1

AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL VIJAYANAGAR

Main points

● The Vijayanagara Empire was the most dignified and glorious empire of South
India. Its Capital was Hampi.
● Hampi was discovered by Colin Mackenzie, the first Surveyor General of India
in 1815.
● His (Colin Mackenzie’s) arduous work, gave a new direction to all the future
researcher.
● Alexander Greenlaw took the first detailed photography of Hampi in 1856,
which proved quite useful for the scholar.
● J.F. Fleet in 1876, began compilation and documentation of the inscription
from the walls of the walls of temples in Hampi.
● John Marshall began the conservation of Hampi in 1902.
● In 1976, Hampi was declared as a site of national importance and in 1986 it
was declared as world Heritage centre.
● Vijayanagara Empire was founded by the two brothers, Harihara and Bukka in
14th century.
● The ruler of Vijayanagara empire were called Rayas.
● The most powerful ruler of Vijayanagara empire was Krishnadeva Raya.
During his tenure, the empire touched its glory.
● Administration of the Vijayanagara Empire was very good and its people were
very happy.
● The Vijayanagara Empire began to decline by 16th century and this might
empire ended in 17th century.
● Four dynasties ruled over Vijayanagara:
○ The Sangama Dynasty
○ The Saluvas Dynasty
○ The Tuluva Dynasty
○ The Aravidu Dynasty
● The Sangama Dynasty founded the empire, Saluva expanded it, Saluva took
it to the pinnacle of its glory, but it begun declined under Aravidu.
● Various causes such as weak central government, weak successors of
Krishnadeva Raya, different dynasties struggles against the Bahamani
Empire, weak empire, etc. contributed in the downfall of the empire.
● The most striking feature of the empire was its water requirement were met
from natural barn formed by the Tungabhadra river.
● The ruler of Vijayanagara also had made vast fortification. The archaeologist
made an elaborated study of roads within the city and the roads which led one
out of the city.
● The Royal centres were located in the south-western part of the settlement,
which included over sixty times.
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● The sacred centre was situated on the rocky northern end on the bank of the
river Tungabhadra. According to tradition rocky hill served as a shelter to the
monkey Kingdom of Bali and Sugriva which were mentioned in the Ramayana

Vijayanagara or ‘City of Victory’ was the home of both a city and an empire. It
stretched from the river Krishna in the North to the extreme South of the Peninsula.
People remembered it as Hampi, a name derived from that of the local mother
Goddess, ‘Pampadevi’.

RISE OF VIJAYANAGARA

● Two brothers Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara empire in 1336.
The rulers of Vijayanagara called themselves as ‘Rayas’.
● Vijayanagara was famous for its markets dealing in spices, textiles and
precious stones. The trade of import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia
was controlled by Arab and Portuguese traders and also by local merchants
(Kudirai Chettis).
● Trade was often regarded as a status symbol for this city. The revenue
derived from trade in turn contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state

DYNASTIES AND RULERS OF VIJAYANAGARA

● Vijayanagara was ruled by different dynasties like Sangama, Salavas and

Tuluvas. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to Tuluva dynasty, whose rule was
characterised by expansion and consolidation of Vijayanagara.
● During the rule of Krishnadeva Raya, Vijayanagara flourished under the
conditions of unparalleled peace and prosperity. Krishnadeva Raya
established some fine temples and gopurams and sub-urban township named
Nagalapuram. Alter his death in 1529, his successors were troubled by
rebellious ‘Nayakas’ or military chiefs.
● By 1542, control at the centre had shifted to another ruling-lineage, that of the
Aravidu, which remained in power till the end of the 17th century. Military
chiefs or Nayakas often moved from one area to another accompanied by
peasants broking for fertile land on which to settle. The Amara-nayaka
system, similar to Iqta system of the Delhi sultanate, was a major political
innovation of the Vijayanagara empire.
● These were military commanders who were given territories to govern the
‘raya’. The Amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally
appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty.
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GEOGRAPHICAL STRUCTURE AND ARCHITECTURE OF VIJAYANAGARA

● Vijayanagara was characterised by a distinctive physical layout and building

style.
● Vijayanagara was located on the natural basin of the river Tungabhadra which
flows in a North-Easterly direction.
● As this is one of the most arid zones of the Peninsula, many arrangements
were made to store rain water for the city. For e.g. water from Kamalapuram
tank and Hiriya canal was used for irrigation and communication.
● Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador of Persia, was greatly impressed by the
fortification of the city and mentioned seven lines of forts. These encircled city
as well as its agricultural hinterland and forests.
● The arch on the gateway leading into the fortified settlement and the dome
over the gate were the architectures introduced by the Turkish Sultans and
this was known as Indo-Islamic style.
● There was little archaeological evidence of the houses of ordinary people. We
find description of the houses of ordinary people from the writings of
Portuguese traveller Barbosa.

Hampi: The historical city

The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie. To
reconstruct the history of the city, sources like the memories of priests of the
Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi, several inscriptions and temples,
accounts of foreign travellers and other literature written in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil
and Sanskrit played a very important role in discovering of Hampi.

The royal centre of hampi:

● The royal centre was located in the South-Western part of the

settlement which had more than 60 temples. Thirty building complexes
were identified as palaces. The king’s palace was the largest of the
enclosures and had two platforms viz. the ‘audience hall’ and the
‘Mahanavami dibba’.
● Located on one of the highest points in the city, the ‘Mahanavami dibba’
is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq ft to a height
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of 40 ft. Different ceremonies like worship of the image, worship of the

state horse and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals were
performed in Vijayanagara. Some beautiful buildings in the royal centre
are Lotus Mahal, Hazara Rama temple, etc.

Temples of hampi:

● Temple building in this region had a long history. Pallavas, Chalukyas,

Hoysalas, Cholas, all the rulers encouraged temple building. Temples were
developed as religious, social, cultural, economic and learning centres.
Shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi w’ere very significant sacred centre.
● The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the God Virupaksha. They
also indicated their close links by using the title ‘Hindu Suratrana’
(Sanskritisation of the Arabic term Sultan) meaning ‘Hindu Sultan’. In terms of
temple architecture, ‘Rayas’ gopurams or royal gateways and mandapas or
pavilions were developed by the rulers of Vijayanagara.
● Krishnadeva Raya built the hall in front of the main shrine in Virupaksha
temple and he also constructed the Eastern gopuram. The halls in the temple
were used for special programmes of music, dance, drama and marriages of
deities.
● The rulers of Vijayanagara established Vitthala temple. Vitthala, a form of
Vishnu, was generally worshipped in Maharashtra. Some of the most
spectacular gopurams were built by the local Nayakas.

Hampi: as a site of national importance

● In 1976, Hampi was recognised as a site of national importance. Over nearly

twenty years, dozens of scholars from all over the world worked to reconstruct
the history of Vijayanagara.
● In the early 1980s detailed survey, using a variety of recording techniques
was done by the Archaeological Survey of India which led to the recovery of
traces of roads, paths, bazaars, etc.
● John M Fritz, George Nichell and MS Nagaraja Rao worked for years and
gave important observation of the site.
● The descriptions left by travellers allow us to reconstruct some aspects of the
vibrant life of that times.
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Continuing research about vijayanagara:

● Buildings that survive convey ideas about the materials and techniques, the
builders or patrons and cultural context of Vijayanagara empire. Thus, we can
understand by combining information from literature, inscriptions and popular
traditions.
● But the investigation of architectural features do not tell us about the places
where ordinary’ people live, what kind of wages did the masons, stonecutters,
sculptors get, how was the building material transported and so many other
questions.
● Continuing research using other sources that available architectural examples
might provide some further clues about Vijayanagara.

MCQ’S

1.Krishnadeva Raya composed a work on statecraft known as the

Amuktamalyada in

(a) Kannada.

(b) Malayalam.

(c) Tamil

(d) Telugu
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.2.Krishnadeva Raya ascended the throne in the year

(a) 1507 AD.

(b) 1509 AD.

(c) 1503 AD.

(d) 1512 AD.

► (b) 1509 AD.

3. 'Amara' is believed to be derived from the Sanskrit word

(a) Suratrana.

(b) Samara.

(c) Sultan.

(d) Amir
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► (b) Samara.

4. The scenes from Ramayana were sculpted on the inner walls of:

(a) Lotus Mahal

(b) Hazara Rama Temple

(c) Virupaksha Temple

(d) Vitthala Temple

► (b) Hazara Rama Temple

5.When did Krishnadeva Raya die?

(a) 1527 AD

(b) 1529 AD
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(c) 1533 AD

(d) 1537 AD

► (b) 1529 AD

6. In 1565 AD, the Vijayanagara army fought the battle of

Rakshasi-Tangadi under

(a) Krishnadeva Raya

(b) Rama Raya

(c) Harihara

(d) Bukka

► (b) Rama Raya

7. The Portuguese traveller who jointly called the 'Audience Hall and
Mahanavami Dibba' as the “House of Victory" was

(a) Duarte Barbosa.

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(b) Afanasii Nikitin.

(c) Fernao Nuniz.

(d) Domingo Paes.

► (d) Domingo Paes.

8.The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by

(a) Alexander Greenlaw.

(b) Colonel Colin Mackenzie.

(c) Fernao Nuniz.

(d) J.F. Fleet.

► (b) Colonel Colin Mackenzie.

9. Hampi was recognised as a site of national importance in

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(a) 1976.

(b) 1969.

(c) 1972.

(d) 1966.

► (a) 1976.

10. The ruins of Hampi were brought to light in:

(a) 1800

(b) 1845

(c) 1856

(d) 1858

► (a) 1800
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11. Hampi town is located in the bank of which river?

(a) Ganges River.

(b) Tunghbhadra River.

(c) Satluj River.

(d) Godavari River.

► (b) Tunghbhadra River.

12. Krishnadeva Raya's successors were disturbed by the rebellious

_____.

(a) Bijapur

(b) Naykas

(c) Cholas

(d) Cheras
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► (b) Naykas

13. Which goddess is called Pampa?

(a) Goddess Parvati.

(b) Goddess Saraswati.

(c) Goddess Lakshmi.

(d) None of the above

► (a) Goddess Parvati.

14. Which ancient city was founded by Colin Meckenzie??

(a) Bijapur

(b) Golconda

(c) Kamalapuram
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(d) Hampi

► (d) Hampi

SHORT ANSWERS:

Question 1.
Examine how the Amara-Nayaka system was a political innovation of the
Vijayanagara empire.
Answer:
The Amara-Nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara
empire. Many features of this system were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi
sultanate. The Amara-Nayakas were military commanders ’ who were given
territories to govern by the Rayas or the rulers of Vijayanagara.

Question 2.
Examine the outcome of the battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota).
Answer:
In 1565, Rama Raya, the Chief Minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into the battle
at Rakashasi Tangadi where his forces were routed by the combined armies of
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The armies of the sultans were responsible for
the destruction of the city of Vijayanagara.

It was only after the death of Krishnadeva Raya, the relation between Sultans and
Rayas became bitter. The adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off one
Sultan against another, made the Sultans angry and they combinedly defeated him.
In this way, Vijayanagara empire was gradually destructed.

Question 3.Examine the significance of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified
area of the city of Vijayanagara.

Answer:By enclosing the agricultural land within the fortified area of the city, the king
of Vijayanagara empire gave protection to their subject. Because at the times of war
enemies would not easily penetrate into the fortified walls and also not to cause any
harm to the cultivable land. Thus, the situation of starvation or famine in the city can
be minimized at the times of difficulty
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Question 4.
Which dynasty did Krishnadeva Raya belong to? Mention any one of his expansion
and consolidation policies.
Answer:
Krishnadeva Raya (1509-29) was the most famous ruler belonged to the Tuluva
dynasty. The expansion and consolidation was a salient feature of his rule as:

● He acquired the land between Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the

RaichurDoab) in 1512.
● During his rule, the rulers of Odisha were subdued in 1514 and harsh
defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur (1520)

Question 5.
Mention any two features of the temple complexes in Vijayanagara.
Answer:
Following are the two features of Vijayanagara temple complexes:

● The immense structures of Raya gopurams or royal gateways often

dwarfed the towers on the central shrines and it signalled the presence
of the temple from a great distance.
● Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long
pillared corridors within the temple complex.

Question 6.
State two characteristics of Krishnadeva Raya’s rule.
Answer:
Two characteristics of Krishnadeva Raya’s rule are as follows:

1. Strengthening the central authority and putting a strict control over the
Nayakas. Military chiefs were known as Nayakas who controlled forts
and had armed supporters.
2. For the fortification of Vijayanagara city, Krishnadeva Raya built some
fine temples and impressive gopurams in the city.

Question 7.
Mention any two features about the location of the city of Vijayanagara.
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Answer:
Two features about the location of the city of Vijayanagara are as follows:

1. Vijayanagara was located on the natural basin formed by the river

Tungabhadra which flows in a North-Easterly direction.
2. It is surrounded by the stunning granite hills. These hills seem to form a
girdle around the city.

Question 8..
Highlight the contribution of Krishnadeva Raya in the expansion of Vijayanagara
empire.
Answer:
The most famous ruler of Vijayanagara, Krishnadeva Raya (1509-29) belonged to
the Tuluva dynasty. His rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation in the
following ways:

● The land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the Raichur
Doab) was acquired by Krishnadeva Raya in 1512.
● In 1514, rulers of Odisha were subdued and Sultan of Bijapur was
defeated in 1520. He made his kingdom so extensive that many smaller
kingdoms allied with it and showed their respect to Raja Krishnadeva
Raya.
● His kingdom remained in a constant state of military preparedness. It
flourished under the conditions of unparalleled peace and prosperity at
the time of Krishnadeva Raya.

Question 9.
Highlight any four aspects observed by the Portuguese traveller Barbosa on the
Urban core of the Vijayanagara empire.
Am.
The 16th century Portuguese traveller Barbosa highlighted his personal observation
on the urban core of the Vijayanagara empire. These were explained in the following
ways:

● Barbosa described the houses of ordinary people, though these have

not survived.
● The houses of common men were thatched, well built and arranged
according to the occupation. These were arranged in long streets with
many open places.
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● Field survey indicated that the entire area had numerous shrines and
small temples, which was a proof of a variety of cults, supported by
different communities.
● Wells, rainwater tanks and temple tanks might have served as sources
of water to the common men of the town.

LONG ANSWER:

Question 1.
‘The Mahanavami dibba in the Royal centre of Vijayanagara has been assigned
name on the basis of its form of building as well as functions.’ Elaborate.
Am.
The Mahanavami dibba in the Royal centre of Vijayanagara has been assigned its
name on the basis of the following:

1. Mahanavami dibba, located on one of the highest points in the city, is a massive
platform rising from a base of • about 11,000 sq ft to a height of 40 ft.
The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings.

2. Rituals associated with the structure probably coincided with Mahanavami (the
great 9th day of the Hindu festival) known as Dussehra in Northern India, Durga Puja
in Bengal and Navaratri in Peninsular India. The Vijayanagara rulers showed their
prestige, power and suzerainty on this occasion.

3. The ceremonies performed here included worship of the image, worship of the
state horse and sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches
and grand processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, chariots and soldiers took
place here. Thus, the great structure was used for some grand ceremonies.

Question 2.
‘The Amara-Nayaka system was the major political innovation of the Vijayanagara
empire.’ Elaborate.
Answer:
The Amara-Nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara
empire.
Many features of this system were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi
sultanate. The Amara-Nayakas were military commanders who were given territories
to govern by the Rayas or the rulers of Vijayanagara,
 17

The main features of the Amara-Nayaka system were:

● The Amara-Nayakas collected taxes and other dues from peasants,

craftpersons and traders in the area.
● They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a
stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.
● These contingents provided the Rayas an effective fighting force, with
the help of which they controlled the Southern Peninsula.
● The Amara-Nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and gave gifts to
the king. Kings occasionally transferred them from one place to another
to show their supremacy.
● Many of these Nayakas established independent kingdoms which led to
the collapse of the central imperial structure.

Question 3.
Why was Vitthala temple of the Vijayanagara unique?
Answer:
The Vitthala temple is the another shrine located at Vijayanagara empire. The
uniqueness of this temple can be understood through the following points:

● The Vitthala temple is well-known ‘ for its exceptional architecture and

unmatched craftsmanship. The iconic temple has amazing stone
structures such as musical pillars. It has 56 musical pillars. The cluster
of musical pillars was carved out of huge single pieces of resonant
stone.
● A characteristic feature of this temple complexes is the chariot streets
that extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line.
These streets were paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared
pavilions in which merchants set up their shops.
● This temple has several halls and a unique shrine designed as a chariot.
● The principle deity of this temple was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu, which is
generally worshipped in Maharashtra

Question 4.
Why did the imperial power of Vijayanagara decline after the death of Krishnadeva
Raya?
Answer:
There are various reasons for the decline of Vijayanagara empire e.g.
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● Strain began to show within the imperial structure after the death of
Krishnadeva Raya in 1529.
● His successors w’ere not much capable to stand up against the
rebellious nayakas or military chief s which were posing threat to
Vijayanagara.
● By 1542, control at the centre shifted to another ruling lineage, that of
the Aravidu, which remained in power till the end of the 17th century.
● During this period, the military ambitions of the rulers of Vijayanagara as
well as those of the Deccan sultanates resulted in shifting alignments.
● Eventually, this led to an alliance of the sultanates against Vijayanagara.
Finally, in 1565, the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and
Golconda defeated the army of the Chief Minister of Vijayanagara,
Rama Raya at Rakshari-Rangadi (Talikota).
● Consequently, the city of Vijayanagara was sacked by the victorious
armies and totally abandoned within a few years

Question 5.
Explain why Abdur Razzak, a Persian Ambassador was greatly impressed by the
fortification of Vijayanagara empire during the 15th century.
or
Highlight any four aspects observed by Abdur Razzak on the fortification of the
vijayanagar empire.
Answer:
Abdur Razzak was an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut in the 15 th
century. He was greatly impressed by the fortification of the Vijayanagara empire.
The aspects observed by him are:

● Abdur Razzaq mentioned seven lines of forts.

● The fortification encircled not only the city but also its agricultural
hinterlands and forests. Razzak noted that “between the first, second
and the third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses”.
● The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city.
● The massive masonry construction was slightly tapered. No mortar or
cementing agent was used anywhere in the construction. The stone
blocks were wedge, shaped, which held them in place. The inner portion
of the wall was of i.e. earth packed with rubble. Square or rectangular
bastions projected outwards.
● The fort was entered through well-guarded gates which linked the city to
the major roads. Gateways were distinctive architectural features that
often defined the structures to which they regulated access.
● The arch on the gateway leading into the fortified settlement as well as
the dome over the gate are regarded as typical features of the
 19

architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans. Art historians refer to this

style as Indo-Islamic, as it grew continually through interaction with local
building practices in different regions.

Question 6.
Why was the South-Western part of Vijayanagara settlement designated as Royal
centre? Explain.
Answer:
The Royal centre of Vijayanagara empire was located in the South-Western part of
the settlement. It had more than 60 temples. The patronage of temples and cults was
very important for the rulers. The rulers tried to establish and legitimate their
authority through the association with deities in the temple.
‘ The following points explain about the importance of this location:

1. The Royal centres had thirty palaces. These were large structures and were not
associated with ritual functions.
The main difference between the palaces and temples was that the temples were
constructed entirely of masonry, but the superstructure of the palaces was made of
perishable materials.

2. The king’s palace was the largest complex of the royal centre. But there was no
definite evidence to prove that it was a royal residence. The entire complex is
surrounded by high double walls, with a street running between them. It has two
platforms, viz.

The Audience Hall It was a high platform with w’ooden pillars at close and regular
intervals. It had a staircase, going up to the second floor, rested on closely spaced
pillars. However, it was not clear for what purposes was the hall used.
The Mahanavami Dibba It was located in the highest point of the city. It was a
massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq ft to a height of 40 ft. It
supported a wooden structure. Main ceremonies being performed in Mahanavami
dibba included worship of the image, worship of the state horse and the sacrifice of
buffaloes and other animals, dances, wrestling matches, royal processions, etc. The
base of the platform was covered with relief carvings.

3. There were several grand places in the royal centre, viz. the Lotus Mahal, the
Hazara Rama temple, etc. These were used by the kings for different purposes.

Question 7.
1. Explain how the Amara-Nayaka system was a major political innovation of the
Vijayanagara empire.
 20

2. Why did strain begin to show within the imperial structure after the death of
Krishnadeva Raya in 1529?

Answer:
1. The Amara-Nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara
empire.
Many features of this system were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi
sultanate. The Amara-Nayakas were military commanders who were given territories
to govern by the Rayas or the rulers of Vijayanagara,

The main features of the Amara-Nayaka system were:

● The Amara-Nayakas collected taxes and other dues from peasants,

craftpersons and traders in the area.
● They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a
stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.
● These contingents provided the Rayas an effective fighting force, with
the help of which they controlled the Southern Peninsula.
● The Amara-Nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and gave gifts to
the king. Kings occasionally transferred them from one place to another
to show their supremacy.
● Many of these Nayakas established independent kingdoms which led to
the collapse of the central imperial structure.

2. Following Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529, the strain began to show within the
imperial structure. The successors of Krishnadeva were troubled by many rebellious
nayakas or other military . chiefs.
In 1542, the control at the centre had shifted to another ruling lineage, viz. Aravidu,
which remained in power till the end of the 17th century. During this period, the
military ambitions of the rulers of Vijayanagara as well as that of the

Deccan sultanates resulted in the shifting of alignments between the kingdoms.

The tense situations led to an alliance of sultanates against Vijayanagara. In 1565,
Rama Raya, the Chief Minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into the battle at
Rakashasi Tangadi where his forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur,
Ahmadnagar and Golconda.

The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city was totally
abandoned within a few years. The armies of the sultans were responsible for the
destruction of the city of Vijayanagara. It was only after the death of Krishnadeva
Raya, the relation between Sultans and Rayas became bitter.
 21

The adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off one Sultan against
another, made the Sultans angry and they combinedly defeated him. In this way,
Vijayanagara empire was gradually destructed.

-THE END-