Cell Theory:

Atom→molecule→cell→tissue→organ→organ system→organism

3 parts
1)​ All organisms are composed of one or more cells
2)​ Cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.
3)​ All cells come from preexisting cells

Main
1)​ 1665: Robert Hooke, looked at a thin slice of cork under the microscope and saw a honeycomb
structure made up of small compartments he called cells.
2)​ 1670: Anton van Leeuwenhoek significantly improved the quality of microscope lenses to the point that
he could see the unicellular organisms that lived in a drop of pond water. He called these organisms
“animalcules,” which means “miniature animals.”
3)​ Around 1838-1839: Matthias Schleiden proposed the first foundational belief about cells, that all plant
tissues are composed of cells. On the other hand, Theodor Schwann concluded that all animal tissues
were made of cells as well. Schwann blended both statements into one theory which said 1. All living
organisms consist of one or more cells and 2. Cell is the basic unit of structure for all living organisms.
4)​ 1855: The third part of the original cell theory was put forth by Rudolf Virchow who concluded that
cells only arise from other cells.

Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (though they do have circular DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though
they do contain ribosomes). Bacteria and Archaea are two domains of prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes, on the other hand, have distinct nuclei and membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria,
chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles). In addition, they possess
organized chromosomes which store genetic material.

-​ Cells are the building block of life.

-​ Cel is the smallest unit of life, the first living thing in this process, that can live independently​
Atom→molecule→cell→tissue→organ→organ system→organism

Unicellular: Amoeba, paramecium, Euglena, etc

-​ only made up of one cell that completes all the MRS C Gren
Multicellular: Humans, plants, etc
-​ made up of many cells that work together to complete the functions of life.

Organelles:
Function and form and location
Cell Components

Nucleus -​ Located in the centre of the cell

-​ Controls activities of the cell
-​ Surrounded by a double membrane
-​ Storage cite of the cell’s DNA which is responsible for providing the cell with
its unique characteristics
-​ DNA: A molecule that contains our genetic instructions. It is made up of a
four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T).
-​ Holds chromosomes

Nucleolus -​ nucleolus plays an important role in the synthesis of proteins and in the
production of ribosomes in eukaryotic cells.
-​ Doesn’t hold chromosomesq1​

Cell -​ A double layer of phospholipids (lipid bilayer) that decides what material
Membrane enters and leaves the cell
-​ The exposed heads of the bilayer are “hydrophilic” meaning that they are
compatible with water both within the cytosol and outside of the cell.
-​ However, the hidden tails of the phospholipids are “hydrophobic”
(water-fearing), so the cell membrane acts as a protective barrier to the
uncontrolled flow of water and prevent water-based substances from entering
the cell

Ribosome -​ Ribosomes are packets of RNA and protein that play a crucial role in both
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
-​ They are the site of protein synthesis.
-​ Tiny organelles that can be found in the cytoplasm or on the surface of the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Smooth -​ An organelle that forms an extensive network of membranes known as

Endoplasmic cisternae.
Reticulum -​ It extends out from the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm of the cell and is
involved in the production of lipids and steroids (hormones) needed by the
cell.

Rough -​ An organelle that forms an extensive network of membranes known as

Endoplasmic cisternae.
Reticulum -​ It extends out from the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm of the cell and is
involved in the production, folding and transport of proteins produced by the
ribosomes on its surface

Cell Wall -​ Animal cells do not have Cell Walls.

-​ Located outside of the cell membrane
-​ Plant and bacterial cells have a rigid, protective cell wall made up of cellulose.
-​ The cell wall provides and maintains the shape of the cells and serves as a
protective barrier.

Vacuole -​ Vacuole plays roles in intracellular digestion and the release of cellular waste
products.
-​ In animal cells, vacuoles are generally small.
-​ Vacuoles tend to be large in plant cells and play several roles: storing nutrients
and waste products, helping increase cell size during growth, and even acting
much like lysosomes for animal cells.
-​ The plant cell vacuole also regulates turgor pressure in the cell.
 Mitochondria -​ Mitochondria provides the energy a cell needs to live
-​ They are the power centers of the cell.
-​ like the nucleus has a double membrane.
-​ The outer membrane is fairly smooth.
-​ But the inner membrane is highly convoluted, forming folds (cristae)
-​ These cristae greatly increase the inner membrane’s surface area.
-​ It is on these cristae that food (sugar) is combined with oxygen to produce
ATP which is the primary energy source for the cells.
-​ Has its own strand of DNA

Chloroplasts -​ Animal cells do not have Chloroplasts.

-​ Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in all plant cells.
-​ These organelles contain the plant cell’s chlorophyll responsible for the plant’s
green color and the ability to absorb energy from sunlight.
-​ This energy is used to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose and
oxygen by the process of photosynthesis.
-​ Chloroplasts have a double outer membrane.

Lysosomes -​ Lysosomes are common in animal cells.

-​ They are round.
-​ They contain hydrolytic enzymes necessary for intracellular digestion.
-​ In white blood cells that each bacteria, lysosomes contents are carefully
released into the vacuole around the bacteria and serve to kill and digest those
bacteria.
-​ Garbage disposal of the cell
-​ Contain digestive enzymes that break down waste

Golgi body -​ The Golgi apparatus is a membrane-bound structure with a single membrane.
-​ It is actually a stack of membrane-bound vesicles that are important in
packaging macromolecules for transport elsewhere in the cell.
-​ A complex structure consisting of stacks of membrane-bound, flattened,
sack-like structures known as cisternae.
-​ It functions like a cellular post office which receives, sorts, labels and
dispatches proteins around the cell to where they are need

Cytosol -​ A thick solution that fills each cell and is enclosed by the cell membrane. It is
mainly composed of water, salts, and proteins.

Cytoplasm -​ Cytoplasm is the entire content within the cell membrane

Chromo- -​ Thread-like structures, made of DNA wrapped around a scaffold of proteins.

somes -​ Each human cell contains 46 of these structures.
-​ They contain specific regions of DNA, known as genes, sections of DNA that
carry information required to make a molecule, usually a protein.

Centrioles -​ A pair of organelles found in the cell that consist of small tubes of proteins
known as microtubules.
-​ These organelles play an important role in mitosis (cell division) and the
positioning of the nucleus in the cell.

Cytoskeleton -​ The cytoskeleton can be considered the scaffolding of the cell. It helps it
maintain the correct shape.
-​ However, unlike regular scaffolding, the cytoskeleton is flexible; it plays a
role in cell division and cell motility — the ability of some cells to move, such
as sperm cells, for instance.
-​ The cytoskeleton also helps in cell signaling through its involvement in the
uptake of material from outside the cell (endocytosis) and is involved in
moving materials around within the cell.

Compare and contrast the organelles in plants and animals

Plant Cells Similarity Animal cells

-​ Usually boxy or square -​ Have DNA -​ Can be in various shapes

-​ Have a central/large -​ Have ribosomes -​ Have small vacuole
vacuole -​ Have cytoplasm -​ Have lysosome
-​ Have chloroplasts -​ Have cell membrane
-​ Have cell walls -​ Have cytoskeleton
-​ Have mitochondria
-​ Have golgi apparatus
-​ Have endoplasmic
reticulum
-​ Have nucleus
-​ Have nucleolus
Chloroplast photosynthesis Mitochondria respiration
Describe the relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
Chloroplasts get their green colour from a pigment Alternatively, mitochondria is the ‘powerhouse’ of
called chlorophyll, which is important for the cell and releases energy for the cell to use for life
photosynthesis. In the fall, chloroplasts start to functions. Through the process of respiration, carbon
dioxide, water and energy are released from reacting
decompose, allowing for other pigment’s colours to
oxygen and glucose together. The mitochondria have
be seen. This is why many leaves can be seen to folded inner membranes, which increases the surface
change from green to red or orange during autumn. area. This creates more space for respiration
Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis. Using the reactions to occur.
sun’s energy, they convert carbon dioxide and water
to glucose and oxygen.
Sketch a diagram to show the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration.

Brainstorm some of the importances of both photosynthesis and respiration to living things. (especially
humans)
Requirements for food, materials, and energy in a world where the human population is rapidly growing have
created a need to increase both the amount of photosynthesis and the efficiency of converting photosynthetic
output into products useful to people.

Cell division
DNA
The 2 helicoidal strands of coiled up nucleotides
form DNA or nucleic acid, with Nitrogenous bases
(adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine) at the center
as rungs and alternating Deoxyribose sugar and
phosphate group as the backbone, covalently
bonded, which creates the ladder-like structure in a
Double Helix. This Double Helix then makes up
DNA, which then is coiled around histone proteins
to make chromatin fiber. Chromatin fiber of DNA
strand is then coiled up into chromosomes.
Base Pairs: Each base will only bond with one other specific base.
Adenine (A) and Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) and Guanine (G)

Note: the strands face opposite directions

Term Meaning

DNA Nucleic acid that transmits genetic information from parent to offspring and codes
(deoxyribonucleic acid) for the production of proteins.

Nucleotide Building block of nucleic acids.

Double helix Structure of two strands, intertwining around an axis like a twisted ladder.

DNA replication Process during which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two
identical DNA molecules.

Base pairing Principle in which the nitrogenous bases of the DNA molecules bond with one
another.
What is the purpose of mitosis?
To divide cells in order to produce genetically identical daughter
cells that have nuclei with complete sets of chromosomes. This
would increase the organism in size and allow it to grow.

Cell Cycle:
Series of events cells go through as they grow and divide where
one cell grows, prepares for division, then divides to form 2
daughter cells – each of which then begins the cycle again.

Interphase: period of cell growth and development broken into 3

phases

Interphase is broken up into:

G1 phase S phase G2 phase

Growth phase: organelles such as Synthesis Check for errors

chloroplasts, ER, mitochondria and phase: DNA is in DNA and
other proteins are duplicated, used, replicated and finishes growing
and biological functions occur synthesized,
which results in
each
chromosome to
consist of 2
identical
chromatids

Prosphase:
-​ centrioles make spindle fibers
-​ Chromosomes condense so that they can move along the spindle fiber easier
-​ Nuclear membrane starts to dissolve, releasing chromosomes into the cytoplasm

Prometaphase:
-​ Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes
-​ Chromatin condenses
Metaphase:
-​ Nuclear membrane completely dissolves
-​ Chromosomes randomly line up at the equatorial plate.

Anaphase:
-​ Each chromosome separates into two identical chromatids and does not have them connected through
centromeres
-​ Spindle fibers pull the daughter chromosomes toward each end of the cell

Telophase
-​ Chromosomes decondense
-​ Spindle fibers disappear
-​ Nuclear membrane reforms at each end of the cell

Cytokinesis:
-​ cytoplasm divides into 2 daughter cells with identical genetic information
-​ In an animal cell, the cell is divided in the centre, forming two new daughter cells. On the other hand, in
a plant cell, a plate forms that becomes the cell wall, sealing off the contents of the new cells from each
other.

Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division that occurs only in eukaryotes. In plants, meiosis is observed after spore
production; whereas in animals, meiosis takes place during gamete (sperm and egg) formation. A significant
difference between meiosis and other types of cell division like mitosis , in meiosis, the parent cell divides and
produces four gametes that are not capable of further division; whereas in other types of cell division, the parent
cell produces identical daughter cells, which can operate further division on their own. During fertilisation, a
haploid sperm and egg (each of them has to be haploid because they have half the genetic instructions ) meet
and the resulting zygote has a full set of DNA (diploid).

The process of meiosis takes place in two stages, namely meiosis I and meiosis II. During meiosis I, a cell is
divided into two, and in meiosis II, even further division takes place, resulting in a total of four haploid cells.

Interphase:
 -​ Similar to mitosis interphase, chromosomes replicate (S phase).
-​ Each duplicated chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids attached at their centromeres.
-​ The pair of chromosomes within a cell is called a homologous chromosome. Thus, there are four
chromatids in a cell, called tetrad.

Prophase 1:
-​ Spindle fibers form
-​ Nuclear membrane starts to dissolve releasing the
chromosome into the cytoplasm
-​ The homologous chromosomes begin to condense
and come towards each other by a process called
synapsis.
-​ After synapsis, crossing over takes place, which
is the exchange of equivalent sections of
chromatids between the homologous
chromosomes.
-​ Each chromosome can get any combination of
maternal and paternal chromosomes, thus results in genetic diversity.

Metaphase 1:
-​ The nuclear membrane completely disappears and the spindle fibers attach to the homologous
chromosomes.
-​ The tetrads line up randomly on the equatorial plate of the cell.

Anaphase 1:
-​ The homologous chromosomes separate however the sister chromatids remain together at this stage.
-​ The spindle fiber pulls the chromosomes to the opposite poles of the cell

Telophase & Cytokinesis 1:

-​ The cytoplasm begins to divide into two daughter cells which have full sets of genes and are not
haploids.

Prophase 2:
-​ The cell has divided into two daughter cells.
-​ New spindle fibers form around the chromosomes.

Metaphase 2:
-​ As in Metaphase 1, the chromosomes line up randomly on the equatorial plane of the cell in both cells.

Anaphase 2:
-​ The sister chromatids held at the centromere are separated by the spindle fibers and gets pulled towards
each end of the cell

Telophase & Cytokinesis 2:

-​ Four nuclei are formed by the process of cytokinesis.
 -​ Each of the four nuclei develops a nuclear membrane and thus four daughter cells or gametes are
formed.

LO: Describe passive transport (diffusion and osmosis)

Cell membrane -​ Cell membranes are made of proteins and lipids
-​ Cell membrane separates the components of a cell from its environment by
surrounding the cell
-​ They act as the “Gatekeeper” of the cell which regulates the flow of materials into
and out of the cell (selectively permeable)
-​ Cell membrane helps the cell maintain homeostasis which is an stable internal
balance

Cell transport -​ Passive transport is a process that does not require energy to move molecules from
a high to low concentration down the concentration gradient, including diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.
-​ active transport requires energy to occur

Concentration -​ The molecules are more densely packed on the left and so they tend to diffuse into
gradient space on the right which is called the concentration gradient.

-​ The steeper the concentration gradient, the faster diffusion takes place, and the less
steep concentration, the slower the rate of diffusion

Diffusion -​ Diffusion is the movement of small particles from areas of high concentration to
low until equilibrium(evenly spread out) is reached.
-​ Diffusion also happens in cells where substances such as oxygen can diffuse
through the cell membrane.
-​ Simple diffusion moves down the concentration gradient

-​ Because the cell is using up oxygen by the Mitochondria in cellular respiration, the
concentration of oxygen inside the cell is always lower than the concentration
outside.
-​ Therefore creates a steep concentration gradient between the outside and the inside
of the cell.
 -​ Here, the diffusion gradient is maintained, therefore the cell membrane continues
to diffuse oxygen molecules into the cell.

Facilitated -​ Facilitated diffusion is the movement of larger molecules like glucose through the
diffusion cell membrane where these molecules are facilitated/helped with integral proteins
(large/charged) and do not require energy from the cell.
-​ Protein channels are integral proteins in the cell membrane that form channels
(pores/tunnels) for large molecules to pass through.
-​ Carrier proteins, on the other hand, help facilitate diffusion by binding a particular
substance, then altering their shape to bring that substance into or out of the cell.
-​ Pore/channel proteins and carrier protein

LO: Describe the process of osmosis

Osmosis -​ Osmosis is the net(overall) movement of water through a selectively permeable
membrane like the cell membrane
-​ Water diffuses across a membrane from an area of low concentration of a solution
to an area of high concentration

-​ A semipermeable membrane is permeable (stuff can move through it) to water but
not sugar
 -​ Due to osmosis the net movement of water through the semipermeable
membrane, cells can be affected by the concentrations of the solute around them

Types of -​ Hypotonic solutions contain a low concentration of solute compared to the cell’s
solutions cytoplasm and when a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, the water diffuses
into the cell, causing the cell to swell/expand and possibly explode
-​ Hypertonic solutions contain a high concentration of solute compared to the cell’s
cytoplasm and when a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the water diffuses
out of the cell, causing the cell to shrivel/shrink​ .
-​ One side can be hypotonic or hypertonic to another side
-​ Isotonic Solutions contain the same concentration of solute compared to the cell’s
cytoplasm and when a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, the water diffuses into
and out of the cell at the same rate because the fluid that surrounds the body cells
is isotonic.

Active -​ Active transport is the movement of molecules from low concentrations to high
Transport concentrations or against the concentration gradient.
-​ Proteins that work as pumps to transport particles against the concentration
gradient are called protein pumps.
 -​ ATP is the energy currency of a cell.
-​ An example of active transport is how body cells must pump carbon dioxide out
into the surrounding blood vessels to be carried to the lungs for exhaling.
-​

Endocytosis and -​ Exocytosis: waste exit out

exocytosis -​ Endocytosis: food enter in
-​ They are the mechanism by which very large molecules such as food and waste
gets into and out of the cell
-​ In endocytosis, the cell membrane cleaves, and the contents such as food or
liquids are enguild\fed into the cell in vesicles

-​ In exocytosis, the vesicles fuse with the membrane, and the contents are exited
out of the cell
-​