Module 1

Networking principles and layered

architecture
 Module:1 Networking Principles and Layered Architecture

Data Communications and Networking: A Communications Model

– Data Communications - Evolution of network, Requirements ,
Applications, Network Topology (Line configuration, Data Flow),
Protocols and Standards, Network Models (OSI,TCP/IP)
 Communications model

 The communications model underlying the network

middleware is the most important factor in how applications
communicate.
 Three main types of network communications models:
Point-to-point
Client-server
Publish-subscribe
 Point-to-point model:
 Point-to-point is the simplest form of
communication.
 Example - The telephone is essentially one-to-one communication.
 Client-server model:
Client-server networks designate one special server node that
connects simultaneously to many client nodes.

"many-to-one" architecture
 Many-Many Model (or) Publisher – Subscriber model:
 if a publisher sends a message with Topic A, it will be forwarded to
any subscribers who have subscribed to Topic A.
 1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a

distance. The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and
using the data.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two

devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable or wireless. 4 metrics for data communications,
1. Delivery → Correct destination
2. Accuracy → Accurate data (No data loss)
3. Timelines → Real-time transmission (Eg: Live streaming)
4. Jitter → Uneven delay (Eg: Distruption of TV signals due to interruption)
(Variable delay)
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 Network Benefits: SHARING RESOURCES

Types of resources are:

1. Hardware: A network allows users to share many hardware devices such as

printers, modems, fax machines, CD ROM, player, etc.

2. Software: sharing software resources reduces the cost of software installation,

saves space on hard disk.

Characteristics of Network

Topology : The geometric arrangement of a computer system.

Protocol : The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that
computers on the network use to communicate. One of the most popular
protocols for LANs is called Ethernet.

Architecture : Networks can be broadly classified as using either a peer to peer

or client/server architecture.

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 Two or more computers
Components Cables as links between the computers
Data Représentation A network interfacing card(NIC) on each
Data Flow computer
Switches
Software called operating system(OS)

Five components of data communication

5
1

2 3
4

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Data Representation

1. Text
2. Numbers
3. Images
4. Audio
5. Video

Data flow

 Simplex

 Half-duplex

 Full-duplex

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 Simplex: Data flows in only one direction
E.g. Radio and Television broadcasts. They go from the TV station to your
home television.

Half duplex: Data flows in both directions but only one direction at a time on
the data communication line.
Ex. Conversation on walkie-talkies

Full duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously at the same time.
Ex. Phone communication

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 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or
any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.

Topics discussed in this section:

Distributed Processing
Network Criteria (performance, reliability, and security)
Physical Structures ( type of connections and topologies)
Network Models
Categories of Networks ( LAN, MAN and WAN)
Interconnection of Networks: Internet
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Types of connections

 Point to point
 A dedicated link is provided between
two devices

 Multipoint
 More than two specific devices share
a single link

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 Physical Topology

Topology - The way in which constituent parts are interrelated or arranged.

Topologies cover a much longer distance and larger areas with much more users.

Tree/Tier

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 MESH Topology
 Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other devices
 Dedicated
 Link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects
 A fully connected mesh network has n(n-1)/2
physical channels to link n devices
 Every device on the network must have n-1
input/output (I/O) ports
 Advantage
 Less traffic, robust, secure, easy to maintain
 Disadvantage
 Need more resource (cable and ports), expensive
n(n-1)/2 physical duplex links
 STAR Topology
 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,

usually called a hub.

 No direct traffic and link between devices

 Advantages

 Less expensive

 Easy to install and reconfigure

 Robustness

 Disadvantage

 Single point of failure

n links required
 BUS Topology

 A multipoint topology
 All devices are linked through a backbone cable
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
 Drop line
 A connection running between the device and the main cable
 Tap
 A connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core
 Advantage:
 Ease of installation
 Disadvantages:
 Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
 Broken or fault of the bus cable stops all transmission

n+1 links required

 RING Topology

 Each device is dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two devices on either side of it
 A signal is passed along the ring in the direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater

 Advantages
 Relatively easy to install and reconfigure
 Fault isolation is simplified
 Disadvantage
 Unidirectional traffic

n links required
 Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple topologies together

Example: Tree topology

integrates multiple star
topologies together onto a bus

 Advantages:
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
 Disadvantages:
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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 Pros & Cons of Networks

Increased speed High cost of installation

Reduced cost Requires time for administration
Improved security Failure of server
Centralized software Cable/Media faults
managements
Electronic mail
Flexible access

A computer network may be defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous

computers.
collection of computers, printers, routers, switches, and other devices that are able to
communicate with each other over some transmission media.

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Parameters Bus Ring Star Mesh
Network Performance Small Small or Large Small Small
Cable Length Less Neither less nor More More
Requirement
Traffic Less High Medium No
Dataflow Efficiency More Neither less nor More More
more
Failure Easy to Difficult to solve Easy to solve except Easy to solve
solve hub/switch fails
Cost Low High High High
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Categories of Networks / Classification of Networks

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. PAN
Local Area Network:
A Local Area Network is a computer network that interconnects computers
within a limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university
campus or office building.

LAN Devices

Wired LAN Wireless LAN

Eg: Ethernet – Hub, Switch Eg: Wifi

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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
A Metropolitan Area Network is a computer network that interconnects users
within computer networks in a geographic region of the size of a metropolitan
area (City).

MAN Devices:

•Switches/Hub
•Routers

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Wide Area Network (WAN)
A wide are Network is a telecommunications network that extends over a
large geographical area for the primary purpose of computer networking

WAN Devices:
•End Devices
•Intermediate Devices

•Coverage area>100km

Two or more LANs within a country can communicate with each other
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 Personal Area Network

A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network that enables

communication between computer devices near a person.
Examples of wireless PAN, or WPAN, devices include cell phone headsets,
wireless keyboards, wireless mice, printers, bar code scanners and game
consoles

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 LAN
• Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers
connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal
computers through a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive
hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
Ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in
Local Area Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.
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Characteristics of LAN
• LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs
or other regulatory controls.
• LAN's operate at relatively high speed when
compared to the typical WAN.
• There are different types of Media Access Control
methods in a LAN, the prominent ones are
Ethernet, Token ring.
• It connects computers in a single building, block
or campus, i.e. they work in a restricted
geographical area.
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 Applications of LAN
• One of the computer in a network can become a
server serving all the remaining computers called
clients.
• Software can be stored on the server and it can
be used by the remaining clients.
• Connecting Locally all the workstations in a
building to let them communicate with each other
locally without any internet access.
• Sharing common resources like printers etc are
some common applications of LAN.
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 Advantages of LAN
Resource Sharing: Computer resources like
printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives and hard disks
can be shared with the help of local area networks.
This reduces cost and hardware purchases.
Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use
same software over network instead of purchasing
separate licensed software for each client a
network.
Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and
messages can easily be transferred over networked
computers.
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 Advantages of LAN
Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be
saved on hard disk of the server computer. This will
help users to use any workstation in a network to
access their data. Because data is not stored on
workstations locally.
Data Security: Since, data is stored on server
computer centrally, it will be easy to manage data at
only one place and the data will be more secure too.
Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the
facility to share a single internet connection among all
the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection
sharing system keeps the internet expenses cheaper.
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Disadvantages of LAN
High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost
over time due to shared computer resources, but
the initial setup costs of installing Local Area
Networks is high.
Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the
rights to check personal data files of each and
every LAN user. Moreover he can check the
internet history and computer use history of the
LAN user.

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 Disadvantages of LAN
Data Security Threat: Unauthorized users can access
important data of an organization if centralized data
repository is not secured properly by the LAN
administrator.
LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a
LAN Administrator because, there are problems of
software installations or hardware failures or cable
disturbances in Local Area Network. A LAN
Administrator is needed at this full time job.
Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a
small area like one office, one building or a group of
nearby buildings.
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Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN)

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Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that
covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting
a different LAN to form a larger network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the
citizens and private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each
other through a telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-
232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area
Network(LAN).
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 Characteristics of MAN
• It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
• Communication medium used for MAN are
optical fibers, cables etc.
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing
applications.

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 Applications of MAN
• MAN is used in communication between the
banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the
military.

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 Advantages of MAN
• Extremely efficient and provide fast
communication via high-speed carriers, such as
fiber optic cables.
• It provides a good back bone for large network
and provides greater access to WANs.
• The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission
of data in both directions simultaneously.
• A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a
city or an entire city.

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 Disadvantages of MAN
• More cable required for a MAN connection
from one place to another.
• It is difficult to make the system secure
from hackers and industrial espionage
(spying) graphical regions.

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Wide Area Network (WAN)

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Wide Area Network (WAN)
• It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it
can be public leased network.
• It is used for the network that covers large
distance such as cover states of a country.
• It is not easy to design and maintain.
• Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN
or Satellite links.
• WAN operates on low data rates.

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 Examples for WAN
Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used
across a region or country.
Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the
internet services to the customers in hundreds of
cities by connecting their home with fiber.
Private network: A bank provides a private network
that connects the 44 offices. This network is made by
using the telephone leased line provided by the
telecom company.

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 Characteristics of WAN
• It generally covers large distances(states,
countries, continents).
• Communication medium used are satellite, public
telephone networks which are connected by
routers.

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 Advantages of WAN
Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large
geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a
different city then we can connect with them through WAN.
The internet provides a leased line through which we can
connect with another branch.
Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is
centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails,
files or back up servers.
Get updated files: Software companies work on the live
server. Therefore, the programmers get the updated files
within seconds.

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 Advantages of WAN
Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are
transmitted fast. The web application like Facebook,
WhatsApp, Skype allows you to communicate with
friends.
Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network,
we can share the software and other resources like a
hard drive, RAM.
Global business: We can do the business over the
internet globally.
High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our
company then this gives the high bandwidth. The high
bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn
increases the productivity of our company.

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 Disadvantages of WAN
Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues
as compared to LAN and MAN network as all the
technologies are combined together that creates the
security problem.
Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is
transferred on the internet which can be changed or
hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used.
Some people can inject the virus in our system so
antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network
is high as it involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing
the problem is difficult.

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Personal Area Network (PAN)

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Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged
within an individual person, typically within a range
of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the
computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research
scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
Personal computer devices that are used to develop
the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.
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 Examples of PAN
Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that
moves with a person. For example, a mobile network
moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a
network connection and then creates a connection with
another device to share the information.
Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside
the home, so it is also known as a home network. A home
network is designed to integrate the devices such as
printers, computer, television but they are not connected
to the internet.
Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of
devices to the internet and to a corporate network using a
VPN

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2 types of WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
Connected with more than two WAN’s – Backbone of global Communication

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 Internet ( WAN)
•Every Country will have networking relation.
•Wide WAN covers Multiple LANs, Multiple MANs and Multiple
WANs.
•Coverage area>100km

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 Difference between Hub, Switch and Router

Hub: Hub is a simple and Cheap networking broadcasting device works

under physical layer of OSI model that connects bunch of computers
together in a network. But, it does lots of wastage in bandwidth. Used to
create networks

Switch: Switch is a multicast networking device works under datalink

layer of OSI model that connects bunch of computers or devices in a
network. Used to create networks

Router: Router is a networking device works under network layer of

OSI model and use to connect two or more different networks.[Connects
Different network – Router is utilized by LAN as well as MAN]. Used to
connect networks
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An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

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Interconnection of Networks: internet

A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

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 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has changed many aspects of our daily lives. It

has affected the way we do business as well as the way we
spend our leisure time. The Internet is a communication
system that has brought a wealth of information to our
fingertips and organized it for our use.
Topics discussed in this section:
A Brief History → ARPANET
• 1967 ACM
• 1969 UCLA, UCSB, SRI, UoU
• 1972 TCP
The Internet Today (ISPs)
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Computer networks: transmitting information over along distances. This
implementation is done by various methods of data encoding and
multiplexing in telecommunications systems.
Batch processing systems: 1950
Multiterminal systems: Prototype of the computer network(1960).

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Evolution of computer Networks

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Public domain

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Timeline of Computer Networks
In 1957, Advanced Research Project Agency was formed by the US.
In 1961, the idea of ARPANET was proposed by Leonard Kleinrock.
In 1965, the term packet was used by Donald Davies.
In 1969, ARPANET became functional, and the internet was officially born, with the
first data transmission sent between UCLA and SRI on October 29, 1969, at 10:30 p.m.
In 1971, Ray Tomlinson sent the first email, and the foundation for Wi-Fi was laid with
the use of ALOHAnet.
In 1973, Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet at Xerox PARC, and the first
experimental VoIP call was made.
In 1976, the first true IP router was developed by Ginny Strazisar.
In 1978, Bob Kahn invented the TCP/IP protocol for networks developed.
In 1981, Internet Protocol version 4, or IPv4, was officially defined in RFC 791 in 1981.
In 1983, DNS was introduced by Paul Mockapetris.
In 1988, details about network firewall technology were first published 1988.
In 1996, IPv6 was introduced.
In 1997, the first version of the 802.11 standards for Wi-Fi was introduced in June 1997,
providing transmission speeds up to 2 Mbps.
In 2002-2004, Web 2.0 was introduced.
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Hierarchical organization of the Internet

NAP – Network Access Point

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ISP – Internet Service Provider
 1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

protocols and standards.

Protocol is synonymous with rule.

Standards are agreed-upon rules.

Topics discussed in this section:

Protocols
Standards
Standards Organizations
Internet Standards
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 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Protocols -> what, how, when it is communicated?

Key Elements:
• Syntax → structure or format of the data.
• Semantics → Interprets meaning of each section (bits)
• Timing → when data should be sent and how fast.

Standards -> provides guidelines to ensure the kind of inter-connectivity

/ agreed upon rules
Categories:
• De facto → by fact (not approved as a standard). No formal
process and documentation.
• De jure → by Law (approved)
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How it works?
 Network protocols take large-scale processes and break
them down into small, specific tasks or functions.
 Each layer is assigned a functions
 This occurs at every level of the network and each
function must cooperate at each level to complete the
larger task at hand.

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Categories of Network protocols
 Communication – Eg: TCP/IP and HTTP

 Network management - Eg: SMTP, ICMP and SNMP

,

 Security – Eg: HTTPS, SFTP, and SSL .

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Communication Protocol

 Communication Protocol is a system of rules that allow

two or more entities of a communications system to
transmit information via any kind of variation of a
physical quantity.

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 Protocols & Standards
Protocols
Communicating worldwide will not be possible if there
were no fixed 'standards' that will govern the way user
communicates for data as well as the way our devices
treat those data
• For proper communication, entities in different
systems must speak the same language
- there must be mutually acceptable conventions
and rules about the content, timing and underlying
mechanisms
• Those conventions and associated rules are referred
as “PROTOCOLS”
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 Protocols

Network Protocols:
“Network protocols are sets of established
rules that dictate how to format, transmit and
receive data so computer network devices --
from servers and routers to endpoints -- can
communicate regardless of the differences in
their underlying infrastructures, designs or
standards”

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 Elements of Protocols
i) Syntax: The structure or format of the data.
Eg. A simple protocol;

ii) Semantics: - Refers to the meaning of each

section of bits.
- how is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and
what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation.
Eg. Does an address identify the route to be taken or
the final of the message?
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 Elements of Protocols
iii) Timing
Refers to two characteristics:
a. When data to be sent
b. How fast it can be sent
Eg. If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but
the receiver can process data at only 1
Mbps, the transmission will overload the
receiver and data will be largely lost.

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 Characteristics of protocol
a) Direct / indirect
Communication between two entities maybe
direct or indirect.
i) point-to-point link
- connection provides a dedicated link
between two devices
- the entities in these systems may
communicate directly that is data and
control information pass directly
between entities with no intervening
active agent.
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 Characteristics of protocol

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 Characteristics of protocol
ii) multipoint link
- connection more than two devices can
share a single link
- The entities must be concerned with the
issue of access control and making the
protocol more complex.

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 Characteristics of protocol

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 Standards
• Data communication standards fall into two
categories: de facto ( meaning "by fact" or "by
convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" and
"by regulation").
– De facto. Standards that have not been approved
by an organized body but have been adopted as
standards through widespread use are de facto
standards. De facto standards are often established
originally by manufacturers that seek to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.
– De jure. De jure standards are those that have been
legislated by an officially recognized body.

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Standards and Organizations
• Standards are developed through cooperation of
standards creation committees, forums and
government regulatory agencies.
• Some of the standards establishment Organizations
are:
– International Standards Organization
(ISO) http://www.iso.org/
– International Telecommunications Union-
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-
T). http://www.itu.int/ITU-T
– American National Standard Institute (ANSI).
– Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE). http://www.ieee.gov/
– Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
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 Forums
• To facilitate the standardization process, many
special-interest groups have developed forums
made up of representatives from interested
corporations.
• The forums work with universities and users to
test, evaluate and standardize new technologies
• The forums are able to speed acceptance and
use of those technologies in the telecommuni --
cations community

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 Forums
The forums present their conclusions to the standards bodies.
Some important forums for the telecommunications industry
include the following:
• Frame Relay Forum. The Frame Relay Forum was formed by
digital equipment Corporation, Northern Telecom, Cisco, and
StrataCom to promote the acceptance and implementation of
frame relay. Today, it has around 40 members representing
North America, Europe, and the Pacific rim. Issues under
Review include flow control. encapsulation, translation, and
multicasting. the forum's results are submitted to the ISO.
• ATM Forum. http://www.atmforum.com/ The ATM Forum
provides acceptance and use of Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) technology. The ATM Forum is made up of Customer
Premises Equipment (e.g., PBX systems ) vendors and Central
Office (e.g., telephone exchange) providers. It is concerned
with the standardization of service to ensure interoperability.
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 RFCs
• Request for Comments is a pure technical
document published by IETF(Internet
Engineering Task Force)

• To develop a standard “network protocol” or

feature or function related to computer
network.
• Building blocks for modern networks and most
network protocols are built on RFCs

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 Protocol Architectures
and Networks
or ports

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 Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
• User data is passed from layer to layer
• Control information is added/removed
to/from user data at each layer
– Header (and sometimes trailer)
– each layer has a different header/trailer
• Data + header + trailer = PDU (Protocol Data
Unit)
– This is basically what we call packet
– each layer has a different PDU

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 Operation of a Protocol
Architecture

Transport Transport
Header Header

Network Network
Header Header

(Network PDU)

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 Standard Protocol
Architectures
• Common set of conventions
• Nonstandard vs. standard protocols
– Nonstandard: K sources and L receivers lead to
K*L different protocols
– If common protocol used, we design only once
• Products from different vendors interoperate
– Customers do not stick to a specific vendor
– If a common standard is not implemented in a
product, then that product’s market is limited;
customers like standard products

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 Standard Protocol
Architectures
• Two approaches (standard)
– OSI Reference model
• never used widely
• but well known
– TCP/IP protocol suite
• Most widely used
• Another approach (proprietary)
– IBM’s Systems Network Architecture (SNA)

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 OSI as Framework for
Standardization

layer functionalities are

described by ISO; different
standards can be
developed based on these
functionalities

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 The OSI Architecture

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 Mnemonic
• Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away
– Please  Physical
– Do  Data Link
– Not  Network
– Throw  Transport
– Sausage  Session
– Pizza  Presentation
– Away  Application

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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Most widely used interoperable network protocol
architecture
• Specified and extensively used before OSI
– OSI was slow to take place in the market
• Funded by the US Defense Advanced Research
Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet switched
network (ARPANET)
– DoD (Department of Defense) automatically created
an enormous market for TCP/IP
• Used by the Internet and WWW
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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed
prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers
in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not match
exactly with those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as four software layers built upon the
hardware.
• Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a
five-layer model with the layers named
similarly to the ones in the OSI model
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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• The Layers used in the TCP/IP protocol
– Application layer
– Transport (host to host / end to end) layer
– Internet layer
– Network access layer
– Physical layer

• Actually TCP/IP reference model has been built on its protocols

– That is why that reference model is only for TCP/IP protocol
suite
– and this is why it is not so important to assign roles to each
layer in TCP/IP; understanding TCP, IP and the application
protocols would be enough
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 OSI vs. TCP/IP

HTTP, SMTP, …

TCP, UDP

IP

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 OSI vs. TCP/IP

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 OSI vs. TCP/IP

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 Network Access and
Physical Layers
• TCP/IP reference model does not discuss these
layers too much
– the node should connect to the network with a
protocol such that it can send IP packets
– this protocol is not defined by TCP/IP
– mostly in hardware
– a well known example is Ethernet

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 Internet Layer
• Connectionless, point to point internetworking
protocol (uses the datagram approach)
– takes care of routing across multiple networks
– each packet travels in the network independently of
each other
• they may not arrive (if there is a problem in the network)
• they may arrive out of order
– a design decision enforced by DoD to make the system
more flexible and responsive to loss of some subnet
devices
• Implemented in end systems and routers as the
Internet Protocol (IP)

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 Transport Layer
• End-to-end data transfer
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
– connection oriented
– reliable delivery of data
– ordering of delivery
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
– connectionless service
– delivery is not guaranteed
• Can you give example applications that use TCP
and UDP?

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 Application Layer
• Support for user applications
• A separate module for each different
application
– e.g. HTTP, SMTP, telnet

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7/22/2024
 Network Management Protocol:
SNMP
• An Internet Standard protocol for
• collecting and organizing information about managed
devices on IP networks
• modifying that information to change device behavior.
• Devices that typically support SNMP include cable
modems, routers, switches, servers, workstations,
printers, and more.

SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol - An

internet standard protocol used to monitor and manage
network devices connected over an IP.
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 Network security protocols

• Ensures the security and integrity of data

in transit over a network connection.
• Network security protocols define the
processes and methodology to secure
network data from any illegitimate
attempt to review or extract the
contents of data.

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 Popular Protocols
• ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network. Communication protocol
offered by phone companies which allows phone networks to carry
voice, video, and data.
• CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access. X.25 - ITU’s standard that defines
how connections between terminal equipment and computers are
maintained.
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) suite
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• DNS (Domain Name System)
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
• HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
• IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
• IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol version 4)
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 List of Standard Organizations
• International Standard Organization (ISO). Responsible for a wide range of standards
including networking standards.

• CCITT - Consultative Committee for International Telegraph and Telephone.

Responsible for development of Communication standards.

• International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunications Standards Sector (ITU-

T) - develops worldwide standards for telecommunication technologies.

• American National Standard Institute (ANSI)

• Institute of International Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

• Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and other leading telecommunication

companies worked cooperatively to create ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-A standard for
commercial buildings.

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IP Address/ MAC Address/ Port Number
An Internet Protocol (IP) address / Logical address is a
unique numerical identifier for every device or network that
connects to the internet.
A media access control address (MAC address)/
Physical Address is a unique identifier assigned to a network
interface controller (NIC) for use as a network address in
communications within a network segment.
Transport Layer uses a port number to deliver the segmented
data to the correct process amongst the multiple processes
that are running on a particular host. A port number is a 16-bit
address used by transport layer to identify any client-server
program.
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 Network Models

OSI Model

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1-5 LAYERED TASKS

 A network model is a layered architecture

 Task broken into subtasks
 Implemented separately in layers in stack
 Functions need in both systems
 Peer layers communicate

 Protocol:
 A set of rules that governs data communication
 It represents an agreement between the communicating devices

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1-5.1 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.

An ISO is the Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) model is the standard that covers all
aspects of network communications from ISO. It
was first introduced in the late 1970s.

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 ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

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Layered Architecture

Layers
Seven layers of the OSI model
Layer 7. Application

Layer 6. Presentation
Layer 5. Session
Layer 4. Transport

Receiver
Sender

Layer 3. Network

Layer 2. Data Link

Layer 1. Physical

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Layered Architecture

 A layered model
 Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions
 Each layer relies on the next lower layer to
perform more primitive functions
 Each layer provides services to the next higher
layer
 Changes in one layer should not require
changes in other layers
 The processes on each machine at a given layer
are called peer-to-peer process

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 PEER – TO – PEER PROCESS
 Communication must move downward through the layers
on the sending device, over the communication channel,
and upward to the receiving device
 Each layer in the sending device adds its own
information to the message it receives from the layer just
above it and passes the whole package to the layer just
below it
 At the receiving device, the message is unwrapped layer
by layer, with each process receiving and removing the
data meant for it

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 PEER – TO – PEER PROCESS
 The passing of the data and network information down
through the layers of the sending device and backup
through the layers of the receiving device is made
possible by interface between each pair of adjacent
layers
 Interface defines what information and services a layer
must provide for the layer above it.

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The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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An exchange using the OSI model

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LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Topics discussed in this section:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

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 Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

 Function
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
 Representation of bits
 Data rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration (point-to-point or multipoint)
 Physical topology (mesh, star, ring or bus)
 Transmission mode ( simplex, half-duplex or duplex)

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Physical layer

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Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.

 Function
 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control

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Data link layer

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Hop-to-hop delivery

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Example 1

In following Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with
physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link. At the data link level
this frame contains physical addresses in the header. These are the only addresses
needed. The rest of the header contains other information needed at this level.
The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection

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Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

 Source-to-destination delivery
 Responsible from the delivery of packets from the
original source to the final destination
 Functions
 Logical addressing

 routing

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Network layer

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Source-to-destination delivery

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Example 2

We want to send data from a node

with network address A and
physical address 10, located on one
LAN, to a node with a network
address P and physical address 95,
located on another LAN. Because
the two devices are located on
different networks, we cannot use
physical addresses only; the
physical addresses only have local
influence. What we need here are
universal addresses that can pass
through the LAN boundaries. The
network (logical) addresses have
this characteristic.

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Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

 Process-to- process delivery

 Functions

 Port addressing

 Segmentation and reassembly

 Connection control ( Connection-oriented or connection-less)

 Flow control

 Error control
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Transport layer

Segmentation and reassembly

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Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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Example 3

Data coming from the upper

layers have port addresses j
and k (j is the address of the
sending process, and k is the
address of the receiving
process). Since the data size
is larger than the network
layer can handle, the data are
split into two packets, each
packet retaining the port
addresses (j and k). Then in
the network layer, network
addresses (A and P) are
added to each packet.

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Session Layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.

 It establishes, maintains and synchronize the interaction

between communicating system
 Function
 Dialog control
 Synchronization (checkpoints)

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Session layer

Synchronization

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Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and
encryption.

 Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information

exchanged between two system
 Functions
 Translation ( EBCDIC-coded text file  ASCII-coded file)
 Encryption and Decryption
 Compression

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Presentation layer

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Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

 Functions
 Network virtual terminal (Remote log-in)

 File transfer and access

 Mail services

 Directory services (Distributed Database)

 Accessing the World Wide Web

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Application layer

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 Summary of layers

Computer identified by IP address, MAC Address File transfer and Access management,
Process is identified by port numbers Mail services, directory services

, Syntax, Semantics Dialog control, synchronization

Port addressing,
Segmentation &
Port
Reassembly, Connection Logical addressing, Routing
control, End to End flow
control, Error control IP

MAC

Framing, Physical Addressing, Flow control,

error control and Access control
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
End to end flow control - Speed matching Representation of bits, Data rate
mechanism Synchronization of bits
Access Control – DL layer Determines the Line configuration (point-to-point or multipoint)
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device has control over the common line Transmission mode ( simplex, half-duplex or duplex)
H2

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 Summary of layers

OSI Model
Data
Layer Function
unit
User 7. Application Network process to application
support
layers/ Data 6. Presentation Data representation and encryption

H/W
5. Session Inter-host communication
layer
Sender

User

Receiver
Network
Segment 4. Transport End-to-end connections and reliability
Heart of
OSI

Network Packet 3. Network Path determination and logical addressing

support
layers/ Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
S/W Layer Bit 1. Physical Media, signal and binary transmission
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7/22/2024
 Network Models

TCP/IP Model

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1-5.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not

exactly match those in the OSI model. The original
TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four
layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to
OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is
made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
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7/22/2024
 TCP/IP and OSI model

TCP/IP Model
OSI Model

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Internet Layer

TCP/IP support the Internet Protocol IP ( unreliable).

IP is a host-to-host protocol.
Supporting protocols:
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
• Internet Control Massage Protocol (ICMP)
• Internet Group Massage Protocol (IGMP)

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Transport Layer

Process-to-process protocol.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

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1-6 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an

internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

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Addresses in TCP/IP

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Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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Physical Address

Physical addresses are imprinted on the NIC. Most

local-area networks (Ethernet) use a 48-bit (6-byte)
physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every
byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon.

Example:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

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Physical Address

• known also as the MAC address

• Is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN
• It is included in the frame used by data link layer

The physical addresses in the datagram may change from hop to hop.

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Logical Address

 IP addresses are necessary for universal communications that

are independent of physical network.
 No two host address on the internet can have the same IP
address
 IP addresses in the Internet are 32-bit address that uniquely
define a host.

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

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 Port addresses

Port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal

number ranged from (0-65535) to choose a process among
multiple processes on the destination host.
 Destination port number is needed for delivery.
 Source port number is needed for receiving a reply as an
acknowledgments.
In TCP/IP , a 16-bit port address represented
as one single number. Example: 753

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

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Port addresses

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Thank you!

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