Similarities between Heat and Work:

1. Energy Transfer Mechanisms:

Both heat and work are modes of energy transfer between a system and its surroundings.

2. Path Functions:
Both are path-dependent quantities, meaning their values depend on the specific process or
path taken during the energy transfer.

3. Not Properties of the System:

Neither heat nor work is a state function or a property of the system. They are process-
dependent and cannot be stored within a system.

4. Units of Measurement:
Both are measured in the same units, such as joules (J) in the SI system or calories in some
contexts.

5. Boundary Interaction:
Both occur at the boundary of the system during interactions with the surroundings.

Dissimilarities between Heat and Work:

Aspect Heat Work

Energy transfer resulting from force acting

Energy transfer due to temperature
Definition through a distance or due to pressure-volume
difference.
changes.

Occurs due to a temperature Occurs due to mechanical or other forms of

Cause
gradient. energy transfer, such as electrical work.

Direction of Always flows from a higher Direction depends on the applied force or
Flow temperature to a lower temperature. energy conversion mechanism.

Nature of Random molecular motion (thermal Organized motion of particles (mechanical

Transfer energy). energy).

Symbol Denoted by Q. Denoted by W.

Increases or decreases internal Can do work on the surroundings or the system,

Effect on
energy by changing molecular kinetic often resulting in mechanical changes like
System
energy. expansion.

Heating water, conduction, Moving a piston, lifting a weight, or running an

Examples
convection, and radiation. electric motor.
Given:

1. Initial State:

o p1=200 kPa

o V1=0.02 m

2. Final State:

o p2=450 kpa

o V2=0.04 m3

3. Internal Energy Equation:

4. U=5pV+100
A reversible process in thermodynamics is an ideal process that never occurs in reality but is
useful for understanding the limits of performance of thermodynamic systems. To qualify as
a reversible process, several stringent conditions must be met:
Conditions for a Reversible Process:
1. Quasi-static (Infinitely Slow):
o The process must occur infinitely slowly, ensuring that the system is always in
a state of equilibrium.
2. No Friction or Dissipation:
o There should be no friction, viscous effects, or any other forms of energy
dissipation.
3. Reversible Heat Transfer:
o Heat transfer must occur infinitesimally slowly between the system and the
surroundings. The temperature gradient should be infinitesimally small.
4. No Irreversibilities:
o There should be no irreversibilities present, such as unrestrained expansion,
mixing of different substances, inelastic deformation, or electric resistance.
5. Perfectly Insulated System:
o The system should be perfectly insulated to prevent any unintended heat
exchange with the surroundings.
6. Reversible Work Interactions:
o Work interactions, such as compression and expansion, should be carried out
in a perfectly controlled manner without any loss.
First Law of Thermodynamics:
The First Law of Thermodynamics is essentially the law of energy conservation. It states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
ΔU=Q−W\Delta U = Q - W
Where:
 ΔU\Delta U is the change in internal energy of the system.
 QQ is the heat added to the system.
 WW is the work done by the system.
Key Points:
 Energy Conservation: The total energy of an isolated system remains constant.
 Internal Energy: Includes all the energy stored within the system, such as kinetic and
potential energy at the molecular level.
 Applications: This law applies to various processes like heating, cooling, expansion,
and compression.
Example:
When you heat water in a kettle, the electrical energy is converted to heat energy, which
increases the internal energy of the water, causing its temperature to rise.
Second Law of Thermodynamics:
The Second Law of Thermodynamics introduces the concept of entropy and states that in any
natural thermodynamic process, the total entropy of a system and its surroundings always
increases over time. This law explains the direction of spontaneous processes and the
feasibility of certain reactions.
Statements:
 Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is impossible to construct a heat engine that operates in
a cycle and converts all the heat input into work without any losses.
 Clausius Statement: It is impossible to transfer heat from a colder body to a hotter
body without any work input.
Key Points:
 Entropy: A measure of the disorder or randomness in a system. Entropy tends to
increase in spontaneous processes.
 Irreversibility: Natural processes are irreversible, meaning they can't return to their
original state without external intervention.
 Heat Engines and Refrigerators: The second law governs the efficiency of heat
engines and the operation of refrigerators and heat pumps.
Example:
When ice melts in a warm room, the heat energy from the room is absorbed by the ice,
increasing its entropy as it transitions from a solid to a liquid state. The process is
spontaneous and irreversible.
Summary:
 The First Law focuses on energy conservation and the transformation of energy.
 The Second Law focuses on the direction of processes, entropy, and the concept of
irreversibility.
Thermodynamic properties are characteristics of a system that help define its current state
and predict how it will respond to changes. Here are some essential thermodynamic
properties:
1. Temperature (T):
 Definition: A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. It
determines the direction of heat transfer between systems.
 Units: Kelvin (K), Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F)
2. Pressure (P):
 Definition: The force exerted by the particles of a substance per unit area on the walls
of its container.
 Units: Pascal (Pa), bar, atmosphere (atm), pounds per square inch (psi)
3. Volume (V):
 Definition: The amount of space occupied by a substance.
 Units: Cubic meters (m³), liters (L), cubic feet (ft³)
4. Internal Energy (U):
 Definition: The total energy contained within a system, including kinetic and
potential energy at the molecular level.
 Units: Joules (J), kilojoules (kJ), British Thermal Units (BTU)
5. Enthalpy (H):
 Definition: The total heat content of a system, defined as H=U+PVH = U + PV. It is
used in processes occurring at constant pressure.
 Units: Joules (J), kilojoules (kJ), BTU
6. Entropy (S):
 Definition: A measure of the disorder or randomness in a system. It quantifies the
amount of energy unavailable for doing work.
 Units: Joules per Kelvin (J/K), kilojoules per Kelvin (kJ/K)
7. Specific Heats (C):
 Definition: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree Celsius.
 Types:
o Specific Heat at Constant Volume (C_v): Used when the volume remains
constant.
o Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (C_p): Used when the pressure remains
constant.
 Units: Joules per kilogram per Kelvin (J/kg·K)
8. Specific Volume (v):
 Definition: The volume occupied by a unit mass of a substance.
 Units: Cubic meters per kilogram (m³/kg)
9. Specific Enthalpy (h):
 Definition: The enthalpy per unit mass of a substance.
 Units: Joules per kilogram (J/kg), kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg)
10. Specific Entropy (s):
 Definition: The entropy per unit mass of a substance.
 Units: Joules per kilogram per Kelvin (J/kg·K)
Closed and Open Systems in Thermodynamics:
In thermodynamics, systems are categorized based on their ability to exchange energy and
matter with their surroundings. Understanding the difference between closed and open
systems is fundamental to analyzing thermodynamic processes.
Closed Systems:
 Definition: A closed system is one where mass does not cross the system boundary,
but energy can be exchanged with the surroundings.
 Characteristics:
o Mass: Constant within the system.
o Energy: Can be transferred in the form of heat or work.
o Boundary: Fixed or movable but impermeable to matter.
 Examples:
o Piston-Cylinder Assembly: If the piston compresses or expands without
allowing gas to escape or enter, it forms a closed system. Heat can be added or
removed, and work can be done by or on the system.
o Refrigerator: The refrigerant cycles within the system, but mass does not
enter or leave.
Open Systems:
 Definition: An open system is one where both mass and energy can cross the system
boundary.
 Characteristics:
o Mass: Can enter or leave the system.
o Energy: Can be transferred in the form of heat or work.
o Boundary: Permeable to matter and energy.
 Examples:
o Turbine: Steam enters the turbine, does work on the blades, and leaves. Both
mass (steam) and energy (work, heat) cross the boundary.
o Boiler: Water enters the boiler, is heated to form steam, and exits. Both mass
(water, steam) and energy (heat) cross the boundary.
Summary of Differences:
Property Closed System Open System
Mass Exchange No Yes
Energy Exchange Yes (heat, work) Yes (heat, work)
Boundary Impermeable to matter, fixed or movable Permeable to matter and energy
Examples Piston-cylinder assembly, refrigerator Turbine, boiler
1. Introduction to Thermodynamics
 First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics: The first law is about energy
conservation; energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred. The
second law states that the entropy of an isolated system always increases over time.
 Thermodynamic Properties: Temperature, pressure, volume, internal energy,
enthalpy, and entropy.
 Processes: Isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric, and isochoric processes.
 Gas Laws: Boyle's law, Charles's law, Avogadro's law, and the Ideal Gas Law.
 Thermodynamic Cycles: Carnot cycle (ideal cycle), Rankine cycle (steam power
plant), and Refrigeration cycles.
2. Internal Combustion Engine
 Engine Types: 4-stroke and 2-stroke engines.
 Cycles: Otto cycle (gasoline engines), Diesel cycle (diesel engines), and dual cycle.
 Performance Measurements: Indicated power (IP), brake power (BP), and brake
specific fuel consumption (BSFC).
 Components: Carburetor, ignition systems (spark plug), fuel pump, and injector.
3. Properties of Steam & Cycles
 Steam Generation: The process of generating steam in boilers.
 Properties: Enthalpy, internal energy, entropy, and dryness fraction.
 Steam Tables: Used to find properties of steam at different pressures and
temperatures.
 Cycles: Carnot, Rankine, and Modified Rankine cycles used in power plants.
4. Primary Mechanical Processes
 Casting and Molding: Basics of pattern making, sand molding, and core making.
 Smithy Operations: Forging, hammering, and heating processes.
 Cutting Operations: Machining processes like turning, milling, drilling, and
grinding.
 Welding: Gas welding, manual arc welding, brazing, and soldering.
5. Engineering Materials and Their Properties
 Iron-Carbon Diagram: Shows phases of iron and carbon at different temperatures
and compositions.
 Mechanical Properties: Strength, ductility, hardness, toughness, and elasticity.
 Heat Treatments: Annealing, tempering, normalization, and hardening.
 Materials: Plain carbon steels, alloy steels, cast iron, aluminum, and copper.