the require- caveat must, upon request, send a written report to the
ments under this part, or the person at the controls Administrator (FAA).
of the sUAS must be under the supervision of the 14 CFR 107.23 Hazardous operation. It should be no
surprise that no person may operate a sUAS carelessly
4. NTSB, “Advisory to Operators of Civil Unmanned Aircraft Systems
in the United States.” or recklessly in a way that could endanger people or

18 The Complete Remote Pilot

property. Also, objects cannot be dropped from sUAS training following April 6, 2021, as applicable under
in a way that endangers people or property. §107.65. This is to ensure the remote PIC is familiar
14 CFR 107.25 Operation from a moving vehicle with the changes to regulations surrounding operations
or aircraft. I know it sounds crazy. That’s why there at night that took effect in April 2021.)
is a regulation. No person can operate a sUAS from 14 CFR 107.31 Visual line of sight aircraft opera-
a moving aircraft. You cannot operate an sUAS from tion. At all times during flight, the remote PIC and the
a moving land or water vehicle, unless you are in a person manipulating the controls of the sUAS (if not
sparsely populated area (e.g., the middle of nowhere) the same person) or the visual observer must be able
and the aircraft is not transporting property for com- to determine the location of the sUAS; determine its
pensation or hire. attitude, altitude, and direction of flight; and ensure
14 CFR 107.27 Alcohol or drugs. The person manipu- it is not endangering persons or property. Also, the
lating the controls of an sUAS, the remote PIC, and/or applicable individual(s) must be able to monitor the
the visual observer must comply with 14 CFR §91.17 airspace for other air traffic or hazards. This situa-
and §91.19. While much of §91.17 relates specifically tional awareness must be maintained through line-of-
to crewed aircraft, the following standards clearly also sight that is unaided by anything other than corrective
apply to sUAS: No person may act or attempt to act lenses.
as any of the previously mentioned crewmembers 14 CFR 107.33 Visual observer. If used, the visual
within eight hours of drinking alcoholic beverages, observer must be in communication with the remote
while under the influence of alcohol, while using any PIC and the person manipulating the controls of the
drugs that may impair safe use of the aircraft, or while sUAS (if different). The remote PIC must ensure that
having a 0.04 or more blood or breath alcohol concen- the visual observer can see the sUAS and is able to
tration. This rule also implies that law enforcement determine the necessary flight status information
may be able to request a sobriety test similar to those required in Section 107.31. The key is that all partici-
issued to suspected drunk drivers. Not surprisingly, pants are communicating to maintain awareness of the
you cannot transport narcotic drugs, marihuana, and sUAS position via direct observation and to vigilantly
depressant or stimulant drugs/substances controlled monitor the local area for any and all hazards.
in federal or state statutes via sUAS, as specified by 14 14 CFR 107.35 Operation of multiple small
CFR §91.19 (unless, of course, you are authorized to unmanned aircraft. No person can be a remote PIC
do so per the rule, but I don’t recommend asking for or visual observer for more than one sUAS at any
a waiver for that). given time.
14 CFR 107.29 Operation at night. In short, you 14 CFR 107.36 Carriage of hazardous material. The
cannot operate your sUAS at night or during the government does not want sUAS transporting hazard-
period of civil twilight unless the unmanned aircraft ous material; thus, sUAS are prohibited from carrying
is operating with lighted anti-collision lights. These things defined as hazardous in 49 CFR §171.8. The
lights must be visible for 3 statute miles and have a term hazardous material “includes hazardous sub-
flash rate sufficient to avoid a collision. In the inter- stances, hazardous wastes, marine pollutants, elevated
est of operational safety, you may, as the remote PIC, temperature materials, materials designated as haz-
reduce the intensity of the anti-collision lights, but at ardous in the Hazardous Materials Table (see 49 CFR
no time may you extinguish the lights. In the contigu- 172.101), and materials that meet the defining criteria
ous United States, evening civil twilight is the period for hazard classes and divisions in part 173 of this
from sunset until 30 minutes after sunset, and morn- subchapter.”6 Interestingly, lithium-type batteries, such
ing civil twilight is the period beginning 30 minutes as those used to power many sUAS, are considered
prior to sunrise until sunrise. The definition of “civil hazardous material. However, if you’re transporting
twilight” can get tricky for Alaska; you will need to an sUAS, the battery is part of the system, so you’re
check The Air Almanac.5 not considered to technically be “carrying” it, as you
(Note: To operate at night, the remote PIC must would be if transporting a lithium battery for delivery
have completed an initial knowledge test or recurrency to a customer or remote location.
5. “Almanacs and Other Publications,” U.S. Naval Observatory,
https://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/astronomical-applications/publi- 6. Definitions and Abbreviations, 49 CFR §171.8
cations.

Lesson 2 Regulations 19
14 CFR 107.37 Operation near aircraft; right-of-way near police buildings, at television stations, at hospi-
rules. The simplest way to remember this rule is that tals, or at local businesses just for convenience. One of
sUAS must give way to any and all aircraft, airborne the best resources to determine what types of facilities
vehicle, and launch/recovery vehicles. Yielding right are near your operation is the FAA’s B4UFLY applica-
of way also means you cannot fly your sUAS over, tion, and you can also refer to local aviation charts.
under, or ahead of the aforementioned vehicles unless 14 CFR 107.45 Operation in prohibited or restricted
the sUAS is well clear of them. You may never oper- areas. Remote pilots are not allowed to operate sUAS
ate an sUAS so close to another aircraft that it creates in prohibited or restricted airspace without permis-
the potential for a collision. Considering it is hard to sion from the “owner” of the airspace (i.e., the using
judge distances between sUAS and other objects that or controlling agency). Prohibited areas are typically
are aloft, it is best to remain well clear of any local traf- designated over very sensitive locations such as the
fic. As the regulation is written, this means you must White House and Camp David. Sorry, you’re not likely
also give way to other sUAS and avoid flying close to get permission from the government to snap photos
enough to other sUAS to create a collision hazard. of the president. Restricted areas usually have some
14 CFR 107.39 Operation over human beings. The sort of military activity or national security interest
operation of a small unmanned aircraft over human within them. Again, it’s unlikely you will get permis-
beings is not permitted unless certain conditions are sion to enter, but it is important to note that some
met. The individual or individuals must be directly locations are designated “restricted” only at specific
participating in the operation (e.g., visual observer). days and times. When they are not active, you are per-
The individual or individuals not part of the opera- mitted to enter without prior notification (although
tion must be under a covered structure or enclosed in it is very wise to call anyway, in case the schedule has
a stationary vehicle, providing them protection from changed). For information about the dimensions,
a falling small unmanned aircraft. In addition, the time frames (if applicable), and contact information
small unmanned aircraft may be operated over human for restricted airspace, refer to aeronautical charts or
beings if the operation being conducted meets one of call Flight Service (FSS).
the requirements for operational categories listed in 14 CFR 107.47 Flight restrictions in the proximity of
Subpart D of Part 107. There are four of these catego- certain areas designated by Notice to Air Missions.
ries, and we will discuss each of them in depth later This part states that the remote PIC must comply
in this section under Part 107, Subpart D—Operations with 14 CFR §§91.137–145 and §99.7. Simply, sUAS
Over Human Beings. operators must comply with restrictions put forth via
14 CFR 107.41 Operation in certain airspace. No Notices to Air Missions (NOTAMs). These may be
person can operate an sUAS in what is referred to issued in the vicinity of disaster/hazard areas, in prox-
as a controlled airspace (Class B, C, D, or surface- imity to the president or other parties, and near space
based Class E) without prior authorization from air flight operations, aerial demonstrations, and major
traffic control. It is unlikely you will be granted per- sporting events. Additionally, emergency traffic rules
mission to operate in these types of airspace with- may be put into place, such as the grounding of all air
out going through a formal airspace waiver process. traffic after the 9/11 attacks, or during extreme atmo-
You can apply for an airspace waiver at faa.gov/uas/ spheric pressure conditions (e.g., very high barometric
request_waiver. Thus, Part 107 users are essentially pressure). Examples of where you will be restricted
restricted to uncontrolled (Class G) airspace. There from operating per NOTAMs include the Super
are some exceptions to this in which you may enter Bowl, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, air shows, and
Class E airspace not associated with an airport (i.e., rocket launches. It is critical that remote pilots, just
not surface-based Class E) without notifying air traffic like crewed pilots, check for all possible NOTAMs or
control and, of course, users can petition for a waiver any other flight restrictions prior to operations. There
of this part of the rule. are also special security instructions for operations
14 CFR 107.43 Operation in the vicinity of airports. near what are called Air Defense Identification Zones
Remote pilots must avoid interfering with operations (ADIZs) or Defense Areas. If you are operating near
and traffic patterns at any airport, heliport, or seaplane these areas, be sure to comply with any and all restric-
base. In cities, heliports may be everywhere—on or tions or instructions. ADIZ are located near the edge

20 The Complete Remote Pilot

of U.S. airspace off the East and West Coasts as well as canyon ridge. If you fly your sUAS out over the canyon,
along the border with Mexico. ADIZs also surround you may suddenly be more than 400 feet AGL, but
coastal Alaska, Hawaii, and some other U.S. territories. if you were to drop the aircraft to 400 feet AGL you
14 CFR 107.49 Preflight familiarization, inspec- may no longer have it in your line of sight. In another
tion, and actions for aircraft operation. Before example, if you are operating within 400 feet of a struc-
each flight, the remote PIC must evaluate the surface ture and go up to 400 feet above the highest point on
and air operating environments to include assess- the structure, it is also possible that your sUAS could
ing them for potential risks to persons and property. end up in Class E airspace (which usually starts at 700
The remote PIC must check local weather conditions or 1,200 feet AGL depending on the location). In addi-
(which requires more than simply looking out the tion, the further the sUAS gets from you and/or your
window), local airspace (to determine the type of air- visual observer (if applicable), it becomes increasingly
space operating in), any/all applicable flight restric- tough to judge when you are 500 feet below or 2,000
tions (e.g., NOTAMs), location of persons or property feet horizontally from clouds. Use excess caution and
on the surface (bystanders, cars, children, dogs, etc.), stay well clear of all clouds and areas of reduced vis-
and any ground hazards (such as powerlines). The ibility. It is best to think these things through before
remote PIC must also ensure all persons participat- going flying.
ing in the operation of the sUAS are informed about Part 107, Subpart C — Remote Pilot
operating conditions, emergency procedures, con- Certification
tingency procedures, roles and responsibilities, and
14 CFR 107.52 ATC transponder equipment pro-
hazards. The remote PIC must confirm that all con-
hibition. This section just states that unless you have
trol links between the ground control station and the
permission from the FAA, your sUAS should not have
sUAS are working adequately. Also, the sUAS should
an operating transponder.
have enough power (electric or gas) for the intended
length of operation. Lastly, the RPIC must ensure that 14 CFR 107.53 Automatic Dependent Surveillance–
any object that is attached or carried by the sUAS Broadcast (ADS-B) out prohibition. This section
does not negatively affect the flight characteristics states that unless you have permission from the FAA,
or controllability of the aircraft and that all items are your sUAS should not have an operating ADS-B Out
securely connected so as to not inadvertently become (transmitting) device.
a falling object. 14 CFR 107.56 Applicability. This subpart of the rule
14 CFR 107.51 Operating limitations for small applies to the requirements to be issued a remote pilot
unmanned aircraft. The remote PIC and the person certificate with an sUAS rating.
manipulating the controls of an sUAS (if different) 14 CFR 107.57 Offenses involving alcohol or drugs.
must comply with the following operational limi- If you get convicted of any federal or state statute
tations: a maximum groundspeed of 87 knots (100 related to drug dealing, you may be subject to denial
mph); a maximum altitude of 400 feet AGL (unless of an application for a remote pilot certificate with
within 400 feet of a structure, then no higher than 400 sUAS rating for up to one year after the date of the final
feet above the structure’s highest point); a minimum conviction, and if you already have such certification,
flight visibility of 3 statute miles as observed at the it may be suspended or revoked. If you are convicted
ground station; and operations closer than 500 feet of violating the regulations relating to drugs and alco-
below and 2,000 feet horizontally from any cloud. For hol spelled out in 14 CFR §91.17(a) or §91.19(a), you
the purposes of this rule, flight visibility is defined may be subject to the same aforementioned admon-
as the average slant distance from the control station ishments (see above description of 14 CFR §107.27).
(since the sUAS is most likely viewed from the ground)
14 CFR 107.59 Refusal to submit to an alcohol test
that prominent unlighted objects during the day and
or to furnish test results. If law enforcement or the
prominent lighted objects during the night may be
administrator (FAA) want to test you for alcohol in
seen and identified.
your system and you refuse or will not release results
This rule creates some “interesting” situations that
to the asking party, you may be subject to losing your
must be considered. For example, let’s say that you
right to apply for a remote pilot certificate with sUAS
have set up your ground station close to the top of a

Lesson 2 Regulations 21
rating. If you hold one already, the certificate may be certificate within that time frame. The temporary cer-
suspended or revoked. tificate expires on the expiration date shown on the
14 CFR 107.61 Eligibility. In order to be eligible for certificate, upon receipt of the permanent certificate,
the remote pilot certificate, a person must be at least 16 or upon notice of its denial or revocation.
years old; be able to read, speak, and understand Eng- 14 CFR 107.65 Aeronautical knowledge recency. To
lish; not know or have reason to know that they have exercise the privileges of remote PIC, you must have
a physical or mental condition that would interfere received initial or recurrency training within the previ-
with sUAS operations; and demonstrate aeronautical ous 24 calendar months. This is accomplished through
knowledge necessary to operate sUAS. The proficiency either an initial remote pilot aeronautical knowledge
in aeronautical knowledge can be satisfied either by (1) (UAG) test or by completing an FAA-approved sUAS
taking the initial aeronautical knowledge test (Remote recurrent training course if you already hold a remote
Pilot Knowledge Test [Unmanned Aircraft General, or pilot certificate. If you hold a crewed aircraft pilot cer-
UAG]), or (2) if you hold a pilot certificate (other than tification under Part 61, you can use a flight review,
student pilot) issued under 14 CFR Part 61, by meeting initial or recurrent training course, or other means
the flight review requirements in 14 CFR §61.56 and acceptable to the Administrator in lieu of the tests
completing an initial training course that is acceptable mentioned earlier.
to the Administrator (currently offered by the FAA 14 CFR 107.67 Knowledge tests: General procedures
online: faasafety.gov). and passing grades. In order to take knowledge tests,
14 CFR 107.63 Issuance of a remote pilot certificate you will need to submit proper identification, which
with a small UAS rating. In order to get your remote must include a photograph, your signature, date of
pilot certificate with sUAS rating, you must submit birth, and a permanent mailing address. Government-
an application that includes your passing airman issued IDs are generally acceptable for the purposes
knowledge test report, or if you already hold a pilot of this rule. The minimum passing grade is specified
certificate, you must show evidence of meeting the by the Administrator; it is currently 70% for the UAG.
requirements outlined in §107.61 to a Flight Standard 14 CFR 107.69 Knowledge tests: Cheating or other
District Office (FSDO), designated pilot examiner, an unauthorized conduct. In sum, this rule tells you not
airman certification representative at a flight school, to cheat or participate in other unauthorized conduct
a certificated flight instructor, or other person autho- while taking your UAG test. Specifically, you cannot:
rized by the Administrator. Current pilots must pres- copy or remove any test; give a copy or receive a copy
ent identification and a logbook endorsement showing of a test; give or receive help during the test; take a test
compliance with the flight review requirements speci- for someone else; pretend to be someone else when
fied in 14 CFR §61.56. taking the test; use any unauthorized material or aid
The FAA has eliminated much of the paperwork when taking the test; or intentionally participate or be
in keeping track of pilots and flight time by institut- associated with the previous activities. If you violate
ing the Integrated Airman Certification and/or Rating any of these prohibitions, you will be prohibited from
Application (IACRA). This system has essentially all applying for any certificate, rating, or authorization
but replaced paper applications. You will need to sign and from applying for or taking any tests for one year
up for an account and follow the instructions to secure following the wrongful act. If you cheat, you may also
your remote pilot certificate once you have completed have any certificate or rating you already hold sus-
the necessary test or training. You will receive an FAA pended or revoked.
Tracking Number; write it in your logbook or some-
where where it can’t be lost—you will need it. The nice 14 CFR 107.71 Retesting after failure. If you fail the
thing about this system is that, after passing the UAG UAG test, you have to wait 14 calendar days prior to
test, you can link your score results to your IACRA retaking it. (But this shouldn’t happen after reading
application and immediately receive your temporary this book, right?)
remote pilot certificate. 14 CFR 107.73 Knowledge and training. Your ini-
14 CFR 107.64 Temporary certificate. A temporary tial knowledge test (UAG) and recurrent training will
remote pilot certificate with sUAS rating is valid for require you to know the ins and outs of the follow-
up to 120 days. You should receive your permanent ing subjects: regulations, airspace classification and

22 The Complete Remote Pilot

operating requirements, aviation weather sources and back, but you will have to start over with the require-
effects of weather, loading, emergency procedures, ments of Part 107 (i.e., take the UAG test again).
crew resource management (CRM), radio communi-
cation procedures, aircraft performance, physiologi- Part 107, Subpart D—Operations Over
cal effects of drugs and alcohol, aeronautical decision Human Beings
making (ADM) and judgment, airport operations, The operation of a civil small unmanned aircraft
maintenance, preflight inspection procedures, and (sUA) is allowed over people if the sUA is in accor-
operation at night. dance with one of the 4 categories of operations listed
While some of these topics are intuitive even to in subpart D. Each category will outline specific opera-
the non-aviator, if you are not already a pilot, many tional restrictions and eligibility requirements for any
of these details can be rather foreign concepts, and operation over a person, which the remote pilot-in-
thus some study is required. Do not underestimate the command must adhere to, except as noted in 14 CFR
complexity of the knowledge and training required to §107.39 and §107.145. These categories were created
hold a remote pilot certificate. Moreover, to stay out based on significant research into the risk associated
of trouble with the FAA and local law enforcement, it with sUA of various sizes and the potential they have
is best to be well-versed in the knowledge relating to to cause damage or bodily harm. It is critical to adhere
sUAS operations. to these guidelines to avoid unnecessary risks to indi-
viduals on the ground. For example, a DJI Phantom
14 CFR 107.74 Small unmanned aircraft system
quadcopter that weighs 1.2 kilograms (just over 2.5
training. Crewed aircraft pilots who hold a certificate
pounds) that falls from 200 feet can impart over 7,000
issued under 14 CFR Part 61 (other than a student
newtons of force. To put this in perspective, it is esti-
pilot certificate) are still required to have training on
mated that a force of 2,300 newtons is enough to crush
specific subjects specifically relating to unmanned air-
a human skull even when protected by a helmet.
craft systems to include: regulations, weather, loading,
The most straightforward operation is Category 1,
emergency procedures, crew resource management
which is outlined in §107.110. For the operation of
(CRM), performance, maintenance, preflight inspec-
an sUA over human beings, the remote pilot-in-com-
tion, and operation at night. This list is shorter than
mand must adhere to the following requirements:
that of §107.73 mainly because a certificated pilot has
already been trained on many of the subjects listed for • The sUA must weigh less than 0.55 pounds on take-
initial sUAS training. off and throughout the duration of the flight; this
includes everything that is on board or attached
14 CFR 107.77 Change of name or address. If you
to the aircraft.
change your name (e.g., perhaps you get married or
want to change your name to Wilbur Wright), you • The sUA cannot contain any exposed rotating parts
need to tell the FAA via an application to change the that could lacerate skin upon impact.
name on your certificate. This application should be • The operation must meet the requirements of
accompanied by your certificate and a copy of the legal either 14 CFR §89.110 or §89.115(a) pertaining to
document authorizing the name change (court docu- standard and alternative remote identification of
ment or marriage certificate/license). If you change unmanned aircraft.
your address, you must let the FAA know within 30 As we get into Category 2 and 3 operations, the regula-
days of the date of the change. The address and web- tions become more complex and are divided into two
site portal information to make this change are found primary regulatory sections, Operating Requirements
under paragraph (c) of this section of the rules. and Eligibility of small unmanned aircraft and other
14 CFR 107.79 Voluntary surrender of certificate. applicant requirements. One of the main factors for
You may voluntarily surrender your remote pilot operating under Category 2 or 3 is establishing a means
certificate for cancellation. Perhaps you never plan of compliance. This is a detailed design standard that,
to use it again, or the FAA, after you do something if met, accomplishes the safety intent of the regulation
you weren’t supposed to, asks you to surrender it. The showing compliance with the regulatory requirements.
proper phraseology to communicate this to the FAA Category 2 operations are prescribed under 14 CFR
is in paragraph (b) of this rule. You can always get it §107.115 and §107.120. Category 3 operations are pre-
scribed under §107.125 and §107.130.

Lesson 2 Regulations 23
 One of the main differences in Category 4 opera- • Required information—an applicant must submit
tions is that the sUA is required to have an airworthi- a detailed description of the means of compliance
ness certificate issued under Part 21. This requirement and an explanation of how they will be applied to
makes for more stringent regulations concerning demonstrate how the small unmanned aircraft
maintenance and recordkeeping of maintenance meets the requirements for Category 2 or Category
performed on the sUA. The regulations pertaining to 3 operations.
Category 4 operations can be found under §107.140. • FAA acceptance—the FAA will review the applica-
14 CFR §107.145 provides the regulatory guidance tion and notify the applicant that it has accepted
for operations over moving vehicles with a person the means of compliance.
located inside. This requires the sUA be operating • Rescission—a means of compliance is subject to
under one of the four categories of operations listed ongoing review by the Administrator and may be
in Subpart D. rescinded if it does not meet the requirements; if
For Category 1, Category 2, or Category 3, the oper- rescinded, the Administrator will publish a notice
ation being conducted must adhere to the following: of rescission in the Federal Register.
1. The sUA must remain within or over a closed- • Inapplicability—14 CFR Part 13, subpart D, does
or restricted-access site, and all human beings not apply to the procedures of establishment of
located inside a moving vehicle within the closed- compliance in 14 CFR §107.155(a).
or restricted-access site must be on notice that a
Once a means of compliance is accepted by the
small unmanned aircraft may fly over them; or
FAA, the applicant per 14 CFR §107.160 must then
2. The sUA must not maintain sustained flight over submit a declaration of compliance back to the FAA.
moving vehicles. It is not until the FAA has accepted the declaration
For a Category 4 operation, the small unmanned air- of compliance that the applicant has met the require-
craft must adhere to the following: ments of §107.120(a) for Category 2 and §107.130(a)
for Category 3 operations. The declaration of compli-
1. Have an airworthiness certificate issued under
ance must be retained for a period of time and made
part 21 of this chapter.
available to the Administrator upon request.
2. Be operated in accordance with the operat-
ing limitations specified in the approved flight Part 107, Subpart E—Waivers
manual or as otherwise specified by the FAA The FAA will issue a certificate of waiver to any regu-
Administrator. The operating limitations must lation specified under 14 CFR Part 205 on a case-by-
not prohibit operations over human beings case basis. Waivers are official documents issued by
located inside moving vehicles. the FAA that approve certain operations of an aircraft
The regulations allow for the variable configura- outside the limitations of a regulation. Prior to oper-
tion of small unmanned aircraft systems. This means ating outside of the rules of Part 107, you must first
the sUA can be eligible for more than one of the cat- apply for a waiver at faadronezone.faa.gov. The FAA
egories of operation over human beings, as long as uses performance-based standards for determining
a remote pilot-in-command cannot inadvertently if it will grant a waiver, so you are well-advised to
switch between modes of configurations. For example, thoroughly read the instructions for completing such
you cannot be airborne and be allowed to go from con- a request. If the FAA requires additional information
ducting Category 1 operations to Category 3 opera- about your application for waiver/authorization, you
tions with the flip of a switch. will need to promptly respond.
The above section briefly discussed the require- Below is a list of regulations subject to waiver under
ment for establishing a means of compliance for Cat- Part 107.
egory 2 and 3 operations. 14 CFR §107.155, Means of • 107.25—Operation from a moving vehicle or air-
Compliance, outlines the process and steps involved craft. However, no waiver of this provision will be
in establishing compliance as summarized below. issued to allow the carriage of property of another
• Establishment of compliance—the means of com- by aircraft for compensation or hire.
pliance must consist of test, analysis, or inspection. • 107.29(a)(2) and (b)—Anti-collision light required
for operations at night and during periods of civil
twilight.

24 The Complete Remote Pilot

 • 107.31—Visual line of sight aircraft operation. • Awareness of where pilots can and cannot fly.
However, no waiver of this provision will be issued • Air traffic control professionals with visibility into
to allow the carriage of property of another by air- where and when drones are operating.
craft for compensation or hire.
LAANC requests are routed through the FAA UAS
• 107.33—Visual observer. Data Exchange and are checked using resources such
• 107.35—Operation of multiple small unmanned as UAS facility maps, Special Use Airspace data, air-
aircraft. ports and airspace classes, Temporary Flight Restric-
• 107.37(a)—Yielding the right of way. tions (TFRs), and Notices to Air Missions (NOTAMs)
• 107.39—Operation over human beings. (see Figure 2-3). If approved, pilots can receive their
• 107.41—Operation in certain airspace. authorization in near real-time. LAANC authoriza-
tions are available to Part 107 and recreational users
• 107.51—Operating limitations for small unmanned
up to an altitude of 400 feet, while only those operat-
aircraft.
ing under Part 107 can apply for authorization at and
• 107.145—Operations over moving vehicles. above 400 feet.
First responders and organizations responding
to natural disasters may be eligible for an expedited FAA Airspace Data
waiver through the Special Government Interest (SGI)
TFRs
process. If you are conducting one of the below oper- NOTAMs
ations, you can apply for a waiver through the SGI Facility Maps
process. This assumes you are a current Remote Pilot
with a certificate or an existing Certificate of Waiver FAA’s UAS
Data Exchange
or Authorization (COA).
• Firefighting
• Search and rescue
• Law enforcement
• Utility or other critical infrastructure restoration
Drone Users UAS Service Suppliers FAA Air Traffic
• Damage assessments supporting disaster recovery-
related insurance claims Figure 2-3. FAA’s UAS Data Exchange and the Low
Altitude Authorization and Notification Capability
• Media coverage providing crucial information to (LAANC).
the public (FAA UAS Data Exchange [LAANC], faa.gov/uas/programs_part-
nerships/data_exchange/)
Part 107 Airspace Authorizations
In order to facilitate timely and flexible UAS opera-
tions in controlled airspace (e.g., Class B, C, D, E), Unless deemed necessary within the authorization,
the FAA started the Low Altitude Authorization and remote pilots are not required to contact the control
Notification Capability (LAANC) program. LAANC tower prior to flight.
is a collaboration between the FAA and the private It is important to note that participation in LAANC
sector to provide UAS operators a means of request- does not eliminate the need for pilots to check
ing authorization to operate in airspace that otherwise NOTAMs, check weather conditions, and abide by
would exclude such operations. Prior to LAANC, an all airspace restrictions. LAANC provides authoriza-
operator would have to seek permission via means that tions only to a specific airspace location.
could take days or weeks to receive. According to the LAANC is currently available at just over 700 air-
FAA,7 LAANC provides: port locations. If LAANC is not available at a specific
location, pilots must request authorization manually
• Drone pilots with access to controlled airspace at through the FAA’s Drone Zone website.
or below 400 feet.

7. “UAS Data Exchange (LAANC),” Federal Aviation Administration,

U.S. Department of Transportation, last modified January 19, 2022,
https://www.faa.gov/uas/programs_partnerships/data_exchange/.

Lesson 2 Regulations 25
State, County, and Local Aviation restrictions, FAA has regulatory authority
Regulations and Legislation over matters pertaining to aviation safety.8
Time for a Latin lesson. Do you know what the phrase The administration goes on to explicitly note how it
ignorantia juris neminem excusat means? This roughly is that it has absolute statutory authority:
translates to “ignorance of the law is not an excuse.” Substantial air safety issues are raised when
This legal concept infers that just because you did state or local governments attempt to regulate
not know there was a state or local law, ordinance, the operation or flight of aircraft. If one or two
or other restriction against operating sUAS at your municipalities enacted ordinances regulating UAS
location does not mean you are excused of any crimes in the navigable airspace and a significant number
or violations. Cities, states, and counties are jumping of municipalities followed suit, fractionalized
on the regulation bandwagon and passing a variety control of the navigable airspace could result. In
of different types of rules, some rather strict (such turn, this ‘patchwork quilt’ of differing restrictions
as “No Drone Zones”), while others are aimed at law could severely limit the flexibility of FAA in
enforcement (e.g., no armed drones, or police need a controlling the airspace and flight patterns, and
search warrant to surveil an individual). For exam- ensuring safety and an efficient air traffic flow. A
ple, Berkley, California, passed an ordinance making navigable airspace free from inconsistent state and
the city a “No Drone Zone.” In Indiana, a recent bill local restrictions is essential to the maintenance
submitted to the local legislature for consideration of a safe and sound air transportation system.9
put restrictions on the use of UAS to scout game for So what does this all mean? Technically, there are
hunters. Such restrictions are truly all over the place instances when state or local laws may conflict with the
both in terms of the subjects of the restrictions and precedent of “unrestricted airspace” and thus would
the locations scattered across the country. For more not likely stand up in court if challenged. But as you
information about state and local rules and legislation, are likely aware, lawyers are very expensive to hire. So
visit the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems even if a local law may be subject to the Supremacy
International (AUVSI) or National Conference of State Clause, it is probably not in your best interest to test it
Legislatures (NCSL) websites. yourself. Local law enforcement probably won’t enjoy
Just when you begin to understand the complexity a law lesson from someone they think is committing
of the airspace in which you may operate your system, a crime or violating an ordinance. It is best to comply
it gets even more dizzying. If you aren’t too familiar with whatever exists until it is challenged. One way to
with how jurisdiction works in terms of the federal, deal with the incovenience is to contact the FAA Office
state, and local governments, understanding the basics of the Chief Counsel or a FAA Regional Counsel office
will be helpful. Essentially, federal trumps all others; and let them know about the restriction. Additionally,
this is known as the “Supremacy Clause” of the U.S. it’s not a bad idea to carbon copy the letter to your
Constitution (Article VI, Clause 2). Likewise, if there state and local representatives. We want to be good
is a disconnect between state and local laws, the same representatives of the growing sUAS market.
hierarchy often applies and the state law trumps the
local laws—although this is not as absolute as at the Privacy Issues
federal level (i.e., there are exceptions). Interestingly, One of the biggest public concerns about sUAS relates
in 2015, the FAA released a document concerning to privacy. Many worry that drones will soon be flying
non-federal regulations of airspace and UAS. The FAA all over the place, including hovering outside bedroom
stated that it has the authority to supersede any state windows and intruding on backyard barbecues. The
or local rules, regulations, ordinances, etc.: FAA has clearly stated that they do not regulate privacy
A consistent regulatory system for aircraft in terms of sUAS use. However, they do advocate the
and use of airspace has the broader effect of adoption of voluntary privacy best practices, which
ensuring the highest level of safety for all aviation
operations. To ensure the maintenance of a 8. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Office of the Chief Counsel,
safe and sound air transportation system and “State and Local Regulation of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS)
Fact Sheet” (2015). Retrieved at https://www.faa.gov/uas/resourc-
of navigable airspace free from inconsistent es/policy_library/media/UAS_Fact_Sheet_Final.pdf
9. FAA, “State and Local Regulation.”

26 The Complete Remote Pilot

can be found at ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/ operations, such as the location of obstructions, pow-
uas_privacy_best_practices_6-21-16.pdf.10 The key erlines in the area, or bird activity. The legend for indi-
takeaways from this document are (1) use your head vidual airport listings is provided in Appendix B of this
and (2) be a good neighbor. If you wouldn’t want text. In addition to the individual airport listings, the
someone doing what you’re doing over or near you Chart Supplement contains:
or your house, don’t do it yourself. Also, don’t harass • Special notices in regard to airports listed
your neighbors, their dogs, kids, etc.
• FSS and National Weather Service telephone
Although technically there is no regulatory height
numbers
above property that one “owns,” there is a lone court
case that, for now, is about the only guidance we have • Frequencies of Air Route Traffic Control Centers
on this issue. In United States v. Causby, it was deter- • FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) tele-
mined that the magic cutoff was 83 feet. (The case phone numbers
involved claims that military aircraft flying low over • Parachute jumping areas
Causby’s farm made his chickens suicidal; Causby • Aeronautical Chart Bulletin (contains information
won). The FAA controls all navigable airspace, which about obstacles and hazards that have been noted
in general refers to 500 AGL and above (49 U.S.C. since the last chart was printed and which will be
40103[b][1]). This is part of the logic behind the 400 included in the next printing)
AGL restriction on most UAS operations. An addi- • Airport diagrams for all public airports; detailed
tional rule allows for the FAA to regulate certain airport diagrams for large airports; airport dia-
operations below 500 AGL (49 U.S.C. 44701[a]). So grams are also available at faa.gov/air_traffic/
for now, it is a grey area regarding who controls what, flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/dtpp/
but people do not “own” as much airspace above their
An online version is available by going to faa.
land as they probably think.
gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/ and clicking on
Again, be a good citizen. Typically neighbors can
“Digital Products” in the left column. The resulting
argue that you are trespassing or harassing them if
page offers a number of valuable products in addi-
you are causing them to lose the value or enjoyment of
tion to the Chart Supplement. The Chart Supplement
their property. Check local laws and ordinances about
and its online counterpart are the only official sources
how these potential issues may be defined in your area
of airport information. Do not rely on commercial
of residence.
publications.
Appendix B reprints the Airport/Facility Directory
CHART SUPPLEMENTS U.S. Legend from the Chart Supplements. Read it thor-
The Chart Supplements U.S. is published in seven oughly. An amazing number of “where does it say…?”
volumes depending on geographic location and is or “where can I find out?” questions can be answered
revised every 56 days. The Airport/Facility Directory by reading the Legend. This is especially true of com-
(A/FD) is now part of the Chart Supplements (CS, or munications questions. The ability to interpret the
the online version referred to as the Digital Chart airport listings is only part of what you need to know.
Supplement, d-CS). Much of the information contained in the Chart
Before setting off on an sUAS mission, you are Supplement (but not the Aeronautical Chart Bulle-
required to become familiar with all available informa- tin) can be found at skyvector.com, airnav.com, or
tion regarding the flight, and the Chart Supplements 1800wxbrief.com.
are your source of information on nearby airports.
Aeronautical charts show the elevation, runway ADVISORY CIRCULARS
length, and limited radio frequency information for
The Federal Aviation Regulations are brief and con-
an airport, but only in the Chart Supplement will you
cise, written by and for lawyers, not pilots. There are
learn details about airports that may impact sUAS
many situations in which a regulation or a proce-
dure needs to be explained in detail so that the flying
10. Consensus, Stakeholder-Drafted Best Practices Created in the public can understand exactly what is required. This
NTIA-Convened Multistakeholder Process, “Voluntary Best Prac-
tices for UAS Privacy, Transparency, and Accountability” (2016).
is the function of Advisory Circulars (ACs). ACs are

Lesson 2 Regulations 27
non-regulatory in nature, serving only to explain the NOTICES TO AIR MISSIONS
actual regulation or provide additional useful infor-
mation to aid in compliance; however, the govern-
(NOTAMS)
ment expects every pilot to be aware of information Information that might affect the safety of a flight—
published only in Advisory Circulars! Unfortunately, such as an airport closure, Temporary Flight Restric-
many pilots are unaware of their existence. tion (TFR), communication frequency change, etc.—is
Advisory Circulars are numbered to correspond available from your Flight Service Station (FSS) briefer.
with the regulations. To give three examples: 14 CFR Your briefer has access to NOTAMs. If you use
Part 61 deals with airman and flight instructor cer- one of the computer flight planning products such
tification, while Advisory Circular 61-65 explains as the AOPA flight planner or 1800wxbrief.com, you
flight instructor duties and responsibilities; 14 CFR will also receive current NOTAMS—but be aware that
Part 91 is General Operating Rules, and Advisory TFRs can pop up without warning. Always check for
Circular 91-74 deals with flight in icing conditions; them with flight service before takeoff to avoid being
the 70 series deals with airspace. Most pilots are only greeted by law enforcement or even the military.
aware of those Advisory Circulars that are published To make it easier for pilots to scan through a list
in book form, such as Aviation Weather (AC 00-6) or of NOTAMs for information specific to their flight,
the Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), but the FAA uses “key words” [sic] in the first line of text.
you should investigate whether the FAA publishes an (See Figure 2-4.)
AC on any subject you may be curious about. You
can access Advisory Circulars on the faa.gov home AVIATION MEDIA
page, although they are also available through the All pilots are expected to stay abreast of changes in
Government Printing Office. Guess which is more regulations and procedures, but advancing technology
convenient? is teaching new ways of navigating and of solving some
of the mysteries of weather, and pilots cannot expect
QR CODES today’s methods to apply forever. It is a good idea to pay
If you have a smartphone, all Aeronautical Informa- attention to any newly proposed regulations. You can
tion Services products now have QR codes on their see what may be implemented in the near future at the
covers. For sectional charts, the QR will take you to FAA’s Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) website.
any of these sites: You can even subscribe for email updates at faa.gov/
regulations_policies/rulemaking/recently_published/.
• Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide The aviation press is the best source of information on
• Chart Supplement the changing world of flight, and we recommend that
• NOTAMs and TFRs you read aviation newspapers and magazines. The FAA’s
• Safety alerts Aviation Safety Briefing, published six times a year, is
• VFR chart update bulletins available from the FAA home page, and you will find a
• VFR Class B enhancement graphics wealth of information on the Academy of Model Aero-
nautics (AMA) website, modelaircraft.org. Another
• Weather cameras
good resource for changes in sUAS regulations or other
The QR code on the Chart Supplements will take you to: pertinent data can be found by becoming a member of
• Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems Inter-
• Digital Chart Supplements national (AUVSI), although non-members can still view
recent events and some news features. Visit auvsi.org
• NOTAMs and TFRs
for more information. As with everything in aviation,
• Safety alerts
remember the FAA is the official source of regulations,
• Weather cameras policies, and requirements.
The QR codes provide the opportunity to get the abso-
lute latest information available.

28 The Complete Remote Pilot

The “D” NOTAM

Key Words NOTAM Examples

RWY 3/21 CLSD NAV VOR OTS
RWY 1 NAV 7 Navigation. The VOR located on this airport is out of service.
Runways 3 and 21 are closed to aircraft.

TWY F LGTS OTS COM ATIS 126.4 OTS

TWY 2 Taxiway F lights are out of service. COM 8 Communications. The Automatic Terminal Information
Service (ATIS) frequency 126.4 is out of service.
RAMP TERMINAL EAST SIDE CONSTRUCTION
SVC TWR 1215-0359 MON-FRI/1430-2300
RAMP 3 The ramp in front of the east side of the terminal has ongoing
construction. 9 SAT/1600-2200 SUN TIL 0809212200
Service. The control tower has new operating hours,
1215-2359 UTC Monday Thru Friday, 1430-2300 UTC on Saturday,
APRON SW TWY C NEAR HANGARS CLSD and 1600-2200 UTC on Sunday until 2200 UTC on August 21, 2008.
APRON 4 The apron near the southwest taxiway C in front of the hangars
is closed. SVC SVC FUEL UNAVBL TIL 0807291600
10 Service. All fuel for this airport is unavailable until
AD ABN OTS July 29, 2008 at 1600 UTC.
AD 5 Aerodrome’s airport beacon is out of service
SVC CUSTOMS UNAVBL TIL 0808150800
11 Service. United States Customs service for this airport will
OBST TOWER 283 (246 AGL) 2.2 S LGTS OTS (ASR 1065881) not be available until August 15, 2008 at 0800 UTC.
TIL 0807272300
Obstruction. The lights are out of service on a tower that is 283 AIRSPACE AIRSHOW ACFT 5000/BLW 5 NMR AIRPORT
OBST 6 feet above mean sea level (MSL) or 246 feet above ground level AVOIDANCE ADZD WEF 0807152000-0807152200
(AGL) 2.2 statute miles south of the field. The FCC antenna Airspace. There is an airshow being held at this airport with
structure registration (ASR) number is 1065881. The lights will AIRSPACE 12 aircraft flying 5000 feet and below within a 5 nautical mile radius.
be returned to service 2300 UTC (Coordinated Universal Time) Avoidance is advised from 2000 UTC on July 15, 2008 until
on July 27, 2008. 2200 UTC on July 15, 2008.

NOTE: All “D” NOTAMs will have a key word at the beginning of the text of each NOTAM Effective: JAN 2008 thru AUG 2009 FAA ATO AJR AIM #071307

Figure 2-4. Example of FAA NOTAM “key words” (see AIM Table 5-1-1 for more keywords and definitions).

Lesson 2 Regulations 29
LESSON 2
Review Questions

1. In which publication can pilots find information 6. You experience a fly-away during which your
about air traffic control procedures? sUAS crashes into a person, knocking them
A—Air Traffic Control Trainee Handbook unconscious. They are transported to the hospi-
B—Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge tal for care. Who must you report this event to?
C—Aeronautical Information Manual A—No report is required.
B—Only the FAA.
2. The rules governing the recreational use of C—Both the FAA and the NTSB.
drones can be found in
A—14 CFR Part 91 7. You experience a fly-away during which your
B—49 USC §44809 sUAS hits a house, causing $500 in damage to
C—14 CFR Part 101 the garage door. Additionally, your sUAS, valued
at $1,200 is destroyed. By when must you report
3. The part of 14 CFR that covers non-recreational this accident to the FAA?
use of sUAS is A—No report is required.
A—Part 91 B—Within 3 calendar days.
B—Part 101 C—Within 10 calendar days.
C—Part 107
8. Which of the following operations is not covered
4. Without proper notification of the airport by 14 CFR Part 107?
operator and air traffic control (if applicable), A—Flying an sUAS to take pictures of a house
a recreational sUAS operator cannot fly within for personal use.
____ miles of an airport. B—Flying an sUAS to take pictures of a house
A—3 for business use.
B—5 C—Flying an sUAS to survey a farm to provide
C—recreational pilots are not required to precision agricultural services.
maintain separation from airports
9. Which of the following UAS do not need to be
5. You experience a fly-away during which your registered with the FAA?
sUAS crashes through a storefront window, caus- A—Model aircraft used recreationally
ing $800 in damages. By when must you report weighing 3 pounds.
this accident to the FAA? B—sUAS used recreationally weighing 0.50
A—immediately pounds.
B—within 3 calendar days C—sUAS used for business weighing 5 pounds.
C—within 10 calendar days

30 The Complete Remote Pilot

10. How is a remote pilot medically certified to be 15. Which of the following fulfills the requirement
authorized to fly sUAS under 14 CFR Part 107? for maintaining visual line-of-sight?
A—The remote pilot is responsible for A—The visual observer uses binoculars to
determining fitness to fly. monitor the status of the sUAS.
B—The remote pilot must receive a physical B—The remote pilot-in-command uses
from a FAA medical examiner. binoculars to monitor the status of the
C—The remote pilot must receive a physical sUAS.
from their primary care physician. C—The remote pilot-in-command uses
corrective lenses to monitor the status of
11. Which of the following is not true regarding the the sUAS.
responsibilities of the remote pilot-in-command
during an emergency? 16. You wish to fly your sUAS during civil twilight.
A—The remote PIC may disregard any What special authorization is required?
regulation if such deviation is required to A—No special authorization is needed if the
respond to the emergency. aircraft if fitted with the proper lighting
B—The remote PIC may disregard any system.
regulation regardless of circumstances. B—No special authorization is needed, since
C—The remote PIC must send a report to the twilight is considered daytime.
Administrator, if requested. C—Such operations are prohibited, unless you
have a waiver, as twilight is considered
12. Which of the following would not be covered by nighttime.
14 CFR Part 107?
A—Flying your sUAS for hobby purposes. 17. While you are flying a mission with your sUAS,
B—Flying your sUAS for business purposes. you notice a crewed aircraft approaching. How
C—Flying your sUAS in exchange for a gift. do you determine who has the right of way?
A—The lowest aircraft has the right of way.
13. What length of time must a visual observer wait B—Crewed aircraft generally have the right of
between having an alcoholic drink and helping way.
with an sUAS mission? C—Since the crewed aircraft is approaching
A—None; the remote pilot-in-command is the from the left, it must give way to you.
only person subject to restrictions.
B—Eight hours. 18. A friend asks you to help video-record their wed-
C—Four hours. ding from an aerial perspective. Which of the
following would you be able to provide to remain
14. If you are convicted of any offenses related to in compliance with regulatory restrictions?
alcohol or drugs, what may the FAA do to you A—Imagery shot from an area to the side of
as a remote pilot? the guests.
A—Revoke your certificate. B—Imagery from directly above the guests,
B—Revoke your certificate and deny but high enough to be able to maneuver to
application for a certificate for up to one safety in an emergency.
year. C—Any video recording is legal as long as the
C—The FAA does not have jurisdiction over sUAS remains in VLOS.
local violations; therefore, they cannot take
any action.

Lesson 2 Regulations 31
19. You are planning to photograph some real estate 23. In order to act as remote pilot-in-command, you
just outside the property line of a local airport must be at least ____ years old.
that has a control tower. What action must be A—15
taken by the remote pilot-in-command prior to B—16
sUAS operations in the area? C—18
A—No action is required, as Part 107 does not
specify a distance sUAS must remain away 24. For persons not certificated as a pilot (other than
from airports. student pilot) under 14 CFR Part 61, which of
B—The sUAS must remain clear of all traffic the following is not a requirement to receive a
patterns and operations at the airport. remote pilot-in-command?
C—The remote pilot-in-command must A—Take the FAA Knowledge Test.
receive authorization to conduct B—Be able to read, speak, and understand
operations in the area. English.
C—Hold a FAA medical certificate.
20. You are planning to photograph some real estate
just outside the property line of a remote, non- 25. In order to act as remote pilot-in-command, you
towered airport. What action must be taken by must have completed recurrent training or retake
the remote pilot-in-command prior to sUAS the UAG FAA Written Test every
operations in the area?
A—12 months.
A—No action is required, as Part 107 does not B—24 months.
specify a distance sUAS must remain away C—Not applicable; currency never expires.
from airports.
B—The sUAS must remain clear of all traffic 26. How long do you have to notify the FAA of any
patterns and operations at the airport. change in your name or address?
C—The remote pilot-in-command must
A—14 days
receive authorization to conduct
B—30 days
operations in the area.
C—120 days
21. A Notice to Air Missions (NOTAM) has been
27. If you discover that the city in which you are
issued stating that flight operations are prohib-
planning to fly has an ordinance against the
ited within 5 NM of a local football stadium.
operation of sUAS within its borders, which is
What precautions should you take when operat-
the best option for your mission?
ing in the area?
A—Cancel the mission.
A—As a courtesy, you should avoid flying near
B—Notify local law enforcement and carry out
or over the area.
the mission as planned.
B—No precaution is required, as NOTAMs
C—Federal law supersedes local law; therefore,
apply only to crewed aircraft.
you can fly without restriction or prior
C—Avoid the area, as sUAS operations are not
notification.
permitted in the area.
28. Where can you find phone numbers of FAA
22. The local news channel is reporting foggy
Flight Standards offices?
conditions in the area. What is the minimum
visibility required to permit non-recreational A—On aviation maps.
sUAS operations? B—You cannot; they are not published for
security purposes.
A—3 SM
C—Within the Chart Supplement.
B—3 NM
C—5 NM

32 The Complete Remote Pilot

29. What is the best source of NOTAMs for remote 31. Authorization to operate in airspace via LAANC
pilots? precludes the requirement to contact the local air
A—Employees at a nearby control tower. traffic control tower.
B—Flight Service Station briefers. A—True
C—Local law enforcement officials. B—False

30. How long do you have to wait after failing the

FAA Written Test before taking it again?
A—7 days
B—14 days
C—30 days

30-B , 31-A
21-C, 22-A, 23-B, 24-C, 25-B, 26-B, 27-A, 28-C, 29-B,
12-A, 13-B, 14-B, 15-C, 16-A, 17-B, 18-A, 19-C, 20-B,
1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-B, 5-C, 6-C, 7-A, 8-A, 9-B, 10-A, 11-B,
Answers:

Lesson 2 Regulations 33
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