LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Early Periods in English Literature

Lesson 2.1
Anglo-Saxon/Old English Literature
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. describe and understand the Anglo-Saxon Literature specifically folk poetry,
Beowulf, and Caesura and Kennings.

Anglo-Saxon literature, culture, and language hold immense significance in the realm of English
literature. The Anglo-Saxon Literature is an important component in English Language and
Literature departments because it delves into the civilization that laid the foundation for modern
English literature and shaped subsequent English culture. However, students often struggle with
understanding and reading Anglo-Saxon literary texts due to the complexity of Old English.

One of the most iconic pieces of Anglo-Saxon literature is "Beowulf," which opens with "Lo! The
Spear-Danes' glory." This epic work serves as a representation of the glory and cultural heritage
of the ancient Anglo-Saxons, marking the inception of English literary development. The Anglo-
Saxon civilization made vital contributions to the formation of modern England, encompassing
their governance, religious beliefs, and literary accomplishments. This period was pivotal in the
evolution of literature, with themes such as honor, generosity, unity, and glory continuing to
influence modern-day literary works.

How did the Anglo-Saxon Literature come be?

- The Anglo-Saxons came to England through a combination of migration and invasion
during a period of Roman withdrawal and instability. The reasons for their migration are
not fully clear, but factors such as pressure from other tribes and economic challenges
may have played a role. Their arrival had a profound and lasting impact on the history
and culture of England, leading to the emergence of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the
development of what would become the English language and identity.

Who started the Anglo-Saxons?

- Anglo-Saxon literature refers to the body of written and oral works produced in England
between the mid-5th century and the Norman Conquest of 1066. This period in English
history is characterized by the dominance of the Anglo-Saxons, who were Germanic tribes
that settled in England after the departure of the Romans.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Why do we need to read and understand Anglo-Saxon Literature?

- Anglo-Saxon literature is a rich and diverse body of work that provides valuable insights
into the culture, history, and values of the early English people. It includes epic poetry,
heroic tales, religious writings, and historical accounts, and some manuscripts from this
period do contain illustrations, although they are not as elaborate as those in later
medieval works.

RIDDLES

The Anglo-Saxon riddles are especially interesting. Far from being idle brain-teasers to divert
people for half an hour during their lunch break or provide a topic of conversation at Christmas
dinner, the riddle, to the Anglo-Saxons, was a serious and enigmatic poetic form, designed to
defamiliarise and alienate by depriving a thing of its name or giving an animal a ‘voice’ with which
to speak to us.

First Anglo-Saxon riddle: what hangs down by the thigh of a man, under his cloak, yet is stiff and
hard? When the man pulls up his robe, he puts the head of this hanging thing into that familiar
hole of matching length which he has filled many times before.
 Answer: Key

Second Anglo-Saxon riddle: I am a wondrous thing, and to woman I am a thing of joyful

expectation, to close-lying companions serviceable. I harm no city-dweller with the exception of
my slayer. My stem is erect and tall – I stand up in bed – and I am whiskery somewhere down
below. Sometimes a countryman’s attractive daughter will venture, bumptious girl, to get a grip
on me. She assaults my red self and seizes my head and clenches me in a cramped place. She
will soon feel the effect of her encounter with me, this curl-locked woman who squeezes me. Her
eye will be wet.
 Answer: Onion

Third Anglo-Saxon riddle: I saw a woman sit alone.

 Answer: A Mirror

Fourth Anglo-Saxon riddle: The wave, over the wave, a strange thing I saw, thoroughly wrought,
and wonderfully ornate: a wonder on the wave: water became bone.
 Answer: Ice

Fifth Anglo-Saxon riddle: I saw two wonderful and weird creatures out in the open unashamedly
fall a-coupling. If the fit worked, the proud blonde in her furbelows got what fills women.
 Cock and Hen

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

FOLK POETRY

Anglo-Saxon Poetry, written during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period from the mid-5th century
to 1066, was primarily an oral tradition characterized by a unique rhythmic style. Unlike Western
European poetry, it didn't rely on meter and rhyme but used alliteration, creating a distinct
guttural sound and chant-like rhythm. While much of this poetry was never written down, it
covered various genres, including epic poems like Beowulf, religious works like Caedmon's hymn,
historical chronicles, riddles, and lyrical pieces like The Seafarer and The Wanderer. This rich
literary tradition reflects the culture and language of early England.

Anglo-Saxon folk poetry, like other forms of literature from this era, provides valuable insights
into the worldview, values, and artistic expressions of the early English people. It was an essential
part of their cultural identity and contributed to the development of the English language and
literary traditions that would follow in later centuries.

BEUWOLF

Beowulf" is one of the most famous and important works of Anglo-Saxon or Old English
literature. It is an epic poem that tells the story of a heroic warrior named Beowulf and his battles
against supernatural creatures.

AUTHOR/BACKGROUND OF THE STORY “BEOWULF”

● The author of "Beowulf" is unknown, and the poem is considered to be an anonymous
work. It is believed to have been composed in the early Middle Ages, likely between
the 8th and 11th centuries
● The poem is one of the most important works of Old English literature.
● The poem is written in Old English, which was the dominant language of the Anglo-
Saxon people who inhabited England during that time.
● The author was likely a member of Anglo-Saxon culture and would have been familiar
with the oral traditions and poetic styles of the time.
● "Beowulf" is believed to have been composed during a period of significant cultural and
historical upheaval in England.
● It reflects the values, ideals, and heroic ethos of the Anglo-Saxon society, including
concepts of loyalty, bravery, and the importance of heroic deeds.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

CHARACTERS OF THE STORY

1. Beowulf
- protagonist and hero of the epic.
- He is a Geatish warrior known for his extraordinary strength, courage, and
loyalty.
2. Hrothgar
- a Danish king and plays a significant role in the story.
- the ruler of the Danes and is known for his wealth, generosity, and wisdom.
3. Grendel
- a monstrous creature descended from the biblical figure Cain.
- Grendel represents chaos and evil in the story.
4. Grendel’s Mother
- a monstrous and grotesque creature.
- another formidable adversary that Beowulf must confront in the epic.
5. Wiglaf
- one of Beowulf's loyal warriors and a kinsman.
- He plays a crucial role in the final battle against the dragon, demonstrating
unwavering loyalty and bravery.
6. King Hygelac
- Beowulf's uncle and king of the Geats.
- Beowulf serves him faithfully before eventually becoming the king of the
Geats himself.

7. Unferth
- a Danish warrior who initially doubts Beowulf's abilities but later lends him
a sword to fight Grendel's mother.
8. The Dragon
- the final adversary Beowulf faces in the epic.
- It guards a treasure hoard, and its awakening sets in motion the events
leading to Beowulf's last battle.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

STORY SUMMARY
“BEOWULF”

The poem begins with the Danish king, Hrothgar, who is plagued by a monstrous creature
named Grendel. Grendel is a descendent of Cain and is a giant, bloodthirsty monster who
terrorizes Hrothgar's kingdom, Heorot, by attacking the mead-hall and killing Hrothgar's warriors
every night. The attacks continue for many years, and Hrothgar's kingdom is in despair.
Hearing of Hrothgar's plight, Beowulf, a Geatish warrior from Sweden, decides to come to
his aid. Beowulf and his loyal men sail to Denmark, where they are welcomed by Hrothgar.
Beowulf makes a boastful pledge to rid Heorot of Grendel. He waits in the mead-hall for Grendel's
attack, and when Grendel comes that night, Beowulf engages him in a fierce battle. Beowulf
manages to rip Grendel's arm off, mortally wounding him. Grendel escapes but dies soon after.
Hrothgar and his people are overjoyed, and Beowulf is celebrated as a hero. Hrothgar
rewards Beowulf with treasure and lavish feasts. However, their celebration is short-lived because
Grendel's mother, a powerful water-dwelling monster, seeks revenge for her son's death. She
attacks Heorot, killing one of Hrothgar's closest advisors. Beowulf volunteers to confront her.
Beowulf and a group of warriors journey to the underwater lair of Grendel's mother.
Beowulf dives into the water and engages in a fierce battle with her. He manages to kill her with
a magical sword he finds in her lair. He also finds Grendel's corpse and decapitates it as proof of
his victory.
Beowulf returns to Hrothgar's kingdom, and once again, he is celebrated as a hero. He
receives more rewards, and Hrothgar praises his bravery and honor. Beowulf and his men return
to Geatland, and he presents King Hygelac with the treasures he received from Hrothgar.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Years pass, and Beowulf becomes the king of the Geats. His kingdom is prosperous, but
a new threat arises in the form of a dragon guarding a hoard of treasure. Beowulf, now an aging
king, decides to face the dragon in one last heroic act. With the help of his loyal warrior Wiglaf,
Beowulf confronts the dragon. In the ensuing battle, Beowulf is fatally wounded, but he manages
to kill the dragon as well.
Beowulf dies, and his death marks the end of an era. He is honored with a grand funeral
and a massive burial mound filled with the dragon's treasure. The poem concludes with a sense
of loss and the inevitable passing of great heroes.

“Beowulf" explores several themes that are central to the narrative and offer insight into the
culture and values of Anglo-Saxon society. Some of the key themes in the story of Beowulf
include:
1. Heroism: The poem celebrates the heroic ideals of the time. Beowulf, the protagonist,
embodies these ideals through his bravery, strength, and willingness to face supernatural
threats to protect his people. Heroic deeds, such as battles against monsters and dragons,
are central to the narrative.
2. Loyalty and Kinship: Loyalty and kinship are highly valued in the poem. Beowulf's
loyalty to King Hrothgar and the Geatish king, Hygelac, is a central theme. The
relationships between warriors and their lords, as well as among comrades, demonstrate
the importance of loyalty in this society.
3. Good vs. Evil: "Beowulf" presents a clear dichotomy between good and evil. Grendel,
Grendel's mother, and the dragon are embodiments of evil, while Beowulf and his allies
represent the forces of good. The poem explores the struggle between these opposing
forces.
4. Fate and Destiny: The concept of fate, often referred to as "wyrd" in Old English, is
woven into the narrative. Characters often accept their fate, acknowledging that they have
limited control over their destinies. Beowulf himself believes that his life is predestined.
5. Mortality and Transience: The poem reflects on the impermanence of life and the
inevitability of death. Beowulf, despite his heroic accomplishments, is ultimately mortal
and faces his own mortality in the battle against the dragon. The passing of great heroes
and the fleeting nature of human existence are recurring themes.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

6. Reputation and Glory: The characters in "Beowulf" seek to establish and maintain their
reputations as brave warriors. The acquisition of treasure and the praise of others are
means of achieving glory and immortality through one's deeds.
7. Strength and Valor: Physical strength and valor in battle are highly prized attributes in
the poem. Beowulf's physical prowess and courage in facing formidable foes are qualities
that define him as a hero.

CAESURA AND KENNINGS

Caesura
is defined as a break or pause in a line of poetry, and it is the same in Beowulf. The break
comes where one phrase stops and a fresh one starts. While caesura was used in Ancient Greek
and Roman poetry in this way, caesura in Beowulf was used a little differently. Beowulf was
written in Old English, hence this pause or break in the lines came to break up a droning phrase.

The usage of caesura is also linked to the use of alliteration in Beowulf. It helps to separate
the beats and phrases to make them sound better.

Examples of Caesura in Beowulf

● “Asleep from their feasting, insensible to pain”

● “He was numb with grief, but got no respite”
● “High-born and powerful. He ordered a boat”
● “You noblest of men; there’ll be nothing you want
for,”

The caesura is made visible through a period, comma, semi-colon, etc. It shows the reader
where to stop or where the phrase ends so that it doesn’t go on forever. One can also see how
the caesura coincides with alliteration in the poem.

In Beowulf, alliteration instead of rhyme was the focus of the day, and the caesura was placed
at just the right spot in the line. There would be two or three alliterative sounds before that
pause. And then the same alliterative sound would follow in the beginning soon after the caesura.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Examples of Obvious Alliteration Alongside Caesura in Beowulf

Each line in Beowulf contains alliteration, but there are some places where it’s more obvious than
others. Take a look at how the caesura separates the alliteration with some alliterative
sounds before the break, and then one after the break. Having in mind that it’s a little trickier
and not as accurate since the poem was translated from Old English.
Example include:
● “Greedy and grim, he grabbed thirty men”: the “gr” sound is repeated before and after
the caesura
● “Over the waves, with the wind behind her”: the “w” sound
● “And moored their ship. There was a clash of mail And a thresh of gear. They thanked
God For that easy crossing on a calm sea”: this is a longer one because we see the
repeated sound over a few lines. “Sh” and “th” (break), “th” and “sh” (break), “th” and
sh” (break) “th and th”.

Kennings
Kennings come from the Old Norse word ‘kenna,’ meaning ‘to know’, they are compound words
or short phrases, sometimes hyphenated, which are used to describe a different word. In
Beowulf, kennings are used very often, as metaphors, giving color to the reader’s imagination. It
has likely gone through many changes as it went through generations and through translations.

Kenning examples:
 fender-bender: car accident
 ankle-biter: child
 four-eyes: a glasses-wearer
 pencil-pusher: someone who works at a desk all day on administrative tasks
 tree-hugger: someone who cares greatly about the environment

Examples of kenning in Beowulf:

 battle-sweat: blood
 sleep of the sword: death
 whale-road: the sea
 raven-harvest: a corpse/corpses
 sky-candle: the sun
 ring-giver: a king
 earth-hall: burial mound
 helmet-bearers: warriors
 stout-hearted: brave
 dwelling-place: residence

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Hero Descriptions: Kennings to Describe Beowulf, the Main Character

Some of the kennings from Beowulf were used to describe the main character, and not only
the aspects of the story. Since they are written in a poetic way, these kennings can give us a
better and more complete idea about the character himself.
Some of the kennings describing Beowulf include ‘ring-prince’ and ‘scylding warrior.’ However,
there are other kennings that describe his appearance, personality, and even actions.
For example, when he arrives at the Danes to offer his services to kill Grendel, the
monster, there is a person jealous of his ‘sea-braving,’ which is his ability to defeat the sea on
his journey.

The kennings used in Beowulf to describe Grendel include:

● shepherd of evil
● guardian of crime
● Hell’s captive
● Sin-stained demon
● God-cursed brute

These descriptions add to the characterization of the antagonist in the tale, and as you
read, you get an even wider picture of who Grendel is. The author hasn’t used plain words such
as ‘bad,’ ‘evil,’ or ‘disgusting.’ He has given the readers a real idea of what his monster is through
his use of kennings.

Kennings in Beowulf create a beautiful and vivid picture for readers as they follow Beowulf
on his adventure to kill the beast Grendel. We have the epic hero with his “light of battle” (sword),
and the terrible beast or “God-cursed brute” as his enemy.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Early Periods in English Literature

Lesson 2.2
Anglo-French/Medieval English Literature
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. outline the plot and literary elements of the stories, epic poems, sonnets and plays in
Medieval English Literature

The medieval period saw the development of the ballad, short narrative poems, simple plot and
intended to be sung. All anonymous, the ballads dealt with subjects that appealed to the popular
imagination: deeds of violence resulting from jealousy, heroic deeds and battle, relationship
between man and supernatural beings, and sometimes humorous domestic incidents. A number
of ballads dealt with exploits of Robin Hood, a legendary bandit, depicted as a man who robbed
the rich to give to the poor.

Metrical romance also developed during this period. The best among them were those that gave
wonderful accounts of deeds and exploits of King Arthur and his knights.

The most outstanding work of the period is Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Through his
work, Chaucer painted a picture of contemporary English life by gathering a motley company of
people together and letting each class of society tell its own favorite stories.

William Langland was another outstanding poet of this period. His protest against social injustice
and other evils of the period, found expression in his work, The Vision of William Concerning Piers
the Plowman.

In the 15th Century, Thinas Malory's Le Morte d' Arthur appeared as the compilation of all the
legends and stories about King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. It was also the time
when books became entertaining to read William Caxton set up the first printing press. This was
the status of English literature at the time Columbus set out his historic voyage later in 1492.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood by Howard Pyle

Summary:

During the reign of King Henry II in England, 18-year-old Robin Hood gets into a fight on the way
to an archery competition, accidentally killing a forester. Robin hides from the vengeful Sheriff of
Nottingham in Sherwood Forest. Over time, other outlaws join him, and he becomes the leader
of their band. They vow to help others who have been unfairly oppressed or are in need, and
they do so by taking from those who have wronged these people. As Robin Hood becomes more
notorious in Nottingham, the Sheriff attempts to catch him but always fails. Realizing that he
cannot outsmart Robin Hood, the Sheriff gives up on his aim of catching the outlaw.

When the Sheriff holds an archery competition, Robin Hood’s right-hand man, Little John,
participates in disguise. The Sheriff is so impressed that he invites Little John into his service.
Little John accepts and enjoys the life of leisure while working for the Sheriff. However, he begins
to miss his friends in Sherwood Forest and returns, having stolen the Sheriff’s silver. Robin Hood
chastises Little John for stealing from someone who did not wrong him. Little John brings the
Sheriff into Sherwood Forest, where Robin returns his silver.

While Little John goes on an errand, Robin Hood follows him, assuming that he will get off course.
Robin watches as Little John fights with a tanner named Arthur a Bland, who beats Little John.
Robin Hood is impressed by Arthur and invites him to join their band. As the three continue
walking through the forest, they meet a man dressed in fancy clothing and attempt to rob him.
However, they discover he is Robin Hood’s nephew, on the run from the law after accidentally
killing his father’s steward. Robin renames his nephew Will Scarlet and invites him to join their
band.

The four men then come upon a miller, whom they play a trick on, pretending to rob him.
However, the miller outsmarts them, temporarily blinding them by throwing flour into their faces.
Once Robin Hood reveals himself, the miller joins their band as well.

Later, the band finds a minstrel named Allan a Dale, whose love, Ellen, is about to marry someone
else. Robin pledges to help Allan and Ellen. He finds a friar who will marry them, Friar Tuck, and
interrupts the wedding ceremony. Allan and Ellen are married, and Friar Tuck joins Robin Hood’s
band.

One day, Robin Hood meets a knight, Sir Richard of Lea, who is impoverished after pawning his
land to the Prior of Emmet to save his son from jail. Robin steals from the wealthy Bishop of
Hereford, who Little John forcefully brought to Sherwood, and uses the money to buy back Sir
Richard’s lands from the greedy Prior of Emmet. Sir Richard pledges his loyalty to Robin Hood.

Another day, while in search of adventure, Little John dresses as a friar. He meets two friars at
an inn and taunts them during their travels before stealing from them. Meanwhile, Robin Hood
trades clothes with a beggar and robs four other beggars who are feigning various ailments. Later
he meets a corn dealer who is known to cheat those in need, whom he also robs.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Having gained notoriety as well as respect for his archery skills, Robin Hood is invited to
participate in an archery competition by Queen Eleanor. He attends, though King Henry is furious
when Robin Hood wins. The king promises the queen that he will grant Robin Hood a pardon for
forty days, but he sends his men after Robin while Robin is on his way back to Sherwood. Having
been warned by the queen’s page, Robin Hood and his men split up. His men make it back to
Sherwood Forest, but Robin finds all roads to Sherwood blocked. He meets Sir Richard, who
advises Robin Hood to ask the queen for mercy. He makes this request, and Queen Eleanor allows
Robin to return to Sherwood unharmed.

After a few years, King Henry dies and is succeeded by King Richard. Robin Hood ventures out of
Sherwood for the first time in many years and encounters an outlaw, Guy of Gisbourne, who has
been sent by the Sheriff to catch Robin Hood. Robin kills Guy of Gisbourne and dresses in his
clothes. He goes to an inn, where the Sheriff is waiting for him. There Little John is set to be
hanged for releasing three men who were to be killed for poaching the king’s deer. Robin Hood
calls his men, and they save Little John.

A few months later, King Richard visits Nottingham, and he and his men go in search of Robin
Hood dressed as friars. They meet Robin in Sherwood Forest and reveal themselves after an
archery contest. King Richard offers a place in his service to Robin Hood and his men, which they
accept.

After King Richard dies, Robin Hood returns to Sherwood Forest, where he intends to remain.
However, the new king is unhappy about Robin’s departure and sends the Sheriff after him. Robin
Hood kills the Sheriff and then becomes ill. He asks his cousin, a nun, to heal him. However, his
cousin is afraid of being punished by the king and so cuts open a vein leading to Robin’s heart.
Little John comes to Robin Hood after hearing his horn. He helps Robin shoot one last arrow and
look out on Sherwood Forest before dying in Little John’s arms.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Early Periods in English Literature

Lesson 2.3
Metrical Tales and Romances
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. identify the key features and values associated with chivalry during the Norman
Period
b. recognize the development of legendary material and Metrical Romances, particularly
focusing on the stories of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table and
Canterbury Tales by G. Chaucer

The Norman quest of England in 1066 brought about several changes in the life and literature of
the people. Under the Norman kings, there came into the institution known as chivalry. The
knights in this period were expected to be always ready to fight for God and their overlord, and
to defend a lady's honor with his life.

At this time, there developed in England a mass of legendary material about folk heroes and the
wonderful deeds and exploits of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. The stories
became known as Metrical Romances. It is a long imaginative account of the adventures of
fair ladies and brave knights. Written either in prose or poetry the metrical romance described
marvelous deeds of their hero and included elements of chivalry, courtly love, magic, and religion.
The hero was expected to have high ideals of courage, honor, and generosity.

Reading metrical tales and romances makes the readers find out what chivalrous deeds are
involved in the hero's exploits. Most of these dtories also detailed accounts of luxurious and fine
living.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table

Retold by Mary Macleod

According to the legends, all the virtues of knighthood were brought together in King Arthur. He
married Guinevere and held his court at Camelot in England near the Welsh Border. He gathered
together many strong and brave knights and they all sat as equals around a great round table.
Thus, they came to be known as the Order of the Round Table.

On the night that Prince Arthur was born, his father, Uther Pendragon, King of England,
commanded two knights and two ladies to take the baby to a poor man whom they would find
at the castle gate. This poor man was Merlin, a mighty magician, although they did not know it.

Sometime before, Merlin had done Uther a great service, on condition that the King should grant
him whatever he wished for. This the King swore a solemn oath to do. Then Merlin made him
promise that when his child was born, it should be delivered to Merlin to bring up as he chose,
for this would be to the. child's great advantage. The King had given his promise, so he was
obliged to agree. So the child, wrapped in a cloth of gold, was delivered unto Merlin. And Merlin
carried him to Sir Ector, who named him Arthur and cherished him as his own child.

Within two years King Lither fell sick of a great malady. All the barons and the sword were in
sorrow.

Then Uther Pendragon turned and said in hearing of them all "To my son Arthur, I give God's
blessing and my own. I bid hum pray for my soul, and righteously and honorably claim my crown."
And with that, King Uther died.

Arthur was still only a baby not two years old Merlin knew it would be no use yet to proclaim him
king For there were many powerful nobles in England in those days Each one hoped to get the

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

kingdom for himself and might not stop at killing the little Prince So there was strife and much
debate throughout the land

When several years had passed Merlin went to the Archbishop of Canterbury. He asked the
Archbishop to tell all the lords of the realm to come to London at Christmas At that time, he said
a miracle would show who should be rightly king of all the realm

And so the lords and gentlemen made themselves ready and came to London town. There they
gathered at a great church which had in its courtyard a great stone. In this stone, stuck by the
point, was a beautiful sword. Letters written in gold on the stone said: "WHOSOEVER PULLETH
THIS SWORD OUT OF THIS STONE IS RIGHTLY KING OF ENGLAND."

When the lords read the writing, some of them—such as wished to be king - tried to pull the
sword from the stone. But none could stir it.

The Archbishop proclaimed that a tournament should be held at which everyone who wished
might try to win the sword.

Upon New Year's Day, after church, the tournament began. Sir Ector came also to the tournament,
and with him rode Sir Kay, his son, and young Arthur, Kay's foster brother.

As they made their way toward the tournament, Sir Kay found that he had left his sword at his
father's lodging. So he begged young Arthur to go and fetch it for him. "That will I, gladly," said
Arthur, and he rode quickly away.

But when he came to the house, he found no one at home to give him the sword. Everyone had
gone to see the jousting. Then Arthur was angry and said to himself: "I will ride to the church
and take the sword that sticketh in the stone, for my brother, Sir Kay, shall not be without a
sword this day."

When he came to the churchyard he seized the sword by the handle. Lightly but firmly he pulled
it from the stone. Then he took his horse and rode his way, until he came again to his brother,
and gave to him the sword. As soon as Sir Kay saw it, he rode to his father and said: "Sir, here
is the Sword of the Stone, wherefore I must be King of all of this land." When Sir Ector saw the
sword, he made his son tell how he got it.

"By my brother, Arthur," said Sir Kay, "for he brought it to me."

"How did you get this sword?" said Sir Ector to Arthur. And the boy told him. "Now," said Sir
Ector, "I under- stand that it is Arthur who must be king of all this land.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Then Arthur was crowned at once. He swore that he would be a good king, and would govern
with true justice all the days of his life. Then King Arthur established all his knights. To them that
were of lands not rich, he gave them lands. He charged them never to do outrageous deeds nor
murder, and never to take part in any plot against the true king. He charged them, also, by no
means to be cruel, but to give mercy unto him that asketh mercy. Unto this were all the knights
sworn to the Table Round, both old and young.

Arthur Encounters a Giant

It came to pass that ambassadors and messengers came from Lucius, Em- peror of Rome, and
commanded Arthur to pay tribute to Lucius, or war would be made against him.

Then Arthur called together all his lords and knights of the Round Table to advise him on the
matter. All said that the demand for tribute was unjust, and every man agreed to make war on
Arthur's behalf. And so King Arthur determined to go to Rome and, by the grace of God, to take
possession of the Roman Empire. Then King Arthur made ready his plans and his armies. With a
great multitude of ships, galleys, boats, and men- of-war, he set sail upon the English Channel.
When they arrived in France, on their way to Rome, a shepherd came to Arthur and told him that
for seven years a fearful giant had been ravaging countryside, murdering and devouring many
people. Lately he had seized the Duchess of Brittany and had carried her away. More than five
hundred people followed, but not all of them together could rescue her.

"Alas!" said King Arthur. "I would give the best fealm that I own to rescue that lady! Now fellow,
canst thou bring me there where the giant is?"

"Yea, sir." said the good man. "Look yonder, where thou seest those two great fires. There thou
shalt find him, and more treasure than there is in all of France."

Then the King returned into his tent and made ready horse and armor. And when this was done,
he rode forth with two of his knights till they came to the foot of the mountain where the giant
lived.

Then Arthur alone ascended the hill, till he came to a great fire and found a widow wringing her
hands, sitting by a new-made grave. King Arthur saluted her, and asked her why she was in such
great sorrow.

"Sir Knight, speak quiet," she an- swered, "for yonder is a devil. If he hear thee speak he will
come and destroy thee. O unhappy man, what dost thou here on this mountain? If ye were fifty

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

such as ye be, ye were not able to make resistance. Here lies the duchess dead, who was the
fairest of all the world. The monster hath murdered her."

"Dame," said the King "I come to do battle with that tyrant. "Beware," said the widow. "Ap-
proach him not too near, for he hath vanquished fifteen kings, and made a coat of precious
stones, embroidered with their beards."

"Well, said Arthur, "for all your words, I will accomplish my task." Then he went forth by the crest
of the hill and saw the giant as he sat at supper. He was gnawing a huge bone and baking his
broad limbs by the fire, while three fair damsels turned three spits. Arthur hailed the giant, saying:
"God give thee short life and shameful death! Why has thou slain the duchess? Arise and make
ready, thou villain, for this day thou shalt die at my hand."

The giant started up at once, and he took a great club in his hand. With it, he smote at the King,
so that Arthur's helmet was crushed. The King hit the giant, and wounded him sorely. Then the
giant threw away his club, and caught the King in his arms, crushing some of his ribs.

The King wrestled and fought, so that sometimes he was under, and sometimes above. And thus
wrestling and striving, they rolled down the hill. Ever as they wrestled, Arthur struck at the giant
with his dagger, again and again. And thus they came to the place where Arthur's two knights
ing with his horse. were wait-

When they saw the King caught in the giant's grip, they came and set him free. So many times
had Arthur smote the giant with his dagger that the foul creature at last lay dead. And it was
immediately known all through the country that Arthur had slain the giant, wherefore the people
came and thanked the King. But he answered:

"Give thy thanks to God." Then the King and his two men re- turned to Arthur's camp, where his
knights were glad to see him. When they heard of his terrible adventure, they marveled that he
would put him- self in such danger. But all men of honor said it was merry to be under such a
chieftain, who would risk his person in adventures as other poor knights did.

The Love Story of Lancelot and Guinevere

One of the greatest knights of the roundtable of King Arthur was Lancelot. He was loyal, wise,
strong, and kind. But unfortunately, he fell in love with Queen Guinevere. They tried to keep
their love a secret from the king, but eventually, it became known and was a catalyst for the
Round Table to fall.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Like most romances, their love bloomed slowly. At first, Guinevere ignored Lancelot. But not for
long and she soon succumbed to his charms and they became lovers. Another knight, Sir
Meliagaunt grew suspicious and he confronted Sir Lancelot in the presence of the King and Queen.

This led Lancelot to issue a challenge to Meliagaunt to dispute the charge. But in such a contest,
Sir Lancelot became the victor when he cleaved his oponent's head in half. Sir Lancelot and
Queen Guinevere's honour were restored.

But rumors continued to abound and several other knights became suspicious of Lancelot and
Guinevere's romantic trysts. Sir Agravain and Sir Modred, King Arthur's nephew gathered 12
knights and stormed Guinevere's chamber, catching her with Lancelot in bed.

Sir Lancelot tried to escape and fought his way out of the castle, but guards seized Guinevere
who was tried and later condemned to burn to death for her infidelity. Upon hearing the news of
his beloved's imminent execution, Sir Lancelot attempted to rescue her. He killed several of King
Arthur's knights in the process.

Angered, King Arthur gathered a troop of men and attacked Lancelot's castle, but they failed.
Lancelot ended his days as a hermit and Guinevere became a nun at Amesbury where she died.

Lord Alfred Tennyson immortalized the doomed lovers in a poem:

Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere

Like souls that balance joy and pain,
With tears and smiles from heaven again
The maiden Spring upon the plain
Came in a sunlit fall of rain.
In crystal vapor everywhere
Blue isles of heaven laugh'd between,
And far, in forest-deeps unseen,
The topmost elm-tree gather'd green
From draughts of balmy air.
Sometimes the linnet piped his song;
Sometimes the throstle whistled strong;
Sometimes the sparhawk, wheel'd along,
Hush'd all the groves from fear of wrong;
By grassy capes with fuller sound
In curves the yellowing river ran,
And drooping chestnut-buds began

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

To spread into the perfect fan,

Above the teeming ground.
Then, in the boyhood of the year,
Sir Launcelot and Queen Guinevere
Rode thro' the coverts of the deer,
With blissful treble ringing clear.
She seem'd a part of joyous Spring;
A gown of grass-green silk she wore,
Buckled with golden clasps before;
A light-green tuft of plumes she bore
Closed in a golden ring.
Now on some twisted ivy-net,
Now by some tinkling rivulet,
In mosses mixt with violet
Her cream-white mule his pastern set;
And fleeter now she skimm'd the plains
Than she whose elfin prancer springs
By night to eery warblings,
When all the glimmering moorland rings
With jingling bridle-reins.
As she fled fast thro' sun and shade,
The happy winds upon her play'd,
Blowing the ringlet from the braid.
She look'd so lovely, as she sway'd
The rein with dainty finger-tips,
A man had given all other bliss,
And all his worldly worth for this,
To waste his whole heart in one kiss,
Upon her perfect lips.

Plot of the Story

 Setting: 6th century England, a time of legend and magic.
 Protagonist: King Arthur, a wise and just ruler who seeks to restore peace and prosperity
to his kingdom.
 Antagonist: Mordred, a treacherous and cunning villain who seeks to claim the throne
for himself.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Plot:
The story begins with a war-torn England, ruled by a tyrant king who oppresses his people. A
young orphan named Arthur, raised by Merlin the wizard, is chosen by the wizard to pull the
sword Excalibur from the stone, revealing his destiny as the rightful king of England. With the
help of his loyal knights, including Lancelot, Galahad, and Percival, Arthur sets out to reclaim the
throne and restore peace to the land. As they journey to Camelot, the new capital of England,
they face many challenges, including betrayal and treachery from within their own ranks. But
with the help of Merlin and the power of the Round Table, they are able to overcome these
obstacles and defeat their enemies. In the end, Arthur and his knights are victorious, and the
kingdom is united under a new era of peace and prosperity. The legend of King Arthur and the
Knights of the Round Table lives on to this day, inspiring future generations to fight for justice
and honor.

Literary Elements
● Archetypes: The story features several archetypal characters, such as the wise
mentor (Merlin), the brave and loyal knights, and the villainous traitor (Mordred).
● Hero's journey: The story follows the classic hero's journey, with Arthur as the
protagonist who must overcome various trials and obstacles to achieve his goal of
restoring peace to the kingdom.
● Symbolism: The sword Excalibur, the round table, and the Holy Grail all serve as
symbolic elements in the story, representing honor, justice, and the quest for the
ultimate prize.
- Round Table, in Arthurian legend, the table of Arthur, Britain’s legendary
king, which was first mentioned in Wace of Jersey’s Roman de Brut (1155).
This told of King Arthur’s having a round table made so that none of his
barons, when seated at it, could claim precedence over the others.
● Foreshadowing: The story includes several examples of foreshadowing, such as
Merlin's prophecy that Arthur will pull the sword Excalibur from the stone, which
sets the stage for his eventual destiny as king.
● Themes: The story explores several themes, including the importance of loyalty,
honor, and courage, as well as the dangers of ambition and betrayal.
● Imagery: The story uses vivid imagery to create a rich and immersive world, from
the enchanted forest where Arthur pulls Excalibur from the stone to the glittering
court of Camelot.
● Tone: The story has a mix of dark and light tones, with moments of humor and
levity balanced against the more serious themes of betrayal and war.
● Mythology: The story draws on several mythological and historical influences,
including the legend of King Arthur, the Knights of the Round Table, and the story
of the Holy Grail.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Geoffrey Chaucer, (born c. 1342/43, London?, England—

died October 25, 1400, London), the outstanding English poet
before Shakespeare and “the first finder of our language.” His
The Canterbury Tales ranks as one of the greatest poetic
works in English. He also contributed importantly in the second
half of the 14th century to the management of public affairs as
courtier, diplomat, and civil servant. In that career he was
trusted and aided by three successive kings—Edward III,
Richard II, and Henry IV. But it is his avocation—the writing of
poetry—for which he is remembered.

The Canterbury Tales, frame story by Geoffrey

Chaucer, written in Middle English in 1387–1400. The
framing device for the collection of stories is a
pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas Becket in
Canterbury, Kent. The 30 pilgrims who undertake the
journey gather at the Tabard Inn in Southwark, across
the Thames from London. They agree to engage in a
storytelling contest as they travel, and Harry Bailly, host
of the Tabard, serves as master of ceremonies for the
contest. Most of the pilgrims are introduced by vivid
brief sketches in the “General Prologue.” Interspersed
between the 24 tales are short dramatic scenes (called
links) presenting lively exchanges, usually involving the
host and one or more of the pilgrims. Chaucer did not
complete the full plan for his book: the return journey
from Canterbury is not included, and some of the
pilgrims do not tell stories.

The use of a pilgrimage as the framing device enabled Chaucer to bring together people from
many walks of life: knight, prioress, monk; merchant, man of law, franklin, scholarly clerk; miller,
reeve, pardoner; wife of Bath and many others. The multiplicity of social types, as well as the
device of the storytelling contest itself, allowed presentation of a highly varied collection of literary
genres: religious legend, courtly romance, racy fabliau, saint’s life, allegorical tale, beast fable,
medieval sermon, alchemical account, and, at times, mixtures of these genres. The stories and
links together offer complex depictions of the pilgrims, while, at the same time, the tales present
remarkable examples of short narratives in verse, plus two expositions in prose. The pilgrimage,

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

which in medieval practice combined a fundamentally religious purpose with the secular benefit
of a spring vacation, made possible extended consideration of the relationship between the
pleasures and vices of this world and the spiritual aspirations for the next.

The Canterbury Tales consists of the General Prologue, The Knight’s Tale, The Miller’s Tale, The
Reeve’s Tale, The Cook’s Tale, The Man of Law’s Tale, The Wife of Bath’s Tale, The Friar’s Tale,
The Summoner’s Tale, The Clerk’s Tale, The Merchant’s Tale, The Squire’s Tale, The Franklin’s
Tale, The Second Nun’s Tale, The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale, The Physician’s Tale, The Pardoner’s
Tale, The Shipman’s Tale, The Prioress’s Tale, The Tale of Sir Thopas, The Tale of Melibeus (in
prose), The Monk’s Tale, The Nun’s Priest’s Tale, The Manciple’s Tale, and The Parson’s Tale (in
prose), and ends with “Chaucer’s Retraction.” Not all the tales are complete; several contain their
own prologues or epilogues.

Probably influenced by French syllable-counting in versification, Chaucer developed for The

Canterbury Tales a line of 10 syllables with alternating accent and regular end rhyme—an ancestor
of the heroic couplet.

Writing Style of The Canterbury Tales

The Canterbury Tales is written in the heroic couplet. It shows not only the poetic skills of Chaucer
but also his descriptive and narrative skills respectively through character descriptions and
narrations of each character. Chaucer's use of diction corresponds with his satire and irony, while
for figurative devices, he turns to personifications and similes.

Characters
Chaucer, appearing as one of the characters in the story, describes the others when he meets
them at the Tabard Inn at Southwark. The majority of the characters will tell a tale to the others
as they ride toward Canterbury. These are, in the order they appear in The General Prologue:

● Chaucer -the-pilgrim who narrates the work; tells the 17th and 18th tales
● The Knight – a man of honor, truth, and chivalry; tells the 1st tale
● The Squire - the knight's son, a gentle youth of poetic sensibilities; tells the 11th tale
● The Yeoman – the knight's servant; no tale
● The Prioress (Madame Eglentyne) – a nun who supervises a priory; tells the 15th tale
● The Second Nun – secretary to the Prioress; tells the 21st tale
● The Nun's Priest – one of three priests traveling with the Prioress; tells the 20th tale
● The Monk – a worldly lover of hunting, riding, and drinking; tells the 18th tale
● The Friar (Huberd) – a corrupt clergyman who keeps donations for himself; tells the 7th
tale
● The Merchant – a somber man who distrusts women; tells the 10th tale
● The Clerk – a scholar from Oxford University; tells the 9th tale

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

● The Sergeant of the Law (Man of Law) – a wealthy lawyer; tells the 5th tale
● The Franklin (landowner) – a glutton, companion of Man of Law; tells the 12th tale
● The Five Tradesmen: Haberdasher, Carpenter, Weaver, Dyer, and Tapestry Weaver, all
traveling together; described in General Prologue but no speaking parts
● The Cook (Roger) – works for the above tradesmen, loves to drink; tells 4th tale
● The Shipman – a ship's captain; tells 14th tale
● The Doctor of Physic (physician) – a greedy astrologer; tells 13th tale
● The Wife of Bath (Alisoun) – a widow who has survived five husbands and traveled the
world; tells 6th tale
● The Parson – a devout and honest clergyman; tells the 24th (last) tale
● The Plowman – the Parson's brother, devout and charitable; no speaking part
● The Miller (Robyn) – coarse, rough, and fond of drinking and stealing; tells the 2nd tale
● The Manciple (caterer) – purchases food for establishments; tells the 23rd tale
● The Reve (Osewald) – manager of an estate, an accountant; tells the 3rd tale
● The Summoner – server of summons to ecclesiastical courts; tells the 8th tale
● The Pardoner – seller of indulgences (pardons) and fake holy relics, rides with the
Summoner; tells the 14th tale
● The Host (Harry Bailey) – Innkeeper at the Tabard where the pilgrims begin their journey,
proposes the story-telling contest and moderates/settles disputes
● The Canon's Yeoman – not introduced in the General Prologue; meets the pilgrims along
the way; tells 22nd tale

Summary of all the tales:

➢ General prologue – The pilgrims meet and agree on the rules.
➢ The Knight’s Tale – The Knight tells his story after the general prologue, where the
narrator introduces every pilgrim. He draws the straw, so he goes first with his romantic
tale about Duke Theseus, his new wife Hippolyta, and her sister Emilie.
➢ The Miller’s Tale – After the Knight finished his tale, the narrator lets the Monk go next.
However, a drunk Miller interrupts him, claiming that he must continue the competition.
The Host agrees, and the drunk Miller tells a churlish story about the carpenter.
➢ The Reeve’s Tale – Everyone was laughing at Miller’s tale except Reeve. He’s a carpenter,
so the previous tale insulted him. Reeve continues the competition, claiming that he needs
to pay the Miller back. So, he tells a story about a dishonest miller.
➢ The Cook’s Tale – The Cook announces that he’ll tell the following story. Meanwhile, the
Host accuses him of dishonest cooking practices (selling spoiled meat). The Cook declares
that the Host is telling the truth. He promises to tell the story about the Host later.
➢ The Sergeant of Law’s Tale – The morning is passing quickly, so the Host tells the Sergeant
of Law to go next. The Sergeant of Law decides to share a tale about merchants as he
was a merchant long ago.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

➢ The Wife of Bath’s Tale – Before the Wife of Bath starts telling her story, she introduces
herself. It turns out that she had five husbands, so she is a “relationships expert.”
Moreover, she adheres to the biblical command to be fruitful and multiply.
➢ The Friar’s Tale – The next performer is the Friar, who is going to tell a story about a
Summoner. The Summoner warns the Friar that in case his tale is uncomplimentary, the
Summoner will, in turn, share a rude story about a friar.
➢ The Summoner’s Tale – The Friar’s tale about a summoner was uncomplimentary.
Therefore, the Summoner decided to pay back and tells an insulting story about a friar’s
unethical behavior.
➢ The Cleric’s Tale – After the Friar’s and Summoner’s rude tales, the tension between the
pilgrims increases. Thus, the Host asks the Cleric to tell a merry tale. The Cleric agrees
and shares a cheerful story about a noble gentleman called Francis Petrarch.
➢ The Merchant’s Tale – The Merchant shares his unpleasant experience of being in a
marriage. He claims that his wife brought him a lot of suffering. However, in his story, the
Merchant praises marriage. The listeners get confused if he is sincere or sarcastic.
➢ The Squire’s Tale – The Host asks the Squire to tell a tale about love. The Squire states
that he doesn’t know a lot about love. However, he fulfills the request because he does
not want to go against the Host’s authority.
➢ The Franklin’s Tale – The Franklin interrupts the Squire with his words of admiration. He
says that the Squire is an example to follow, so he wants his son to be as good as the
Squire is. Then, Franklin goes with his story.
➢ The Physician’s Tale – The storytelling contest continues, and the next presenter is the
Physician. He tells a sad tale about a knight Virginius and his incredibly beautiful daughter
Virginia.
➢ The Pardoner’s Tale – The Physician’s gruesome tale affected the listeners deeply. The
Host asks the Pardoner to tell a funny story, but not a vulgar one. The pardoner agrees,
but he asks to stop by a tavern first.
➢ The Shipman’s Tale – The next storyteller is the Shipman. He shares his fascinating tale
that covers important moral topics that are relevant even nowadays.
➢ The Prioress’ Tale – The Prioress introduces herself and gives a hymn of praise to the
Virgin Mary. This hymn becomes a preview for her story about the role of Jews in
Christianity.
➢ The Tale of Sir Thopas – The Host makes fun of Chaucer for always looking at the ground
and being fat. He asks Chaucer to tell a funny tale. Chaucer tells a rhyme that he learned
a long time ago.
➢ The Tale of Melibee – The following story that the pilgrims listen to is the Tale of Melibee.
This is a fascinating story that discovers the moral side of taking revenge.
➢ The Monk’s Tale – The Host notices the Monk’s brawny appearance saying that he doesn’t
look like a poor monk. Then, the Monk and the Host start an intense conversation about
religion. The Monk starts telling his tale that consists of numerous tragedies.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

➢ The Nun’s Priest’s Tale – The Host interrupts the Monk’s tale because it’s too depressing.
The pilgrims want to hear a merry tale, so the Host asks the Nun’s Priest if he can share
something cheerful. He agrees and starts his story.
➢ The Second Nun’s Tale – The next storyteller is the Second Nun. Before telling her tale,
she speaks about the danger of sloth. Then, she shares her story about a lady Cecilia who
wants to remain a virgin forever, like the Virgin Mary.
➢ The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale – the Canon’s Yeoman starts reviling his master’s secrets in
front of the public. The Canon rages at his yeoman and leaves the group of pilgrims. The
Yeoman continues telling the Canon’s immoral actions towards people.
➢ The Manciple’s Tale – The Host notices that the Cook is too drunk, so he needs to tell a
story as a punishment. The Cook refuses, claiming that he is too tired. The Manciple asks
to go instead of the Cook. The Host agrees.
➢ The Parson’s Tale – The evening is approaching. The competition comes to an end. The
last storyteller is the Parson. He is nervous because he doesn’t know any poems, so he
needs to tell a story in prose. Yet, he starts his tale.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Early Periods in English Literature

Lesson 2.4
English Renaissance/Elizabethan Period Literature
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Recognize the English Renaissance/Elizabethan Period Literature; and
b. Internalize the importance of English Renaissance/Elizabethan Period Literature.

ENGLISH RENAISSANCE

The English Renaissance, which began in the late 14th century and
continued until the revolutionary years of the 17th century, is regarded
as an early pinnacle of literary achievement and the time when modern
English poetry first emerged.

European renaissance began in northern Italy in the 14th century.

Tuscan City of Florence is considered a birthplace of the renaissance.
English Renaissance also called as Early Modern Period from the
beginning of the protestant reformation. Moreover, historians often
depict it was the golden age in English history and it’s been widely
romanticized in books, movies, plays, and TV series.
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Literature Flourished in Queen Elizabeth era in poets and writers were
admired and appreciated in her court she was an avid reader of literature. English Renaissance
saw the flowering of poetry, music and literature. Inspired national pride through classical ideals,
international expansion, and naval triumph. This era is most famous for drama because of William
Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe etc.

Three expression where frequently used in connection with the renaissance:

• New learning - It refers to new knowledge and intellectual interest

• Humanities - It refers to human interest
• Humanism - It refers Culture that derived from the study of classic greek and latin
writings

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Changes which renaissance brought:

- Change in arts, literature, philosophy, science, discovery and exploration.

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Printing press by German Johann Gutenberg

● One of the discovery in English

Renaissance/Elizabethan Era.
● The printing press made it possible to
disseminate written works more widely in a
predetermined script, not just prose or poetry.

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SHAKESPEAREAN SONNET

William Shakespeare

- During Elizabethan Period, Shakespeare is considered the

greatest writer and dramatist of all time. Shakespeare wrote 38
plays, 154 sonnets, two narrative poems and other poems.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Example of his sonnet:

Sonnet 116: Let me not to the marriage of true minds

BY WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

Let me not to the marriage of true minds

Admit impediments. Love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove.
O no! it is an ever-fixed mark
That looks on tempests and is never shaken;
It is the star to every wand'ring bark,
Whose worth's unknown, although his height be taken.
Love's not Time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks
Within his bending sickle's compass come;
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
If this be error and upon me prov'd,
I never writ, nor no man ever lov'd.

SHAKESPEARREAN DRAMA
William Shakespeare, also known as the Bard, is responsible for some of the most famous and
beloved plays and poetry ever written in the English language. His most well-known works include
Romeo and Juliet, A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Taming of the Shrew, Macbeth, and Hamlet.
Take a look at these lists of Shakespeare's plays, as well as some interesting historical information
about the writer himself.

Categories of Shakespeare's Plays

• Tragedies
• Comedies
• Tragicomedies
• Histories

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Tragedies
William Shakespeare knew how to strike a chord in the tragedy department. Following the Greek
tragedy tradition, characters in Shakespearean tragedies often have tragic flaws that lead to their
ultimate downfall.

Characteristics of Shakespearean Tragedy

Tragedies may involve comedic moments but tend towards more serious, dramatic plots with an
ending that involves the death of main characters. The main features of a Shakespearean tragedy
are that:
 Characters become isolated or there is social breakdown
 Ends in death
 There is a sense that events are inevitable or inescapable
 There is usually a central figure who is noble but with a character flaw which leads them
towards their eventual down fall

Here are the tragedies penned by Shakespeare:

 Titus Andronicus (1591 - 1592)
 Romeo and Juliet (1595 - 1596)
 Julius Caesar (1599)
 Hamlet (1600)
 Othello (1604)
 Timon of Athens (1604 - 1606)
 Macbeth (1606)
 King Lear (1605 - 1606)
 Antony and Cleopatra (1606 - 1607)
 Coriolanus (1608)

Comedies
In the context of Shakespearean plays, "comedy" doesn't necessarily mean it's funny (though it
often is). It can just mean there is a happy ending, usually involving a wedding.

Characteristics of Shakespearean Comedy

A comedy from Shakespeare's time is not necessarily what a modern audience would expect it to
be. Whilst there may be some funny moments, a Shakespearean comedy may involve some very
dramatic storylines. Usually what defines a Shakespearean play as a comedy is that it has a happy
ending, often involving a marriage. The main characteristics of Shakespeare's comedies are:
 A struggle of young lovers to overcome problems, often the result of the interference of
their elders
 There is some element of separation and reunification

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

 Mistaken identities, often involving disguise

 A clever servant
 Family tensions that are usually resolved in the end
 Complex, interwoven plotlines
 Frequent use of puns and other styles of comedy

Shakespeare filled theaters with some of these comedies:

 The Taming of the Shrew (1580 - 1590)
 The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1590s)
 The Comedy of Errors (1594)
 A Midsummer Night's Dream (1595 - 1596)
 Love's Labour's Lost (1595 - 1596)
 The Merchant of Venice (1596 - 1597)

Tragicomedies
Shakespearean tragicomedies, also known as "romances," are a unique genre in Shakespeare's
works. They blend elements of both tragedy and comedy, often featuring complex plots and
characters.
 Shakespearean tragicomedies, also known as "romances," are a unique genre in
Shakespeare's works. They blend elements of both tragedy and comedy, often featuring
complex plots and characters.

Characteristics of Shakespearean tragicomedies:

 Mixture of Tragic and Comic Elements: Tragicomedies combine serious, even tragic,
themes with lighter, comedic elements. They often start with a potentially tragic situation
but end with reconciliation and happiness.
 Magical or Supernatural Elements: Many tragicomedies include magical or supernatural
elements, such as ghosts, spirits, or prophecies. These elements play a significant role in
resolving the conflicts.
 Complex Plots: These plays typically have intricate and convoluted plots, with multiple
storylines and subplots that eventually come together in the end.
 Exploration of Themes: Tragicomedies often explore themes like forgiveness, redemption,
reconciliation, and the cyclical nature of life. They emphasize the human capacity for
change and growth.
 Mix of Characters: The characters in tragicomedies are diverse, including both noble and
common people. They often undergo significant personal transformations throughout the
play.
 Happy Endings: Unlike traditional tragedies, Shakespearean tragicomedies conclude with
a happy resolution, where conflicts are resolved, and characters find happiness or
forgiveness.

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Examples of Shakespearean tragicomedies include "The Winter's Tale" and "The Tempest," both
of which embody these characteristics and remain popular in the world of literature.

Histories
There's no doubt Shakespeare found the royal court to be something of an enigma. He crafted
tales of betrayal, love, and murder, all within the king's court.

Characteristics of Shakespearean History

Shakespeare's histories focus on English monarchs. They usually play upon Elizabethan
propaganda, showing the dangers of civil war and glorifying the queen's Tudor ancestors. The
depictions of monarchs including Richard III (an enemy of the Tudors) and Henry V (one of the
great Tudor monarchs) (one of the great Tudor monarchs) have been influential in creating a
perception of these kings which has persisted throughout the centuries. Many historians point to
inaccuracies in the depictions, but the plays have been very powerful in presenting a particular
image that is hard for many people to see past.

We can learn a lot about this period in time through these plays:
King John (1595 - 1597)
Richard II (1595 - 1596)
Richard III (1592 - 1594)
Henry IV, Part 1 (1596 - 1597)
Henry IV, Part 2 (1597 - 1598)
Henry VI, Part 1 (1592)

Lost Works
• Cardenio
• Edward III
• Love's Labour's Won
• Sir Thomas More
• The Two Noble Kinsmen

How many plays did Shakespeare write?

- Most scholars agree that he wrote at least 37 plays. However, either because they were lost or
poorly documented, no one knows exactly how many plays Shakespeare wrote for certain.
- In the 17th century, plays had to be registered before they could be published, essentially so
that they could be censored. Shakespeare never published any of his plays, so none of them were
registered. Some of them were published by unauthorized publishers (because there were no
copyright laws at the time), but other than that, they were only performed until about seven
years after

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Shakespeare's death on April 23, 1616.

- In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two of Shakespeare's fellow actors in the Lord
Chamberlain's Men, collected 36 of Shakespeare's plays and had them published in the First Folio.
Pericles, Prince of Tyre is the only play attributed to Shakespeare that did not appear in the First
Folio.

Romeo and Juliet

Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare

early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose
deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among
Shakespeare's most popular plays during his lifetime and, along
with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays. Today,
the characters of Romeo and Juliet are considered as archetypal
young lovers.

STORY OF ROMEO AND JULIET

Act 1:
The play begins in Verona, Italy, with a feud between two noble families, the Montagues and
the Capulets. The Prince of Verona warns them that further violence will be punished by death.
Romeo Montague is lovesick for Rosaline, but his friends convince him to attend a Capulet party
where he might find another love interest. At the party, he meets Juliet Capulet, and they fall in
love at first sight. However, they soon discover that they are from rival families.

Act 2:
Romeo sneaks into the Capulet's garden to see Juliet again. They declare their love for each
other and decide to marry secretly the next day. Juliet sends her Nurse to arrange the wedding.
Meanwhile, Tybalt, Juliet's cousin, is angered by Romeo's presence at the party and wants to
challenge him to a duel, but he is restrained by Lord Capulet.

Act 3:
Romeo and Juliet are married by Friar Laurence in secret. Mercutio, Romeo's friend, gets into a
fight with Tybalt, resulting in Mercutio's death. In a fit of rage, Romeo kills Tybalt and is
subsequently banished from Verona by the Prince.

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Juliet is devastated by Tybalt's death and Romeo's banishment. Her parents, unaware of her
marriage to Romeo, arrange for her to marry Paris. She seeks Friar Laurence's help, and he
devises a plan for her to take a sleeping potion that will make her appear dead. He promises to
send a letter to Romeo informing him of the plan.

Act 4:
Juliet takes the potion, and her family believes she is dead. They make preparations for her
funeral. Friar Laurence's letter explaining the plan never reaches Romeo due to a quarantine in
Mantua.

Act 5:
Romeo hears of Juliet's death from his servant and purchases poison. He rushes back to Verona
to Juliet's tomb. There, he encounters Paris and kills him in a duel. He then takes the poison
and dies by Juliet's side.
Juliet awakens, finding Romeo dead, and stabs herself with his dagger. The Friar arrives too
late to prevent their deaths. The feuding families and the Prince discover the tragic scene. The
deaths of Romeo and Juliet finally lead to a reconciliation between the Montagues and Capulets,
as they realize the senselessness of their feud.
The play ends with the Prince lamenting the tragedy, saying, "For never was a story of more
woe than this of Juliet and her Romeo."

THEMES OF THE STORY

Love

- Romeo and Juliet is sometimes considered to have no unifying theme, save that of young
love. The play focuses on romantic love, mainly the intense passion that springs up at first
sight between Romeo and Juliet. Love in this play is a violent and ecstatic that has power
over all other social values. It is also a tragic love and Romeo and Juliet have become
emblematic of young lovers and doomed love.

Fate And Chance

- Scholars are divided on the role of fate in the play. No consensus exists on whether the
characters are truly fated to die together or whether the events take place by a series of
unlucky chances. Arguments in favor of fate often refer to the description of the lovers as
"star-cross'd". This phrase seems to hint that the stars have predetermined the lovers'
future

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Duality Of Light And Dark

- Shakespeare's widespread use of light and dark imagery throughout the play has long
been noted. The theme of light is considered as "symbolic of the natural beauty of young
love." Both Romeo and Juliet see the other as light in a surrounding darkness. Romeo
describes Juliet as being like the sun, brighter than a torch, a jewel sparkling in the night,
and a bright angel among dark clouds. Even when she lies apparently dead in the tomb,
he says her "beauty makes This vault a feasting presence full of light." Juliet describes
Romeo as "day in night" and "Whiter than snow upon a raven's back." This contrast of
light and dark can be expanded as symbols—contrasting love and hate, youth and age in
a metaphoric way.

Time

- Time plays an important role in the language and plot of the play. Both Romeo and Juliet
struggle to maintain an imaginary world void of time in the face of the harsh realities that
surround them. For instance, when Romeo swears his love to Juliet by the moon, she
protests "O swear not by the moon, th'inconstant moon, / That monthly changes in her
circled orb, / Lest that thy love prove likewise variable." From the very beginning, the
lovers are designated as "star-cross'd" referring to an astrological belief associated with
time. Stars were thought to control the fates of humanity, and as time passed, stars would
move along their course in the sky, also charting the course of human lives below. Romeo
speaks of a foreboding he feels in the stars' movements early in the play, and when he
learns of Juliet's death, he defies the stars' course for him.

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Early Periods in English Literature

Lesson 2.5
The Restoration and the 18th Century Literature
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. define the scope of Restoration literature as a literary period, considering different
scholarly viewpoints on its boundaries and the reasons for including or excluding
specific years or regions.
b. explore the emergence and development of various literary forms during the Puritan
Period, Neoclassical Period, and On His Blindness by J. Milton

Restoration literature, English literature written after the Restoration of the monarchy in England
in 1660 following the period of the Commonwealth. Some literary historians speak of the period
as bounded by the reign of Charles II (1660–85), while others prefer to include within its scope
the writings produced during the reign of James II (1685–88), and even literature of the 1690s
is often spoken of as “Restoration.” By that time, however, the reign of William III and Mary II
(1689–1702) had begun, and the ethos of courtly and urban fashion was as a result sober,
Protestant, and even pious, in contrast to the sexually and intellectually libertine spirit of court
life under Charles II.

Many typical literary forms of the modern world—including the novel, biography, history, travel
writing, and journalism—gained confidence during the Restoration period, when new scientific
discoveries and philosophical concepts as well as new social and economic conditions came into
play. There was a great outpouring of pamphlet literature, too, much of it politico-religious, while
John Bunyan’s Christian allegory The Pilgrim’s Progress, also belongs to this period. Much of the
period’s most significant poetry, notably that of John Dryden (the great literary figure of his time,
in both poetry and prose), the earl of Rochester, Samuel Butler, and John Oldham, was satirical
and led directly to the later achievements of Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, and John Gay during
the 18th century.

THE PURITAN PERIOD

After the death of Queen Elizabeth, a great moral and political reform known as Puritanism swept
over Great Britain.

When the Commonwealth came to an end in 1660, the monarchy was restored with Charles II as
king. The next forty years was known as the Restoration Period. Tired of the restraints imposed
upon them by the Puritan government, the people gladly imitated the court which brought back
French dress, ideas and social customs.

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 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Puritan Literature (1620-1750) is a literary movement that reached its peak popularity in New
England around the 17th century. The goal of Puritan Literature was to uphold the word of God
and the Bible. The goal was also to make the religion of Puritanism more accessible and relevant
to the day-to-day person.

History of American Puritan Literature and Puritanism

Puritanism is a religious movement that originated in the late 1500s that sought to reform the
Church of England. The Church of England had separated itself from the Catholic Church in 1534.
Puritans wanted to rid the Church of England of any ties to Catholicism.

Puritans believe in religious freedom. They also believe that the government should enforce moral
rules through punishment and that everyone should live by the word of God and the Bible.
Puritans also believe in an individual relationship with God and that only a select few have been
chosen by God to go to Heaven. However, no one knows who is chosen; therefore, everyone
should try to live as sin-free as possible.

Puritanism first emerged in England but grew in popularity in the New England region of North
America. Although the Church of England had separated itself from the Catholic Church in 1534,
by 1553, under Queen Mary, England was reverted to Catholicism. This meant many Puritans
faced exile.

When Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558, she re-established the Church of England as
separate from Catholicism, but Puritans still rebelled. They felt that there were still too many ties
to Catholicism in the Church of England. They refused to follow the law and were persecuted. In
the early 1600s, many Puritans fled England. They first went to Holland and then to the Americas.
The first Puritan colony was the Plymouth Colony, followed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
More and more Puritan colonies spread throughout New England, reaching their peak in the mid-
1600s.

Characteristics of Puritan Literature

There are a few key characteristics of Puritan Literature that are important to keep in mind.
Although there is variation among genres (sermons, poems, letters, historical narratives, etc.) in
Puritan Literature, there are many key similarities across all of them.

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Religious Themes
Puritan Literature was not meant to be entertaining. It was meant to provide the reader with
lessons on religious themes and on how to live a more virtuous and pious life by God's word. The
main theme was predestination, which meant that everyone is born a sinner and that a select
few had been chosen by the will of God to enter heaven.

Simple Writing Style

The main goal of Puritan Literature was to teach and provide frameworks on how to live a life
that follows the teachings of God and the Bible. Puritans did not view literature as a form of
entertainment; therefore, they shunned elaborate and complex forms of writing. Rather, they
wrote simply and directly. This allowed the author to reach their point faster and more clearly. It
also allowed the author to write for a wider audience, as it appealed to multiple levels of education
in society.

Instilment of Fear
Puritanism and Puritan Literature used fear often. By instilling a reader with a fear of God's power,
they are more likely to make changes in their lives to live in accordance with the word of God and
the Bible. Puritan authors would often describe the eternal damnation waiting for a sinner if they
lived a life that went against the word of God and the Bible. Emotional tactics such as fear had
great influence and impact, especially when it concerned the afterlife.

Examples of Puritan Literature

There are many examples of Puritan Literature. Puritan Literature varied in genre and style, but
it always had the same purpose: to educate the reader on how to live by the word of God and
live by the Bible. Here are a few examples.

● The Bay Psalm Book (1640)

● "To My Dear Beloved Husband" (1650) by Anne Bradstreet
● Of Plymouth Plantation (1630-1651) by William Bradford

Here is a list of influential Puritan authors. This list does not cover every Puritan author, but it
provides a good set of names one should be familiar with.

● William Bradford (1590-1657)

● Rev. Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758)
● Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672)
● Thomas Vincent (1634-1678)
● John Flavel (1628-1691)

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Story of The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Summary:

The story begins in seventeenth-century Boston, then a Puritan settlement. A young woman,
Hester Prynne, is led from the town prison with her infant daughter, Pearl, in her arms and the
scarlet letter “A” on her breast. A man in the crowd tells an elderly onlooker that Hester is being
punished for adultery. Hester’s husband, a scholar much older than she is, sent her ahead to
America, but he never arrived in Boston. The consensus is that he has been lost at sea. While
waiting for her husband, Hester has apparently had an affair, as she has given birth to a child.
She will not reveal her lover’s identity, however, and the scarlet letter, along with her public
shaming, is her punishment for her sin and her secrecy. On this day Hester is led to the town
scaffold and harangued by the town fathers, but she again refuses to identify her child’s father.

The elderly onlooker is Hester’s missing husband, who is now practicing medicine and calling
himself Roger Chillingworth. He settles in Boston, intent on revenge. He reveals his true identity
to no one but Hester, whom he has sworn to secrecy. Several years pass. Hester supports herself
by working as a seamstress, and Pearl grows into a willful, impish child. Shunned by the
community, they live in a small cottage on the outskirts of Boston. Community officials attempt
to take Pearl away from Hester, but, with the help of Arthur Dimmesdale, a young and eloquent
minister, the mother and daughter manage to stay together. Dimmesdale, however, appears to
be wasting away and suffers from mysterious heart trouble, seemingly caused by psychological
distress. Chillingworth attached himself to the ailing minister and eventually moves in with him
so that he can provide his patient with round-the-clock care. Chillingworth also suspects that
there may be a connection between the minister’s torments and Hester’s secret, and he begins
to test Dimmesdale to see what he can learn. One afternoon, while the minister sleeps,
Chillingworth discovers a mark on the man’s breast (the details of which are kept from the reader),
which convinces him that his suspicions are correct.

Dimmesdale’s psychological anguish deepens, and he invents new tortures for himself. In the
meantime, Hester’s charitable deeds and quiet humility have earned her a reprieve from the scorn
of the community. One night, when Pearl is about seven years old, she and her mother are
returning home from a visit to a deathbed when they encounter Dimmesdale atop the town
scaffold, trying to punish himself for his sins. Hester and Pearl join him, and the three link hands.
Dimmesdale refuses Pearl’s request that he acknowledge her publicly the next day, and a meteor
marks a dull red “A” in the night sky. Hester can see that the minister’s condition is worsening,
and she resolves to intervene. She goes to Chillingworth and asks him to stop adding to
Dimmesdale’s self-torment. Chillingworth refuses.

Hester arranges an encounter with Dimmesdale in the forest because she is aware that
Chillingworth has probably guessed that she plans to reveal his identity to Dimmesdale. The
former lovers decide to flee to Europe, where they can live with Pearl as a family. They will take
a ship sailing from Boston in four days. Both feel a sense of release, and Hester removes her
scarlet letter and lets down her hair. Pearl, playing nearby, does not recognize her mother without
the letter. The day before the ship is to sail, the townspeople gather for a holiday and Dimmesdale
preaches his most eloquent sermon ever. Meanwhile, Hester has learned that Chillingworth knows

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

of their plan and has booked passage on the same ship. Dimmesdale, leaving the church after
his sermon, sees Hester and Pearl standing before the town scaffold. He impulsively mounts the
scaffold with his lover and his daughter, and confesses publicly, exposing a scarlet letter seared
into the flesh of his chest. He falls dead, as Pearl kisses him.

Frustrated in his revenge, Chillingworth dies a year later. Hester and Pearl leave Boston, and no
one knows what has happened to them. Many years later, Hester returns alone, still wearing the
scarlet letter, to live in her old cottage and resume her charitable work. She receives occasional
letters from Pearl, who has married a European aristocrat and established a family of her own.
When Hester dies, she is buried next to Dimmesdale. The two share a single tombstone, which
bears a scarlet “A.”

NEO-CLASSICAL PERIOD

The terms 'neo,' which means 'new,' and 'classical,' as in the day of the Roman and Greek classics.
This was also the era of The Enlightenment, which emphasized logic and reason. It was preceded
by The Renaissance and followed by the Romantic era. In fact, the Neoclassical period ended in
1798 when Wordsworth published the Romantic 'Lyrical Ballads'.

Neoclassical literature was written between 1660 and 1798.

This time period is broken down into three parts: the Restoration period, the Augustan
period, and the Age of Johnson.

- Restoration Age or Age of Dryden (1660-1700):- It is called the Restoration

Period, as King Charles was restored in this era. The Restoration Period lasted from
1660-1700.
- Augustan Age or Age of Pope (1700-1750):- The Augustan Age is also called the
Age of Pope. Pope was the leading poet in this age. The Augustan Age lasted from 1700
to 1750.
- Age of Sensibility or Age of Johnson (1750-1798):- The Age of Johnson lasted up
to 1798, when the Romantic Movement was underway with the publication of Lyrical
Ballads_by Wordsworth and Samuel Coleridge.

Key characteristics of the Neoclassical period in English literature include:

1. Imitation of Classical Models 5. The Heroic Couplet
2. Emphasis on Reason and 6. Moral and Didactic Literature
Rationality 7. Classical Themes
3. Clarity and Precision 8. Concern for Social Order
4. Satire and Social Critique

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

Notable authors and works from the Neoclassical period in English literature
include:
· John Dryden: Known for his satirical works and translations of classical literature.
· Alexander Pope: Famous for "The Rape of the Lock," "Essay on Criticism," and "The
Dunciad."
· Jonathan Swift: Renowned for "Gulliver's Travels" and satirical essays.
· Samuel Johnson: Known for his essays in "The Rambler" and "The Idler."
· Joseph Addison and Richard Steele: Collaborators on "The Spectator," a popular
periodical filled with essays and moralistic content.

ON HIS BLINDNESS BY JOHN MILTON

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)
 LESSON 2 Early Periods in English Literature

References:

Anglo-Saxon Poetry - New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.).

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Custom-Writing.org (2021, May 21). The Canterbury tales summary and analysis — Essential
stories. https://custom-writing.org/blog/the-canterbury-tales-summary-analysis-
essential-stories

Encyclopedia Britannica (n.d.). Geoffrey Chaucer.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Geoffrey-Chaucer

No Sweat Shakespeare (2022). Sonnet 29: When in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes.
https://bitly.ws/TICS

Mark, J. J. (2019, May 8). The Canterbury tales. World History Encyclopedia.
https://www.worldhistory.org/Canterbury_Tales/

Poetry Foundation (2023). The English Renaissance. An introduction to the cultural revival that
inspired an era of poetic evolution. https://bitly.ws/TIBw

Encyclopedia Britannica (n.d.). The Canterbury tales. https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-

Canterbury-Tales

The best Anglo-Saxon riddles. (2022, February 5). Interesting Literature.

https://interestingliterature.com/2019/08/the-best-anglo-saxon-riddles/

University of Glasgow Library. (2019, April 15). Title page of Canterbury tales. World History
Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10459/title-page-of-canterbury-tales/

Urla, C. (2021b, December 12). Anglo-Saxon literature. Arcadia.

https://www.byarcadia.org/post/anglo-saxon-literature-101

Zeeshan, F. .. (2016). Renaissance and Elizabethan age.

https://www.slideshare.net/FarrukhZeeshan2/renaissance-and-elizabethan-ag

Prepared by:
Aninon, Jesa C. Buron, Alexis L.
Antiporda, Mylene F. Cabalican, Richelyn R.
Ayao, Marionette June F. Cabido, Angel Kate M.
Bagnol, Angelie R. Chua, Danielle Gayle R.
Barrios, Jordan R. Colon, Rea Jean C.

© 2023 Caraga State University EL 109 (Survey of English and American Literature)