WALLAGA UNIVERSITY GIMBI CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF SOIL RESOURCE AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

SENIOR PROJECT- I

OVER VIWE OF SMART IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT FOR IMPROVING WATER

PRODUCTIVITY IN ETHIOPIA

BY: DIRIBA SHUMA ID NO: 1411475

ADVISOR: MR.GAMECHIS D (MSc)

1
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all, I would like to thank my Lord God for helping me in all aspect during my stay at Wollega
University Gimbi Campus. This all happened according to his perfect plan. Sincere and heartfelt
gratitude goes to my Advisor, Araba Jemal (MSc) for his unreserved support and encouragement which
I enjoyed throughout the course of the study. Finally, I am also pleased to express my sincere gratitude
to my father Tamiru Raga and my mother Nagash Yadeta for their prayers, moral support,
encouragement and valuable advice during my study. Then I would like to thank Wollega University
Gimbi campus for preparing this senior research project.

2
Abstract:
Global dry lands, covering about 41% of Earth’s surface and in habited by 38% of the world’s
population, are facing the stark challenges of water scarcity, low water productivity, and food in
security. This paper high lights the major constraints to agricultural productivity, traditional
irrigation scheduling methods, and associated challenges, efforts, and progress to enhance water
use efficiency (WUE), conserve water, and guarantee food security by over viewing different smart
irrigation

approaches. Widely used traditional irrigation scheduling methods (based on weather, plant, and
soil moisture conditions) usually lack important information needed for precise irrigation, which leads
to over- or under-irrigation of fields. On the other hand, by using several factors, including soil and
climate variation, soil properties, plant responses to water deficits, and changes

in weather factors, smart irrigation can drive better irrigation decisions that can helps ave water
and increase yields. Various smart irrigation approaches, such as artificial intelligence and deep
learning (artificial neural network, fuzzy logic, expert system, hybrid intelligent system, and deep
learning), model predictive irrigation systems, variable rate irrigation (VRI) technology, and
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) could ensure high water use efficiency in water-scarce regions.

These smart irrigation technologies can improve water management and accelerate the progress in
achieving multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), where no one gets left behind.

Table of Contents

3
ACKNOWLEDGMENT..........................................................................................................................................................2

Abstract:............................................................................................................................................................................ 3

1: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................................................5

1.2 Objective..................................................................................................................................................................6

2. LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................................................................................... 6

2.1. Definition of irrigation.............................................................................................................................................6

2.2. Over view of irrigation............................................................................................................................................ 7

Irrigation development......................................................................................................................................................7

2.4. Real time Irrigation Scheduling Systems.................................................................................................................1

2.5. Surface Irrigation System........................................................................................................................................1

2.6. Major Constraints of Agricultural Productivity in Drylands.....................................................................................1

2.5. Traditional Approaches Used for Irrigation Scheduling............................................................................................4

2.5.4.Innovative Smart Irrigation Approaches...............................................................................................................6

2.6.7. FutureProspects.................................................................................................................................................11

3.Conclusions............................................................................................................................................................... 12

5.References................................................................................................................................................................. 13

4
1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of irrigation

Irrigation is considered an artificial utilization of the water on the soil using different methods such as
pumps, tubes and sprays. Usually, the need for irrigation appears in places where the rainfall is irregular,
in dry times, or in places where dehydration is regular [Maestre, F.T.2012]. Too many irrigation
systems are available with different types according to the environment of the soil. The water used in
irrigation has many resources, such as underground water, through wells or springs; the surface water,
from lakes, rivers; or other several sources, for example, the treated wastewater or desalinated seawater.
Therefore, Therefore, farmers have to save and protect their agricultural water sources by minimizing
the potential of diseases. Since with any groundwater extraction, users of irrigation water need to be
careful not to drain groundwater out with a rate greater than it is being regenerated. There are two
methodologies of modern irrigation systems, the traditional irrigation methodologies and the intelligent
irrigation methodologies. Traditional irrigation is such as surface irrigation, drip irrigation and sprinkler
irrigation. In the future, several severe and complicated problems will be met by irrigated agriculture.
An example of a significant problem is the low efficiency of the water resources for irrigation. A
relevant safe approximation is that more than 40 % of the redirected irrigation water is spent earlier at
the level of the farm, either through deep percolation or at the surface runoff [J. AridEnviron.2021].
However, often these losses represent missed opportunities for water, as they prevent water from
arriving at the downstream diversions. One of the most visible coming problems is the extension of
different water requirements resources, such as manufactural and urban needs. These are used to give
water resources a higher value, so as a result, researchers favor giving more attention to practices with a
high wasteful rate. In the upcoming years, irrigation science obviously, will face problems to maximize
usage efficiency [J.Arid Environ.2021]. There are three major categories of irrigation systems.
Pressurized distribution: The pressurized systems ‘main components are a trickle, sprinkler, and array of
the same systems, where water is carried and spread along the land surface within networks of
pressurized pipes. Besides, many individual systems configurations are presented by novel features,
such as center-pivot sprinkler systems. Gravity-flow distribution:

1.2 Objective

Review of Smart Irrigation Management for Improving Water Productivity under Climate Change in
Drylands

5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Definition of irrigation

Irrigation is considered an artificial utilization of the water on the soil using different methods such as
pumps, tube sand sprays. Usually, the need for irrigation appears in places where the rain fallis irregular,
in dry times, or in places where dehydration is regular. Too many irrigation systems areal vailable with
different types according to the environment of the soil. The water used in irrigation has many
resources, such as underground water, through wells or springs; the surface water, from lakes, rivers; or
other several sources, for example, the treated wastewater or desalinated seawater. Therefore, Therefore,
farmers have to save and protect their agricultural water sources by minimizing the potential of diseases.
Since with any groundwater extraction, users of irrigation water need to be careful not to drain ground
water out with a rate greater than itis being regenerated. There are two methodologies of modern
irrigation systems the traditional irrigation methodologies and the intelligent irrigation methodologies
Traditional irrigation is such as surface irrigation, drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation

2.2. Over view of irrigation

uses the process of artificially applying water to plants when rainfall is not sufficient enough to maintain
a reliable source of crops. It is most often used in regions where rainfall is inconsistent or too sparse to
support life. Plants need water in order to grow and survive because it helps draw nutrients into their
systems which, in turn, allows them to photosynthesize. If farmers were unable to water their crops or a
plant could not receive water from another source, the plant would become dehydrated, wilt, and
eventually die Comparatively huge quantities of irrigation water are percolate within the root zone and
form drainage, or underground water flow. In places where water is rare, water management is vital.
Agriculture is also impacted, as a significant amount of water is used. Water adaptation techniques are
being studied due to the probable repercussions of global warming to make sure that there is water
accessible for food both production and consumption. As a consequence, the number of studies focused
on lowering irrigation water demand has steadily risen over time. However, sensor son the market for
farming irrigation systems are expensive, making this device unsustainable for small-scale farmers. On
the other hand, companies are producing low-cost sensing devices that may be linked to nodes to
construct cost-effective agriculture monitor and irrigation management systems.The main objectives of
irrigation systems are minimizing labour and resources requirements and maximizingthe effi-ciencie.
The management practices with the most effects depend on irrigation systems type and desi.Several
well-known problems determine how far the irrigation system succeeds, such as determining when to
irrigate thesoil,whatis the suitable quantity of water, and the ability to improve efficiency. When
selectingan irrigation system, many con-siderations must be taken into account. Such as crop type,

6
location of the farm and farmer, and the time of the year. Generally, all these factors must cover the
system compatibility with the best services of the farm, the topographic and properties of the soil, crop
specs, economic feasibility, and some social constraints

Irrigation development
This section show irrigation has changed through time from1970 through 2022,in four separate
periods. Researchers were interested in irrigation optimization from1970 to 1985 because of the
introduction of intelligent monitoring systems and water limitations for irrigation.

2.3. Realtime Irrigation Scheduling Systems

Through the regulation of soil moisture, Irrigation schedules that are updated in real-time aim to
reduce to increase harvest yields and reduce crop water stress. Evaporation(E) and transpiration (T),
sometimes known as evapotranspiration (ET), require water for crops.

However, too much water is detrimental to a variety of plants. The quantity of water needed by
plants is evaluated by their growing stage,climate,and crop kind.So,Irrigation solutions that improve
water ef-ficiency are scheduled. In arids and soils,determine the effects of various irrigation
scheduling methods on corn yield and water productivity and provide irrigation scheduling
suggestions that optimize marginal profit per unit of applied

7
2.4. Real time Irrigation Scheduling Systems
Through the regulation of soil moisture, Irrigation schedules that are updated in real-time aim to reduce to
increase harvest yields and reduce crop water stress.Evaporation(E)

and transpiration, sometimes known as evapotranspiration (ET), require water for crops. However, to much
water is detrimental to a variety of plants. The quantity of water needed by plants is evaluated by their
growing stage, climate, and cropkind. So, Irrigation solutions that improve water efficiency are scheduled In
arid sandy soils, determine the effects of various irrigation scheduling methods on corn yield and water
productivity and provide irrigation scheduling suggestions that optimize marginal profit per unit of applied

2.5. Surface Irrigation System

The surface irrigation system is expected to supply the root zone reservoir uniformly and efficiently to avoid
plant stress and ensure resources conservation such as water, nutrient,energy,and labour. Other usages for the
irrigation system are cooling the climate around some sensitive fruits and vegetables or warming the climate to
save the plants from damage by frost in freezing areas. In addition, an irrigation system has to leach salts
expanding in the root region. Besides, it might be used to soften the soil in preparation for better farming or to
fertilize the field and distribute in pesticides

2.6. Major Constraints of Agricultural Productivity in Drylands

Land Degradation

Natural processes such as vegetation loss,wildfires,overgrazing,climatechange, wind and water erosion and
other adverse/destructive anthropogenic activities cause land degradation.

This causes a substantial decline in the functional capabilities of those specific areas, negatively influences
agricultural activities and productivity and natural resources management, creates economic loss, and loss in
biological activity

Generally, land degradation is more critical or serious in dry land, semi-arid and arid areas. These include some
parts of central Asia, China, Africa and the Mediterranea basin
[.LanddegradationinAfricahighlyimpactsSomalia,Eritrea,andEthiopia(horn of Africa)

.A prominent sign of land degradation is the occurrence of unexpected climatic conditions and vegetative
stress. Moreover, low levels of soil nitrogen and organic carbon (C) show a state of land degradation thaleads to

1
very low soil fertility. Stavi and Lal] reported that land degradation increases by 5–10 million hectares every
year globally. Ibrahim et al. found that the increase in land degradation observed

2.4.2.Water Scarcity Issues and Sustainable Development Goals

Water availability is one of the main indicators of land degradation, and upsurge in land degradation is
potentially aggravating water scarcity. Availability of wateris jeopardized by lessening of ground and
surface water due to reduction in biomass. This results in less water available for agricultural and
domesticuse. Scarcity of water is an indicator of safe water; hence, water scarcity is a deficiency in fresh
water resources to meet the standard water demand. Successful achievement of SDGs is dependent upon
the water security of both human and environmental systems. because water is directly linked to all SDGs
The leading reasons for water scarcity are droughts, climate change, and inaccessibility and inadequate
management of resources]. Rosaetal.. reported that in 2022, almost 2.3billion people did not have access to
safe water.Access to safe water is an important factor as it decreases disease frequency and social
problems, including unemployment, malnutrition, and poverty. Agriculture and industrial sectors use the
largest proportion of water,and

this water is usually drawn from below ground, lakes and rivers .Falkenmark reported that water scarcity
poses substantial threats to the agriculture sector,which requires sufficient quantity of water for irrigation.
Crop production and food security are directly dependent on sufficient water availability. Water scarcity
leads to plants tress, resulting in various environ- mental problems, suchas intensified soil erosion and salt
concentration. Increasing climate change, land degradation,and population necessitate the development of
effective management systems to wisely mitigate water scarcity

2.4.3. ClimateV ariability

Variations/changes in climatic conditions often impact human, biological and

agricultural systems through decreasing water resources, rising global temperatures,

heavy precipitation, elevation in permafrost thawing, worsening water and air quality,

rise in sea level,health risk,food supply and availability,intense drought,disturbing

rainfall periods,and devastating effects on coastal infrastructure. EastAfricais anexam-

ple of climatic anomalies, and the progression of increased rainy seasons, droughts

2
and temperatures is detrimental to the development of this area. InTanzania, crop data

techniques predicte dayield reductionof7.6%,8.8%,and13%in rice,sorghum and maize

by 2050, respectively. The impacts of variation in climatic events are significantly neg-

ative, for example, the Mediterranean Basin has shown a prominent rise in average

temperatures beyond global changes, with significant impacts on plant processes and

water resources. Climatic variation may induce a significant reduction in crop growth

and productivity and increase vector-born edisease, thus threatening food security.

2.4.5. Conventional Technology

In dryland regions, most farmers employ old farming techniques that result in fail- ure to manage food for
increasing populations. The traditional farming techniques generatelittlefood. Agricultur conservation
(croprotation, soil cover and minimum tillage) could help to enhance crop yield swith increasing profit
ability and decreasing soil degradation. Some techniques are not used by subsistence farmers mainly because
of unfamiliarity. The implication of microbial-resistant varieties or seeds is less common in Africa.These
advancements have the capability to improve yield and increase stress tolerance. Nonetheless, most farmers
in rural areas are lacking access to services and information to be effectively used in their favor . Sarkar et al.
reported that the use of modern

techniques is help ful and provides opportunities to farmers for increasing the crop yields. Digitizing
farming methods permits farmers to guess the yield and weather forecast,select suitable crops according to
the area, and improve irrigation systems. Nuclear technology is also used as a tool to increase yield tope
utilization.These are used as early detectors and tracers of the existence of diseases. More over, applying
nuclear technology in agricultural practices can increase crop productivity by40%,improve soil structure and
texture, and decrease labor and in pu costs Nonetheless,themain hindrance is that modern farming
techniques and technologies are not available to the majority of farmers in dryland areas.

2.5. Traditional Approaches Used for Irrigation Scheduling

The amount of water and it sapplication timing iscrucial in irrigation scheduling (IS), either in agriculture or
land scapes. Irrigation water requirement is measured following a criterion that determines irrigation needs and
methods to apply a calculated amount of water . In order to use irrigation water efficiently, we have to
3
understand the dynamics of plant water use, together with weather, plant physiology, and soil properties.
Among the various irrigation scheduling approaches developed and suggested,three types are most
important:weather-based, soil moisture-based, and plant water status based

2.5.1.Weather-BasedIrrigationScheduling

In weather-based irrigation planning, reference evapotranspiration (ET 0) is calculated by measuring the

weather elements that reflect the amount of water lost via plants and soil. .Solar radiation ,humidity ,air
temperature and wind speed in fluence the quantity of water lost throug hevapotranspiration. In the absence
of soil and plant measurements, weather attributes are used to determine irrigationschedules based on
evapotranspira- tion .Reference evapotranspiration can be calculated following the FAO Penman–
Monteith equation by measuring the solar radiation,wind speed,air temperatureand humidity. Daily crop
water use can be calculated by

ETc=Kc×ET0

2.5.2. Plant-based irrigation scheduling

mainly relies on several indices indicating plant waterstatus. The relationship between soil

moistured eficit and crop water stress helps to determine irrigation scheduling. Plant-based

irrigation scheduling is sensitive to measurements conducted at aspecific crop stage to determine water
deficit in plants]. Since varying plant species, plant tissues, and crop growth stages havevariablesensi-
tivity to moisture deficit, several plant-based stress measurements have been suggested for irrigation
scheduling .There are two principal categories based on plant vari- ablemeasurements used for irrigation
scheduling: firstly, plant water status-based direct measurements including leaf, stem, and xylem water
potential status and indirect mea- surements pertinent to leaf thickness, turgor pressure, and trunk diameter;
and secondly,plant physiology-based estimates includings apflow,stomatal conductance, xylem
cavitation,and ther mal sensing .Aleafturgor pressure sensore stimates the relative change in leafturgor
pressure to determin eleaf water stress

4
 In addition to transpiration water loss, root water up take and cellular osmotic pressure determine the
magnitude of turgor pressure. For example, a ZIM probe (leaf turgor pressure sensor)

2.5.3.Irrigation Scheduling Based on Soil Moisture

Soil moisture monitoring is one of the fundamental approaches used for irrigation scheduling, and it is
conducted by determining the soil water content or the soil water po- tential . Monitoring soil moisture at high
spatial and temporal resolution is critical for optimal irrigation scheduling. Differentty pes of sensors,such as
time-domain transmis- sion, neutron probes, granular matrix, and capacitance, are commonly implemented for
soil moisture determination. Gravimetric sampling to estimate soil moisture fluxes and a tensiometer is also
used to measure soil matric potential, reflecting the amount of soil water available for plant use. With the
advancement of technology, satellite and groundwater sensors are becoming popular as irrigation tools. Soil
moisture sensors can be installed at multiple depths in the field and capture soil moisture dynamics.They
enhance accuracy and improve understanding of changes appearing in soil water content pertinent to crop water
use and irrigation. Soil sensors also provide information about soil chemical, physical and mechanical
properties obtained in the form of optical, electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic, acoustic, radiometric, and
pneumatic measurements. Measurementof these attributes assists in the estimation of maximum allowable
depletion. Soil moisture sensors estimate the volumetric moisture content (VMC) by detecting changes in soil
electrical and thermal properties

2.5.4.Innovative Smart Irrigation Approaches

A smart irrigation system consists of firmware, software, and hardware interconnected via various
computational techniques, including artificial intelligence (AI) and deep learn- ing(DL)etc.,which ensures the
right amount of water at the appropriate time in cropsto improve WUE, increase yield, reduce fertilizer use,
reduce labor cost, and save energy. Various control methods are employed to improve irrigation system
efficiency by mon- itoring variables such as canopy and air temperature, evapotranspiration, rainfall, and
solar radiation. By integrating information from multiple sources, smart irrigation systems can significantly
improve crop production and resource management. .The follow- ing section presents various recent
techniques associated with smart irrigation systems in agricultuState-of-the-Art Smart IrrigationTechnologies

2.6.1. State-of-the-Art Smart Irrigation Technologies

Artificial Intelligence (AI)and Deep Learning

5
AI is a machine’s ability to learn and implement tasks similar to those of a human brain,and itis powered
by computers. When applied to acerta in problem domain, AI algorithms can mimic human decision-
making. Irrigation systems have been integrated with AI for adaptive decision-making through fuzzy logic,
expert systems, and ANNs . An artificial neural network (ANN) is an algorithm for processing information
that is inspired by the working of the human brain .Like human brain neurons, an ANN also contains an
eural network,but synapses are substituted with biased connections and weights. This facilitates them
apping of input and out put relationships . ANN- based control systems can learn and adapt to the variable
dynamics, making them ideal for irrigation systems. Additionally, ANNs have been used as smart
strategies in dealing with the issue of formulating mathematical models based on first principles.Recently,
many researchers have employed ANN methods for irrigations cheduling.Usingthe AQUACROP model
integrated with a dynamic neural network, Adeyemi et al. (2018) simulated soil moisture for apotato
crop.Karasekreteretal. demonstrated energyand water savings upto23.9%and20.5%,respectively,by
implementing an ANN integrated with soil physical properties and moisture content in a straw berry
orchard.Umair and Muhammad. designedanANN-based controller modelinMATLAB using climate

irrigation system enables farmers to quantify the water amount needed by crops at the ap- propriate time by
considering the weather and soil conditions. Many researchers ] have implemented expert systems for
irrigation management.The expert system uses variousknowledge-based inputs for accurate decision-making
about irrigation schedul- ing. However, errors in knowledge-based input can seriously affect the performance
and reliability of expert systems.

2.6.3. Model Predictive Irrigation Systems

Development in smart agriculture through internet usage and increasing computa- tional power facilitated large
data collection from agricultural systems . The model predictive system has been employed in irrigation
scheduling, irrigation canal control, soil moisture, and stem water potential regulation. Model predictive
control (MPC) has man ifested applicability to gate operation and control the can alflow.The management goal
of model predictive control for canals is to maintain the level of water as closeto the set-points as possible.
6
Thus, an appropriate model regulating the dynamics of canal-water levels is required. A model predictive
control system has been employed to model water movement in the canals, keeping a specific level of water at
different locations and the flow of water that affects these water levels. The controlling instruments maintain
the flow of water, by which the regulator can attain the management goals. Nonetheless, attaining this goal is
not straightforward, as variations in inflows and outflows interrupt the whole water system. To estimate future
water flows and levels in response to control actions and disturbances, the water system (controller, canal
reaches, disturbances and structures) needs to be modeled.Several authors have applied MPC in driving irri-
gation flows of canals. For instance, Puig et al. applied MPC to create flow control approaches from the source
of water to the user and Guadiana River’s irrigation territory. The results exhibited the usefulness of the MPC
application. Zhang et al. developed a non-cooperative distributed MPC algorithm based on Nashoptimality for
the regulation of water levels in canals.The simulation of system results indicated the efficacy of the advocated
algorithm.To efficiently deliver the flow of a canal without oscillations,MPC was combined with online water
storage to allow for a delay and evade wave distraction.The results indicated the significant development of
canal set ups using automation.

2.6.4. Variable-Rate Irrigation(VRI)

VRI is a method of applying irrigation at variable rates in different irrigation manage- ment zones over the
entire field in an optimized way . Normally, the application of irrigation water is uniform in the entire
field.However, owing to soil spatial variability in soil topography, hydraulic properties and vegetation
condition, the soil moisture content remains non uniform. When such soil spatial variability becomes
significant, the fieldis split into different management zones consisting of those field areas with the same soil
properties and crop conditions.Then, irrigation is applied at differential rates in different management zones.
Such variable irrigation management may enhance the economic value of irrigation by improving WUE,
increasing productivity and reduction in nutrient leaching. .This enables an accurate and timely water
application basedon soil spatiotemporal properties and plant demand.In other words,VRI technology ensures
the application of theright amount of water at the right time in the right field zone, resulting in significant
water savings.The main components of VRI technology include sensors, prescription maps, spatial
information, and a unit system to apply VRI prescription (lateralirrigation) in the crop field. Optimization
of VRI prescriptions is usually determined by using remote sensing, yield maps, topography, soil apparent
electrical conductivity and soil maps. There are different types of irrigation systems used for VRI
applications.The variable-rate lateral irrigation system contains a global navigation satellite system (GNSS)
or global positioning system (GPS) receiver, custom software-operated relays, and valves, thus supplying

7
waterat variable rates using the nozzle-pulsing method with a speed controller . This system has high accuracy
in controlling the irrigation rate and forward speed. Likewise, the centerpivotVRI system consists of a VRI
and pivot control panels,controlnodes, solenoidvalves,aGNSS,a remote sensing control system,and
avariable-frequencydrive (VFD)

The speed and operation of the pivot are regulated by pivot control.The VRI controlleris regulated by the
GNSS system, and the control nodes attached to the pivot govern the valve opening and closing.VFD
regulates the pressure by altering the irrigation rate at different points in the field. The rotation speed of the
pump impeller is also controlled by the VFD in response to the input communicated by the pressure switch
mounted on the pump. It help sv to maintain the pressure with in the pre defined threshold limits[. The use
of VRI technology offers several advantages over conventional irrigation methods. VRI can substantially
improve overall yields by avoiding under-irrigation and/or over- irrigation. The growers usually set up soil
moisture sensors in those field are as with low soil water-holding capacity (WHC) to prevent under-
irrigation in the field. This practice may increase irrigation frequency, leading to over-irrigation with high
soil WHC. Over-irrigation may result in yield loss due to nutrient leaching and depletion of oxygen in the
root zone. The prevention of under-irrigation in those field areas with higher yield potential could help
optimize water input.

2.6.5.Unmanned Aerial Vehicles(UAVs)for Irrigation Management

UAVs, also called drones , are frequently linked with military operations, as they are used as weapons for
targeting air craft and involved in intelligence services.Recently, drones have been used in a wide range of
applications, including delivery services, weather monitoring, traffic monitoring, surveillance, and rescue .
Several studies emphasized UAV utilization for forecasting and monitoring in agriculture to maintain crop
health. Drones a real so useful for irrigation monitoring,as they use in frared or thermal imaging cameras in the
IOT network . Manual spraying of pesticides induces lethal diseases to workers globally, as described by the
World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization.Thus,UAV scould be apotential alternative
to manual pesticides praying, reducing the potential ecological/environmental risks and health problems [.
Recently,UAVs with IoT-based sensor networks have been used for smart irrigation

purposes, thus significantly improving crop productivity. Chebroluetal. suggested a technique of UAV
image store build a three-dimensional crop model that mediates crop growth monitoring based on a plant

8
level.Likewise, the plant height of sorg hum and maize plants was measured based on UAV images and a
three-dimensional model. Rothetal. [reported that the RMSE (root-mean-square error)was

0.33m for a single sorghum’sheight. The soy bean leafareaindex was extracted using 3D and UAV plant
models. In another study, carried out by Deng et al. , different cameras were fixed on UAVs for smart
farming. The results indicated that the UAV-based multiband images are useful and showed substantial
ability for precise irrigation and agriculture management. RGB(red,green and blue) cameras can be used
with adrone to determine crop biomass using visible reflectance for assessing vegetation indices According
to Rokhmana,using UAVs for remote sensing can support precision farming.They can be used to obtain
periodic information from the field, i.e., stock evaluation, plant precise irrigation estimates.Based on the
collection of plant data, they suggested establishing a central unit to develop a crop growth model,
Oksanen et al. proposed a method to fore cast and diagnose wheat diseases, weeds, and pests usinga
computerizedIoT-based method. A fung icide

2.6.6.Fore casting Smart irrigation Technology with DSSIS

A decision support system (DSS)is an interactive software-based system used identify, analyze, and improve
decisions based on raw data,documents,and personal knowledge .Various decision support systems (DSSs)
have been designed for managing irrigation water to improve WUE].Asmart and efficient DSS has to consider
several factors, such as soil water status, crop type, irrigation method, weather information, and application, to
develop irrigation scheduling.To facilitate precise irrigation scheduling by minimizing errorsin field soil
moisture estimates,DSS sprovide irrigation schedules not only for the current day but also to forecast irrigation
events for future days. Based on the idea of forecasting irrigation, recently a prototype of an irrigation
scheduling DSS called decision support system for irrigation scheduling (DSSIS) has been devel
opedforarid regions. This DSSIS has the ability to predict irrigation events for the current day as wellas
fore cast irrigation for the future by using the weather information of the next 4 days. The DSSI Sprototy
peconsists of irrigation pipelines, soft ware and hardware to control irrigation and peripheral equipment
The irrigation pipe lines consist of a drip irrigation system, valves and polyvinyl chloride pipes. The soft
ware controlling the irrigation system includes RZWQM2(RootZoneWaterQuality Model) integrated with
an irrigation scheduling software (RZIrrschandan on line weatherd at a acquisition system The irrigation-
controlling hard ware contains automatic control equipment. A peripheral equipment consists of a water
reservoir, circulating pumps, and strainers. In DSSIS, the RZWQM2 model works as an engine and
facilitates decision-making about irrigation scheduling.The RZWQM2 is first calibrated and validated
according to site- specific experimental data (crop, weather, and soil data).
9
2.6.7. FutureProspects

This paper presented an overview of advanced and smart irrigation practices for improving WUE in water-
limited regions,but still there are some challenges that are important to consider for designing smart,
sustainable and user-friendly irrigation systems.

Variability in soil textureis avital source of uncertainty because it influences the current and potential soil
water storage estimates both vertically and latterly in a field. Therefore, site-specific soil analysis is one way
to rectify this problem and obtain the exacts oil parameter information needed for accurate irrigation
scheduling.Site- specific soil test-based information integrated with smart irrigation systems can helpto
improve WUE in arid and semiarid regions. This method is called soil test-based irrigation prescription
(STIP).The proper execution of STIP needs specific field soil sampling, analysis of soil properties and
development of a soil database.This soil information with crop and weather data can be integrated with
amodel or decision support system to forecast an irrigation event.

Most of the experiments related to smart irrigation systems were conducan not represent commercial
farming practices. Therefore, more on-farm studies in large fieldsare needed for a clear understanding about
the implementation of smart irrigation technology.

Mostof the commercial smart irrigation systems offered by different irrigation com- panies help to improve
water use efficiency, but the high cost of these state-of-the-art devices is a serious challenge for farmers. More
over,these commercial smart irrigation systems are custom-built, meaning difficulty in control and adaptability.
Therefore, affordable and user-friendly equipments hould be manufactured at a local level.

3.Conclusions

This article provided an overview of the major constraints to agricultural productivity, traditional irrigation
scheduling methods, and efforts and advancements that have been achieved to enhance WUE, conserve
water, and most importantly guarantee food security through the adoption of different smart irrigation
approaches in dryland regions.Dryland agriculture is largely affected by low WUE because farmers are
relying upon traditional irrigation scheduling methods, resulting in over- and/or under-irrigation of fields
and yield reduction. In this situation, adoption of smart irrigation approaches or technologies in cluding
artificial intelligence and deep learning (ANN,fuzzylogic,expert system,hybrid intelligent system, and deep
learning), model predictive irrigation systems, VRI technology, and UAV scould ensure high water use
efficiency and productivity in water-scarce regions. These technologies consider several factors,including

10
soil and climate variation,soil structure and hydraulic properties, plant responses to water deficits, and
changesin weather factors to apply the right amount of water at the right time and place. However, all
these methods face some challenges regarding accurate execution and performance under field conditions,
which could be rectified by incorporating indigenous knowledge and through practical demonstrations to
the farmers.Smart irrigation technologies are revolutionizing global agriculture. Such technologies are
highly desirable to achieve the SDGs and improve the living standards of poor farmers in drylands.

5.References

Maestre, F.T.; Quero, J.L. PlantSpecies Richness and Ecosystem Multi-functionality in Global Drylands.
Science2012, 335, 214.

Tariq,A.;Ullah,A.;Sardans,J.;Zeng,F.;Graciano,C.;Li,X.;Peñuelas,J.Alhagisparsifolia:Anidealphreatophyte
for combating desertification and land degradation. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 844, 157228.

Chimwamurombe,P.M.;Mataranyika,P.N.Factors influencing dryl and agricultural

productivity.J.AridEnviron.2021,

189,104489.

Stringer,L.C.;Reed,M.S.;Fleskens,L.;Thomas,R.J.;Le,Q.B.;Lala-
Pritchard,T.Anewdrylanddevelopmentparadigmgroundedinempirical analysis of dryland systems
science.Land Degrad. Dev. 2017, 28, 1952–1961

cropping system—a 16-year field study in north china plain,” Field CropsResearch,vol. 275, p.108364,
2022.

A. F. Jimenez, E. F. Herrera, B. V. Ortiz, A. Ruiz, and P. F.

Cardenas,“Inferencesystemforirrigationschedulingwithanintelligentagent,”in International Conference of
ICT for Adapting Agriculture to ClimateChange.Springer, 2018, pp. 1–20.

A. M. García, I. F. García, E. C. Poyato, P. M. Barrios, and J. R. Díaz,“Coupling irrigation scheduling with

solar energy production in a smart irrigation management system,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol.
175,pp.670–682, 2018.

B. George, S. Shende, and N. Raghuwanshi, “Development and testing ofan irrigation scheduling model,”
Agricultural water management, vol. 46,no.2, pp. 121–136, 2000.

11
A. Muluneh, T. Tadesse, and R. Girma, “Assessing potential land suitablefor surface irrigation using gis and
ahp techniques in the rift valley lakesbasin, ethiopia,” Sustainable Water Resources Management, vol. 8,
no. 2,pp.1–22, 2022.

A.W.Worqlul,Y.T.Dile,J.Jeong,Z.Adimassu,N.Lefore,T.Gerik,

R. Srinivasan, and N. Clarke, “Effect of climate change on land suitability for surface irrigation and
irrigation potential of the shallow ground watering hana,” Computers and electronics in agriculture, vol.
157, pp. 110–125,2019.

M. M. Akalu, “Gis-based land suitability assessment for surface irrigation:a case of gilgel gibe watershed,
jimma zone, ethiopia,” Arabian Journal ofGeosciences,vol. 15,no. 5, pp.1–13, 2022.

M. Pramanik, M. Khanna, M. Singh, D. Singh, S. Sudhishri, A. Bhatia,and R. Ranjan, “Automation of soil

moisture sensor-based basin irrigation system,” Smart Agricultural Technology,vol.2, p.100032,2022.

K.Shi,T.Lu,W.Zheng,X.Zhang,andL.Zhangzhong,“Are view of the category, mechanism ,and controlling

methods of chemical clogging in drip irrigation system,”Agriculture,vol.12,no. 2,p.202,2022.

M. Akbari, M. Gheysari, B. Mostafazadeh-Fard, and M. Shayannejad,“Surface irrigation simulation-

optimization model based on metaheuristical gorithms,”Agricultural water management, vol.201,pp.46–
57,2018.

S.Barkunan,V.Bhanumathi,andJ.Sethuram,“Smartsensorforautomaticdripirrigationsystemforpaddycultivation,
”Computers&ElectricalEngineering,vol. 73,pp. 180–193, 2019.

J.Wang,Y.Du,W.Niu,J.Han,Y.Li,andP.Yang,“Dripirrigationmode affects tomato yield by regulating root–soil–

microbe interactions,”Agricultural Water Management,vol. 260,p. 107188,2022.

O. Çetin and A. Kara, “Assesment of water productivity using differentdrip irrigation systems for cotton,”
Agricultural Water Management, vol.223,p. 105693, 2019.

L. Wang, W. Wu, J. Xiao, Q. Huang, and Y. Hu, “Effects of different dripirrigation modes on water use
efficiency of pear trees in northern china,”Agricultural Water Management,vol. 245,p. 106660,2021.

A.Goap,D.Sharma,A.K.Shukla,andC.R.Krishna,“Aniotbasedsmartirrigation management system using

machine learning and open source technologies,” Computers and electronics in agriculture, vol. 155, pp.
41–49,2018.
12
L. Bortolini and M. Tolomio, “Influence of irrigation frequency on radic-chio(cichorium intybus l.)
yield,”Water, vol. 11, no.12, p. 2473, 2019.

R. Chen, H. Li, J. Wang, X. Guo, and Z. Song, “Comparisons of spray characteristics between non-circular
and circular nozzles with rotating sprinklers,” Applied Engineering in Agriculture,p.0, 2021.

E. A. Abioye, M. S. Z. Abidin, M. S. A. Mahmud, S. Buyamin, M. H. I.Ishak, M. K. I. Abd Rahman, A. O.

Otuoze, P. Onotu, and M. S. A. Ramli,“A review on monitoring and advanced control strategies for
precisionirrigation,”ComputersandElectronicsinAgriculture,vol.173,p.105441,2020.

A. K. Pandey and A. Mukherjee, “A review on advances in iot-based tech-nologies for smart agricultural
system,” Internet of Things and AnalyticsforAgriculture, Volume 3, pp. 29–44, 2022.

13