MODULE-3

DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNI QVES

’ The prOCes One or ore p oper is

a Conrin wane wittepect to meage signal /
modulating stgnal that typ+cally Contatn thjormain
Modiulahon.
to be t ansmited is Khan as
’ In Digitol noulation, meuage signa
Cottge witl be
STanal witu
i to be Canried over d analog
data wiCh in
Binaydatawich
Signal j the transmission Oven the ch annel.is
transmission
In Communicatioo. Data
typr. Data transmission

Baseband Pass band

Tranmission
(channel - wired) ( Free space)
1. Boseband TramissTon
The diqital Data is tranitted oves the
Chan nel di'tecty without any modlulation,
’ SuTtable oT shost 7ange 'Communica hon
hoy
fo its bareband fermat
’ A sional oy be Sentwned channel is avat lable
Ony whben a
a dedicated andtrannsio
ory
otheswfse it mut be Converted to poab
Base bard Tronsmisstog

Pulse Analoo moduation Pulsedigitaj Malla

PAM PCM (Puke Code Mud
’PWM ’DPCM(Diyerenthal
PCM)
> DM Delta Modudtr
ADM( Adaptie DM)
Q. Pou bond lTanissioo
di¡ftat data modulatu Wigh jrequene
siowsoidl carrfer 40r tYammiscton over a Ch annel
Suita ble hos long dustance om munication
Poesband TrannissTon

BfnomyAsKstaaling M-arystgnaling
>PSK
PsK H8-any PSs
LFSK 16- Pss.

The Baste Modulaton technfque« Hor the

trans miss Ton a diqital dota ane
1. Amplitude 'shiy' Keytng (AsK)
2. phase shijt Heyinq' (sK)
3. Freauncy suijt heing (FSK)
’ The modulation involVea switching l key g
the anpitucde. phase k Hrequenty o Camieh in'accodance
with digital data ( binady mea se signal)
’ The' Diqital modula tion techniauen aim to
achieve 4ollowtngparamettn
* Minfmum Channel Bandwidth
High Data rate (max. bitsl symbot)
minimum probabi ity o) eYOS
Montmm Tesistance to intrjring signel
Minimum ciruit Coreplercty
-’ At the Recei yes end,the
cohnent o Non- Cohyent
Dernoduloation Can be
Cohe nt DetectÉon : In Cohtrent Detehon,
the local Conr ier qen rated at the re Ceiver Shaul
be in-phase with the Carre at the trouns mit et.
tence t is aleo called os Snchnous Dete chon
In thi method, Eyor prob abitity deeas e
Cohvent detection is pertoy med a. eolo wS;
i CorYel ation o recved stonal with camier
iY DeciS ion makYng baced oh threshold alue
’ I n Non-Coherent Detecion the CoYies at the
Coyrir at
Yecuver need not to be in-phaue with the
the t anmiHer.
Thic method is simple , lbut hay highy probability
q symbol
meuaqe stgnal) Carier Moduloted
modulat ng
Stqnal mt Stgnal sct)
Dtq+tal Digital Analog Analeq
Communicoat Binay Data Slana stqnat
Analog
Communicathio Analog Analog
siq nal Analog.
siqnd! stqnal
Cohenent Binay Modulation Technisucs
y The 3 baxic fon o, Brnavy moolulaton
Techniguu ase : ASE. Fsu,PSK
’ The notse analysis Coher ent detechivn o
AsK,PSK, FSK is btey eplafned by anuming
Additive wlite Gaustai NoYse (AwGN) model.meu
’ signal Con Stellahon is a Set o pea ble
potnts ( M:n)
Constelatfon Diaqram epreaent a signal as a
QD Scatned diaqs an on a Compler plane dt
the
Sampling instanta.It helpr to elognize tye y
tolaece
intayscie fn a siqnal
Phase Shit Keying Techniaue Using Cohnent
Detection

1. Binay Phase Shit Keyíng (BPSK)

used
’ Io BPSK, the binony Symbols, og'1
are

to mooulate the phase Oh CanYier M=a'2)

It tax mits one bit |symbol( it, n=1.1.
Hence Q meuage Symbols ane olenoted by
S, (t) & S, t)
 ’ The pais } Signola S,t) and St) are use d
to vepreent binlySymbolk '1' and 'o'Yespeckt veli.
S,(t) -= A ca 2nfet)
co(2fct)
S,t) = A co (21frt+)= -A
the
-> when the Symbod changes rom '1 to 'D
phare qo the carvier Ts Slijted by igo(n)
’ Let Eb be the enrgy oy the Symbol, then To-bit
odusaton
Ey- A' co(2tfet)dt
Tb

6
}dt
2
A L4nfet
D

A QEb
Tb

A - TbEb
Sub stituting value o'A' n S,(t) 4 S, t) tauatton
we qet,
|S,(t) = Eb
Tb
co 21ft; 0<tTh

St)= -LE
Eb cá 2TUft 0ctT
whene En- trantmitt ed engy pn bit
Th- bit dus athon

Siqnal space DiaqTam oj BPSk.

’ I BPSK, the meage pointa 1 'o re
Tepresented by S,t) &Sit) as
g
S.t) aE Co 2Ttfet
S,t)- - RE cd2ttet.
where Th- bit d atio &En Tranmitted sizral
Cnesgy lbit.
 ’ when the Symbol Chanqes jom '1 to 'o the
phase oy
o the cnin Is Shijted by 180°(n)
’ From £qt)4 (2), the poaiy oy sin us ordal wave
that diANC only In a re lative phase shi o t0
are Krown as "Anti- podal STanals?
Fyom this tauations, it s clear that tn BPSK,
these ts only one basts Hunchion o} unit en ngt
deqined by wkT. dt)- Slt)
JE
22b
Tb c 2rtfet
-B)
JEs
Now. enprenin g S,t) &S t) in
term o d, t), we qet 2co 2fct
S, t)= JEb , t) ; 0st<T,

.: A binony Psk System is, theneore Characteni?ed

N-1)
by havtng a sigal space that ts one-dimenstonal
with C a sanad conctstog Constellatt on q& mesage
Points (Ma)
The Co- 0xoinates to xeprsent these meuage peints
ar e
qtven by
Su s,)d,ct) dt t Eb

S21 =
s, (t)¢,(t) dt - -JEs
meanage point Conesponding to S,(t) is located
The Correupond ing to S;(t)
at Si, tVEb & the meOge point
is locoted at S2 -NEb
 Deistop boundy
Region z,Reqion 24
Z4
message potnt a mesage Point 1
-JE +JEp ,
S) a)
S,(t)

Frqi:sinal Spoace Diaqrom for Coherent BPSK

6j wawefovms depicting mage points
m, ie, S,lt ' m2 te S t)

BPSK Geneation & Coheent Dete cton

Binary Polax Non Yeturo Product

data to zero (NR2)
Mooulator
Binary
SequenceLevel en coder St)

(t)-col2ntet)
BPSK TYanSmítts
BPSK Generation onsist, oy TuD Conpon tnts a
jpltouws:
1. Polor NRZ level encooder : It
epresent: Syrmbol 1 and
Synbol o o, the input binany Staucnte by Ampttude
Levela t JEb -JEb Teupectively. The output e jed to
product modulatos
3. Proodu ct Moduulato : It multiplia the output o
polas NRZ encode by the baic unction d,(t). ie,
b(t) actsas a sin wsoidal Canrret 0 Bias y PSK
signal.
 choose 1; if 4,>0
St)+ dt Decision
Device

Thiehold= 0
fi: Cohnent BPsK Tecelves
’The receven is Synchvon ized wtth trammiter aa

shown in lqure.
Two BoUaic Componenta o BPSK receiver are ar
jollows :
4 Coelator: It COIvelates the recetved stgnal st)
1.
with the basis qunctton ) on a bit by'bit bauts
2. Decision Device : This Compor es the CoTe lator
Output aqalnt Ktxo-thiehold,ausumîng the biray
Symbola 1'and o are eauip1oboa ble.
then deciston ts made in favOur o Symbol 4
* if ,< o, then deciston is made fn favou oy Synnbol D
BPSK avefos ms

1 1 0 1
Binary
Data'

Polar +JEbt
NRZ
encoded o
-JEbt

Carsíes
simal
BPSK
sigal
 Eoy Pobability o BPSK Using Coherent Detecton
’ Assuning Symbol '1' g 'o' tyammitt ed with equal
probabiuty. TË the Set o pofnts reside cle to S, theo
it cortespords Er Symbol1' tansmiss ion &4 the st
o potots residinq' coe to S Coapund b Symbol 'D'
tiantnissfon. These two deiston Teqions Ore arked
zI Z2, accosding to the tneta qe poYnt anDund wich
they Construted. as shown to quse 1
Sfmply to decide that
-’ The Deciston Tule is now sfomps
slanal S, ) is trausmitted the receved Signal polnt
in Z1 teqion & to detdé that signal S,t)'was
tiammittd T receîved siqnal point alls in veq ion Z2,
- Tuoo kioda o erianeous deision may. however be
made:
1. ErYoy oy iust Kind : st¡nal ss t) [ie, Syonbot o] is
trammitted but the noíse is Such that the Yeceîved
Stqnal potnt alls to the YegYon 21; So eCeêver
detda tn aor oy stqpai s,4)
2. Erroy o Secord kind : Signal S,Ct) [ie,Synbol'1'] is
tanmitted but the noite fs Such that the Teceive d
sinal point aus in the Yeqton Z2 ; SoYeceiver

To Calulate probability O} maktng onoy o

{irst kind,
Let xt) be the eceived sBqnal, qfven buy
t) = St) t w(t)
whese wlt) is AwGN with 2evo mean & PSD Nol2
Assuming Synbol'o` ie, S,(t) was tramit ed, then
the output CoTr elatoy be qfven by
tt}Stt)ttt) T
t) , t) dt
 wKT, x(t)= ( S,t)+ w(t) ; Symb ol 1 traneitted
S, (t) +ww(t) ; Symbol'o tranited
Tb
X (S (t)+ wt))-t)dt.
Tb
= S,t)-t) dt + wt) ,(+)dt
Tb Note *

=-/Ep t4) d,t) dt tw,From éal5),

S,t)= -SEt)

-’ Mean 0, the 7andom vanfable x, is a ConStant

e[j= E-JEt w] 4+ Variane (Consto
is taua to
to Xero

E]- -JE
Vonfance oq X, is qiven by
var[x]- Var[-JEtw]
- Van[-JE] + Nar[w]
0t No
Var[J= Noa
’ Condlitional Probability Density Function when
Symbol 'o' is trounnitted s qven by
-(7-4)
t(lo)=
the
Substituting -(04JEb)²
X No|z
J2rxNe
 -(E 2

ALet Po) denotes the probability oy de idling

tavour o Symbol'1' whtn symbol 'o' war tramnittd
Symbol 'o
P(o) - PLol symbol'b' ts tsantmftedJ
Regionz, ( Symbol'1 ): 0x,s 0o.

Do E)
2
P,Co)= I -( da,

Put z \,+NEb Changing imits to z

di wt.'z' we get we Get,
when ,=
dz d
when ,= o
2= 00

Hence, Subsituttng value o'2' in above ecuatfon,

00

P (o)= Jlo dz
Eb

dz
P.(o)= dz

Note: Del Toiton o Complementany eno

-u
erfc(u) du

esfclu) du
 ustng coahon (5) &Tewsitir q q,l4) we
P(o)nfc(z)
No

lu we Can Cal culate Poobability O enror }or

Second Kind, e, Symbol'1 tramftted but yecaVer
decides injavour 'Symbol 'b'
No

Let probability oy trannitttng Sipnbol'1' Symbel'D

be equiproba ble,
ie, Plo) P)= V2
.:. The aver aqe probabi lity o, ev0Y is qfven by
)
P: =P(o). P (o)+ P). Pe

P=ef
Note: relation blw erfel*)& Q(x) s &(nfc

.. Probabi lity oy error o, BPSK is qiven by

Using ) es, (6) &Tewnittng a le)
P-

The Cwerage Probabilub Symbol

BPSK is qiven by o
2Eb
No
2. Quadvatune Phase Shit heying (QPSK)
System
The maio aim D Digttal Comm uni cationprobabilt.
error
?s to have Reliable perorm ance , LowBandwfdt
eaent utuzaion o} channel
and bit | Synbol (ie, n=1,M-22)
’ In BPSK, we tranA mit 1
But io QPSK, we tranmt 2bitsl Synbol which
helps in Con Seving Bandwidth. tHence QPSK fs alo
known as Bandwidt-Con seVing modulation Scheme
y SO, thee 2 bits Can have 4 poaible Cormbtnattons
fe,[noo bits,n=2, M==4J.o men age symbolk
They are qtven by l,01,00, 10 phauee
- To Tramit 2bits1 symbol we need 4
(Quadnt phare suijt) i/
. Drvtd inq 360 by 4 symbols , Ye,3609ve
4
Hence we have a separ ation o, 90° phase ange
blw the Carrie phase
In QPSK, the phare oy the CorÈ taku one h
tous eaually spated valu eal phase. Such as
TUl4 - 45°=
Tða t40- 135°: 3/4
l4
3tJa t 90' ==225°- 5nla
3Tl4
5t90- 315° =rñ,

2r >t

T/2

Lsphase di o o blw the

4 Carr er phse
Te t/4, 3 tl4, 5t l4 6 tl4
 Sional Space RepresentatH on o PSK
As with Binry PSk, in 0 maton about the
memaqe Symbolu tn QPSk i's Cont ained in the Canrte
phaae. In portiular, the phase o the CarTea takey
or
One
9 4DuT eaually spaced valuea,Such as Tla,3 /4
5 /4 4 n/4.
’ For this Set q vauee, we may dene the tan mite
stanal au 4]; 0stsT
S,() = J2E cGl2ntet t (2f- i)
i-l,2,3.,4
elsehre
-O
there Eis the tranamited sronal tnen g Pen
bit Symbol &4TTic the Synboldnaton.
t the
->we may expand cal) using triqremetr iesigna
cd l ¢tB) to redeine the trantmitted
nelation col
O.

St) =

|':cA+B) cóA CoB- Sin ASio B

A- O; (2i- )/4 4 B=Tfct
wheve i-,2,3,4. Since M>4ie, 4 menage pñnts
in OPSK.
’NOw we Can
e musage peinta 4 aOi at ed
siqnal vectov wsing' éq) au JolTo ws
s,it) =|2 co(2ufett /4) ; tor dibrt11
S,(t) - E2 C4 (2nfet t 3/4); for dibit ´o1'
Slt)- 2E Ct [2fet +srj4) ; for dibit od
S,t)- 2E 8(21fet +4U¢) ; fo dibit 10
-) From Eae),we ta Ke two observati on
16. Thene are twp Osthono nal banis unchun,
dyined by a pois Qadratre Corvins:
 t) = cl2tect ) ; 0stsT

+,(t)= J Stn(2fet); ostsT

-

25. There are jour menge pointk, deyned by a-D

vectoy
siqnal
S= 3i-l,2,3,4

’ Elerm ents o the Signal vectors : Si,and Sta

are
qtven by the' foltewt table
Gray encodud phare ey Co-0rdinate et
S:(t) meyage poihts
input dibit QPSK Stonal
(Tadlass) Si Si2

1 S,(t) 11

-JEl2 +JE|2
01 3/4
3S,(t) - JE2
|4 Sa(t) 10 +JE -JEla
- PSK stqnal hahas a D Siqn a Constellaton ( ie ,N=&)4
phase angle fomeau
Aour muagt points (ie, M:4) whoseShown
in Countrclockwise dire Cion s in ffqre below.
QPSK StHral bas mfoínum Avenage ehegy
Region z3 Reqion z4
meuagepofnt JE2 meage potnt m4
m3(o1) 'C11)

Deciston
Boaunday -SE|2

men age point VE|) meSsage pernt

m200)
Reqion z Reqion Z1
Dettstop
bounday
 QPSK lavefoyms
4S Input bit Seq: 01 1 0 11
+A
25 Polar NRZ
Level
encoding -A
Tb

’ where Th - One bit persiod

2 Tb
3 Odd
bit blt):
Sequunce -A

- Dej+ne odd &eveh bit Seqence for bit peniod

49 Even
bit b): t
Sequence - A 2Th

s.CoSioe
Stgpat
CCaniie)
Sine
Siqnal t
Ccairír)
Sianal, To veprescrt
’ Odd bit Seg Should be xplied by Cá
P'o'bit in odd Seq, xply c ine siqnal by -1 Ato repverent
ip1'bit in Odd Seas x ply cÕine SiGnal by +1.
ly foy even bit Should be' xpied by Sfne sipal.
6. dit)- ,()

S)=bolt). $4)
+
Eoy Proba bilrty o @PSK
located
The Siqnal poin tk S, ,S,,S,& S, ane
Symmetyically Pntnthe2DProsignad space
j0 one meuae
babflity tnIor
Computin9
point Temai na the Same 4oy other three points
the
Consiol tranmission oj Symbol S4t) then
Teceived Stgnal xt) is grven
xt) = Salt) +wt) 0ct<T
wite
where wt) rs the Sample unchion oB
nots e proce with omean PSD= No
Ganian CoTvelatoY
Relering t QPSK Receiver, the two
Rejering
out put , ard , oe defned as follows :
T
Jx4)-d,t )adt

T
T
| Salt), t) dttwlt) +,(t) dt

=(t). d, (t)dt
T
[St)tw)].t)dt
s (4)-*(+)dt+fwt)d(H)dt
+W
-’ The obserVa ble elenenta 2L, &2, 0re Sample
vaua a Erdeperdent Gaunian Tandom Variables with
an value tqual to t JE &1J repe cti edy.
and voriance = No
’ The Detsion Tule Ts now Smpy t Sauy that
Sq(t) wau trannmited Py the veceYved stral potnt
asociatecd with observoLhion ector x fat tosle the
4 20 & X,>0 this Leads to Corret decisfon
Symbol 1 Synbol o.
An troneous de ctsfon wilL be made rf, Sfal
Sa (t) is tranemftt ed but the noise wt) is such that
Te ceived signal poTnt }olk outside region Z4.
’ Tht Conditonad PDE ÎS qiven by
-0
SubsHtutHng M-E, &. o' No in above eap.

-(E

Let us assume Slt) is thamtted,i the re cetv ed

stanal' x Should au nsfole tegion K4. i, both x, 42,be
The Probabitity oy covrect deciston Pe is equal to
the product o, cond
Conditional PDF o C,>0 X, >0. both
9ven that Salt) was tanmted
 In Teqion Z4 i

Substitutinq eay (2) 6 (3) in éq l4)

dx,

let Let z- 4-JE2

dz dx, dz = d2

d, Jo dz d, JNo dz
when X, = 00, Ze bo when , =0, Z, o
, =0; Z= 0-WE2

Substitutinq value q z &changing the ond

inteqratiorn in ahove tan. we qet, -z
e oKo dz
+Z

e dz whne, z--E
2N
e dz.
V
+Z
2

P, = edz
 From the deint tHon Complnent ony eno" untien,
erfc(u) -edu DO
-u?
Lerfclu)= du

we Can Write, -2
az-|1-fe()
-
Us+rg cqlo) in tq(5) 2

Pe (a-b) a+b-2ab
b
a-1
b-y cofe(
-1erf(-crte
Thus the owenaqe prcobability a Synbol
qjuen by.
Pe= |- Pe

In reqton Zi (Eze)>>1, hente we Can

the SeCond tNm in Qbove eAn
P. enfe
In QPSK, 2bits ane transmitt ech pr
Synbol,ths
E=Eb
tHence, P erfc 2Eb
 From the deinition e uncion,
Q(«)=fc()

ystnq éaj 4) in (8) we qet Pe au jollows

The Bt ersroy Nate of QS5
is qtven by
BER- 2E

we may expres the awerage erior probabi lity 9

Qiadratune paths g
bit erYos to the in-phase &
Cohesernt @PSK eceiver as

cdetechon
The aveage prcbabtlity o, CoTYecttwo channel:
T6ulting pom the Combined atton oy
won king t cthes (s
Pe =(i-p')
2

[i-o(a )
Pe
The Cwe vaqe probabi lity Symbol enor for
QPSK is thveore,
P. = I- Pe

In the Teqion(E/N:)»1:. we may tanore tn

RHS
Un RHS the tquaton,
 So, the avenage proba bilty 9 symbol enros or
QPSK eCeives ís appronimated a

In QPSK Qbits ane tramn îtted p Symbol

E QEb

Thus, we qet
2EL
Np

The Brt eT0 Yte o apSK is qiver by

BER =Q2¬b
No
 Birary Frequency Slkyt Keyeng (BFSK)
Dsing Ccherent Detection
* Siqnal space Representation o BFS 7
BESK is a non- inear method modulation
In BFSk, the bYnary Symbolk, '1'Dane used to
moclmlat. the {7eauenuo Caryfen
Symbols in BFSK, M= e it
’ The no. o) meMagesymbol
tranmits one bit I (n1)
’ Synbols '1'and 'o'are jrom each
distinguishcdStowsoidau
other by tam mitfng One o) the two
avee that dijjer en yneayuenybya ied
Conriu Waves that
amount. with a Constánt phae
The typfcal poí Y O) S(nuolodal wave is
Si(+) J 2ETb ca(2nfrt) ; ost<Tb
; elsewuhere

where izl,2 and Eb is the tranmitted sTgnal

"gfven
energy ps bit,the tran mitted cquen y is
f= net+I wheve i=,2
Tb ne- Somefed tnteqer
vepresent ed by
Let the two Symbob, 1& D'are
S,(t) and s,t) Terpectively. Then.
s,(+) = J2E c& 2r4,t 0stsT6
Symbol1 : 04t<Tb
S, t)= 2E6 cd 2TUf,t i
Symbol o : Tb

oj the CawYier is
t
the Phare
In BFSK, f, >f, and induina the fntr -bit Switcliy
maintarned constant,
tímes
is obSeDved Joom tal),2) g(3) that signal1
Tt nomalized to have
S,(t) ¢ S,(t) re ovthqonal. but
unit enev nction ?s
give by.
The ovthonomal bais
, t) =
O; elue whee
where l=.2 .
 Expruing . st) 4 S, 4) înteme b,l4)s d,lt)
qet
S,tt)= JEb d,(t) i fos Symbol'1'
S;(t)= JE% +, (t) ; fos Symbol 'o
s) =

The Co-eyiients to locote menage Signalby pointk

the
S,Ct) 4 S, (4) "Io stqnal space are given
cquation, T,
StSi4) d; ) dt

-2E6 caertit) cderfit)dt

Tb

3(-j [=l,2
j=4, 2.
ttence, the Co- rdinats to tocate mesagqe -points s,t)
oiven by . t S (t) in siqnal space are gYvÝ by.

S21

The Stqnal spce Tepresentatton BFSK

har twO dimen Siort ( N=)w?th & meage po fntk (M=2)
The
stgna!spare íaqra e BFSK is a shown în
'below
The Euclidean distance lS,-Szl is equat to ats
 De i's ton
boun dary
meuage
Reqton Poiot m/

message
Point mI
-d,

Reqion

S,t) S,(t)

j2¬
Tb

iq: Stopal Space diaqram o, BFSK

Generation and CoheTent Detection oj Binary FSkK
siqnal
BFSK T3oun<mitter

mt)

b)-ca2rnfit)
Birany b onle vel Biron
data ’SK

Sequence encoder
St)

Inventer
 De cis ion
boaun dary
meuage
Regton Point'm

message
Poiot mI
-d,

Reqio

Stt) S,(t)

J2Eb

ig: Sropal Space diaqtam o, BFSK

Generation and Coherent Detection e Binary FSK
Stonal
BFSK T3ansmitter

mit)

()-caenft)
Binayb On-e
data le vel Biroy
encoder
Seqyuence St)
2(otnj.

Inventer
 BFSK tonsist
BESK Tanamittn ConsistS o two Components :
1, On-o) level encoder: This encoder the input binay
Seauence usinq uni polar NRZ line Codng te chn+que.
Thà output is a,conStant annplit ude NEb inTcapone
to tnput symbol 1 and Zero in Tspone to iput Symbol'o
. paár O) 0salLotor : The e osu llatoy with yrequencia
f,4 f2fe (fi>f) diytn by an inteaur multiple bj bYt rate
VT. The lower o'slatoy wYth requen ty t is preCeded
byby an when
invevtr
in a
Stgaaling interval, the input Symbe
is 1, the upper 0sctlator with requency t is suottched
ON Siqnol S, (t) is tranmited,while he Lowr DsiLtatoy
is Susitthed o
s when the fnput Symbol is 0, the upp e 0silLahy
is Swit ched oy, while the lowen Osillato is Switched on
and
signal s,t) with jrequenay te is tranmitted.
’ with phase Contin i ty the euirement, the
two oSállatorS Ovre Senchroniged wwth each other.
BFSK Receiver

dt

Decision Choose 1, y20

Device choo Sese 0;4yco
dt Threshotd =0

’. BFSK Receivey Conista Two Corielatoys th at

aye tuned tD two
dyerent requencia
’ ACovxela tos Consists o
.

multipien eloed by
Tnteqyatos LPF). Both Covrelatos ane Supplied
 Rth
with localy genevatecd Coherent reenene signal o,lt)
and t,t).
’ The output oy Cuymelatuys x,6 , fnms the el ernents
Obse vvation ve Cto X, Both 0utputa Xi4 , ane
tÏ Subtactoy.The Output e Subtra ctvy, y= XrX2
’ The reaulting diyenence 'y is then Compaed with
a threhold oy ~en0. Thedeci'sfon devite maka pollo wTng
dectsfon.
1$ ,>X,’ yD. Then Tecet ven dectdu iojavor 1
2 a Xy< ’y<0. Then it dectd in javour o) o
then YeCetver makea Tando ques in favous
o e then'1'or 'o'
Error Proba.billty o Binary Fsk
’ Let x4) be the gecetved BESK STqnal.&is gtven
by xt)= st)+ w(+)
gt4).St)+wt) ; for Symbol'1'
S,4) + w4) ; for symbol 'o'
noise with
whre wt) is additive wlitc Gausian
No l3
me anlu)=0 vartance (o)=
Let u consider the tanim itted Symbol is'o'thep
the gecetved signal xt) is gtven by
)- S,(t) + wt)
’ The output o} 2 cOTT elators x, X, fosm the
elem ents o) observation Vector X, thot aye
Tb
deytned by.
(t) , (t)dt

Js,t) +wt)] ,4) ct

, =[S, (t) ,(t) + f wt) ,t) dt
 I,=0t w, : fott) #)dt - w,
Tb
Tb

I,=xt) , () dt when i
Tb

JS,t) +1w )] d,(4)dt

Js4) ,4) dt +[wt) ,ct)dt

2 JEtw
’ Now applying the dectston the
deciston ule, an uming
Use Coherent detecHon at the veceivex."
’the eCUlVer deidea injavwr Oy Syrbol 1, 2?2)
&the obsey vatfon VeCtor alts ioin the Teqion Z1.
’ the vecei ver decider navowr q Symbd O, the
Tecetved siqral point deyln ed by obsenvaton vectoy 'x
in the eqion Z2.This oums when ,>X|a) y<0.
An erouneos decis ton is made, ohen t Quuitted
Symbol is 'o' ard the noise îs Such that decision
device maps the obSenvatton Ve ctoY X Ooto Regton ZI
Hence veceiver de cidea inlawowr o Symbol10
Calculating mean
Mean 1

Varionce 1:
Voryiance 91 22

Var[JEb+ we]
2

No|2
To poocecd rther, let u dejine the Note

GausTan Vandom Variabte ó with Sanmple h.E[const]= Constn

Vor [Conct] = 0
2,-2 E[wi] 0
var [w]: No|2
Let ue Calaelote mean e var ian te
mean 4

o-JEb
y -JE|
Voniance y:
No + No

Vaniance oy the Tandom Variable 4 is independent e

with btnany Synbol was
oQ Sent.

Var [yJ = Var[J+ Var[

The Condition al Probability des itynthon 9 4 1S
given by
-tJE
2

avor
let P. (o) denoter probability o detiding Tn
1, when Symbol 'o' war tanamftted
symbol
Reqfon Z1 ;
 |fylylo)-dy
-(9tVEB
V2ND
dy
Put z- y+Eb Changing limit s1en ytoz
V2ND when ye 0; Z Eb

dz d4 ++00
V2NO
dy =J2No dz

olz
Eb
V 2ND

2
-Z
e dz

From the denition o tompliment any enor

unchon, ene(u)e. olu

Ustng ta (4) in e (3) we Caun Teorite

erite éq,(3) as

P. (o)

P, (o) = efc
P. ) = f e
2No)
From the deyinition nction.
()
Ustn tol6) in 5), we Can 7ewYite ea,(5) a

Assum in q Symbol 'o'8'1, ane isEquiproba ble, po)-Pu)

the averaqe probability eTYOr 0S gven bt
P -Plo) P (o) + Pl)Peli)

FTom the deinitior Telation blw erfc &ajunHon

can Yewrite éalo) tntrma

Compo ingtaG) , (6), we
8-uncton
Pe= a/E)
BFSK
rs is the aveage enroY Probabi lity
Th Cohes ent detecton
angcohu
 Generation and Coherent Detection of QPSK Signals

QPSK Transmitter:

The QPSK transmitter may be viewed as two binary PSK generators that work in parallel,
each at a bit rate equal to one-half the bit rate of the original binary sequence at the QPSK
transmitter input.

Transmitter consists of 2 main components, as follows:

1. Polar NRZ-level encoder: It represents symbols 1 and 0 of the incoming binary

sequence by amplitude levels and, respectively.
2. De-multiplexer: It divides the binary wave produced by the polar NRZ-level
encoder into two separate binary waves, one of which represents the odd-
numbered di-bits in the incoming binary sequence and the other represents the
even-numbered di-bits.
The even numbered bits are multiplied by orthogonal basis function ф1(t) [ie, cosine
signal] and even numbered bits are multiplied by ф2(t) [ie, sine signal] and the modulated
signal is added to get the QPSK signal.
 QPSK Coherent Receiver:

The QPSK receiver is structured in the form of an in-phase path and a quadrature path, working in parallel
as depicted in Figure.
The functional composition of the QPSK receiver is as follows:
1. Pair of Correlators: They have a common input x(t). The two correlators are supplied with a pair of
locally generated orthonormal basis functions Փ 1(t) and Փ 2(t), which means that the receiver is
synchronized with the transmitter. The correlator outputs, produced in response to the received signal x(t),
are denoted by x1 and x2, respectively.
2. Pair of Decision devices: They act on the correlator outputs x1 and x2 by comparing each one with a
zero-threshold; here, it is assumed that the symbols 1 and 0 in the original binary stream at the transmitter
input are equally likely.
If x1 > 0, a decision is made in favour of symbol 1 for the in-phase channel output.
If x1 < 0, then a decision is made in favour of symbol 0.
Similar binary decisions are made for the quadrature channel.
3. Multiplexer: It combines the two binary sequences produced by the pair of decision devices. The
resulting binary sequence so produced provides an estimate of the original binary stream at the
transmitter input.
 M-ary PSK
 It is the generic form of PSK commonly referred to as M-ary PSK, where the
phase of the carrier takes on one of M possible values:
𝜋
θi = 2[(i – 1) )], where i = 1, 2, …., M.
𝑀

 In BPSK, we have two symbols 0 & 1(M=2, 𝑀 = 2𝑛 , n= no. of bits per symbol,ie,
n=1). Hence the phase shift in BPSK, is given by,
2𝜋 2𝜋
Phase shift in BPSK= = =180°.
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑠,(𝑀) 2

 In QPSK, we have 4 symbols and 2bits per symbol (M=4, 𝑀 = 2𝑛 , n= no. of bits
per symbol,ie, n=2). Hence the phase shift in QPSK, is given by,
2𝜋 2𝜋
Phase shift in QPSK= = =90°.
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑠,(𝑀) 4

Accordingly, during each signaling interval of duration T, one of the M possible signals,
is sent, where E is the signal energy per symbol.

The carrier frequency fc = nc/T for some fixed integer nc. Each si(t) may be expanded
in terms of the same two basis functions Փ 1(t) and Փ 2(t); the signal constellation of
M-ary PSK is, therefore, two-dimensional. The M message points are equally spaced on
a circle of radius and center at the origin, as illustrated in Figure below for the case of
octaphase-shift-keying (i.e., M = 8).
Figure: Signal-space diagram for octaphase-shift keying (i.e., M = 8). The decision
boundaries are shown as dashed lines.

From Figure ,we see that the signal-space diagram is circularly symmetric. Suppose that
the transmitted signal corresponds to the message point m1, whose coordinates along
the Փ 1- and Փ 2-axes are + √𝐸and 0, respectively. Suppose that the ratio E/N0 is large
enough to consider the nearest two message points, one on either side of m1, as potential
candidates for being mistaken for m1 due to channel noise.
This is illustrated in Figure below for the case of M = 8.

The Euclidean distance for each of these two points from m1 is (for M = 8)

The average probability of symbol error for coherent M-ary PSK is given as
where it is assumed that M ≥ 4. The approximation becomes extremely tight for fixed
M, as E/N0 is increased. For M = 4, the equation reduces to the same form given in for
QPSK.
Power Spectra of M-ary PSK Signals
The symbol duration of M-ary PSK is defined by

…..(1)
where Tb is the bit duration. Proceeding in a manner similar to that described for a
QPSK signal, we may show that the baseband power spectral density of an M-ary PSK
signal is given by

Bandwidth Efficiency of M-ary PSK

The channel bandwidth required to pass M-ary PSK signals through an analog channel
as

where T is the symbol duration. But the symbol duration T is related to the bit duration
Tb by eq(1).
 Moreover, the bit rate Rb = 1/Tb. Hence, we may redefine the channel bandwidth in
terms of the bit rate as

Based on this formula, the bandwidth efficiency of M-ary PSK signals is given by
As the number of states in M-ary PSK is increased, the bandwidth efficiency is
improved at the expense of error performance. However, note that if we are to ensure
that there is no degradation in error performance, we have to increase Eb/N0 to
compensate for the increase in M.

M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

The QAM is a hybrid form of modulation, in that the carrier experiences amplitude as well
as phase-modulation. In M-ary PAM, the signal-space diagram is one-dimensional. M-ary
QAM is a two-dimensional generalization of M-ary PAM, in that its formulation involves

two orthogonal pass band basis functions:

Let dmin denote the minimum distance between any two message points in the QAM
constellation. With the separation between two message points in the signal-space diagram
being proportional to the square root of energy, we may therefore set
where E0 is the energy of the message signal with the lowest amplitude. The transmitted
M-ary QAM signal for symbol k can now be defined in terms of E0:
The signal sk(t) involves two phase-quadrature carriers, each one of which is modulated
by a set of discrete amplitudes; hence the terminology “quadrature amplitude modulation.”

In M-ary QAM, the constellation of message points depends on the number of possible
symbols, M.
Example: M-ary QAM for M = 4
we have constructed two signal constellations for the 4-ary PAM, one vertically oriented
along the Փ 1-axis in part a of the figure, and the other horizontally oriented along the Փ
2-axis in part b of the figure. These two parts are spatially orthogonal to each other,

accounting for the two-dimensional structure of the M-ary QAM.

With four quadrants constituting the 4-ary QAM, we proceed in four stages as follows:
Figure: The two orthogonal constellations of the 4-ary PAM. (a) Vertically oriented
constellation. (b) Horizontally oriented constellation. As mentioned in the text, we move
top-down along the Փ 2-axis and from left to right along the Փ 1-axis.
Average Probability of Error
In light of the equivalence established between the M-ary QAM and M-ary PAM, we may formulate the
average probability of error of the M-ary QAM by proceeding as follows:
1. The probability of correct detection for M-ary QAM is written as

………(1)
where Pe’ is the probability of symbol error for the L-ary PAM.
2. With L=√M, the probability of symbol error Pe’ is itself defined by

………..(2)
3. The probability of symbol error for M-ary QAM is given by

……………….(3)

where it is assumed that Pe’ is small enough compared with unity to justify ignoring the quadratic
term.
Hence, using Equations(1) and (2) in Equation (3), we find that the probability of symbol error for M-
ary QAM is approximately given by

The transmitted energy in M-ary QAM is variable, in that its instantaneous value naturally depends
on the particular symbol transmitted. Therefore, it is more logical to express Pe in terms of the average
value of the transmitted energy rather than E0. Assuming that the L amplitude levels of the in-phase
or quadrature component of the M-ary QAM signal are equally likely, we have
After summing the series and simplifying we get,

Hence Pe can be rewritten interms of Eav as

which is the desired result.

The case of M = 4 is of special interest. The signal constellation for this particular value of M is the
same as that for QPSK.
 Binary Frequency-Shift Keying Using Noncoherent Detection

In binary FSK, the transmitted signal is defined as

where Tb is the bit duration and the carrier frequency 𝑓𝑖 equals one of two possible values 𝑓1 and
𝑓2 ; to ensure that the signals representing these two frequencies are orthogonal, we choose 𝑓𝑖
= 𝑛𝑖 /𝑇𝑏 , where 𝑛𝑖 is an integer.

Non coherent receiver for the detection of binary FSK signals

Figure: Noncoherent receiver for the detection of binary FSK signals.

The transmission of frequency 𝑓1 represents symbol 1 and the transmission of frequency

𝑓2 represents symbol 0. For the noncoherent detection of this frequency-modulated signal, the
receiver consists of a pair of matched filters followed by envelope detectors, as in Figure. The
filter in the upper path of the receiver is matched to cos(2𝜋𝑓1 t) and the filter in the lower path
is matched to cos(2𝜋𝑓2 t) for the signaling interval 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb. The resulting envelope detector
outputs are sampled at t = Tb and their values are compared. The envelope samples of the upper
and lower paths in Figure are shown as 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 . The receiver decides in favor of symbol 1 if
𝑙1 > 𝑙2 and in favour of symbol 0 if 𝑙1 < 𝑙2 . If 𝑙1 = 𝑙2 , the receiver simply guesses randomly
in favor of symbol 1 or 0.

The noncoherent binary FSK described herein is a special case of non coherent orthogonal
modulation with T = Tb and E = Eb, where Eb is the signal energy per bit. Hence, the BER for
non coherent binary FSK is

Differential Phase-Shift Keying (DPSK)

DPSK is viewed as the “non coherent” version of binary PSK. The distinguishing feature of
DPSK is that it eliminates the need for synchronizing the receiver to the transmitter by
combining two basic operations at the transmitter:

• differential encoding of the input binary sequence and

• PSK of the encoded sequence,

from which the name of this new binary signaling scheme follows:

Differential encoding starts with an arbitrary first bit, serving as the reference bit; to this end,
symbol 1 is used as the reference bit.

Generation of the differentially encoded sequence then proceeds in accordance with a

two-part encoding rule as follows:

1. If the new bit at the transmitter input is 1, leave the differentially encoded symbol unchanged
with respect to the current bit.

2. If, on the other hand, the input bit is 0, change the differentially encoded symbol with respect
to the current bit.

The differentially encoded sequence, denoted by {dk}, is used to shift the sinusoidal carrier
phase by zero and 180o, representing symbols 1 and 0, respectively.
Thus, in terms of phase-shifts, the resulting DPSK signal follows the two-part rule:

1. To send symbol 1, the phase of the DPSK signal remains unchanged.

2. To send symbol 0, the phase of the DPSK signal is shifted by 180°.

Example:

𝑏𝑘 is the input bit stream given.

𝑑𝑘 is the complement of modulo-2 sum (XNOR) of 𝑏𝑘 & 𝑑𝑘−1 sequences.

𝑑𝑘−1 is the one-bit delayed version of differentially encoded sequence, 𝑑𝑘

Generation of DPSK Signal

The transmitter consists of two functional blocks:

• Logic network and one-bit delay (storage) element, which are interconnected so as to
convert the raw input binary sequence {bk} into the differentially encoded sequence {dk}.

• Binary PSK modulator, the output of which is the desired DPSK signal.

Figure 1: Block diagram of the DPSK transmitter.

 Non Coherent Receiver for the Detection of DPSK

The optimum receiver for the detection of binary DPSK is as shown in Figure above, the
formulation of which follows directly from the binary hypothesis test. This implementation is
simple, in that it merely requires that sample values be stored.

The receiver is said to be optimum for two reasons:

1. In structural terms, the receiver avoids the use of fancy delay lines that could be needed
otherwise.

2. In operational terms, the receiver makes the decoding analysis straightforward to handle, in
that the two signals to be considered are orthogonal over the interval [0,2Tb]. In the use of
DPSK, the carrier phase 𝜃 is unknown, which complicates the received signal x(t). To deal
with the unknown phase 𝜃 in the differentially coherent detection of the DPSK signal in x(t),
we equip the receiver with an in-phase and a quadrature path.
Signal-space diagram where the received signal points over the two-bit interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2Tb
are defined by (Acos 𝜃 , Asin 𝜃 ) and (–Acos 𝜃 , –Asin𝜃 ), where A denotes the carrier
amplitude.

This geometry of possible signals is illustrated in Figure below. For the two-bit interval 0≤ t
≤ 2Tb, the receiver measures the coordinates , first, at time t = Tb and then measures at time
t = 2Tb.

The issue to be resolved is whether these two points map to the same signal point or different
ones. Recognizing that the vectors x0 and x1, with end points and , respectively, are points
roughly in the same direction if their inner product is positive, we may formulate the binary-
hypothesis test with a question:

Expressing this statement in analytic terms, we may write

where the threshold is zero for equiprobable symbols. We now note the following identity:

Hence, substituting this identity in above equation , we get the equivalent test:
 Error Probability of DPSK

Basically, the DPSK is also an example of noncoherent orthogonal modulation when its
behavior is considered over successive two-bit intervals; that is, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 Tb. To elaborate, let
2𝐸𝑏
the transmitted DPSK signal be √ ⁄𝑇 [cos(2π𝑓𝑐 t) ] for the first-bit interval
𝑏

0 ≤ t ≤ Tb, which corresponds to symbol 1. Suppose, then, the input symbol for the second-bit
interval Tb ≤ t ≤ 2Tb is also symbol 1.

According to part 1 of the DPSK encoding rule, the carrier phase remains unchanged, thereby
yielding the DPSK signal

Suppose, next, the signaling over the two-bit interval changes such that the symbol at the
transmitter input for the second-bit interval Tb ≤ t ≤ 2Tb is 0. Then, according to part 2 of the

DPSK encoding rule, the carrier phase is shifted by 𝜋 radians (i.e., 180°), thereby yielding the
new DPSK signal.The BER for DPSK is given by