PHILOSOPHY

In this lesson I am going to introduce you to philosophy

by inviting you to think - to
wonder, to reason, to question, to figure out, to
speculate, and even to doubt - while
seeking to understand our universe and yourself as part
of it. There is no universally
accepted definition of philosophy. This is partly because
philosophy does not have any
content that students can merely read, memorize, accept
and believe. Instead, as Christian
(1973) observes, philosophy is a "do-it-yourself
enterprise". It is a way of doing things - a
way of thinking that is systematic, disciplined skillful,
responsible and flexible. The best
way to understand what philosophy is, therefore, is to
participate in it. However, for the
sake of giving you at least some idea of the subject, let
us try to define and characterize i
CRITICAL AND CRETAIVE THINKING: INTRODUCTION.
Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: -
1. Explain what critical and creative thinking (CCT) is and
be able to justify thinking for oneself in terms of added
quality to learning and living.
2. Show that to be effectively educated, in addition to
literacy and numeracy one needs also to acquire operacy -
the ability to get things done.
3. Discuss what constitutes individual transformation from
dependency to autonomy and clearly distinguish various
stages in that development.

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4. Argue for higher order thinking that is more clear, more
accurate, more precise, more relevant, deeper and
broader.
5. Demonstrate an upgraded thinking ability as a critical
and creative
speaker, listener, reader and writer.
6. Show evidence of heightened sense of self-assessment,
self-questioning and exercise of good judgement in
decision-making and problem solving.
7. Explain how we acquire self-knowledge as thinking
beings.

PHILOSOPHY
In this lesson I am going to introduce you to philosophy
by inviting you to think - to wonder, to reason, to
question, to figure out, to speculate, and even to doubt -
while seeking to understand our universe and yourself as
part of it.
There is no universally accepted definition of philosophy.
This is partly because philosophy does not have any
content that students can merely read, memorize, accept
and believe. Instead, as Christian(1973) observes,
philosophy is a "do-it-yourself enterprise". It is a way of
doing things - a way of thinking that is systematic,
disciplined, skillful, responsible and flexible.
The term "philosophy" has various senses and uses. The
following are the common usages.
Ideological usage - This is the sense in which we talk
about "philosophy of life." Philosophy, in this sense, is an
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attitude or approach to life, a guide to action or a set of
beliefs concerning morality, politics or life in general.
Ideological philosophies are helpful in religion, business
and politics in terms of mobilizing people psychologically
towards some desired goal.
This, however, is a narrow conceptualization of
philosophy. Properly understood, philosophy involves
criticizing and evaluating such ideologies to determine
their meaning, underlying assumptions, implications,
justification and value.
Stoical usage - Stoicism was a philosophical school of
thought which had its origin in Athens in the third century
B.C. stoicism taught the following:
 The universe is orderly due to the operation of a
universal force they called God. God was understood
as a material but invisible substance permeating all
things and all beings.
 God determines the laws of nature, and the
orderliness of the universe is natural and rational.
 Everything that occurs is inevitable and is governed
by reason.
 Human nature and human life is governed by
inviolable universal force or law. Everything humans
do or experience is inevitable.
 God assigns to all beings their place and role in the
universe. Life is therefore a package.
 A wise person recognizes his/her role and accepts it.
Stoicism taught people to adjust their thought to reality
as it is and accept it to save themselves the agony of
trying to change what cannot be changed.

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Technical or professional usage - This is a special
sense that transcends the popular usage described
above. It implies a way of thinking that involves
examining, questioning and doubting much of what we
normally take for granted.
It is in this sense that the term "philosophy" itself was
coined by the Greek thinker Pythagoras. The word itself
means "love of wisdom". Wisdom is neither inheritable
nor instantly available. It is earned through diligent and
disciplined mental activity. One must set the mind in
motion toward examining concepts, relating ideas,
developing new concepts and seeing through and beyond
mere words and facts.
It is therefore in this sense that we shall understand
philosophy as "a reflective and reasoned attempt to infer
the character and the content of the universe, taken in its
entirety and as a single whole, from an observation and
study of the data presented by all its aspects". (Fuller,
1955, 1).
Distinctive Characteristics of Philosophy
Philosophy, in the technical and professional sense, is an
intellectual activity characterized by among others, the
following:
1 Inquiry based on philosophical questions. Philosophers
ask and attempt to answer difficult but important
questions about the universe and their experience within
it. Such questions include: what makes actions right or
wrong? How can we know that we know? What is real? Is
reality one or many? What is beauty? Are truth and
beauty related?
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 Lavine (1984) Calls these questions stubborn,
indestructible questions the kind of which "time will not
banish them or get rid of them for you. To be a human
being is to ask these questions. Philosophical inquiry is
based on such questions. It also generates them.

2. Analysis - This is the process by which complex

concepts are broken down into their component parts for
the sake of clarification and simplification. Analyzed
concepts are easier to examine, relate and understand.
3. Criticism - This is a careful examination of issues,
arguments, points of view and claims to determine their
foundations, assumptions, meaning and implications.
It is an assessment of the strengths as well as
weaknesses of an argument or a position taken on each
issue. This assessment is based on reasons and evidence
and is, therefore, impartial and rational.
Criticism, in philosophy, is not merely looking for faults. It
is impartial scrutiny geared toward the pursuit of truth
and understanding.
4. Discussion - Open minded discussion is central in
philosophy. Dialogue enables people to freely express
their opinions and beliefs as well as attempt to justify
them. Through discussion, ideas are subjected to criticism
and review. New ideas are generated and subjected to
further discussion. In such discussions, persons address
issues instead of attacking persons.
5. Evaluation - This is the process of ascertaining the
worth or worthlessness of ideas or arguments based on
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clear and reasonable criteria. It involves the making of
judgements regarding ideas.2.3.2.6 6. Synthesis - This
is reconstruction of ideas concepts and arguments in
order to develop better and well justified ones. Such
synthesis is based on reasoned thought.
Areas in Professional Philosophy
There are four main areas of study in professional or
technical philosophy namely: metaphysics, epistemology,
axiology and logic. In addition, there is applied philosophy
or called "philosophy of - "category.
1. Metaphysics: This is also called the study or theory
of reality. It is reasoned thought about reality. The
main question of metaphysics is: what is reality?
Other related questions include: Is reality one or
many? How is reality accessible if at all?
2. Epistemology: This is also called the theory of
knowledge. It is reasoned thought about knowledge.
The main question of epistemology is: what is
knowledge? Other related questions include: How is
knowledge attained if at all? How do we know that
we know?
3. Axiology: This is also called the theory of value. Th
main question raised is: What is value?. This
question is indifferent to any specific sort of values.
They may be economic, cultural, political or moral
values. However, greater focus has historically been
given to moral and aesthetic values leading to focus
on ethics and aesthetics.
a) Ethics This is reasoned thought about moral
values. It is concerned with value as it applies

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 to personal actions, decisions and relations. It
raises questions such as: What is morally
good? What makes actions right or wrong? Are
there any universal moral principles?
b) Aesthetics This is reasoned thought about
artistic values and our experience of beauty. It
raises questions like: What is art? What is
beauty? What is the connection (if any)
between beauty and truth?
4. Logic: This is also called the study of reasoning and
argumentation., Itis reasoned thought about
argument action. The questions raised in logic
include: How can correct reasoning be distinguished
from incorrect reasoning? How are errors in
reasoning committed?
5. The "Philosophy of - " category - In addition to
the above fields of philosophy, philosophy relates
Itself to other disciplines as well leading to the
"philosophy of - " category. When reasoned thought
is applied to religious concerns, this leads to
philosophy of religion, for instance reasoned thought
about education leads to philosophy of education.
Other examples include philosophy of history,
philosophy of law, philosophy of biology etc.
In this category, a particular discipline is treated
philosophically. Questions are raised regarding the
discipline's subject matter, the adequacy of its
methodology, the meaning and clarity of its concepts
and its relation to and implications for other
disciplines.
Functions of Philosophy
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1. Integration of experience - The universe as we
experience it is both diverse and unified. Reasoned
thought helps us to integrate and harmonize these
apparently opposed aspects of reality.
2. Nurturing of our awareness and sensitivity -
Reasoned thought assists us to not only understand the
universe but also ourselves as part of it. Self-examination
enhances the consciousness of our own limitations and
capabilities abilities. This awareness and sensitivity is
crucial in assisting us to adapt to the challenging and
complex situations of life.
3. Clarification and justification of belief - Beliefs
are the basis of our actions. Reasoned thought about our
beliefs enables us to ensure that they are well-founded
and thus rationally justifiable. If our actions are to be
effective in enhancing our well-being, they should be
founded on clear and rationally justifiable beliefs.
4. Bridging the gap between theory and practice -
Philosophy raises questions regarding the meaning,
foundations, purpose, justification, verification and
application of theories. This is useful in ensuring that
theories inform practice appropriately. Philosophy also
evaluates practice and raises questions regarding the
extent to which practice conforms to theory and why.
5. Providing a condition for freedom of the mind-
Philosophy seeks to literate us from the slavery of
ignorance and irrationality. It helps us to examine our own
beliefs, assumptions and prejudices. It assists us to act
rationally and justly. This broadens our realm of freedom

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and enhances our capacity to act and respond
responsibly, intelligently and creatively.

THINKING: CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING

Genuine education aims at transforming learners from a
state of dependency to that of autonomy to think for
themselves, make good judgements and get things done
as decision makers and problem solvers.
Learning to reason effectively to cope with constant
change in our increasingly complex world ought to be the
bone of any educative effort to empower learners with
necessary flexibility and adaptability to manage varied
demands of contemporary life.
Critical and creative thinking (CCT) occupies a central
place in the subject of philosophy. Philosophy itself
attempts, in a reasoned and reflective way, to understand
and make sense of the world and of us as part of that
world.
As thinking beings, we distinguish ourselves individually
by the quality of our thinking and the level of assuming
personal responsibility for what we consider true or good;
what we believe and what we do critical and creative
thinking is the heart of philosophy because it is thinking
about thinking to upgrade it and empower us to become
better in; making judgements based on reason and
evidence.
CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING (CCT)
The term ‘quality education'' is quite current. To
commend or praise education at present it is fashionable
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to qualify it with the adjective ‘quality''. The implication is
that quality adds wanted value to education. It is for this
reason that Totally Integrated Quality
Education and Training (TIQET) Report, otherwise called
the Koech Commission Report, has ‘Quality Education’ as
part of the name and significantly appearing in that
name.
The 8:4:4 system of education in Kenya encourages rote-
memorization of massive information and facts by way of
drilling at the expense of understanding it by thinking
through it carefully and interrogating it to evaluate its
worth. The purpose of education appears to be merely
passing examinations after ‘vomiting'' that in formation
through simple recall. Clearly rote memorized information
merely to pass an examination has little value as it lacks
lasting survival value. Good quality thinking and
understanding uniquely possesses that value.
Critical thinking is thinking that interrogates
information to evaluate and judge whether it is true or
false; whether it should be believed or not; and how one
should act on it.
This type of thinking is of a higher quality as it involves
thinking about thinking in search of deeper understanding
of things. Critical thinking e powers the learner to think
for herself or himself and to have mental discipline to
habitually evaluate knowledge and everyday claims in
search of truth and rightness.
Critical thinking involves the learner actively in search of
understanding of the underlying ideas and principles. It is

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in this sense that critical thinking in its own way adds
quality to education.
To appreciate what understanding means, consider what
it means to know how to count to a million. We know how
to count to a million without having to count to a million.
It is enough to count to ten, twenty, thirty etc. to capture
the insight of tens in the decimal system. Even if we must
memorize counting in the first few tens, sooner than
later, the principle involved being discovered and we
carry on with confidence because we now understand
what it means to count to a million. Clearly there is a
marked difference between rote-memorizing counting to
a million and understanding what it is to count to a
million hence the distinction between rote memorizing
and understanding.
Creative thinking is on the other hand thinking that
produces the material that critical thinking evaluates. It is
generative thinking. The human mind has two phases of
thinking operations. One phase creative thinking
produces ideas while the other phase- critical
thinking judges them. Creative people are dynamic,
daring, resourceful, independent and hard working. These
characteristics enable them to solve problems in
unacceptable situations that challenge thinking without
having any apparent ready way out.
The two phases of critical and creative thinking (CCT) are
intertwined. Thinking moves back and forth especially in
the process of solving a problem, each phase reinforcing
the other.

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 When critical thinking judges that something wants in
what is generated by creative thinking, further generation
is called forth to improve the situation.
This goes on and on many times. This continuous
alternating activity between critical and creative thinking
is especially important in intellectual matters where
excellence is the goal.
CCT aims at realizing intellectual standards such as
clarity, accuracy, relevance, precision, depth, breadth and
logically. It also strives to cultivate such intellectual traits
as integrity, open-mindedness, fair mindedness, humility,
empathy, perseverance and faith in reason.
CCT also attempts to develop reasoning skills such as
clarification by using analogies, elaboration, producing
examples and illustration; relating ideas such as cause
and consequences, parts and wholes to make
connections that enable us to make responsible decisions
and judgements. It is, for instance, important to be
conscious of the fact that our decisions can initiate causal
chains with far reaching consequences affecting not only
ourselves but also the whole of society of which we are
only part. CCT is also a good tool to enable us to make
distinctions where differences exist. We need, for
instance, to distinguish between rote-memorization from
long term memory which constitutes the story of who we
are to give us our unique identity as individual human
persons.
Definition Of Key Words and Concepts
CREATIVE THINKING:
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Refers to thinking that generates new ideas to solve
problems and innovatively produces things that are
useful.
CRITICAL THINKING: Refers to thinking that facilitates
good judgement (evaluation) because it:
1. Relies on criteria,
2. Is self-correcting, and
3. Is sensitive to context
CONSCIENCE: Sense of right and wrong and the
motivation to pursue the right and avoid the wrong.
AN INTELLECTUAL: A person who has a keen interest in
ideas and is equipped to manage them.
AN INTELLIGENT PERSON: A person who generates novel
ideas that help solve everyday problems and innovatively
produces useful things.
INTELLECTUAL AUTONOMY: Having independent
reasoning control of one's beliefs, values and actions
because of thinking for oneself.
INTELLECTUAL DISPOSITIONS: Virtues of the mind and
character needed for right thinking and action e.g. fair
mindedness, open-mindedness, humility, integrity,
empathy, and autonomy.
INTELLECTUAL EMPATHY: Imaginatively putting oneself in
the place of others to genuinely understand them, thus
resisting the egocentric tendency to identify truth and
reality exclusively with one's perceptions and
understanding.

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INTELLECTUAL INTEGRITY: Consciousness of the need to
be true to one's own thinking and honesty in
acknowledging benefit from other sources.
INTELLECTUALL STANDARDS: Standards by which good
reasoning and understanding can be evaluated, e.g.
clarity, accuracy, relevance, precision, depth, breadth
significance, and consistency.
RATIONALITY: Reasoning that enables one to choose the
alternative or option that yields the greatest value.
REASONING SKILLS: Mental skills that enable people to
achieve intellectual standards and dispositions, e.g. using
analogies like biological vomit to explain intellectual
vomit- a result of rote memorization; relating ideas like
causes and consequences. Parts and wholes;
distinguishing ideas such as rote memorization and
understanding; getting degrees and being educated.
THINKING: Any mental activity; or process that involves
ideas.
Understanding Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is the disciplined process of actively and
skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing,
synthesizing, and evaluating information to reach a
conclusion. It involves a series of cognitive skills and
intellectual dispositions that guide our reasoning and
decision-making processes. These skills include:
1. Analysis: Breaking down complex information into
manageable parts to understand its structure and
meaning.

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 2. Evaluation: Assessing the credibility and relevance
of information, arguments, and sources.
3. Inference: Drawing logical conclusions based on
evidence and reasoning.
4. Explanation: Articulating the reasoning behind
conclusions and decisions clearly and coherently.
5. Self-Regulation: Reflecting on one's own thought
processes and adjusting them as needed to improve
reasoning and decision-making.
The Importance of Critical Thinking in Decision-
Making
Critical thinking enhances decision-making in several
ways:
1. Improved Problem-Solving: By systematically
analyzing and evaluating information, critical
thinkers can identify the root causes of problems and
develop effective solutions.
2. Better Judgment: Critical thinkers are better
equipped to assess the validity of information and
the reliability of sources, leading to more informed
and accurate decisions.
3. Enhanced Creativity: Critical thinking encourages
open-mindedness and the exploration of diverse
perspectives, fostering innovative ideas and
approaches.
4. Increased Confidence: By relying on evidence and
logical reasoning, critical thinkers can make decisions
with greater confidence and conviction.
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 5. Reduced Bias: Critical thinking helps individuals
recognize and mitigate cognitive biases that can
cloud judgment and lead to poor decisions.
Key Components of Critical Thinking in Decision-
Making
Effective decision-making requires a structured approach
to critical thinking. Here are the key components to
consider:
1. Clarifying the Problem: Clearly defining the
problem or decision to be made is the first step. This
involves identifying the key questions to be answered
and the objectives to be achieved.
2. Gathering Information: Collecting relevant data
and information from credible sources is essential for
informed decision-making. This includes both
quantitative and qualitative data.
3. Analyzing Information: Breaking down the
information into its constituent parts and examining
it from different angles helps in understanding its
implications and identifying potential solutions.
4. Generating Alternatives: Exploring multiple
options and alternatives ensures that all possible
solutions are considered. This involves creative
thinking and brainstorming.
5. Evaluating Alternatives: Assessing the pros and
cons of each alternative, considering factors such as
feasibility, risks, and potential outcomes, is crucial
for selecting the best course of action.

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 6. Making a Decision: Based on the evaluation,
choosing the most suitable option that aligns with
the objectives and constraints is the next step.
7. Implementing the Decision: Putting the chosen
solution into action requires careful planning and
execution.
8. Reflecting on the Outcome: After implementation,
evaluating the results and reflecting on the decision-
making process helps in learning from the experience
and improving future decision-making.
Cultivating Critical Thinking Skills
Developing critical thinking skills is a lifelong endeavor
that requires conscious effort and practice. Here are some
strategies to enhance critical thinking abilities:
1. Ask Questions: Cultivate curiosity and a
questioning mindset. Ask probing questions to
understand the underlying assumptions, evidence,
and reasoning behind information and arguments.
2. Seek Diverse Perspectives: Exposure to different
viewpoints and experiences broadens understanding
and fosters open-mindedness.
3. Practice Reflective Thinking: Regularly reflect on
your thought processes, decisions, and outcomes to
identify areas for improvement.
4. Engage in Intellectual Discussions: Participate in
discussions and debates with others to challenge
your thinking and develop your reasoning skills.

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5. Read Widely: Reading a variety of materials,
including books, articles, and research papers,
enhances knowledge and critical thinking abilities.
6. Solving Problems: Engage in problem-solving
activities and puzzles to sharpen analytical and
logical reasoning skills

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