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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY

EM423 - INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS

SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS

PART 2: HARMONIC EXCITATION

INTRODUCTION
The previous SDOF handout concentrated on the unforced mass/spring system, both
with and without damping. In this handout we concentrate on a SDOF subject to
various forms of harmonic excitation.

HARMONIC FORCE EXCITATION

When a constant amplitude harmonic force excites a linear system, the system
responds at the same frequency as the excitation (we are ignoring any transients due to
switching on the excitation). We need to clarify the difference between the natural
frequency, and the excitation frequency.

ωn = Natural Frequency (rad/s)

ω = Excitation Frequency (rad/s)

The natural frequency, ωn, is a property of the SDOF, and does not vary with excitation.
The excitation frequency, ω depends only on the excitation, and is independent of the
SDOF.

While harmonic force excitation is not a common form met in many real situations,
solving for it provides the key for solving many other forms of excitation. Also, many
standard experimental vibration test methods measure the frequency characteristics of
a structure. Even though the excitation for the test may not be steady state harmonic,
the effect is the same as measuring the response due to harmonic excitation. Therefore
the response due to steady state excitation needs to be understood fully before other
forms of excitation are analyzed. The equation of motion is:

mx&& + cx& + kx = FO sin (ω t )

The solution to this equation is in two parts: The Complementary Function and the
Particular Integral. The Complementary Function represents the response of a damped
free vibration, and was discussed in the first SDOF handout. The Particular Integral
represents the steady-state solution, and can be presented in a number of ways. One
solution has the form:

x ( t ) = X.sin (ω t − ϕ )

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On this course we have already used the complex exponential form of harmonic
notation. For vibrations this is often the best method to use, so we now use it to solve
the equation of motion. The forcing function can be written as FOeiωt and the
displacement response can be written as:

x (t ) = X e (
i ωt −ϕ )
= X .eiω t

where X is a complex displacement, holding both the amplitude of motion, and the
phase of the response relative to the excitation. Substituting the complex forms for both
force and response into the basic equation of motion results in:

( −ω 2
)
m + i ω c + k X .ei ωt = FO .ei ω t

which by rearranging and using the relationships ωn2 = (k/m) and ζ = c/(2m ωn), results in
the equation:

X 1
H ( iω ) = =
{
FO m ( ωn2 − ω 2 ) + 2iζωωn }
H(i ω) is called the Frequency Response Function (FRF) of the SDOF. The FRF is a
property of the SDOF. Its value (per unit mass) depends solely on the excitation
frequency, the natural frequency, and the viscous damping ratio. The amplitude and
phase of this complex FRF equation are:

X 1
Magnitude = H ( i ω ) = =

{ }
1
FO
m (ω n2 − ω 2 ) + 4ζ 2ω 2ω
2
2 2
n

 −2ζωω 
Phase = tan  2 −1 n 
 ( ωn − ω 2 ) 
 

The maximum value of the FRF is when the forcing frequency is given by:

Excitation Frequency for maximum FRF = ωr = ωn (1 − 2ζ ) rad/s

2

This frequency, ωr, is called the circular resonant frequency.

The low frequency behavior of the FRF (i.e. well below resonance, with ω « ωn) is
controlled by the stiffness.

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1 1
H ( iω ) ω =ω = =
n mω n k
2

The high frequency behavior with ω » ωn is controlled by the mass.

1
H ( iω ) ω ?ω =
n −mω 2

When ω ≈ ωn (close to resonance) the motion is controlled by the damping. If there

were no damping, the FRF would be infinite at the natural frequency. However, even a
very small amount of damping (energy dissipation) prevents this happening.
The behavior of these equations, and sketches of the graphs, is given in class.

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ROTATING UNBALANCE
One of the most common sources of vibration in engineering is rotating unbalance. This
is where a rotating machine is not precisely balanced, and the rotating out of balance
mass causes forces on the engine (the idea of centripetal or centrifugal force). We
consider the complete engine (including the out of balance mass) to have mass M, and
the unbalanced mass itself to be m, rotating with eccentricity e. A real engine
unbalance will cause vibrations in at least two planes (vertical and rocking), but for this
discussion we limit ourselves to pure vertical motion only. As usual, we measure the
(vertical) displacements from the equilibrium position, so:

Displacement of non-rotating mass, ( M − m ), = x

Displacment of rotating mass, m, = x + e.sin (ω t )

The FBD for the rotating mass is:

Resolve forces vertically upwards

−TensionVERTICALCOMPONENT = mx&& − meω 2 sin ( ωt )

The FBD for the non rotating mass is:

Resolve forces vertically upwards

TensionVERTICALCOMPONENT − kx − cx& = ( M − m ) x&&

hence
−mx&& + meω 2 sin ( ωt ) − kx − cx& = ( M − m ) &&
x
Mx&& + cx& + kx = meω 2 sin (ωt )
The last equation is essentially the same as for force excitation, but replacing the
forcing function Fo with (meω2), which is a function of frequency. We can therefore write
down the dynamic response of the SDOF with rotating unbalance by comparing the

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equation of motion with the force excitation case. The response is relative to the
product "me".
X ω2
=
{(
me M ω n2 − ω 2 + 2i ζωω n ) }
The magnitude and phase of this complex function are:

X ω2
=
{( ) }
1/2
me 2
M ω n2 − ω 2 + 4ζ 2ω 2ω n2

 2ζωω 
phase = tan−1  2 n 
 (
 ωn −ω 2 ) 


Example.
A counter rotating eccentric weight exciter is used to
produce forced oscillation of a spring supported mass. By
varying the speed of rotation, a resonant amplitude of
0.60 cm was recorded. When the speed of rotation was
increased considerably above the resonant frequency, the
amplitude approached a fixed value of 0.08 cm. What was
the viscous damping ratio of the system?

Solution.
The assumption is that damping is light, and therefore the
resonant frequency identified above is the same as (or very close to) the natural
frequency of the SDOF. The dynamic response equation for this problem is:

X ω2
=
{( ) }
1/2
me 2 2
M ω −ω 2
n + 4ζ ω ω 2 2 2
n

when ω ≈ ω n
X1 1 me
= hence X1 = = 0.06 cm
me 2Mζ 2Mζ
when ω ? ω n
me
X2 = = 0.08 cm
M
Simultaneous solution of these two equations yields the result:
0.08
ζ = = 0.0666 = 6.7%
2 × 0.60

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SUPPORT MOTION
A large class of problems concerns structures subject to base (support) motion.
Examples include most vehicles (cars, airplanes, trains, .....) as they progress over
rough surfaces. Another class of problems includes buildings in earthquake zones.
With base motion the excitation is a displacement, which is transmitted to the SDOF
mass through a spring element. The force on the mass is therefore dependent on the
relative displacement of the support and the mass. The FBD for the mass is:

Resolving forces vertically gives:

k ( y − x ) + c ( y& − x& ) = mx
&&
Now (x-y) is the relative motion between the mass and the ground. If we make the
substitution z = (x-y) we get:
k ( y − x ) + c ( y& − x& ) = mx&&
−kz − cz& = m ( &&
z + y&& )
mz&& + cz& + kz = −my&&

We will now restrict the problem to harmonic base excitation and we obtain the
equation:
mz&& + cz& + kz = mω 2Y .sin ( ωt )

This equation is of the same form as that for rotary unbalance. Therefore we can solve
it for Z directly using the previous results:
Yω2
Z=
{( )
ωn2 − ω 2 + 2iζωωn }
However, we do not just want to know Z, which is the relative motion between the
support and mass. We also need to know the absolute motion of the mass, X, which is
given by X = Z+Y:

 
 ω2 
X =Z +Y =Y  + 1
{( )
 ωn − ω + 2iζωωn
2 2
 }
Hence:

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X
= 2
(
ω n2 + 2iζωω n )
Y (
ω n − ω 2 + 2iζωω n )
The amplitude and phase of this complex equation can be determined:

X ω n4 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2
=
Y
(ω )
2
2
n −ω 2 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2

 2ζω 3 
ϕ = tan −1  
(
 ωn ωn2 − ω 2 + 4ζ 2ωnω 2 
  )

VIBRATION ISOLATION
One important aspect of vibration engineering is the design of vibration isolators. In
simplistic form, they are spring/damper systems used to reduce the amount of vibration
transmitted through them. A typical example is the suspension system in cars, where
the "shock absorber" is a combined spring and damper unit. At sea, most electronic
equipment is isolated from the hull by isolators that are usually a natural rubber
providing a spring stiffness, supported on steel flanges. These isolators are designed to
reduce vibration transmitted to the equipment. Large engines and noisy equipment are
also mounted, but this time to reduce the vibration transmitted to the hull.

An incorrect selection of isolator will amplify the vibration, and make things worse. We
therefore need to understand the theory of isolators. Before we can make an analysis,
we have to determine what we mean by isolation.

ISOLATION FROM GROUND MOTION.

Generally, if the ground is moving or a vehicle is traveling
across rough ground, and we wish to protect equipment from that
motion, we want to reduce the ratio of transmitted displacement to
X
excitation displacement. That is, we wish to reduce the ratio .
Y
For a vehicle traveling over rough ground approximated by a
sine wave, the excitation and response will be:

y ( t ) = Yeiωt
x ( t ) = Xe iωt
with X being complex to include phase information. The excitation frequency, ω, can be
determined from the wavelength of the ground roughness, L, and vehicle speed, v:

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v = fL
2π v
hence ω = 2π f =
L

This is an example of support motion, discussed earlier, and we can therefore use the
results directly. The equation for the motion of the mass relative to the ground motion is
called the displacement transmissibility, TR, of the system. The equation is clearly the
same as the result for support motion.

X ω n4 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2
TR = =
Y
(ω )
2
2
n −ω 2 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2

 2ζω 3 
ϕ = tan 
−1 
(
 ωn ωn2 − ω 2 + 4ζ 2ωnω 2 
  )

The response is in two distinct frequency ranges, separated by the frequency at which
the displacement transmissibility is unity. The graphical form of the response, and its
interpretation, will be given in class.

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The vibration (transmitted output) is only less than the input if the
transmissibility is less than one (zero dB). This is only the case
when the excitation frequency is related to the natural frequency
by ω > √2ωn. If the excitation frequency is not in this required
range, we might be able to modify the structure to achieve this.
We would usually want to reduce the natural frequency, so we
would consider reducing the stiffness, or increasing the mass, or
a combination of the two. Note that changing the amount of
damping does NOT change the natural frequency.

As an example, consider an automobile's accelerator pedal. Its

vibration can be excessive, and can cause driver discomfort.
Toyota, for example, add a mass to the system to reduce its natural frequency well
below the typical excitation frequencies observed in a car.

ISOLATION FROM RUNNING EQUIPMENT.

In this class of problems we have a different consideration. Running equipment usually
generates dynamic forces, and we want to reduce the force transmitted through the
isolation mounts to the ground (or ship's hull, or whatever). The isolator is typically a
spring/damper system, comparable to the type used for isolation from ground motion.
We have already considered the force transmitted through the spring/damper when we
considered support motion. This time, however, the displacement is from the mass, but
the effect is similar. A full analysis, not included in these notes, shows that the force
transmissibility of the isolator (ratio of transmitted force to excitation force) is given by:

TR =
FT
= 2
(
ω n2 + 2iζωω n )
F (
ω n − ω 2 + 2iζωω n )
Comparison with the displacement transmissibility shows that the two forms of
transmissibility we have considered have the same solution. That is:

ω n4 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2
TR =
(ω )
2
2
n −ω 2 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2

 2ζω 3 
ϕ = tan −1  
(
 ωn ωn2 − ω 2 + 4ζ 2ωnω 2 
  )

In other words, the force and displacement transmissibility equations are identical.
HOWEVER, IT MUST BE REMEMBERED THAT EVEN THOUGH THE EQUATIONS ARE THE SAME,
THEY ARE USED FOR DIFFERENT SYSTEMS.

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ASSIGNMENTS
1. A machine part of mass 2 kg vibrates in a viscous medium. Determine the
damping coefficient, c, when a harmonic exciting force of 25 N results in a resonant
amplitude of 1.5 cm with a period of 0.20 s.

2. A weight attached to a spring of stiffness 500 N/m has a viscous damping device
attached. When the weight is displaced and released, the period of vibration is 1.80 s,
and the ratio of consecutive amplitudes is 4.2 to 1.0. Determine the amplitude and
phase when a force F O = 2.cos(3t) acts on the system.

3. A spring-mass system is excited by a force F Osin (ωt). When excited at the

natural frequency, the amplitude is measured to be 0.6 cm. At ω = (0.8) × ωn, the
amplitude is measured to be 0.5 cm. Determine the viscous damping ratio, ζ, of the
system.

4. The figure represents a simplified arrangement for a

spring-supported vehicle traveling over a rough road.
Determine an equation for the amplitude of motion for m as
a function of road speed. What is the worst road speed?

5. A 70 kg motor is rigidly mounted on an isolator block of mass 1200 kg. The

natural frequency and viscous damping ratio of the combination on the isolator block's
support system are fn = 160 cpm, and ζ = 0.10. An
unbalance in the motor causes a vertical harmonic
force of f = 100 sin (30 t). Determine:

a) The amplitude of vibration of the block.

b) The maximum acceleration of the block.

c) The amplitude of the dynamic force transmitted to the ground through the isolator
block's support system.

6. A sensitive 100 kg instrument is to be installed at a location where the observed

acceleration is 15 cm/s2 at 20 Hz. It is proposed to mount the instrument on a rubber
pad, with k = 280 kN/m and ζ = 0.10. What acceleration will be transmitted to the
instrument?

7. Show that for a single-degree-of-freedom system the peak response amplitude

occurs when the force excitation frequency is given by:

ω = ω n 1 − 2ζ 2

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SOLUTIONS
1. A machine part of mass 2 kg vibrates in a viscous medium. Determine the
damping coefficient, c, when a harmonic exciting force of 25 N results in a resonant
amplitude of 1.5 cm with a period of 0.20 s.

X 1
H (ω ) = =
{( ) }
1/2
FO 2 2
m ω −ω2
n + 4ζ ω ω
2 2
n
2

Assume light damping for now, so at resonance, ω ≈ ω n

XRES 1
=
FO m 2ζωn2
FO c
so ζ = but also ζ =
XRES m 2ω n2 2mω n
Combine and rearrange:
FO
c=
X RESωn
2π
but ωn = 2π fn =
τn
F 0.2 25 × 0.2
hence c = O = = 53.1 Ns/m
XRES 2π 0.015 × 2π
Check the “light damping” assumption:
53.1× 0.2
ζ = = 0.423 = 42.3%
2 × 2 × 2π
which is not “light”. So the answer will have some error. It is left to the student to show
that in this specific case, using a resonant frequency of ω R = ω n (1− 2ζ ) actually
2

makes no difference to the final answer.

2. A weight attached to a spring of stiffness 500 N/m has a viscous damping device
attached. When the weight is displaced and released, the period of vibration is 1.80 s,
and the ratio of consecutive amplitudes is 4.2 to 1.0. Determine the amplitude and
phase when a force F O = 2.cos(3t) acts on the system.

First, find the system characteristics from the free decay (log-decrement) information.
Note that damping is not “light” for this problem.

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 4.2  2Nπζ
δ N = ln   = 1.435 =
 1.0  1−ζ 2
ζ = 0.2227
from which
2π
ωd = ωn 1−ζ 2 so = ω n 1 − 0.22272
1.80
k
ω n = 3.58 rad/s and m = 2 = 39 kg
ωn
Now solve for the harmonic force excitation part of the problem:
FO = 2 N ; ω = 3 rad/s
X 1
H (ω ) = =
{( ) }
1/2
FO 2
m ω n2 − ω 2 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2

2
X= = 0.0084 m
{( }
so
39 3.58 − 3 2
)
2 2
+ 4 × 0.2227 × 3.58 × 3 2 2 2

1/2

 2ζωω   
Phase of H ( ω ) = tan −1  2 n2  = tan−1  2 × 0.2227 × 3 × 3.58  = 51.4O
 (
 ωn − ω ) 


 3.582 − 3 2 ( 
 )
3. A spring-mass system is excited by a force F Osin (ωt). When excited at the
natural frequency, the amplitude is measured to be 0.6 cm. At ω = (0.8) × ωn, the
amplitude is measured to be 0.5 cm. Determine the viscous damping ratio, ζ, of the
system.
XRES 1 0.006 1
At resonance = hence =
m 2ζω n 2mζω n2
2
FO FO
X 1
At ω = ( 0.8 )ω n =
{( ) }
1/2
FO m ω 2 − ω 2 + 4ζ 2ω 2ω 2
n n 2

0.005 1
hence =
{(1− 0.8 ) + 4ζ 0.8 }
1/2
FO 2 2
mω 2
n
2 2

 = 4ζ ( 0.006 ) = (0.005 ) {(1 − 0.8 ) + 4ζ 0.8 }

2
 FO 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Hence 
 mω n
2

from which ζ 2 = 0.0405 or ζ = 0.20 = 20%

4. The figure represents a simplified arrangement for a spring-supported vehicle

traveling over a rough road. Determine an equation for the amplitude of motion for m as
a function of road speed. What is the worst road speed?

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X ωn4 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2  2ζω 3 

= and φ = tan− 1  
Y
(ω 2
n −ω2 )
2
+ 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2  ( )
 ω n ω n2 − ω 2 + 4ζ 2ω nω 2 


For this problem:

2π v k
ω= and ωn =
L m
Most unfavorable speed is when:
2π v WORST
= ω = ωR = ωn 1 − 2ζ 2
L
ωnL 1 − 2ζ 2
hence vWORST = = fnL 1− 2ζ 2
2π

5. A 70 kg motor is rigidly mounted on an isolator block of mass 1200 kg. The

natural frequency and viscous damping ratio of the combination on the isolator block's
support system are fn = 160 cpm, and ζ = 0.10. An unbalance in the motor causes a
vertical harmonic force of f = 100 sin (30 t). Determine:

a) The amplitude of vibration of the block.

Note that even though the excitation is being caused by rotor unbalance, the way the
question is worded makes it a force excitation problem.

X 1
H (ω ) = =
{( }
1/2

)
FO 2 2
m ω −ω 2
n + 4ζ ω ω
2 2
n
2

160 16
ωn = × 2π = π rad/s ; ω = 30 rad/s ; FO = 100 N
60 3
Hence
100
X= 1/2
= 0.126 × 10 −3 m
 2

2 2
  16π   16π  
1270    − 30  + 4 × 0.10 × 30 ×  3  
2 2 2

  3     


b) The maximum acceleration of the block.

x = A.sin (30t ) with A = 0.126 mm

x&& = −302 A .sin ( 30t )
Hence X&& = 30 2 × 0.126 × 10 −3 = 0.113 m/s 2

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c) The amplitude of the dynamic force transmitted to the ground through the isolator
block's support system.

We now consider the Transmissibility of the isolation system:

FT ω n4 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2
TR = = 0.40
F
(ω 2
n −ω )
2 2
+ 4ζ ω ω
2 2
n
2

Hence FT = 100 × 0.40 = 40 N

6. A sensitive 100 kg instrument is to be installed at a location where the observed

acceleration is 15 cm/s2 at 20 Hz. It is proposed to mount the instrument on a rubber
pad, with k = 280 kN/m and ζ = 0.10. What acceleration will be transmitted to the
instrument?

k 280 × 103
ωn = = = 52.92 rad/s
m 100
ω = 2π × 20 = 125.66 rad/s
X &&
X ω n4 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2
TR = = && = = 0.237
Y Y
(ω 2
n −ω )
2 2
+ 4ζ ω ω
2 2
n
2

Hence X&& = 15 × 0.237 = 3.56 cm/s2

7. Show that for a single-degree-of-freedom system the peak response amplitude

occurs when the force excitation frequency is given by:

ω = ω n 1 − 2ζ 2

This solution is presented in class.

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