MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

Physics



MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

REPUBLIC OF GHANA

Physics
Teacher’s Manual
Year One - Book One
GEOGRAPHY TEACHER’S MANUAL

Enquiries and comments on this manual should be addressed to:

The Director-General
National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA)
Ministry of Education
P.O. Box CT PMB 77
Cantonments Accra
Telephone: 0302909071, 0302909862
Email: [email protected]
website: www.nacca.gov.gh

©2024 Ministry of Education

This publication is not for sale. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced without prior written permission from the Ministry of
Education, Ghana.
 Contents

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1
Learner-Centred Curriculum 1
Promoting Ghanaian Values 1
Integrating 21st Century Skills and Competencies 1
Balanced Approach to Assessment - not just Final External Examinations 1
An Inclusive and Responsive Curriculum 2
Social and Emotional Learning 2
Philosophy and vision for each subject 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
SCOPE AND SEQUENCE 10
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER 11
Strand: Mechanics and Matter 11
Sub-Strands: 11
1. Introduction to Physics 11
2. Matter 11
Theme Or Focal Area 1: Applications of Physics in Various Sectors of the Economy and
Career Exploration 13
Theme or Focal Area 2: The Interplay of Mathematics and Physics in Conceptual
Understanding and Real-World Applications 14
Theme or Focal Area 3: Basic and Derived Units 16
Theme/Focal Area 1: Dimension 17
Theme/Focal Area 2: Errors in The Use of Measuring Instruments 18
Theme/Focal Area 3: Errors in Measurement 19
Theme/Focal Area 1: Scientific Notations and Their Unit Multipliers 21
Theme/Focal Area 2: Scalars and Vectors 22
Theme or Focal Area 1: States of Matter 23
Theme or Focal Area 2: Molecular Arrangement of The Various States of Matter 24

SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE 26

Strand: Matter and Mechanics 26
Sub-Strands: 26
1. Kinematics 26
2. Dynamics 26
Theme/Focal Area 1: Types of Motion 28
Theme/Focal Area(S) 2: Equations of Motion 29
Theme/Focal Area (S) 3: Representation of Motions of Objects Graphically 30
Theme/Focal Area 1: Newton’s Laws of Motion 33

iii
Contents

Theme/Focal Area 2: Relationship Between Force, Mass and Acceleration

Using Newton’s Second Law 34
Theme/Focal Area 1: Theme/Focal Area(S) 1: Pressure in A Fluid 36
Theme/Focal Area 2: Pascal’s Principle 37
Theme/Focal Area 3: Brake Systems and Hydraulic Press 38

SECTION 3: THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE 41

Strand: Energy 41
Sub-Strand: Heat 41
Theme/Focal Area 1: Thermometric Substances 43
Theme/Focal Area 2: Thermometers 44
Theme/Focal Area 1: Temperature Scales 45
Theme/Focal Area 2: Relationship Between The Celsius, Fahrenheit and
The Kelvin Scales 46

SECTION 4: MIRRORS, REFLECTION AND REFRACTION 48

Strand: Energy 48
Sub-Strand: Waves 48
Theme/Focal Area 1: Laws of Reflection 50
Theme/Focal Area 2: Image Formation in Plane Mirrors 51
Theme/Focal Area 3: Images Formed by Inclined Mirrors 52
Theme/Focal Area 1: Terminologies Associated With Spherical Mirrors 54
Theme/Focal Area 2: Characteristics of Image Formation in Spherical Mirrors
Using Ray Diagram 55
Theme/Focal Area (S)1: Characteristics of Image Formation in
Spherical Mirrors Using Mirror Formula and Magnification Formula 58
Theme/Focal Area 2: Laws of Refraction 59

iv
 Introduction

INTRODUCTION
The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) has developed a new Senior High
School (SHS), Senior High Technical School (SHTS) and Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) Curriculum. It aims to ensure that all learners achieve their potential by equipping
them with 21st Century skills, competencies, character qualities and shared Ghanaian values. This will
prepare learners to live a responsible adult life, further their education and enter the world of work.
This is the first time that Ghana has developed an SHS Curriculum which focuses on national values,
attempting to educate a generation of Ghanaian youth who are proud of our country and can contribute
effectively to its development.
This Teacher Manual for Physics covers all aspects of the content, pedagogy, teaching and learning
resources and assessment required to effectively teach Year One of the new curriculum. It contains
this information for the first 12 weeks of Year One, with the remaining 12 weeks contained within
Book Two. Teachers are therefore to use this Teacher Manual to develop their weekly Learning Plans
as required by Ghana Education Service.
Some of the key features of the new curriculum are set out below.

Learner-Centred Curriculum
The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum places the learner at the center of teaching and learning by
building on their existing life experiences, knowledge and understanding. Learners are actively
involved in the knowledge-creation process, with the teacher acting as a facilitator. This involves
using interactive and practical teaching and learning methods, as well as the learner’s environment
to make learning exciting and relatable. As an example, the new curriculum focuses on Ghanaian
culture, Ghanaian history, and Ghanaian geography so that learners first understand their home and
surroundings before extending their knowledge globally.

Promoting Ghanaian Values

Shared Ghanaian values have been integrated into the curriculum to ensure that all young people
understand what it means to be a responsible Ghanaian citizen. These values include truth, integrity,
diversity, equity, self-directed learning, self-confidence, adaptability and resourcefulness, leadership
and responsible citizenship.

Integrating 21st Century Skills and Competencies

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum integrates 21st Century skills and competencies. These are:
• Foundational Knowledge: Literacy, Numeracy, Scientific Literacy, Information
Communication and Digital Literacy, Financial Literacy and Entrepreneurship, Cultural
Identity, Civic Literacy and Global Citizenship
• Competencies: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving, Innovation and Creativity, Collaboration
and Communication
• Character Qualities: Discipline and Integrity, Self-Directed Learning, Self-Confidence,
Adaptability and Resourcefulness, Leadership and Responsible Citizenship

Balanced Approach to Assessment - not just Final External Examinations

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum promotes a balanced approach to assessment. It encourages
varied and differentiated assessments such as project work, practical demonstration, performance
assessment, skills-based assessment, class exercises, portfolios as well as end-of-term examinations
and final external assessment examinations. Two levels of assessment are used. These are:

1
Introduction

• Internal Assessment (30%) – Comprises formative (portfolios, performance and project work)
and summative (end-of-term examinations) which will be recorded in a school-based transcript.
• External Assessment (70%) – Comprehensive summative assessment will be conducted by the
West African Examinations Council (WAEC) through the WASSCE. The questions posed by
WAEC will test critical thinking, communication and problem solving as well as knowledge,
understanding and factual recall.
The split of external and internal assessment will remain at 70/30 as is currently the case. However,
there will be far greater transparency and quality assurance of the 30% of marks which are school-
based. This will be achieved through the introduction of a school-based transcript, setting out all
marks which learners achieve from SHS 1 to SHS 3. This transcript will be presented to universities
alongside the WASSCE certificate for tertiary admissions.

An Inclusive and Responsive Curriculum

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum ensures no learner is left behind, and this is achieved through
the following:
• Addressing the needs of all learners, including those requiring additional support or with special
needs. The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum includes learners with disabilities by adapting
teaching and learning materials into accessible formats through technology and other measures
to meet the needs of learners with disabilities.
• Incorporating strategies and measures, such as differentiation and adaptative pedagogies
ensuring equitable access to resources and opportunities for all learners.
• Challenging traditional gender, cultural, or social stereotypes and encouraging all learners to
achieve their true potential.
• Making provision for the needs of gifted and talented learners in schools.

Social and Emotional Learning

Social and emotional learning skills have also been integrated into the curriculum to help learners to
develop and acquire skills, attitudes, and knowledge essential for understanding and managing their
emotions, building healthy relationships and making responsible decisions.

Philosophy and vision for each subject

Each subject now has its own philosophy and vision, which sets out why the subject is being taught
and how it will contribute to national development. The Philosophy and Vision for Physics is:
Philosophy: The next generation of scientists is empowered through critical and creative thinking
by understanding the theoretical and practical application of related concepts in physics that leverage
hands-on activities within a global environment
Vision: To equip physics learners with 21st century skills and competencies through hands-on
experimentation, analysis and discovery of basic concepts in physics and science for sustainable
development.

2
 Acknowledgements

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Professor Edward Appiah, Director-General of the National Council for Curriculum
and Assessment (NaCCA) and all who contributed to the successful writing of the Teacher Manuals for
the new Senior High School (SHS), Senior High Technical School (SHTS) and Science Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) curriculum.
The writing team was made up of the following members:

Subject Writer Institution

Home Economics Grace Annagmeng Mwini Tumu College of Education

Imoro Miftaw Gambaga Girls’ SHS
Love Boateng Juaso SHS
Jusinta Kwakyewaa (Rev. Sr.) St. Francis SHTS
Religious Studies Richardson Addai-Mununkum University of Education Winneba
Dr. Bonsu Osei-Owusu West Africa SHS
Prince Osei Adjei Adventist SHS, Bantama
Dr Francis Opoku Valley View University College
Yaw Sarkodie Agyemang University of Cape Coast
Aransa Bawa Abdul Razak Uthmaniya SHS
Godfred Bonsu Prempeh College
RME Anthony Mensah Abetifi College of Education
Joseph Bless Darkwa Volo Community SHS
Clement Nsorwineh Atigah Tamale SHS
Arabic Murtada Mahmoud Muaz AAMUSTED
Abas Umar Mohammed University of Ghana
Adam Abubakar Uthmaniya SHS
Mahey Ibrahim Mohammed Tijjaniya Senior High School
French Osmanu Ibrahim Mount Mary College of Education
Maurice Adjetey
Mawufemor Kwame Agorgli Akim Asafo SHS
Performing Arts Latipher Osei Appiah-Agyei University of Education Winneba
Desmond Ali Gasanga Ghana Education Service
Yaw Owusu Asiamah Adventist SHS, Bantama
Chris Ampomah Mensah Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo

3
Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Art and Design Dr. Ebenezer Acquah University for Education Winneba
Studio and
Dr. Osuanyi Quaicoo Essel University for Education Winneba
Foundation
Seyram Kojo Adipah Ghana Education Service
Jectey Nyarko Mantey Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Yaw Boateng Ampadu Prempeh College
Kwame Opoku Bonsu Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dzorka Etonam Justice Kpando SHS
Applied Joseph Asomani AAMUSTED
Technology
Dr. Prosper Mensah AAMUSTED
& Design and
Communication Dr. Sherry Kwabla Amedorme AAMUSTED
Technology Esther Pokuah Mampong Technical College of
Education
Wisdom Dzidzienyo Adzraku AAMUSTED
Kunkyuuri Philip Kumasi SHTS
Antwi Samuel Kibi SHTS
Gabriel Boafo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Josiah Bawagigah Kandwe Walewale Technical Institute
Emmanuel Korletey Benso SHTS
Isaac Buckman Armed Forces SHTS
Daniel K. Agbogbo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Tetteh Moses Dagbon State SHS
Awane Adongo Martin Dabokpa Technical Institute
Business Studies Emmanuel Kodwo Arthur ICAG
Dr. Emmanuel Caesar Ayamba Bolgatanga Technical University
Ansbert Baba Avole Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo
Faustina Graham Ghana Education Service, HQ
Nimako Victoria SDA SHS, Akyem Sekyere
Agriculture Dr Esther Fobi Donkoh University of Energy and Natural
Resources
Prof. Frederick Adzitey University for Development Studies
Eric Morgan Asante St. Peter’s SHS

4
 Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Agricultural David Esela Zigah Achimota School

Science
Prof J.V.K. Afun Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Kwadwo Amankwah Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Alex Adu Frimpong Benso SHTS
Mrs. Benedicta Foli
Government Josephine Akosua Gbagbo Ngleshie Amanfro SHS
Augustine Arko Blay University of Education Winneba
Samuel Kofi Adu Fettehman SHS
Economics Peter Anti Partey University of Cape Coast
Charlotte Kpogli Ho Technical University
Joseph Agbevanu Kinbu SHS
Adams Abdul-Somed Kalponin SHS
Benjamin Agyekum Mangoase SHS
Geography George Boateng Berekum College of Education
Dr. Esther Yeboah Danso-Wiredu University of Education Winneba

Dr. Matthew Krusah University of Education Winneba

Raymond Nsiah Asare Methodist Girls’ High School
History Kofi Adjei Akrasi Opoku Ware School
Anitha Oforiwah Adu-Boahen University of Education Winneba
Prince Essiaw Enchi College of Education
Ghanaian David Sarpei Nunoo University of Education Winneba,
Language Ajumako
Catherine Ekua Mensah University of Cape Coast
Ebenezer Agyemang Opoku Ware School
Physical Education Paul Dadzie Accra Academy
and Health
Sekor Gaveh Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Anthonia Afosah Kwaaso Junkwa SHS
Mary Aku Ogum University of Cape Coast
Social Studies Mohammed Adam University of Education Winneba
Simon Tengan Wa SHTS
Jemima Ayensu Holy Child School

5
Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Computing and Victor King Anyanful OLA College of Education

Information
Raphael Dordoe Senyo Ziavi SHTS
Communication
Technology (ICT) Kwasi Abankwa Anokye Ghana Education Service, SEU
Millicent Heduvor STEM SHS, Awaso
Mohammed Abdul-Samed Dagbon State SHS
Dr. Gaddafi Abdul-Salaam. Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
English Language Esther Armah Mangoase SHS
Kukuaa Andoh Robertson Achimota School
Cecilia Amponsah Presbyterian Boys’ SHS
Alfred Quaittoo Kaneshie SHTS
Benjamin Orsoo Islamic SHS
Fuseini Hamza Tamale Girls’ SHS
Intervention Roberta Emma Amos-Abanyie Ingit Education Consult
English
Prof. Charles Owu-Ewie University of Education Winneba
Perfect Quarshie Mawuko Girls SHS
Sampson Dedey Baidoo Benso SHTS
Literature in Blessington Dzah Ziavi SHTS
English
Angela Aninakwah Ghana Education Service
Dr. Emma Sarah Eshun University of Education Winneba
Samuel Kwame Kassah St. Peter’s SHS
Juliana Akomea Mangoase SHS
General Science Dr. Comfort Korkor Sam University for Development Studies
Saddik Mohammed Ghana Education Service
Robert Arhin SDA SHS, Akyem Sekyere
Chemistry Ambrose Ayiku St. Francis College of Education
Awumbile Patrick Nsobila Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo
Bismark Tunu Opoku Ware School
Gbeddy Neurus Anthony Ghanata SHS
Physics Linus Labik Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Henry Benyah Wesley Girls’ SHS
Sylvester Affram Kwabeng Anglican SHS

6
 Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Biology Damoah Paul Prempeh College

Maxwell Bunu Ada College of Education
Ebenezer Delali Kpelly Wesley Girls’ SHS
Doris Osei-Antwi Ghana National College
Mathematics Edward Dadson Mills University of Education Winneba
Zacharia Abubakari Sadiq Tamale College of Education
Faustina Nana Ackob Mfantsiman SHS
William Ababu Swedru SHS
Collins Kofi Annan Mando SHS
Additional Dr. Nana Akosua Owusu-Ansah University of Education Winneba
Mathematics
Gershon Mantey University of Education Winneba
Very Rev. Prof. William Obeng Kwame Nkrumah University of
Denteh Science and Technology
Charles B. Ampofo Kibi College of Education
Bismark Twum SDA SHS, Akyem Sekyere
Innocent Duncan KNUST SHS
Intervention Florence Yeboah Assin Manso SHS
Mathematics
Mawufemor Adukpo Ghanata SHS
Jemima Saah Winneba SHS
Mohammed Shani Abdulai Yendi SHS
Robotics Dr. Eliel Keelson Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Nii Longdon Sowah University of Ghana
Kwabena Osei-Kusi Prempeh College
Michael Wilson CSIR
Isaac Nzoley Wesley Girls’ SHS
Engineering Daniel K. Agbogbo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Prof. Abdul-Rahman Ahmed Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Griffth Serlorm Klogo Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Japheth Kwadwo Bumusi Mawuli School
Valentina Osei-Himah Atebubu College of Education

7
Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Aviation and Opoku Joel Mintah Altair Unmanned Technologies

Aerospace
Engineering Dr. Eunice Akyereko Adjei Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. David Kofi Oppong Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Sam Ferdinand Afua Kobi Ampem Girls’ SHS
Biomedical Dr. Dorothy Yakoba Agyapong Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science Science and Technology
Jennifer Fafa Adzraku Université Libre de Bruxelles
Dr. Isaac Acquah Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
David Ayah St. John’s Grammar School
Dr. Eric Worlawoe Gaba Br. Tarcisius Prosthetics and Orthotics
Training College
Manufacturing Benjamin Atribawuni Asaaga Kwame Nkrumah University of
Engineering Science and Technology
Dr. Samuel Boahene Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Issahaku Iddrisu Ada SHS
Dr. Mizpah Ama D. Rockson Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Prof Charles Oppon Cape Coast Technical University
Spanish Setor Donne Novieto University of Ghana
Franklina Kabio University of Ghana
Mishael Annoh Acheampong University of Media, Art and
Communication
Assessment Benjamin Sundeme St. Ambrose College of Education
Victor Gideon Obeng Retired
Prof. Eric Francis Eshun Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Ruth Annan-Brew University of Cape Coast
Dr. Isaac Amoako Atebubu College of Education

8
 Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Curriculum Writing Paul Michael Cudjoe Prempeh College

Guide
Prof. Winston Abroampa Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Cosmos Eminah University of Education Winneba
Ahmed Amihere University of Education Winneba
Evans Odei Achimota School
Ellen Abakah CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Hasiyatu Abubakari CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Eyram Eric Kwasi Fiagbedzi CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Deborah Atobrah CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Ayine Akoglo CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Theodora Akweley Asiamah CEGENSA, University of Ghana
NaCCA Matthew Owusu Ebenezer Ankamah
Reginald Quartey Alice Abbiw Donkor
Rebecca Abu Gariba Abigail Birago Owusu
Anita Collision Samuel Owusu Ansah
Joachim Honu Richard Teye
Joana Vanderpuije Joseph Barwuah
Uriah Otoo Anthony Sarpong
Nii Boye Tagoe Jephtar Adu Mensah
Eric Amoah Nancy Aseiduwaa Gyapong
Francis Agbalanyo Godwin Senanu
Dennis Adjasi Godfred Mireku
Samuel Amankwa Ogyampo Juliet Owusu-Ansah
Sharon Antwi Baah Thomas Kumah Osei
Ayuba Sullivan Seth Nii Nartey

9
Scope and Sequence

SCOPE AND SEQUENCE

Physics Summary
S/N STRAND SUB-STRAND YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3
CS LO LI CS LO LI CS LO LI
1. Mechanics Introduction to Physics 2 2 8 3 3 7 3 3 13
2. and Matter Matter 1 1 2 1 1 4 - - -
3.
4. Kinematics 1 1 3 2 2 7 1 1 4
Dynamics 2 2 6 1 1 2 1 1 3
5. Energy Heat 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 1 3
6. Waves 3 3 10 2 2 8 2 2 6
7. Electro- Electrostatics, Direct 2 2 7 2 2 9 3 3 7
8. magnetism Current
9. Magnetostatics, Alter- 1 1 3 3 3 10 2 2 6
10. nating Current
Analogue Electronics, 3 3 9 3 3 9 3 3 9
Electromagnetic Induc-
tion & Applications
Applications of Elec- - - - - - - 3 3 7
tronics
11. Atom- Atomic Physics 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 4
ic and Nuclear Physics 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3
Nuclear
Physics
Total 18 18 57 20 20 66 21 21 65

Overall Totals (SHS 1 – 3)

Content Standards 59
Learning Outcomes 59
Learning Indicators 188

10
 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND

MATTER

Strand: Mechanics and Matter

Sub-Strands:
1. Introduction to Physics
2. Matter

Content Standards:
1. Recognise aspects and branches of Physics as exhibited in everyday life.
2. Classify quantities into fundamental, derived, scalars and vectors.
3. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of physical quantities.
4. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of matter.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain how physics is applied in some sectors of the ‘glocal’ (global and local)
economy.
2. Classify quantities into fundamental, derived, scalars and vectors.
3. Describe the various states of matter and the differences in their structure.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

The weeks covered by the section are:
Week 1: Careers in Physics, basic mathematical concepts and units in Physics
This section looks at Physics as a branch of science and identifies some careers that rely on principles
and laws of Physics. It also looks at physical quantities and their classification into fundamental,
derived, scalars and vectors. Mathematics as a subject is needed in the study of Physics and therefore
it is required that learners have a very good knowledge of some basic Mathematical concepts such as
trigonometric ratios, Pythagoras’s theorem, the sine and cosine rules and indices.
Week 2: Dimensions, measurement and errors in measurement
The section covers dimensional analysis, before moving on to highlight the importance of recognising
and rectifying errors in both analogue and digital measuring tools and to categorise errors into
systematic, random and parallax types.
Week 3: Scientific notations, scalars and vectors
Scientific notations and unit multipliers are discussed for simplifying numerical expressions. The
distinction between scalars and vectors is highlighted, emphasising their qualitative differences.
Understanding these concepts is essential for accurate experimentation and analysis in Physics.
Week 4: Matter

11
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

The section also looks at matter which is one of the fundamental concepts studied in the field of
Physics. Understanding the properties and interactions of matter is essential for various branches of
Physics, including mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism and quantum physics.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

The topics in Section 1 lend themselves to a variety of teaching methods, including:
- Discussions in pairs or groups in order to allow students to build on one another’s’
understanding or consider concepts from a different perspective, e.g.
• Which career they would be interested in pursuing and why? Invite guest speakers from relevant
industries to share their career experiences and insights.
- Where possible, engage learners through hands-on activities and inquiry-based learning.
Where this is not possible, photographs and videos of the demonstrations should be
shown. E.g.
• Identify and measure basic physical quantities using standard units (e.g., meter, kilogram, second).
• Demonstrate proper use of measurement tools (e.g., meter rule, vernier calliper) and common
errors that may occur. Engage learners in error analysis activities where they identify and
explain errors in measurement techniques. Provide opportunities for learners to practice using
measurement tools accurately through hands-on experiments and laboratory activities.
• Conduct experiments or demonstrations to observe and classify the various states of matter
(solid, liquid, gas).
- Integration of technology for research tasks, videos and simulations where appropriate, e.g.
• Use molecular models or animations to illustrate differences in molecular arrangements between
states of matter.
- Encourage learners to notice the relevance of physics to the world around them in order to
whip up learners’ interest in studying the subject.
As always, implement differentiation strategies to accommodate diverse learning needs. In this
document, some activities are given additional direction for how to support those ‘less able’ or ‘more
able’, which refers only to their ability level in that given task / proficiency.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
The assessments to be used to monitor learning progress during instruction should be formative
assessments and these include quizzes, mathematical problem solving, short written responses to
questions and laboratory work.
Develop rubrics to provide clear criteria for assessing student work across different assessment
tasks. Use rubrics to evaluate not only content knowledge but also skills such as critical thinking,
communication and problem solving.
Keep track of learners’ scores and any feedback on their understanding of key concepts. Note areas
where learners are struggling or excelling for targeted instructional support.

12
 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

Week 1
Learning Indicators:
1. Identify careers that are related to Physics in various sectors of the economy.
2. Use basic mathematical concepts to solve problems i.e. trig ratios, Pythagoras theorem,
sine and cosine rule, indices.
3. Identify the basic units in Physics.

THEME OR FOCAL AREA 1: APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICS IN VARIOUS

SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY AND CAREER EXPLORATION
When we observe the careers within our own community and more widely, such as carpentry, masonry,
welding, vulcanising, trading in the market, engineering, meteorology, medicine, teacher etc., physics
is applied in many ways. By understanding the applications of physics in different sectors, individuals
can make informed choices about their future career paths.
Physics is divided into several subfields, each focusing on specific aspects of the physical universe
including classical mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, relativity,
optics, nuclear physics and particle physics. Each branch focuses on specific aspects of the physical
universe, from the motion of macroscopic objects to the behaviour of particles at the atomic and
subatomic levels. These branches collectively provide a comprehensive framework for understanding
the fundamental principles that govern the universe.
Note that students will have an understanding, to some degree, of topics such as mechanics, optics,
electricity etc, but will be very unfamiliar with (e.g.) quantum mechanics which may therefore need
some brief explanation in order for them to identify related careers.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Identify Physics-related careers across the various sectors of the economy.
2. Identify a selection of branches of Physics.
3. Give further explanation as to the scope of some of the branches of Physics.
4. Link the branches of Physics to examples of careers.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Learners could watch a documentary that illustrates how physics plays a vital role in shaping
the world. Let learners identify Physics-related careers linking to branches of physics that the
learner may have met before e.g. mechanics, electricity, waves.
2. In groups, learners should be given a list of Physics-oriented careers, including some or all of:
masonry, welding, vulcanising, trading in the market, engineering (mechanical, civil, geomatic,
electrical), medicine, geophysics, materials science, metallurgy, laser physics, radiology,
astrophysics, meteorology, climate science, computing, etc. Learners should be asked to discuss:
a. What branch of Physics does this career relate to? Is there more than one?
b. What level of Physics education might a person need to have in order to do this job?
c. Could this job be done by people with a disability of some kind? If not; how could the job
be adapted in order to make it accessible?
d. Which of the jobs would you most like to do? Why?
13
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

3. Organise a career panel with guest speakers from various Physics-related professions. Learners
should prepare questions and engage in discussions with the panelists.
4. Learners could do a research task to find out more about one of the careers mentioned previously
and could be asked to volunteer to present their finding in a short oral presentation (or could
alternatively produce a written piece of work). Note that more able learners should be encouraged
to research a job that links to a branch of Physics which may be new to them (electromagnetism,
nuclear physics, astronomy, etc.) whereas less able learners may find the task more accessible
if a more recognisable branch of Physics or career is suggested to them.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Identify at least five Physics related careers in your community.
Assessment Level 2: Describe at least three branches of Physics and give examples of careers which
utilise the study of these.
Assessment Level 1: Discuss the application of the principles of Physics in any industry of your choice.

THEME OR FOCAL AREA 2: THE INTERPLAY OF MATHEMATICS AND

PHYSICS IN CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING AND REAL-WORLD
APPLICATIONS
Appreciating Physics concepts and applications requires a strong foundation in Mathematics that is
as expansive as possible. This mathematical skill will serve as a solid bridge, allowing learners to
seamlessly delve into the captivating world of Physics and fully thrive in their Physics courses.
Applying basic Mathematical concepts in Physics allows us to address real-world challenges and
better understand the world. Trigonometric ratios, Pythagoras’s theorem, the sine and cosine rules
and indices are essential Mathematical tools in Physics.

Pythagoras theorem

𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜! + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ! = ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦!

Trigonometric Ratios
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
sin 𝜃𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
cos 𝜃𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
tan 𝜃𝜃 =
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Sine Rule
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
= =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵 sin 𝐶𝐶

Cosine rule
𝑎𝑎! = 𝑏𝑏 ! + 𝑐𝑐 ! − 2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 cos 𝐴𝐴

14
Rules of indices
" # "$#
 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

Rules of indices

𝑥𝑥 " × 𝑥𝑥 # = 𝑥𝑥 "$#

𝑥𝑥 " ÷ 𝑥𝑥 # = 𝑥𝑥 "%#

𝑥𝑥 & = 1
1
𝑥𝑥 %" = "
𝑥𝑥

(𝑥𝑥 " )# = 𝑥𝑥 "×# = 𝑥𝑥 "#

" !
𝑥𝑥 # = √𝑥𝑥 "

LEARNING TASKS
1. Solve for missing sides or angles of right-angled triangles using trigonometric ratios.
2. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the length of a missing side in a right-angled triangle.
3. Solve problems involving indices.
4. Apply the Sine and Cosine rules to solve for missing values when given various combinations
of sides and angles.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Using classroom discussion, learners recall their previous knowledge of plane geometrical
figures, such as triangles and trapeziums, and their corresponding area formulas.
2. Teacher-led worked examples of Pythagoras’ theorem, trigonometric ratios, Sine and Cosine
rules and indices rules presented to class.
3. Worksheet: Learners should apply the Sine and Cosine rules in deducing the sides and angles
within triangles.
- Less able learners should be given the worksheet of examples to try but should also be
provided with a worked solution to the first example in each section.
- Some learners should be given the sheet of questions with no additional scaffolding.
- More able learners should be encouraged to ‘skip’ to more challenging questions and is
provided with a more complicated example of using trigonometry in a Physics context, e.g.
calculating the resultant velocity and direction of a boat crossing a river which is flowing at
a given velocity.
4. Worksheet: Learners utilise Pythagoras’s theorem to deduce angles of inclined objects in real-
life scenarios. See suggestions for differentiation above.
5. Learners work in mixed-ability groups (where the more able learners can support the less able
learners) to use exponent rules to solve some real-world problems presented to the class, e.g.
determine the number of teams remaining at various knockout stage in a tournament.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 2: A 4.2 m long ladder leans against a wall. If the bottom of the ladder is 3.8 m
from the wall, draw a diagram to represent the scenario.
15
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

Assessment Level 2: A 4.2 m long ladder leans against a wall. If the bottom of the ladder is 3.8 m
from the wall, calculate the angle the ladder makes with the wall.
Assessment Level 3: In the given scenario, supposing the ladder is moved further away from the wall,
increasing the distance, how will this change the angle the ladder forms with the ground? Support
your answer with reference to a relevant trigonometric function.

THEME OR FOCAL AREA 3: BASIC AND DERIVED UNITS

A solid understanding of basic units in Physics is crucial for comprehending scientific concepts and
their practical applications.
Units in Physics are standards used to measure specific physical properties or dimensions.
The seven fundamental/basic quantities and their respective units are length (metre), mass (kilogram),
time (second), temperature (Kelvin), electric current (Ampere), amount of substance (mole) and
luminous intensity (candela).
Derived units are units formed from the combination of two or more fundamental units. Examples of
some derived quantities and their units: Force (Newton), Work/Energy (Joule), Velocity (metre per
second) etc.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Categorise quantities and units as basic or derived.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Guide learners to brainstorm and derive units by evaluating real-world scenarios, e.g. scenario
of an athlete running a race.
2. Give a list of physical quantities and their units (e.g., force [N], energy [J], power [W]) in a
mixed-up order. Ask the learners to match the correct quantity with its corresponding unit.
3. Alternatively, treat this as a competition; how many units can you think of? (it doesn’t matter
if they are fundamental or derived). One point per correct answer.
4. Ask learners if they can categorise these units in any way (some may recognise that some units
are capitalised as they are named after people etc. If a student already recognises that they
can be categorised into fundamental and derived units, ask them to explain what they mean to
the class).

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: What are basic quantities and give three examples.
Assessment Level 1: Explain the difference between basic and derived quantities, providing
examples of each.
Assessment Level 2: Categorise the following quantities as basic or derived; temperature,
displacement, time, force, distance, acceleration, mass.

16
 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

Week 2
Learning Indicators:
1. Determine the dimensions of common quantities, e.g. velocity, acceleration, mass,
length, time, weight, energy and force.
2. Identify the errors in the use of a metre rule, protractor, electronic balance, vernier
calliper, micrometer screw gauge, voltmeter and ammeter.
3. Explain the types of errors; systematic, random and parallax.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 1: DIMENSION

The dimension of a physical quantity is an expression of the relationship between the physical quantity
and the fundamental quantities (mass, length and time in mechanics).
The dimension of a physical quantity is crucial because it provides essential information about the
nature of the quantity being measured.
Dimensions can be used, for the verification of equations, to find the units of quantities and to derive
an equation between quantities. Dimensional analysis is a tool in Physics and Engineering, helping
learners develop a better understanding of physical relationships and units, but does not allow for
numerical constants.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Determine fundamental units of quantities using dimensions.
2. Evaluate the usefulness of dimensional analysis.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Opportunity for some lesson interactivity/quiz; “if this is the formula, what is the quantity?” Or
“if this is the definition, what is the quantity?”. Help learners to recall relationships that they
already know as a starting point for their work on dimensional analysis.
2. Put pupils into mixed-ability groups, so that more able learners can support less able learners,
with a list of quantities to write down the formula for, including units.
3. Teacher-led demonstration of how to find the unit for a quantity in terms of fundamental units,
followed by the students practicing the skill:
- Less able learners should be given the worksheet of simple examples to try but also should
be provided with a worked solution to the first example and a list of relevant formulae.
- Some learners should be given the sheet of questions but is expected to recall the
relevant formulae.
- More able learners should be encouraged to ‘skip’ to more challenging questions and
should be asked to show that different quantities have the same fundamental units e.g.
Gravitational Potential Energy, Kinetic Energy and work done, pressure and stress, work
done and moment.
4. Introduce fundamental constants (e.g. speed of light [c], gravitational constant [G]) and ask
learners to determine their dimensions and units. Learners should be provided with formulae or
definitions of the constants named above.
5. Pair/group discussions about the benefits of dimensional analysis in Physics.

17
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Give three uses of dimensional analysis.
Assessment Level 2: Use dimensions to determine the fundamental units of the following quantities:
a. Acceleration
b. Force
c. Energy
d. Power
Assessment Level 3: Evaluate the usefulness of dimensional analysis.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 2: ERRORS IN THE USE OF MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS
Accurate measurements are essential for Scientific research, Engineering and many other fields.
Analogue instruments such as rulers, vernier callipers, micrometer screw gauges, thermometers,
balances, protractors, as well as digital instruments such as voltmeters and ammeters, etc, enable us to
quantify and compare physical quantities precisely. Learners will need to learn the proper usage of the
instruments and also learn to overcome challenges they will encounter in the handling of the instruments.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Identify various measuring instruments.
2. Identify specific instruments for specific purposes.
3. Identify potential errors in the use of specific instruments.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Provide students with a variety of pieces of measuring equipment, e.g. rulers, vernier callipers,
protractors, analogue/digital voltmeters and ammeters. Ask students to identify the equipment
and what it would be used to measure. Ask them, also, to look closely and identify the ‘least
count’ of each piece of equipment. Can they suggest an example of a use for each item?
Suggestions could be left on a post-it note near the equipment.
- Less able learners should handle all of the equipment available and consider the use
/ precision of the equipment in pairs/groups. The teacher will offer support in terms of
understanding the ‘least count’ of the equipment as they circulate the room, and could ask
simple questions such as:
a. Why is it more appropriate to use a metre ruler to measure the length of a
textbook rather than vernier callipers?
b. Do you know of a piece of equipment that could be used to measure longer
distances, such as the length of a football pitch?
c. Why should you take repeats of measurements when doing practical work?
- Some learners should handle all of the equipment but are given less support than the less
able learners. They could be encouraged to ‘work it out’ themselves or by using the internet
to research. Targeted questioning could look like:
a. What is the advantage of vernier callipers over a screw gauge for measuring the
internal diameter of a bottle neck?
b. When you measure an angle using a protractor, at how many different positions
are you ‘judging’ the measurement? (Two—one at either side of the angle
being measured)
18
 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

c. Three results for voltage are measured. They are: 1.02V, 1.04V and 0.98V.
What is the range of the repeats? What is the percentage difference between the
greatest measurement of V and the average V?
- Higher ability learners should complete the work as above, but should also be given a
‘challenge’ such as to estimate the width of a single sheet of a textbook using an appropriate
piece of equipment. They could be prompted to consider various ways in which this could
be achieved.
Targeted questioning could look like:
a. What is the difference between an accurate and a precise measurement?
b. Which piece of equipment gives the most precise reading for length?
c. What is the advantage of using digital equipment vs analogue equipment?
2. In pairs/groups, and encouraging everybody to have a turn, provide a set of objects or drawings
of lines with varying lengths. Ask the learners to measure each length using a meter rule (ideally
with cm, not mm) markings and record their measurements. Then, identify any potential errors
in their measurements.
3. Repeat task above, but using vernier callipers instead.
4. Provide a set of objects with known masses. Ask the learners to weigh each object using an
electronic balance and record their measurements. Then, identify any errors in their readings.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Name the instruments that are used to measure the following quantities:
a. thickness of a blade
b. mass of a stone
c. volume of a stone
Assessment Level 1: Determine the least count of the following instruments used in the laboratory.
a. Micrometer screw gauge
b. Metre rule
c. Vernier calliper
d. Protractor
e. Voltmeter

THEME/FOCAL AREA 3: ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

Errors in measurement are the discrepancies or uncertainties that can occur when making measurements.
These errors can arise from various sources and can affect the accuracy and precision of the measured
values. The types of errors are systematic, random and parallax.
1. Systematic error: This is an error that consistently deviates from the true value in the same
direction. It often arises due to zero-errors in the equipment or by errors in the scales on the
equipment (e.g. a ruler with 1mm markings which are, in reality, 1.1mm apart).
2. Random errors: These are errors made by the person carrying out the measuring or as a result
of experimental conditions. Sources of random errors include incorrect timing, or inaccurate
reading of instrument. Factors such as unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply,
mechanical vibrations of experimental set-ups can also result in random errors.
3. Parallax error: This is the error that occurs due to incorrect positioning of the eyes while
taking a reading on a measuring scale.

19
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

Avoiding errors in measurement is essential to maintain the integrity of scientific research, ensure
reliable and reproducible results, make informed decisions, uphold quality standards, promote
scientific progress and safeguard safety in various domains.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Use various pieces of measuring equipment and identify whether any/what type of errors are
present in the results.
2. Create a written summary of the results from each piece of measuring equipment.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Ask students to think for 30 seconds about whether ‘accuracy’ and ‘precision’ are the same.
Then, discuss with a partner for 30 seconds. Then, share with the class.
2. Prepare a set of measurement instruments, such as a ruler, protractor and weighing scale, along
with objects to measure (e.g., various lengths, angles and masses). Make sure some of the
instruments have errors or calibration issues (e.g. a non-zeroed set of weighing scales, or a
homemade ruler marked incorrectly), while others are accurate. Ask learners to measure the
lengths of different objects. Instruct them to identify and describe any patterns or inconsistencies
in their measurements.
- Let learners handle all of the equipment available and consider the use/precision of the
equipment in pairs/groups. The teacher should offer support in terms of proper usage of the
instruments and could ask less able learners simple questions such as:
a. How appropriate can you use an instrument to avoid the introduction of errors?
b. Can you provide examples of systematic errors?
c. How do random errors differ from systematic errors?
- Some learners could be given less support than this. They could be encouraged to ‘work it
out’ themselves or by using the internet to research. Targeted questioning could look like:
a. How can we eliminate systematic and random errors in an experiment?
b. How can we prevent or minimize parallax errors in measurements?
- More able learners should be given an extension question on the effect of a random error on
a subsequent calculation, for example:
“When a set of scales has nothing on it, it reads a value of 2g. A student measures the mass
of a rock using these scales as 154g. What type of error has occurred? How would this error
affect the students’ measurement of the density of the object after its volume has also been
measured?”
3. Ask learners to measure the angles of different shapes or drawn angles. Encourage them to take
multiple measurements and analyse the variations they observe.
4. Let learners discuss in a collaborative manner, the errors made in their readings. Give them the
keywords ‘systematic, random and parallax’ with their definitions. Can they identify any of
these in their results? Promote open-mindedness and integrity with respect for one another.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 2: What are the sources of random and systematic errors? Give ways to reduce or
eliminate them.
Assessment Level 2: With examples of random and systematic errors each from real-life experimental
situations, explain the difference between random error and systematic error.
Assessment Level 3: A reading can be precise but inaccurate. Discuss.

20
 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

Week 3
Learning Indicators:
1. Explain scientific notations and their unit multipliers.
2. Distinguish scalars from vectors (qualitative treatment)

THEME/FOCAL AREA 1: SCIENTIFIC NOTATIONS AND THEIR UNIT

MULTIPLIERS
Scientific notation is a way to express numbers that are very large or very small. It consists of two
parts: a coefficient and a power of 10. The coefficient is a number between 1 and 10 and a power of
10 indicates how many places the decimal point should be moved. The purpose of scientific notation
is to represent numbers in a concise and standardised format, making it easier to work with extremely
large or small values. By using scientific notation and unit multipliers, we can more easily compare
and perform operations on numbers with different magnitudes.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Identify some scientific notation and their unit multipliers
2. Express quantities in scientific notation to standard units
3. Convert other units into SI units

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Opportunity for interactive element/quiz: Ask students to estimate the sizes of some very
small and very large things (diameter of a proton, width of human hair, distance from Ghana
to England, distance from Earth to Pluto etc.). Give them time to make their guesses before
revealing the real answers and seeing who got the closest. Use this as an opportunity to highlight
how it can be difficult to leave very large and very small numbers in their normal format and
give the benefits of using standard form.
2. Provide learners with a list of numbers, some of which are extremely large and others extremely
small. Ask them to convert these numbers into scientific notation. Present learners with real-life
scenarios involving very large or very small quantities from various scientific disciplines (e.g.
astronomy, chemistry, nanotechnology). Ask them to express these quantities using scientific
notation, or vice versa.
- Learners should be given a list of numbers in their usual format and asked to convert these
into standard form and vice versa. Teacher will circulate and assist where needed, targeting
students that they know may find working with numbers more challenging.
– Some more difficult examples should be provided for learners to attempt if they have found
the first task easy. E.g. ask them to adjust their answers when a unit conversion is added
e.g. 10,000cm = ____ x 10^____ m. Some learners may need a unit conversion table to
be provided.
- The most able learners may be given some more complicated examples involving converting
units for area and volume, or a combination of units e.g. kmh–1 to ms–1, cm2 to m2.

21
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 2: Define scientific notation and give an example of a number that is written in a
scientific notation.
Assessment Level 2: Express 900 cm in m
Assessment Level 2: Convert the following:
a. 20 cm2 to m2
b. Convert 72 kmhr–1 to ms–1

THEME/FOCAL AREA 2: SCALARS AND VECTORS

Physical quantities can be distinguished into two types: scalars and vectors.
Scalar quantities refer to physical quantities that can be fully described by a magnitude or numerical
value. They do not have a specific direction associated with them. Examples of scalar quantities
include mass, temperature, time, speed, energy etc.
Vector quantities, on the other hand, require magnitude and direction to fully describe them. Examples
include: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force and momentum etc.
Vectors play a crucial role in describing motion and navigation. When driving a car, the velocity is a
vector quantity that describes both speed (scalar) and direction of the car.

LEARNING TASKS
1. State the definition of a scalar and the definition of a vector.
2. Categorise a list of physical quantities into scalars and vectors and justify your answers.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. In a collaborative manner, learners research on the differences between scalar and vector
quantities.
2. In mixed-ability groups, and using their research or provided definitions to support them, ask
them to categorise velocity, speed, displacement, distance, acceleration, mass, length, time,
weight, energy, power and force into scalars and vectors. Note that some students will need
support in understanding the difference between a) velocity and speed and b) displacement and
distance; examples should be given of each.
3. Present real-life scenarios involving vector quantities. For each scenario, ask the learners to
identify the vector involved and explain how both the magnitude and direction are essential in
describing the physical situation.
(a) Scenario 1: A car moving along a curved road.
(b) Scenario 2: A person walking at a steady speed but changing direction.
4. Provide simple diagrams or sketches that represent both scalar and vector quantities. Ask the
learners to label the quantities in each diagram correctly.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: What is the difference between scalars and vectors?
Assessment Level 1: Give three examples each of quantities that are vectors and quantities that
are scalars.
22
 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

Week 4
Learning Indicators:
1. Identify the various states of matter.
2. Distinguish between the molecular arrangements of the various states of matter.

THEME OR FOCAL AREA 1: STATES OF MATTER

Matter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass.
The states of matter are the distinct forms in which matter exists; solid, liquid, gas and plasma.
1. Solid: Examples include: ice, wood, metal etc.
2. Liquid: Examples include: water, oil and milk.
3. Gas: Examples include: air, oxygen, carbon dioxide etc.
4. Plasma: Examples include: lightning, stars, neon signs etc.

LEARNING TASKS
1. State the four states of matter.
2. Give examples of substances in the various states of matter.
3. Explain plasma as a state of matter.
4. Use the formula ρ=m/V to calculate the density of regular and irregular solid objects.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Have learners participate in a think-pair-share activity where learners list the states of matter,
and classify the objects into the three primary states of matter, e.g. ice cube, water, helium in
a balloon, wooden block, pencil lead etc. This should be a quick activity and accessible for
all learners.
2. Learners should delve into the fourth state of matter, ‘plasma’, researching its definition and
exploring diverse examples.
- Offer learners who find independent work difficult some scaffolding to researching plasma
(a list of questions about plasma to answer, for example)
- Some learners could produce some more independent work in the form of a poster or an
oral presentation.
- More able learners could be tasked with researching a specific use of plasma and asked to
present their findings to the class.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: List the three primary states of matter, commonly found in our surroundings.
Assessment Level 1: Match examples of substances to their corresponding states of matter.
Assessment Level 1: Provide examples of naturally occurring plasmas and their significance in
the universe.

23
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

THEME OR FOCAL AREA 2: MOLECULAR ARRANGEMENT OF THE VARIOUS

STATES OF MATTER
Molecular arrangement of matter refers to how the individual molecules or atoms are organised and
positioned in a substance or material.
In solids, molecules are tightly packed and held together by strong intermolecular forces. The
arrangement is highly organised, with molecules vibrating in fixed positions. This results in a definite
shape and volume.
In liquids, molecules are still close together but have more freedom of movement compared to solids.
The intermolecular forces are weaker, allowing molecules to slide past one another. Liquids take the
shape of their container and have a definite volume.
In gases, molecules are far apart and move freely. The intermolecular forces are very weak, and
molecules move in random, rapid motion. Gases have no definite shape or volume, as they expand to
fill the available space.
In plasma, molecules are not present but rather a mixture of ions and free electrons.
It does not have a fixed molecular arrangement. The charged particles in plasma move independently
and do not maintain fixed positions.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Describe the molecular arrangement of the various states of matter.
2. Draw the diagrams of the molecular arrangement of the various states of matter.
3. Explain how heating or cooling a substance affect the particles that make it up, and how this
can result in a state change.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Create a classroom discussion among small group learners to compare the molecular arrangement
of various states of matter.
2. Smaller groups of students can be asked to stand up and ‘behave’ like the particles in each of
the states of matter. The rest of the class can critique their model.
24
 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND MATTER

3. In groups, learners should engage in drawing molecular arrangements of states of matter.

4. Provide learners with molecular model kits or use digital simulations to represent the arrangement
of molecules in each state of matter. Ask learners to build models to represent solids, liquids
and gases based on their knowledge of molecular behaviour.
5. Extend the test above by asking students to describe and explain what happens when a solid
is heated. Provide them with and encourage them to use the terms ‘thermal energy’, ‘kinetic
energy’, ‘particles’, ‘movement’, ‘intermolecular forces’ etc. Guide them step-by-step through
the melting and evaporating (and, if appropriate, ionisation into a plasma) processes. “Pose,
pause, pounce, bounce” is a good technique for helping students to develop upon one another’s
answers; for example,
- Ask the class what happens when a solid is heated (pose). Give them 30 seconds to think
silently (pause).
- Ask a volunteer to give their answer (pounce). Congratulate them on any accurate points.
Then, ask the rest of the class if there is anything that they would like to add to improve the
answer, and choose a new volunteer to speak (bounce). Continue in this vein until the class
have fully described melting, evaporation and ionisation into a plasma if appropriate.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Briefly describe the molecular arrangement in solid, liquid and gas.
Assessment Level 1: Draw the molecular arrangements representing the distinct states of matter.
Assessment Level 2: Plasma as a distinct state of matter is often overlooked. Discuss the unique
molecular arrangement and behaviour of plasma.

SECTION 1 REVIEW
Learners should gain a deeper understanding of the wide array of career possibilities that Physics
offers and should see Physics as a versatile discipline with applications in various fields beyond
traditional academic research.
Learners also should acquire essential knowledge in Pythagoras theorem, trigonometry, indices
and algebra.
Learners should gain a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental units of measurement
used in Physics. They should also know some derived units and how to convert between different
units. Learners should also understand the importance of standardising units in Physics to ensure
consistency and facilitate international communication among scientists. Learners should gain
a deeper conceptual understanding of physical quantities and their dimensions.
They should develop keen observation skills to detect errors and irregularities in the use
of measuring instruments. They should also become increasingly proficient in carrying out
experiments and investigations so that they are conducted in a way that minimises error.
Learners should also recognise matter as existing in various states in their everyday surroundings,
influencing natural phenomena. They should also develop observation skills to identify and
classify different states of matter based on their physical characteristics and behaviour.

Reference
1. Priyam study centre. (2024). Four states of matter. https://www.priyamstudycentre.com/
science/states-of-matter
25
SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE

SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE

Strand: Matter and Mechanics

Sub-Strands:
1. Kinematics
2. Dynamics

Content Standards:
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of motion and its relevance to everyday activities.
2. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of Newton’s laws of motion.
3. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of pressure.

Learning Outcome:
1. Explain the terminologies and measurements of distance, displacement, speed, velocity,
acceleration, average velocity and instantaneous velocity and distinguish between them.
2. Apply the laws of motion to explain how bodies move to change their positions.
3. Recognise pressure as an agent of force.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

The weeks covered by the section are:
Week 5: Motion and its type, Equations of motion and graphical representation of motion
Motion refers to the continuous change in the position of an object and can be classified into various
types, i.e. circular, oscillatory, rectilinear, spin and random. The equations of motion, derived from basic
principles, describes the relationships between an object’s position, velocity, acceleration and time.
Week 6: Newton’s laws of Motion
This section talks about Newton’s three laws of motion, which explain the relationship between the
motion of a physical object and the forces acting upon it.
Week 7: Pressure and Pascal’s principle
Finally, this section looks at pressure which is the force exerted per unit area and is a fundamental
concept in fluid mechanics and Pascal’s principle which forms the basis for brake system and hydraulic
press, enabling the amplification of force through confined fluids.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

The topics in Section 2 lend themselves to a variety of teaching methods, including:
- Where possible, engaging learners through hands-on activities and inquiry-based learning.
Where this is not possible, photographs and videos of the demonstrations should be shown. E.g.
• Using measuring equipment such as stopwatches, metre rulers, trundle wheels, measuring
tapes or (if available) light gates to measure quantities such as distance, time, velocity and
acceleration.

26
 SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE

• Setting up experiments in order to investigate Newton’s 2nd law (e.g. passing a string
connected at one end to a toy car over a pulley and using different hanging masses to
accelerate the car, allowing objects to slide down inclined planes, etc.).
• Observing demonstrations which show pressure varying with depth (plastic bottles with
holes in them at different depths, etc).
- Practicing mathematical problem solving. Provide ample opportunities for learners to solve
problems and apply theoretical concepts to real-world situations. Incorporate challenging yet
relevant problems that encourage critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
- Integration of technology for research tasks, videos and simulations where appropriate, e.g.
• Use of interactive demonstrations and simulations to illustrate different types of motion.
Interactive simulations allow learners to manipulate variables and observe the effects on
motion, helping them grasp concepts effectively.
- Translating written information or a table of data into a graph (or vice versa).
• Visual representations of motion graphs, force diagrams and pressure diagrams can aid in
conceptualising abstract concepts.
- Encouraging pupils to notice the relevance of Physics to the world around them in order to whip
up learners’ interest in studying the subject.
As always, implement differentiation strategies to accommodate diverse learning needs. In this
document, some activities are given additional direction for how to support those ‘less able’ or ‘more
able’, which refers only to their ability level in that given task / proficiency.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
The assessments to be used to monitor learning progress during instruction should be formative
assessments and these include quizzes, mathematical problem solving (with varying levels of
challenge and support), short written responses to questions and laboratory work.
Conduct laboratory experiments related to motion and pressure and require learners to write reports
detailing their experimental procedures, observations and conclusions. Assess their ability to design
experiments, collect data accurately, plot graphs and draw valid conclusions based on scientific
principles.
Develop rubrics to provide clear criteria for assessing student work across different assessment
tasks. Use rubrics to evaluate not only content knowledge but also skills such as critical thinking,
communication and problem solving.
Keep track of learners’ scores and any feedback on their understanding of key concepts. Note areas
where learners are struggling or excelling for targeted instructional support.

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Week 5
Learning Indicator:
1. Describe the various types of motion, i.e. circular, oscillatory, rectilinear, spin and
random
2. Establish equations of uniformly accelerated motion and its application in daily life.
3. Represent the motion of objects graphically, i.e. distance-time, displacement-time and
velocity-time and deductions that can be made from it.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 1: TYPES OF MOTION

Motion means a continuous change in the position of an object.
The various types of motion are circular, oscillatory, rectilinear, spin and random.
1. Rectilinear motion: This refers to the movement of an object along a straight line, e.g. a person
walking in a straight line.
2. Circular motion: This occurs when an object moves along a circular path around a fixed centre
or axis, e.g. the Moon orbiting around the Earth.
3. Rotational/Spin motion: This involves the spinning or rotation of an object around a fixed
axis. Unlike circular motion, the object itself may not move along a path, but it rotates around
a center point or axis, e.g. a planet rotating on its axis, causing day and night cycles.
4. Oscillatory motion: This is a repetitive back-and-forth motion around an equilibrium position,
e.g. a pendulum swinging from side to side.
5. Random motion: This is an unpredictable kind of motion where an object moves in any
direction and the direction keeps changing without a pattern, e.g. the movement of smoke
particles in the air.
It is a fundamental form of motion that we engage in regularly to move from one place to another,
whether it is walking around our home, commuting to work or school, or simply going for a leisurely
stroll. The different types of motion of other objects can be utilised to enrich and aide our daily lives,
such as the constant time period of the swinging pendulum in a grandfather clock.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Define motion.
2. State the various types of motion.
3. Describe the various types of motion and give examples.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Instruct learners to research and prepare a presentation describing an assigned type of motion.
They should explore the characteristics, examples and real-life applications of the motion they
are studying. Encourage them to use diagrams, graphs, animations and real-life examples to
illustrate their findings.
2. Practical opportunity: Provide learners with the tools to create a model demonstrating their
assigned type of motion (strings, pendulums, sprints, masses, trolleys, ramps, etc). Alternatively,

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set up some demonstrations around the room to demonstrate the types of motion and allow
students to use these in their presentations.
3. Have learners present their findings to the class. During the presentations, encourage learners to
describe the main features and unique characteristics of the motion type they researched. Prompt
them to provide clear examples to help the class understand each type better. The audience could
be provided with a table in which to summarise the key points from each presentation, e.g.

Type of motion Description/definition Diagram Other key information

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Define motion.
Assessment Level 1: List the five types of motion.
Assessment Level 2: Describe the various types of motion and give two examples of each.

THEME/FOCAL AREA(S) 2: EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Equations of motion formulated by Isaac Newton provide a framework for understanding and
predicting how objects move and their applications extend to various aspects of our daily lives such
as transportation, sports, construction, technology, etc.
The equations of motion are a set of mathematical equations that describe the motion of an object
under a uniform acceleration. These equations are fundamental in classical mechanics and are used to
understand the behaviour of objects in motion. There are three main equations of motion for uniformly
accelerated rectilinear motion, which describes the motion of an object moving in a straight line with
a constant acceleration:
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
1
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 !
2
𝑣𝑣 ! = 𝑢𝑢! + 2𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠
Where:
s is the displacement or position of the object at time t.
u is the initial velocity of the object.
v is the final velocity of the object.
a is the constant acceleration.
t is the time elapsed.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Define the terminologies associated with rectilinear motion (s, u, v, a and t).
2. Establish the equations of motion
3. Solve problems associated with the equations of motion

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SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. In mixed-ability groups, learners should brainstorm and define the terminologies; distance,
displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration, average velocity and instantaneous velocity and
distinguish between them in a collaborative manner.
2. The teacher presents the derivations of the equations of motion step-by-step, using algebraic
principles. Encourage learners to understand each step of the derivation and the algebraic
principles used by asking targeted questions throughout the explanation (e.g. ‘student 1, how
would I read off the initial velocity of the object from this graph?’ Or ‘student 2, how can you
tell from the shape of this graph that the object is accelerating uniformly’ etc).
3. Discuss the physical meaning of each equation and how they relate to the motion of objects
under constant acceleration.
4. Provide a set of problems involving different types of motion scenarios, such as uniformly
accelerated motion, free fall. Ask learners to apply the equations of motion to solve these
problems and calculate the unknown quantities. These mathematical problems could be
differentiated according to level of challenge, with the more able learners having to consider
objects reversing direction (and therefore the use of negative values).

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Define acceleration.
Assessment Level 1: Distinguish between average velocity and instantaneous velocity.
Assessment Level 1: Name the four quantities that are associated with the equations of linear motion.
Assessment Level 2: A race car accelerates uniformly from 18 m s–1 to 45 m s–1 in 2 seconds. Determine
the acceleration of the car and the distance travelled.
1
Assessment Level 1: Show that for a uniformly accelerated motion, 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 ! .
2
THEME/FOCAL AREA (S) 3: REPRESENTATION OF MOTIONS OF OBJECTS
GRAPHICALLY
Representing the motion of an object on a graph is highly valuable as it allows for a visual and
quantitative understanding of the object’s movement, aiding in analysis, comparison, predictive and
scientific investigations. It enhances our understanding of the dynamics and behaviour of objects
in motion.
There are several types of graphs commonly used to represent the motion of an object: distance-
time graph, displacement-time graph, velocity-time graph etc, and analysing each graph of motion
provides valuable deductions about an object’s movement. These deductions help in understanding
the characteristics of an object’s motion.
For example, distance-time graphs are commonly used to analyse the speed of an object and determine
whether it’s moving at a constant speed, accelerating, decelerating, or at rest. Real-world applications
include analysing the motion of vehicles, studying the speed of an athlete during a race etc.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Represent motion of objects on a graph.
2. Create a story that illustrate a specific motion scenario.
3. Calculate quantities from a velocity-time graph.

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PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Provide learners with a set of data points representing distance or velocity at different times.
Ask them to plot the points on a graph and connect them to create the corresponding distance-
time graph or velocity-time graph. Learners individually should deduce quantities, such as
instantaneous acceleration and distance travelled, from their plotted velocity-time graph.
- Less able learners may need assistance with their graph-plotting and in drawing information
from the graph (such as the gradient at a particular point), and so should be encouraged to
sit near somebody who is more confident and can help them in this area.
- Most learners should plot graphs which go into negative y-values, i.e. v-t graphs for objects
which have reversed direction or s-t graphs for objects that have moved back past their
starting point.
More able learners should be challenged to take one graph of motion and use it to plot another (e.g.
take a v-t graph and use it to plot a d-t graph). They should also be asked to comment on the forces
acting as part of their storyboarding.
2. Ask learners in groups to create a storyboard using their distance-time or velocity-time graphs
to illustrate a specific motion scenario. They should be able to explain the motion of the object
based on the graph they have created. As above, more able learners should also be able to
comment on the forces acting.
3. Use toy cars on a marked track to measure time and distance, allowing learners to measure and
calculate instantaneous speeds at different time intervals and to plot a graph of velocity against
time. Note that students may wish to film their experiment in slow motion, with a stopwatch
in-shot, in order to process their data more accurately.
- Less able learners should be monitored closely during practical work in order to ensure they
are correctly calculating instantaneous velocity at various times during an object’s journey.
They are given some guidance as to how their graph should be drawn (e.g. axes provided,
step-by-step instructions on a worksheet etc). Students are also given prompts (orally or on
paper) about how their graphs relate to the equations of motion (e.g. the area under a v-t
graph gives the distance travelled. How could the area under your graph be calculated?)
- Some learners will require less monitoring and may be able to complete their derivations
with no prompts, or by providing them with the final equations for them to work towards.
- More able learners should be given little to no guidance in completing their practical and
deriving the equations of motion. The teacher should still monitor to ensure that they have
understood the task and are making progress.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: List four quantities that can be deduced from a velocity-time graph.
Assessment Level 2: A bus starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2 m s–2 for 10s. It maintains
the maximum speed attained for further 10 s and decelerates at 1 m s–2 gradually to rest
a. Draw the velocity-time graph.
b. Use velocity-time graph to determine:
i. the maximum velocity attained.
ii. the time taken for the bus to decelerate to rest.
iii. the total distance covered
iv. the average velocity

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Assessment Level 2:

Time (s) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Velocity (m/s) 0 20 40 40 40 30 20 10 0
i. Draw the velocity-time graph of the given table.
ii. Calculate the total distance covered during the motion.
Assessment Level 3: Imagine a scenario where a car is initially at rest, accelerates uniformly for
a period of time, maintains a constant velocity, then decelerates uniformly until it comes to a stop.
Design a storyboard utilising either distance-time or velocity-time graphs to depict this motion
scenario. Explain how your chosen graph accurately represents the motion of the car throughout the
entire journey.

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Week 6
Learning Indicators:
1. State Newton’s laws of motion.
2. Identify daily applications of Newton’s laws of motion.
3. Apply Newton’s second law to establish the relationship between force, mass and
acceleration.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 1: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Newton’s laws of motion formulated by Isaac Newton, are fundamental principles in Physics that
describes the relationship between the motion of an object and the unbalanced force acting upon it.
Newton’s first law (law of inertia): A body will continue in its state of rest or of uniform motion in
a straight line unless it is acted upon by an unbalanced force.
This law is relevant when you are in a moving vehicle and suddenly it comes to a stop, your body
tends to continue moving forward due to its inertia and you might feel a jerk.
Newton’s second law (law of acceleration): The time rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the resultant force applied and it takes place in the direction of the unbalanced force.
This law is applied when you push a shopping cart. The greater the force you apply, the faster the
cart accelerates.
Newton’s third law (law of action and reaction): For every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
The law is seen in the motion of a canoe. As you push water backwards with the use of the paddle the
canoe moves forward.

LEARNING TASKS
1. State Newton’s first law of motion and explain the concept of inertia.
2. State Newton’s second law of motion.
3. Explain Newton’s third law of motion.
4. Identify application of Newton’s first, second and third laws in daily life

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Using talk for learning in a collaborative and inclusive manner, let learners discuss the situations
below to establish a) what forces are acting on the object and b) the motion of the object. They
should draw diagrams to represent the magnitude and direction of the forces that they identify,
and also the direction of motion of the object (if any). They should then share their ideas with
the class.
a. A vehicle has broken down and as responsible citizens, you know that the vehicle needs to
be moved off the road to prevent other cars from crashing into it. (1st and 2nd laws)
b. Learners build simple paper boats and place them in a bowl of water and using made-up
paddles, try to move the paper boats. (3rd law)

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SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE

2. The teacher should then summarise the laws of motion for the class to be able to answer
questions about the factors that affect inertia.
3. Watch videos (a good example is on YouTube: Veritasium - Best Film on Newton’s Third
Law. Ever.) or use interactive simulations (a good example is the PHeT simulation: Forces and
Motion) to observe the effect on an object when it is a) already in motion and then experiences
a resultant force, b) already in motion and experiences no resultant force, c) is stationary and
experiences a resultant force and d) is stationary and experiences no resultant force.
4. Learners should research and discuss various situations in daily life where Newton’s laws of
motion are applied. Allow students to leave the classroom and take photos of nature/objects
which they can then present to the class and describe/explain the forces at play.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Explain inertia and state the factors that affect the inertia of a body.
Assessment Level 2: Account for changes that will occur in the motion of bodies of different masses
that experience the same force.
Assessment Level 2: Identify some daily activities and explain how at least two of the 3 laws of
motion is applied in each situation.
Assessment Level 3: Design an experiment with simple materials in the environment to verify
Newton’s third law of motion (E.g. throwing a tennis ball against a wall)

THEME/FOCAL AREA 2: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORCE, MASS AND

ACCELERATION USING NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
Newton’s second law (law of acceleration): The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional
to the unbalanced force applied and it takes place in the direction of that force.
!"#!$
i. e. 𝐹𝐹 ∝ %

From this equation, one can establish the relation F = m a

This law allows us to quantitatively analyse the motion of objects by considering the effects of forces
on objects of different masses.

LEARNING TASKS
1. State Newton’s second law of motion.
2. Represent Newton’s second law of motion mathematically.
3. Combine Newton’s second law with the equation of motion v = u + at to establish F = ma.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Take into account learners with low mathematical proficiency and in ability groups guide
learners to establish the equation F = m a.
2. Show learners a range of examples of force diagrams and ask them to establish whether
a. there is a resultant force
b. the direction and size of the resultant force.

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 SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE

This could be a worksheet or a class quiz, with images shown one at a time on the board.
3. Give pupils a worksheet to practice using Newton’s second law.
- There should be some scaffolding for pupils who are less mathematically able; a worked
example could be given, and the examples could be fairly simple.
- If students are more mathematically able, they could be challenged by removing the worked
example, introducing some erroneous units that need converting (e.g. velocity in kmh–1),
given examples with multiple forces or forces which need resolving into two components
(e.g. a windsurfer whose parachute applies a tension at some angle to the horizontally,
whilst the drag acts horizontally backwards) etc.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 2: A car has mass of 2000 kg and an acceleration of 2.3 m s-2
a. What resultant force is causing this?
b. If the car is at rest what is its velocity after 7 s?
c. If the car experiences a resistive force of 2.4 N, what is the driving force? How far does the car
travel after 7 s?

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SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE

Week 7
Learning Indicators:
1. Explain how pressure changes with depth in a fluid.
2. Explain the operation of brake systems in vehicles and the operation of the hydraulic
press.
3. State Pascal’s principle.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 1: THEME/FOCAL AREA(S) 1: PRESSURE IN A FLUID

Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Mathematically, pressure (P) is calculated as:
𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑃 =
𝐴𝐴

Where:
P is the pressure,
F is the force applied perpendicular to the surface, and
A is the area over which the force is applied.
Hydrostatic pressure specifically refers to the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest due to the force
of gravity. It increases with depth in a fluid due to the increasing weight of the fluid above. The
hydrostatic pressure at a certain depth h can be derived from the pressure at the surface using the
equation for hydrostatic pressure:
Hydrostatic pressure equation 𝑃𝑃 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ
Where P is the hydrostatic pressure caused by a certain depth (in Pascal Pa),
ρ (rho) is the density of the fluid (in kilograms per cubic meter, kg m-³),
g is the acceleration due to gravity (in meters per second squared, m s–2 )
ℎ is the depth of the point within the fluid (in meters, m).
This equation helps to understand how pressure increases with depth in a fluid due to the weight of
the fluid above it. For example, in a water tank, the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom is higher than
at the top due to the weight of the water above pressing down on it.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Define pressure.
2. Explain factors that cause pressure to vary with depth.
3. Demonstrate how pressure varies with depth.
4. Derive the equation from P=F/A.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Give each learner a piece of graph paper and ask them to draw around their foot. By counting
squares, estimate the area of the foot. Stand on weighing scales and use your measurements to

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 SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE

calculate your own pressure on the ground. This could be differentiated by asking pupils to give
their results in a variety of units (e.g. Nm–2, Ncm–2 etc.), or to provide a written summary as to
the effect of wearing stilettos or doing a handstand on your pressure on the ground.
2. Give learners some mathematical problems to solve using the P=F/A formula, involving different
units and different rearrangements of the equation (solving for different quantities). Increase
the level of challenge as the worksheet progresses and encourage higher ability students to
‘skip’ to more difficult questions. If they finish, they could circulate the room to support lower
ability students.
3. Learners should be given a large plastic bottle with holes made at various heights. When the
bottle is filled and the lid taken off, the learners should be asked to explain / comment on their
observations about the path of the water at various heights. Lower ability learners could be
given key words to help prompt them: can they use the terms radius, depth, force, pressure,
particles etc. in their explanations?
4. Combining the P=F/A formula with the formula ρ=m/V, guide the students to derive the formula
Note that students may be unfamiliar with the density formula, or may not have studied it for a
long time, and so the teacher may need to do some additional teaching to explain the quantity ρ.
5. Give learners some mathematical problems to solve using the formula, involving different
units and different rearrangements of the equation (solving for different quantities). As above,
Increase the level of challenge as the worksheet progresses and encourage higher ability students
to ‘skip’ to more difficult questions. If they finish, they could circulate the room to support
lower ability students.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Identify two systems that produce forces from the pressure within fluids.
Assessment Level 1: What are the factors that influence the pressure in a fluid and how do these
factors affect the fluid’s pressure?
Assessment Level 2: Calculate the pressure at a point 70 m below the surface of water. [g =10 m s–2,
density of water =1000 kg m–3]

THEME/FOCAL AREA 2: PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE

Pascal’s principle states that, in a confined fluid an externally applied pressure is transmitted equally
in all directions.
Both hydraulic systems and brake systems work on the principle of Pascal’s law, which is based on
the transmission of fluid pressure.
Pascal’s principle plays a fundamental role in various aspects of our lives, ranging from mechanical
systems to biological processes, contributing to the functioning of many everyday objects and systems.

LEARNING TASKS
1. State Pascal’s principle.
2. Describe an experiment that explains Pascal’s principle.
3. State applications of Pascal principle.

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SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Organise a hands-on activity that involves a glass barrel with a plunger, connected to a bulb/
container with pierced holes on all sides. Ask the learners to push down the plunger slowly and
steadily so that water in the barrel squirts out of all the holes in the bulb simultaneously. Ask
them to comment on what they observe and, if possible, explain their observations in terms of
pressure and particle motion.
2. Divide the learners into small groups and provide them with scenarios or problems related
to Pascal’s principle. Challenge learners in groups to think of new applications of Pascal’s
principle in technology or everyday life that they haven’t discussed yet.

3. Learners should be given the equipment to make ‘Cartesian Divers’ and are asked to explain
their observations (written / orally – as above, a list of key words could be provided to lower
ability pupils to help prompt their answers).
- Give less able learners a list of sentences to rearrange / paragraph with gap fills which
explain the various phenomena that they are observing (bottle squeezed – pressure increased
– greater volume of water pushed into inverted test tube – density increase – sinks).
- Most learners will require less support with their explanations, but perhaps provide a list of
key words to include in their answers.
- Ask some more able learners to use their observations to explain the Cartesian Divers with
no scaffolding.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: State Pascal’s principle.
Assessment Level 1: State at some applications of Pascal’s principle in industry.
Assessment Level 2: Describe an experiment that demonstrates Pascal’s principle.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 3: BRAKE SYSTEMS AND HYDRAULIC PRESS

Brake systems in vehicles are crucial for safe and controlled stopping. They work through a combination
of mechanical and hydraulic components such as brake pedal, master cylinder, brake fluid, brake pad,
shoes etc. The brake system’s operation relies on the driver’s input, which is converted into hydraulic
pressure to apply friction on the wheels, allowing the vehicle to slow down or stop safely.
Hydraulic press is a machine often used in various industries for tasks like compressing materials,
bending, straightening, punching and forging. It uses fluid pressure to generate a strong force. It
works by applying a small force to a piston, which creates pressure in the fluid. This pressure is

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transmitted to a larger piston resulting in a much greater force being exerted. The force is then used
for various tasks in the industries.

LEARNING TASKS
1. State the purpose of brakes and hydraulic presses in various applications.
2. Explain the basic components of brake systems and hydraulic presses.
3. Describe the working principles of brake systems and hydraulic systems.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Learners should experience the concepts through videos/virtual labs, which allow them
to virtually participate in the process, simulating hands-on experiences even if they cannot
physically interact with the systems.
2. Demonstrate hydraulic systems using two syringes (one large and one small) connected by a
tube, filled with water, and placed vertically on a flat surface. By pushing down the plunger
of the smaller syringe, water is forced through the tube into the larger syringe, which, upon
repeating the action, transmits pressure equally through the fluid, causing the larger syringe’s
plunger to rise and lift objects placed on it.

39
SECTION 2: MOTION AND PRESSURE

3. If the equipment is available, learners could be asked to make observations of what happens
when the system is full of water vs when the system is full of air. Then ask: Why is gas not
suitable to be used as the fluid in a hydraulic system?
4. Learners could be given a differentiated series of problems to solve regarding pistons and using
the formula P=F/A to deduce input and output forces.
5. Research task: Explain one use of hydraulics in an industry of your choice OR design your own
hydraulic system to solve a problem that you face in everyday life.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: State two uses of the hydraulic press
Assessment Level 3: How does the concept of fluid pressure relate to the operation of both brake
systems in vehicles and hydraulic presses?
Assessment Level 3: Design a model that employs the hydraulic press to solve a problem.

SECTION 2 REVIEW
Learners should have a clear conceptual understanding of equations of motion, grasping how
different variables interconnect to describe the motion of objects. They should begin to develop
problem-solving skills by applying equations of motion to calculate unknown quantities in
different motion scenarios, with varying levels of challenge.
Learners should have acquired a solid understanding of the three laws formulated by Sir Isaac
Newton and can recite them accurately and should have learned the basic concepts and principles
behind each law. By applying Newton’s laws to real-life situations, learners should be able to
predict the motion of objects experiencing forces and anticipate outcomes in various scenarios.
Learners should have acquired essential knowledge about the concept of pressure, its relationship
with depth and the principles of hydrostatics. They should have understood that pressure in a fluid
increase with depth. Practical demonstrations or experiments related to the brake system and
hydraulic press should have fostered learners’ hands-on application of Engineering concepts.
Learners should have understood the significance of pressure transmission in enclosed fluids,
realising how a small force applied at one point can result in a significant force at another.

References
1. Brainkart. (2018). Applications of Pascal’s law: Hydraulic lift and brake [Image] https://
www.brainkart.com/article/Applications-of-Pascal-s-law--Hydraulic-lift-and-brake_3055/

40
 SECTION 3: THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE

SECTION 3: THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE

Strand: Energy
Sub-Strand: Heat

Content Standard: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of principles of thermometry.

Learning Outcome: Apply the principles of thermometry to design a thermometer.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

The weeks covered by the section are:
Week 8: Types of thermometers
Thermometric substances, such as mercury and alcohol, exhibit predictable changes in physical
properties in response to temperature variations. Various types of thermometers, including liquid in
glass thermometers, resistance thermometers, thermocouples, gas thermometers etc., are designed for
specific applications and temperature ranges.
Week 9: Temperature scales
Temperature scales, such as Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin, offer standardised units for expressing
temperature measurements. Understanding these temperature scales and how to convert between
them is crucial for accurate temperature measurement and control across different fields.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

The topics in Section 3 lend themselves to a variety of teaching methods, including:
- Where possible, engaging learners through hands-on activities and inquiry-based learning.
Where this is not possible, photographs and videos of the demonstrations should be shown. E.g.
• Students observe the behaviour of different thermometric substances (e.g., mercury, alcohol)
as they are exposed to varying temperatures. This allows students to directly observe the
principles of thermal expansion and contraction.
• Foster collaborative learning environments where students work together to solve problems
or design experiments related to temperature measurement.
- Practicing mathematical problem solving. Provide ample opportunities for learners to solve
problems and apply theoretical concepts to real-world situations. Incorporate challenging yet
relevant problems that encourage critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
- Integration of technology for research tasks, videos and simulations where appropriate, e.g.
• Use interactive simulations or virtual laboratories to demonstrate how different types of
thermometers work. Students can manipulate variables and observe the corresponding
changes in temperature readings, enhancing their understanding of temperature measurement
principles.
- Encouraging pupils to notice the relevance of Physics to the world around them in order to whip
up learners’ interest in studying the subject.

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SECTION 3: THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE

• Provide real-life examples of the use of thermometers in different contexts, such as weather
monitoring, cooking and medical applications. Relating concepts to everyday experiences
helps students grasp the practical significance of temperature measurement.
As always, implement differentiation strategies to accommodate diverse learning needs. In this
document, some activities are given additional direction for how to support those ‘less able’ or ‘more
able’, which refers only to their ability level in that given task/proficiency.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
Administer written assessments, quizzes, or tests to evaluate students’ factual knowledge of
thermometric substances, types of thermometers and temperature scales. Assessments may include:
multiple-choice questions, short-answer questions, or matching exercises to gauge comprehension of
key concepts and terminology.
Assign problem-solving tasks or scenarios that require students to apply their understanding of
thermometric substances and types of thermometers to solve practical problems.
Assess their ability to select appropriate thermometers for specific temperature ranges and interpret
temperature readings accurately.
Conduct laboratory experiments related to temperature measurement and require students to write
reports documenting their experimental procedures, observations and conclusions. Evaluate their
ability to design experiments, collect data accurately and analyse results using appropriate scientific
principles. Design performance-based tasks such as constructing a thermometer or calibrating
temperature scales to assess students’ practical skills and understanding of temperature measurement
principles.
Develop rubrics to provide clear criteria for assessing student work across different assessment
tasks. Use rubrics to evaluate not only content knowledge but also skills such as critical thinking,
communication and problem solving.
Keep track of learners’ scores and any feedback on their understanding of key concepts. Note areas
where learners are struggling or excelling for targeted instructional support.

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 SECTION 3: THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE

Week 8
Learning Indicators:
1. Explain thermometric substances and their associated characteristics.
2. Describe the features and uses of different types of thermometers.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 1: THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCES

Thermometric substances exhibit physical changes in response to temperature variations, making
them useful for temperature measurement. When subjected to temperature changes, thermometric
substances undergo alterations in their physical properties or characteristics, such as expansion,
contraction, change in electrical resistance, or change in thermal conductivity. These changes are
then measured and correlated with temperature readings.
Common examples include: mercury, alcohol, various metals used in thermocouples, platinum used in
resistance thermometers and semiconductor materials used in thermistors. The selection of a specific
thermometric substance depends on factors such as temperature range, accuracy requirements,
response time and the application in which temperature measurement is needed.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Define thermometric substances.
2. List thermometric substances.
3. Explain characteristics of some thermometric substances.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Using a class discussion, learners are encouraged to recall their knowledge of heat and
temperature, laying the foundation for the upcoming hands-on activities and allowing learners
to connect new information with existing understanding.
2. Provide a list of common thermometric substances such as mercury, alcohol, water and
bimetallic strips. Ask learners in groups to research and identify the unique properties of each
substance that make them suitable for measuring temperature changes. These experiments can
also be demonstrated by the teacher or been shown in videos.
3. Provide learners with thermometers for them to measure the temperature of substances to enable
them observe the expansion and contraction of some thermometric substances.
4. If available, provide learners with different thermometric substances and have them experiment
with the expansion of these materials when exposed to hot and cold environments. They can
observe and measure the changes in length or volume as the temperature changes. In the case that
this equipment is not available, show learners images or videos of the materials demonstrating
their thermometric properties and then provide them with some data to analyse (e.g. a graph of
temperature against change in volume for a sample of mercury; ask the students to read data
off the graph and to comment on the relationship between the two variables. Are they directly
proportional or not? If used as the liquid in a standard thermometer, should the markings on the
thermometer be at regular intervals?)
5. If available, demonstrate the effect of temperature changes on a bimetallic strip, taken from a
faulty electric iron, by positioning one end near a heat source. Allow learners to observe the

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SECTION 3: THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE

strip’s behaviour when the heat source is removed. Additionally, illustrate its application in
thermostats for temperature control systems.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Define thermometric substances.
Assessment Level 1: List at least three thermometric substances.
Assessment Level 2: State the characteristics of at least two thermometric substances.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 2: THERMOMETERS

A thermometer is a device used to measure temperature. There are several types of thermometers,
each utilising different principles to measure temperature. Some common types include, liquid in
glass thermometers, resistance thermometers, thermocouples, gas thermometers etc.
They are widely used in a variety of settings, including weather monitoring, medical applications,
industrial processes, cooking and scientific research.

LEARNING TASKS
1. List different types of thermometers.
2. State features of different types of thermometers.
3. State advantages and disadvantages of different types of thermometers.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Individually, learners should research different types of thermometers (including liquid in glass
thermometers, resistance thermometers, thermocouples, gas thermometers), examining their
features, uses, advantages, disadvantages, safety considerations, environmental impacts. Their
findings could be presented orally or be in a written format to submit.
2. Set up a temperature-controlled environment with different temperature sources (hot water,
ice water, room temperature, etc.). Provide various types of thermometers and ask learners to
measure and compare the temperatures using each thermometer. This helps them understand
how different thermometers respond to varying temperature ranges.
3. For each type of thermometer, the learners could be given a list of questions such as
a. How much does the material change (in terms of size / resistance etc) per degree Celsius?
Is this hard or easy to see/measure)
b. Is the change linear? Is there an upper or a lower limit as to the temperatures that produce
a change in the material?
c. Is the substance expensive, or dangerous to use?
4. Create role-play scenarios where learners act as professionals (e.g., weather forecaster, medical
personnel, chef, scientist) who need to measure temperatures in specific situations. They should
choose the most appropriate thermometer for each scenario and explain their choices.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Define a thermometer.
Assessment Level 1: Name two common types of thermometers and briefly describe one feature of each.
Assessment Level 2: Discuss the advantages and limitations of thermocouples as temperature-
measuring devices and provide examples of scenarios where they are preferred.
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 SECTION 3: THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE

Week 9
Learning Indicators:
1. Describe the various temperature scales and the construction of their corresponding
thermometers.
2. Derive the relationship between the Celsius, Fahrenheit and the Kelvin scales.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 1: TEMPERATURE SCALES

There are several temperature scales used around the world. The most commonly used ones are:
1. Celsius (°C): The Celsius scale is a metric temperature scale where 0 degrees represents the
freezing point of water, and 100 degrees represents the boiling point of water at standard
atmospheric pressure.
2. Fahrenheit (°F): On the Fahrenheit scale, 32 degrees represents the freezing point of water, and
212 degrees represents the boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure.
3. Kelvin (K): The Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale used in scientific and engineering
applications. It starts from absolute zero, the theoretical point where all molecular motion
ceases. One Kelvin is equal to one Celsius degree, but the Kelvin scale has no negative values.
Celsius and Kelvin are the most commonly used scales in scientific contexts.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Identify types of temperature scales.
2. Describe various temperature scales and the construction of their corresponding
thermometers.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Have learners research the origin, historical context and key reference points (freezing and
boiling points of water for all temperature scales (Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin)
2. Instruct learners to stand up and pretend to be particles in a gas and then ask them to behave
as though their temperature is decreasing and decreasing until they form a solid and eventually
stop moving. This can help them to envisage what we mean when we say that the particles have
zero kinetic energy, and to understand why there are no temperatures colder than absolute zero.
3. The same activity could be extended to understanding the Celsius scale; learners behave as
particles in water as it increases in temperature from (e.g.) –20 degrees to 120 degrees. Can they
pinpoint exactly when they have reached 0 degrees and 100 degrees?
4. If available, learners should construct their own thermometers. This can be done by providing
a bucketful of icy water (0 degrees Celsius) and a kettle of water on a rolling boil (100 degrees
Celsius). Learners are given liquid in glass thermometers with no scale, or with the scale
blanked out using stickers or permanent markers. They mark on their thermometers the height
of the thermometric liquid at 0 degrees and at 100 degrees, before dividing the scale up into
10-degree increments. They could then remove the sticker covering the true scale and compare
their experimental results with the true values.

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SECTION 3: THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: What is a temperature scale?
Assessment Level 1: Name two commonly used temperature scales.
Assessment Level 2: Describe the Kelvin temperature scale and its significance in scientific
measurements.
Assessment Level 2: Explain the concept of absolute zero and its relevance to the Kelvin
temperature scale.
Assessment Level 2: Explain why the temperature of an object cannot be -50K.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 2: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CELSIUS,

FAHRENHEIT AND THE KELVIN SCALES
The Celsius (θ) and the Kelvin (T) scales are related by the equation,

𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 =
= 𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃 +
+ 273.15
273.15
The Celsius (θ) and the Fahrenheit (F) scales are related by the equation,
9
9
𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 =
= 5 𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃 +
+ 32
32
5

LEARNING TASKS
1. Derive relationships between Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales.
2. State the impact of conversation between temperature scales on global communication,
scientific research and technological applications.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Ask learners to create a conversion chart that shows the equivalent temperature values for
common points on the Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales. These points may include freezing
and boiling points of water and absolute zero. More able learners may be able to use these
charts to derive the equations above, but less able learners may need to be guided through this
by the teacher.
2. Learners should have a play with the PHeT simulation called ‘Gas Properties’. Here they can
look at the effect of cooling particles to absolute zero and can take temperature measurements
using the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales. They can also measure the pressure of the gas
at different temperatures. This could be used to plot a graph of pressure against temperature and
to show that at zero Kelvin there is zero pressure.
3. Provide learners with a set of temperature values in one scale and a blank puzzle where they
need to fill in the equivalent values in the other two scales.
4. Assign learners to collect temperature data from different sources, such as weather websites
or news reports, in one temperature scale. They must convert these temperatures into the other
two scales.

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 SECTION 3: THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Write the relation between Kelvin scale and Celsius scale of temperature.
Assessment Level 1: Write the relation between Fahrenheit scale and Celsius scale of temperature.
Assessment Level 2: The temperature of the human body is 37. Determine this value on the
Fahrenheit scale.

SECTION 3 REVIEW
Learners should have understood that thermometric substances exhibit different degrees of
sensitivity to temperature changes, which makes them suitable for specific temperature ranges.
Through the study of different thermometers, learners should have developed the skill of
observation and description; identifying the physical features and functioning of each type and
also to be able to measure temperatures using each type.

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SECTION 4: MIRRORS, REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

SECTION 4: MIRRORS, REFLECTION AND

REFRACTION

Strand: Energy
Sub-Strand: Waves

Content Standards:
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of reflection on plane mirrors.
2. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of reflection on spherical mirrors.
3. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of refraction.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain the formation of images in plane mirrors.
2. Distinguish between images formed by converging and diverging mirrors and their
characteristics.
3. Explain refraction and recognize its relevance in different media.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

This section aims to explore the intricate world of optics, focusing on spherical mirrors, image formation,
refraction and the laws governing light propagation. Understanding these concepts is essential for
comprehending the behaviour of light rays as they interact with mirrors and pass through different
mediums. From the terminology associated with spherical mirrors to the principles of refraction and
total internal reflection, this section provides a comprehensive foundation in optical physics.
The weeks covered by the section are:
Week 10: Plane mirrors and reflection
We see an image of ourselves in plane mirrors every day; this section explores the mechanism by
which the image is formed and describes the nature of the image.
Week 11: Spherical mirrors and image formation in spherical mirrors
Spherical mirrors come with a specific set of terms like focal point, focal length, center of curvature
and mirror equation, all of which play crucial roles in understanding the properties and behaviour
of light rays reflected from these mirrors. Using ray diagrams and the mirror formula, this section
demonstrates how images are formed by spherical mirrors. It explores the characteristics of images
formed by concave and convex mirrors, including their size, orientation and type (real or virtual).
Week 12: Refraction
Refraction occurs when light rays pass from one medium to another, causing a change in direction.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

The topics in Section 4 lend themselves to a variety of teaching methods, including:

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- Where possible, engaging learners through hands-on activities and inquiry-based learning.
Where this is not possible, photographs and videos of the demonstrations should be shown. E.g.
• Conduct hands-on experiments with spherical mirrors and optical equipment to illustrate
image formation and characteristics.
- Practicing mathematical problem solving.
• Incorporate problem-solving activities that require students to apply the laws of reflection
and refraction to solve numerical problems. Encourage critical thinking and problem-
solving skills by presenting a variety of scenarios and challenges.
- Integration of technology for research tasks, videos and simulations where appropriate, e.g.
• Utilise interactive simulations or animations to demonstrate concepts associated with
spherical mirrors and refraction. Interactive visualizations allow learners to manipulate
variables and observe the effects on image formation and refraction, enhancing
comprehension.
- Encouraging pupils to notice the relevance of Physics to the world around them in order to whip
up learners’ interest in studying the subject.
• Illustrate the practical applications of spherical mirrors and refraction in everyday life,
such as in optical instruments like telescopes, microscopes and rear-view mirrors. Relating
concepts to real-world scenarios enhances relevance and engagement.
As always, implement differentiation strategies to accommodate diverse learning needs. In this
document, some activities are given additional direction for how to support those ‘less able’ or ‘more
able’, which refers only to their ability level in that given task/proficiency.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
Administer written assessments such as quizzes, tests, or exams to evaluate learners’ factual knowledge
of terminologies, laws and formulas related to spherical mirrors and refraction. Assessments may
include multiple-choice questions, short-answer questions, or problem-solving exercises. Present
learners with problem-solving tasks or scenarios that require them to apply the mirror formula and
laws of refraction to calculate image characteristics or refractive indices. Assess their ability to use
mathematical formulas and principles to solve numerical problems accurately. Evaluate learners’
ability to construct accurate ray diagrams to represent image formation in spherical mirrors and
refraction phenomena. Assess their understanding of the principles of reflection and refraction and
their application in creating ray diagrams. Assign laboratory experiments or demonstrations related to
image formation in spherical mirrors and refraction. Assess learners’ experimental design skills, data
collection techniques and their ability to analyse experimental results to draw conclusions about optical
phenomena. Design performance-based assessments such as oral presentations or demonstrations
where students explain image formation processes or demonstrate refraction principles using real-
world examples.
Develop rubrics to provide clear criteria for assessing student work across different assessment
tasks. Use rubrics to evaluate not only content knowledge but also skills such as critical thinking,
communication and problem solving.
Keep track of learners’ scores and any feedback on their understanding of key concepts. Note areas
where learners are struggling or excelling for targeted instructional support.

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SECTION 4: MIRRORS, REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

Week 10
Learning Indicators:
1. Deduce the laws of reflection.
2. Describe the processes involved in image formation in plane mirrors and their
characteristics.
3. Determine the number of images formed by inclined mirrors.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 1: LAWS OF REFLECTION

The laws of reflection are as follows:
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection;
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface, all lie in the same plane.
The laws of reflection are integral to our everyday life, influencing our vision, the design of optical
devices, architectural aesthetics, safety measures and even artistic expression. Understanding these
laws enhances our understanding of light and its interactions with our environment.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Describe reflection
2. State the laws of reflection
3. Draw the ray diagram showing reflection process

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Set up a plane mirror on a table and place an object in front of it. Ask learners to observe the
reflection and draw the incident ray (from the object to the mirror) and the reflected ray (from
the mirror to the observer’s eye), for different object positions. Encourage them to look for
patterns in the angles of incidence and reflection.
2. Provide learners with a protractor and a light source (such as a laser pointer). Guide them in
drawing a normal to the surface and measuring the angles of incidence and reflection for light
rays hitting the mirror at different positions. Discuss their findings and any observations related
to the angles. Note that some students will find it difficult to a) draw a normal perpendicular
to the surface and b) use a protractor to measure angles, and in this case, they should be given
more one-to-one support either by the teacher or by a more proficient student.
3. In the absence of practical equipment, use interactive virtual lab simulations or online tools that
allow learners to adjust the incident angle and observe the corresponding reflection angles for
situations where laboratory equipment is not available. This will give them more data points to
deduce the reflection laws.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Define reflection.
Assessment Level 1: State the laws of reflection.

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 SECTION 4: MIRRORS, REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

Assessment Level 2: A light ray is incident on a mirror at an angle of 38o to the normal, what is the
reflected angle?
Assessment Level 2: A light ray is incident on a mirror at an angle of 38o to the normal, through what
total angle is the ray deviated?

THEME/FOCAL AREA 2: IMAGE FORMATION IN PLANE MIRRORS

In plane mirror image formation, light rays from an object strike the mirror’s flat surface and undergo
reflection. As a result, the image formed in the mirror appears to be as far behind the mirror as the
object is in front of it and the image is virtual, upright and laterally inverted (left-right reversed). The
size of the image is the same as that of the object.

Image of an object formed by plane mirror

LEARNING TASKS
1. Describe processes involved in image formation.
2. State the characteristics/nature of images formed in plane mirrors.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Have learners observe and identify plane mirrors in their surroundings (e.g., bathroom mirrors,
dressing room mirrors). Ask them to describe how these mirrors form images and what they
notice about the images. Ask students why they might often prefer how they look in the mirror
compared to when they see themselves in a ‘selfie’ (image in a mirror is laterally inverted and
so is the image of ourselves that we are familiar with seeing, compared to a photograph which
is not inverted).
2. Learners should be organised into mixed-ability groups to explore the concept of reflection
using a combination of plane mirrors. By manipulating the arrangement of mirrors, learners
actively transmit a light source and project an image to an observer outside the classroom.
3. Learners should be given some diagrams to copy/complete. These could show an object and
an eye/camera on one side of a plane mirror (see diagram above). Learners should draw rays
from various point on the object entering the eye/camera at either side of the aperture. Peer or
self assess:

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SECTION 4: MIRRORS, REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

a. Has a ‘normal’ to the surface been drawn at each reflection point?

b. Has each ray obeyed the law of reflection? Measure accurately with a protractor.
Ask learners to redraw their diagram if unhappy with the accuracy.
4. Ask them; where would your brain believe that these rays had come from? Where do they meet,
if you track them backwards behind the mirror? What do the words ‘virtual’, ‘real’, ‘upright’,
‘inverted’, ‘magnified’ and ‘diminished’ mean? (students could independently research this),
5. What is the relationship between the object-mirror and the mirror-image distance?
6. Watch videos about some more abstract ideas around reflection in order to engage learners;
VSauce “Inside a Spherical Mirror” or “If The Moon Was A Disco Ball” are interesting examples.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: State four characteristics of image formed by plane mirror.
Assessment Level 2: How are images formed in plane mirrors?
Assessment Level 2: An object of height 20 cm is placed 50 cm from a plane mirror.
a. Determine the distance of the image from the object.
b. What is the size of the image?

THEME/FOCAL AREA 3: IMAGES FORMED BY INCLINED MIRRORS

When two mirrors are inclined to each other, they can create a fascinating pattern of multiple images.
The number of images formed depends on the angle between the mirrors. If the angle between the
mirrors is small, such as a few degrees, only a few images may be formed. However, as the angle
between the mirrors increases, the number of images grows exponentially.
Specifically, the formula to calculate the number of images formed is,

360°
𝑛𝑛 = −1
𝜃𝜃

where θ represents the angle between the mirrors. Each image is a result of multiple reflections
between the mirrors, leading to an intricate arrangement of reflected objects.
Inclined mirrors are versatile tools that play an essential role in enhancing our everyday experiences,
from improving safety on the road to facilitating various daily tasks. Their ability to redirect light and
expand our view has made them valuable in numerous practical applications like periscope, makeup
mirrors, security cameras, telescopes and binoculars, dressing room mirrors, dance studios and gyms.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Determine the number of images when an object is placed between two inclined mirrors.
2. Draw ray diagrams of reflection process in inclined mirrors.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Provide learners in mixed-ability groups with 2 mirrors and let them incline them to one another
at a variety of angles (30 degrees, 45 degrees, 60 degrees). Initially, ask learners to observe and

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comment on what they notice about the number of images seen in the mirrors as the angle is
increased/decreased.
2. Ask the learners to draw ray diagrams for a ray of light incident upon one of the mirrors.
- Most learners should be guided to draw ray diagrams when two mirrors are inclined to meet
each other at an angle.
- More able learners should extend the discussions of the ray diagrams in inclined mirror to
enable them to use their knowledge in geometry and trigonometry to determine the angle of
reflection.
3. Through collaborative discussions, learners arrive at a formula that allows them to calculate
the number of images for any given angle. The teacher should offer some guidance to less
able groups, first of all asking them to divide 360 degrees by the inclination angle and then
asking them to compare this to the number of images. This activity promotes critical thinking,
problem solving and collaboration among learners of different abilities, fostering an inclusive
and supportive learning environment.
4. In the absence of practical equipment, use virtual lab software or online tools that allow learners
to experiment with inclined mirrors and objects. They can manipulate the angles and observe
how the number of images changes accordingly.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 2: How many images are formed when two mirrors are inclined at an angle of 45o.
Assessment Level 3: Two mirrors are inclined to each other at angle of 90o. If a light ray is incident
on the first mirror at an angle of 42o, draw a ray diagram to show the reflection process.
Assessment Level 3: Two mirrors are inclined to each other at an angle of 90o. If a light ray is incident
on the first mirror at an angle of 42o, what is the angle of reflection with respect to the second mirror?

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Week 11
Learning Indicators:
1. Explain the terminologies associated with spherical mirrors.
2. Describe the processes involved in image formation in spherical mirrors and their
characteristics using ray tracing.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 1: TERMINOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH SPHERICAL

MIRRORS
1. Concave mirror: It is an optical mirror, which is part of a sphere with reflecting inner surface.
2. Convex mirror: It is an optical mirror, which is part of a sphere with reflecting outer surface.

Diagram illustrating a concave mirror with accompanying terminologies

3. Pole P: It is the central point of a concave or convex mirror through which the principal
axis passes.
4. Principal axis is an imaginary line joining the centre of curvature through the principal focus
to the pole.
5. Centre of Curvature C is the centre of a sphere of which the mirror is part.
6. Radius of curvature is the distance from this centre of curvature to the pole of the mirror.
7. Principal focus F is a point on the principal axis, where all rays parallel and close to the
principal axis either converge or appear to diverge after reflection from the curved mirror.
8. Focal length of a mirror f is the distance between the pole of the mirror and the principal focus.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Differentiate between convex and concave mirror.
2. Explain various terminologies associated with spherical mirrors.

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PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Provide learners with diagrams of concave and convex mirrors. Ask them to label the different
parts, such as the pole, principal axis, focal point, centre of curvature and mirror surface. Learners
should be tasked with conducting independent research using the internet and reference books
to find the meanings and definitions of the terms related to mirrors.
2. Alternatively, for a more hands-on approach, provide a variety of spherical mirrors (concave
and convex) along with labels indicating the different parts (pole, focal point).
- Use simple language for some learners to explain each term as they label the parts of the
mirrors with provided stickers or markers.
- Ask some learners to label mirrors independently, using provided diagrams and descriptions
as references.
- Provide advanced scenarios or optical systems involving spherical mirrors and ask some
learners to analyse and determine the relevant terminology.
3. Provide learners with a piece of flexible reflective material and ask them to hold it/position
it so that it forms a) a convex mirror and b) a concave mirror. Shine narrow beams of light at
the surface of the mirror in a direction parallel to the principal axis and use this to measure the
focal length. Discuss whether the focal length is the same, or different for convex and concave
mirrors of the same radius of curvature. How does the focal length compare to the magnitude
of the radius?
4. Create a quiz game with questions related to the terminologies associated with spherical mirrors.
Learners can answer individually or in teams, promoting friendly competition.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: What is a spherical mirror?
Assessment Level 1: Provide two examples of everyday objects that use spherical mirrors.
Assessment Level 1: Define the terms
a. Principal axis
b. Pole
c. Principal focus
in the context of spherical mirrors.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE FORMATION IN

SPHERICAL MIRRORS USING RAY DIAGRAM
The position, nature and size of the image formed depend on the object’s location relative to the
mirror. Concave mirrors can form real or virtual images, depending on the object’s position.
Convex mirrors always produce virtual images that are upright, diminished and located behind
the mirror.
Ray Diagram: To determine the position and nature of the image formed by a spherical mirror, the
following rules are used:
1. Ray leaving the tip of the object traveling parallel to the principal axis pass through the focal
point after reflection.
2. Rays leaving the tip of the object passing through the focal point and becoming parallel to the
principal axis after reflection.

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SECTION 4: MIRRORS, REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

3. Rays passing through the centre of curvature (C) reflect back along the same path.

Image formed by concave mirror when the object is in between the principal focus and the centre
of curvature

Image formed by convex mirror

LEARNING TASKS
1. Describe the three rays that could be used in locating the image formed in a spherical mirror.
2. Draw ray diagrams of image formation in spherical mirrors.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Provide learners with a concave mirror and an object. Guide them in drawing ray diagrams to
show the paths of light rays from the object to the mirror and then to the image. Ask them to
observe and describe the characteristics of the image formed (e.g., real, inverted, magnified).
2. Repeat the above task, but this time, use a convex mirror. Learners should be guided to draw
ray diagrams to show the paths of light rays and analyse the characteristics of the image formed
(e.g., virtual, upright, diminished).
3. Challenge learners to change the position of the object in front of the concave mirror (e.g. an
object in front of the mirror closer than f, at f, between f and c) and draw ray diagrams for
various object distances. Have them describe how the image characteristics (size, orientation,
location) change with different object positions.
- Less able learners should be given a worked example which shows step-by-step how each
ray is drawn, followed by a very similar example to practice with (e.g.) a slightly different
radius of curvature. They are given the definitions of the terms magnified, diminished,
inverted, upright, real and virtual, and have to select which of these is correct for a variety
of examples provided.
- Most learners should be given step-by-step instructions for how to draw a ray diagram but
without a visual aid (blank diagram with object, principal axis, centre of curvature and
mirror only). They have to choose words to describe the image that has been formed. They
repeat the task for objects placed in a variety of positions.

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- More able learners should be given a vaguer task (e.g. “deduce whether the position of an
object in relation to a curved mirror affects the nature of the image produced”), alongside
instructions for how to draw the three rays. They need to construct the entire diagram
themselves, including drawing a mirror and a principal axis etc.
4. Provide learners with concave and convex mirrors of different focal lengths. Instruct them to
use ray diagrams to determine the image distance for various object distances as above.
5. In the absence of practical equipment, utilise interactive virtual lab simulations or online tools
that allow learners to manipulate object positions and mirror curvatures to observe the changes
in image characteristics. Learners can record their observations and draw conclusions.

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: Describe three rays that could be used in locating the image formed in a concave
mirror and state how they are reflected by the mirror.
Assessment Level 2: With the aid of a diagram, show how an image may be produced by a
convex mirror.
Assessment Level 2: With the aid of a diagram, show how a virtual image may be produced by a
concave mirror.
Assessment Level 2: How are the laws of reflection seen in the rules applied to the formation of
images in spherical mirrors?

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Week 12
Learning Indicators:
1. Determine the position and characteristics of images formed by spherical mirrors with
mirror formula and magnification formula.
2. Explain refraction and state the laws of refraction.

THEME/FOCAL AREA (S)1: CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE FORMATION IN

SPHERICAL MIRRORS USING MIRROR FORMULA AND MAGNIFICATION
FORMULA
The mirror formula and magnification formula are important equations used in optics to determine the
position and characteristics of images formed by mirrors.
Mirror formula relates to the object distance (u), the image distance (v) and the focal length(f) of a
mirror. It is expressed as,

1 1 1
= +
𝑓𝑓1 𝑢𝑢1 𝑣𝑣1
= +
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣
Magnification formula relates the height of the image () to the height of the object (). It is given by,
ℎ! 𝑣𝑣
𝑚𝑚 = =
ℎℎ"! 𝑢𝑢𝑣𝑣
𝑚𝑚 = =
ℎ" 𝑢𝑢

By using these formulas, along with the properties of mirrors and their focal lengths, we can analyse
and predict the behaviour of light rays, determine the position and size of images formed by mirrors
and understand the optics of reflective surfaces.

LEARNING TASKS
1. Determine characteristics of image using mirror formula and magnification formula.
2. Perform experiments on simple problems to prove mirror formula and magnification
formula.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Present the mirror formula to the class and emphasize the significance of the formula in
understanding the behaviour of spherical mirrors and how it is used to predict the position of
the image formed by such mirrors.
2. Learners should use data obtained from diagrams drawn in the previous lesson to calculate/
confirm the focal length of the mirror given.
3. Provide learners with various mirror formula problems involving concave and convex mirrors.
Ask them to calculate the image distance (v) using the given focal length (f) and object
distance (u). Discuss the nature (virtual or real) and characteristics (inverted or upright) of the
image formed.

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4. Present learners with examples where the object height is given and they need to calculate the
image height and magnification using the magnification formula. Discuss the implications of
magnification greater or less than 1.
- Less able learners can be provided with simple tasks such as “If the object is 2cm tall, and
the image is 4cm tall, what is the magnification? What size would the image be if the object
was 4.5cm tall, for the same mirror and the same object distance?”
- Most learners can be provided with slightly more challenging questions such as “What do
you think the effect on the image height would be if this object was moved further away
from the mirror? Can you be specific? If it is moved twice as far away, what would happen
to the image height?”
- More able learners can be provided with stretching questions such as “What do you think
the effect on the image height would be if this object was placed in front of another mirror
of a bigger focal length”.
5. Assign learners to research and find real-world applications
- of spherical mirrors (e.g., telescopes, makeup mirrors, headlights). They should determine
the focal lengths, object distances and characteristics of the images formed in these
applications.
6. Plot a graph with object distance (u) on the x-axis and image distance (v) on the y-axis for
a concave mirror (data provided). Help learners observe the relationship between u and v to
identify patterns and draw conclusions. Encourage them to consider another graph that could
be plotted in order to use it to find focal length (inverse of the y-intercept for a graph of 1/v
against 1/u).

KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 2: An object is placed 15 cm from a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm, if the
height of the object is 7 cm,
a. Calculate the position of the image.
b. What is the nature of the image?
c. Calculate the height of the image.

THEME/FOCAL AREA 2: LAWS OF REFRACTION

Refraction is a phenomenon where there is a change in direction and velocity of light when the light
traveling in a transparent medium enters into another transparent medium of different density.
The laws governing the phenomenon of refraction are,
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
2. Snell’s law: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction
is constant for a given pair of media.
When you place a pencil in a glass of water and look at the pencil from the side of the glass, it appears
bent or broken at the water’s surface. This effect is due to refraction of light.

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Refraction with pencil in water beaker

LEARNING TASKS
1. Give examples of everyday phenomena involving refraction.
2. Define refraction.
3. State laws of refraction.

PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS
1. Ask learners to fill a transparent glass or container with water leaving enough space at the top to
submerge the pencil, then carefully place the pencil into the water, making sure it is vertically
submerged and not tilted. Learners should observe the pencil and describe its position and
direction while inside the water.
2. Set up an experiment using a laser pointer, a glass block and a protractor. Learners should
measure the incident and refracted angles. and vary the incident angles and measure both the
incident and refracted angles using a protractor. Learners should plot a graph of sine(i) against
sine(r) and determine the gradient of the line, which corresponds to the refractive index of
the glass.
- Less able learners will need more support with performing the practical and with the use of
the trigonometric identity (in particular: some examples and practice questions involving
finding angle i or angle r using the inverse sine function) as well as choosing appropriate
scale in plotting the graph.
- Some learners should be offered support in choosing appropriate scale in plotting the graph.
- More able learners could:
a. Investigate refraction for waves traveling between two different mediums
(NOT AIR) or
b. research the derivation of Snell’s Law and present this to the class (looking at
the ratio of the speed of the wave in the two different materials and showing
diagrammatically how this relates to the angles of incidence and refraction).
3. Use interactive virtual simulations or online tools that allow learners to adjust the angle of
incidence and observe how light bends as it enters different materials. This will help them
visualise the laws of refraction in action.

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KEY ASSESSMENT
Assessment Level 1: What is refraction?
Assessment Level 2: A light ray moves from air to glass. Calculate the angle of refraction if the
incident angle in air is 45 and the refractive index of glass is 1.5.
Assessment Level 2: How does the speed, wavelength and frequency of a light ray change when it
enters a different medium?

SECTION 4 REVIEW
Engaging with image formation in plane mirrors should develop learners’ observational skills,
as they can describe the position, orientation and characteristics of images formed in different
scenarios. Learners should recognise that the laws of reflection are fundamental principles in
optics, explaining how light behaves when it encounters a smooth reflective surface.
Learners should also recognise that inclined mirrors can produce multiple images of a single
object, depending on the number and arrangement of mirrors.
Understanding the terminologies allows learners to analyse the optical properties of spherical
mirrors and predict image characteristics in different scenarios. Learners should understand
that concave mirrors can form both real and virtual images and the characteristics of the images
depend on the object’s position relative to the focal point and also recognise that convex mirrors
always form virtual images, making objects appear smaller than their actual size. Learners
should interpret the numerical values obtained from calculations to determine the position and
characteristics of images formed by spherical mirrors.
Learners should gain a deeper understanding of how light behaves when passing through
different transparent mediums, leading to the bending of light rays. Learners should recognise
the practical applications of apparent depth, such as in the design of swimming pools and the
phenomenon of bent sticks in water.

Reference
1. Freepik, (2014). Refraction [Image]. https://www.freepik.com/free-vector/refraction-science-
experiment-with-pencil-water-beaker_25590906.htm

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Scope and Sequence

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

Physics