kNdhd;kzpak; Re;judhu; gy;fiyf;fofk;

jpUney;Ntyp

MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY

TIRUNELVELI

njhiynewpj; njhlu;fy;tp ,af;ffk;

Directorate of Distance and Continuing Education

xg;gpyf;fpaKk; nkhopngaHg;Gk;

Kidtu;. gh.k. n[afyh>

cjtpg; NguhrpupaH>

jkpo;j;Jiw>

nj. jp. ,e;Jf;fy;Y}up>

ehfu;Nfhtpy;.
 kNdhd;kzpak; Re;judhu; gy;fiyf;fofk;
jpUney;Ntyp
njhiynewpj; njhlu;fy;tp ,af;f fk;

ghl
ghlq;fs; gf;f vz;
vz;
1 xg;gpyf;fpak; - tpsf;fk; 1 – 13

2 gpnuQ;Rf;Nfhl;ghL mnkhpf;ff;Nfhl;ghL 14 – 25

xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpy; Gjpa ghpkhzk; #rd; ghRndl;

3 26 – 74
tuT

4 nkhopngaHg;G ,ay;Gk; kuGk;> gad;fs; 75 – 102

5 nkhopngaHg;G - Nfhl;ghL> cj;jp> tif> rpf;fy;fs; 103 - 201

MSU/2021-2022/PG – COLLEGES/ M.A.Tamil/ Semester-III / Ppr.no.18/Elective – 6

xg;gpyf;fpaKk; nkhopngaHg;Gk;
Nehf;fk;

1. Xg;gpay; ,yf;fpa Ma;tpd; ,d;wpaikahikia mwpar; nra;jy;

2. nkhopngaHg;gpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij czHj;Jjy;
3. xg;gha;tpy; nkhopngaHg;gpd; Njitiag; Gyg;gLj;Jjy;

gad;

1. xg;gpay; ,yf;fpa Ma;tpd; thapyhf cyf xUikg;ghl;il tsHj;jy;

2. nkhop ngaHg;gpd; Nfhl;ghLfisAk;> cj;jpfisAk; mwpjy;.
3. xg;gha;T> nkhopngaHg;G thapyhf gd;nkhop mwpitg; ngWjy;

myF 1

xg;gpyf;fpak; - nrhw;nghUs; tpsf;fk; - %tif ,yf;fpak; (Njrpa ,yf;fpak;>

cyf ,yf;fpak;> nghJ ,yf;fpak;) - jkpopy; xg;gpyf;fpa tsHr;rp epiy>
xg;gPl;by; mwptpay; Kiwfs;.

myF 2

gpuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghL – mnkhpf;ff; Nfhl;ghL – xg;gpyf;fpaKk; nkhopngaHg;Gj;

JiwAk;

myF – 3

xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpy; Gjpa ghpkhzk; #rd; ghRndl;tuT> ,e;jpaf; ftpijapy; Nkiy

,yf;fpaj; jhf;fk;> rPf;fpaf; fUj;jpaYk; jkpo;r; rpe;jid kuGk;> ghujpjhrd; -
fpU\;zrh];jphpapd; ftpijfspy; ,aw;if> ehkf;fy; - ts;sj;NjhH ftpijfspy;
fhe;jpak;.
myF – 4
nkhopngaHg;G ,ay;Gk; kuGk; - nkhopngaHg;G tpsf;fk; - nkhopngaHg;G fiy
kw;Wk; mwptpay; - nkhopngaHg;gpd; gad;fs; - Nehf;fq;fs; - ,ay;Gfs; -
nkhopngaHg;ghshpd; jFjpfs; - flikfs;> tiffs;.

myF – 5
nkhopngaHg;gpd; Njhw;wKk; tsHr;rpAk; - nkhopg;ngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs; -
nkhopngaHg;G cj;jpfs; - nkhopg;ngaHg;gpd; tifs; - nkhopg;ngaHg;Gr; rpf;fy;fs;.

ghlE}y;fs;

1. lhf;lH jkpoz;zy; 2014 – xg;gpyf;fpa mwpKfk;. ghhp epiyak;> nrd;id.

2. lhf;lH fpU\;zd; .vd; 2012 – nkhopg;ngaHg;gpay;> nrk;%jha; gjpg;gfk;>
nrd;id.
3. gh. Mde;jFkhH> 2003 - ,e;jpa xg;gpyf;fpak; #rd; ghRndl;il
Kd;itj;J> kPdhl;rp Gj;jf epiyak;> kJiu.

ghHit E}y;fs;

1. ifyhrgjp> 2018 – xg;gpyf;fpak;> fhyr;RtL gg;spNf\d;];> ehfHNfhtpy;.

2. jkpoz;zy;> 2005 – rq;f ,yf;fpa xg;gPL> ghhp epiyak;> nrd;id.
3. lhf;lH rz;Kf fzgjp> 2014 – xg;gpyf;fpa tuk;Gk; nraw;ghLk;> ,uh[
gg;spNf\d;> nrd;id.
4. lhf;lH f.j. jpUehTf;fuR> 1977 – jpUf;Fws; ePjp ,yf;fpak;> nrd;id
gy;fiyf; fofk;> nrd;id.
5. F. ,uhk%Hj;jp> 2007 – thy;kPfpAk; fk;gDk;> godpag;gh gpujh];> nrd;id.
6. <];tud;> r. 2005 – nkhopngaHg;gpay;> ghit gg;spNf\d;];> nrd;id.
7. rz;Kf NtyhAjk;> f. 1985 – nkhopngaHg;gpay;> cyf jkpohuha;r;rp
epWtdk;> nrd;id.
8. re;jpud;> tP. 2000 – nkhopngaHg;G rpf;fy;fSk;> jPHTfSk;> uh[Fkhhp
gg;spNf\d;];> nrd;id.
9. NrJkzpad;> 1993 – nkhopngaHg;gpay; Nfhl;ghLfSk; cj;jpfSk;>
nrk;gfk; ntspaPL> kJiu.
10. tsHkjp> K. 2008 – nkhopngaHg;Gf; fiy> jpUkfs; epiyak;> nrd;id.
Fwpg;G :

rhpahd tpiliaj; NjHT nra;Ak; tpdh ghlE}ypypUe;J kl;Lk;

Nfl;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.

“xg;gpyf;fpaKk; nkhopngaHg;Gk;” vd;Dk; ghlj;jpy; ,lk;

ngw;Ws;sf; fUj;Jf;fs; ghl E}y;fshd xg;gpyf;fpa mwpKfk;>
nkhopngaHg;gpay;> ,e;jpa xg;gpyf;fpak; #rd; ghRndl;il Kd;itj;J kw;Wk;
ghHit E}y;fspypUe;Jk; njhFj;Jj; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
 myF 1

xg;gpyf;fpak; - nrhw;nghUs; tpsf;fk;

„,yf;fpak;‟ vd;w nrhy;ypd; nghUSk; ‘xg;gPL’ vd;w nrhy;ypd; nghUSk; ahit?

„,yf;fpa xg;gPL‟ vd;w ngau; gy nkhopfspYk; vt;ntt;thW Njhd;wp tsu;r;rp ngw;W
te;Js;sJ? xg;gpyf;fpaf; nfhs;iffSk; Nfhl;ghLfSk; ,Jtiu vt;thnwy;yhk;
tpsf;fpf; $wg;gl;L te;Js;sd. ,t;tuyhw;W toptpsf;fk; ,jd; cl;nghUisAk;
Fwpf;NfhisAk; ed;F mwpe;J nfhs;sj; Jiznra;Ak;. Nkw;nfhz;L ,t; xg;gpay;
,yf;fpaj;ijf; fw;f tpUk;GNthu;fF
; k; ,j;Jiwapy; Muha;r;rp Nkw;nfhs;s
tpUk;Gthu;fF
; k; ,t; mbg;gil tpsf;fk; ,d;wpaikahjjhFk;.

fpNuf;f nkhopapy; toq;fpa 'Grammatike' vd;w nrhy;ypd; nkhopngau;g;ghf>

,yj;jPdpy; 'Literature' vd;W nrhy; toq;fpaJ. Kjypy; mJ mfu tupiriaAk; vOjg;
gbf;fj; njupe;jpUe;jijAk; Fwpj;jJ. fhyg;Nghf;fpy; 'Letters' my;yJ 'Literature' vd;w
nrhw;fs; gyJiw E}y;fisAk; nghJthff; Fwpj;J> gpwF fw;gid E}y;fis kl;Lk;
(ftpijAk; fw;gid jOtpa gpw ciueil E}y;fSk;) Fwpj;jd. Kjypy; ,r;nrhy;
,yf;fpaf; fy;tpiaNa Fwpj;jJ. gpwF jhd; ,yf;fpa E}y; njhFjpiaf; (Body of
Literature) Fwpf;fyhapw;W. ,yf;fpakidj;ijAk; Fwpf;fpd;w nghJr; nrhy;yhfTk; gpuQ;R
,yf;fpak;> GJik ,yf;fpak; vd;gdNghy mjd; tiffisf; Fwpf;fpd;w nrhy;yhfTk;
,J gad;gLfpwJ.

njhd;ik kpf;f fhyj;jpy; jkpopYk; fzf;F vd;w nrhy; vOj;ijAk;

,yf;fpaj;ijAk; Fwpf;f toq;fp te;jpUf;fpwJ. „neLq;fzf;F‟ vd;gJ mfu tupiriaf;
Fwpj;jJ. „gjpndz; fPo;f;fzf;F‟ vd;Dkplj;Jg; nghJthf E}y;fisf; Fwpj;jJ.
‘kJiuf; fzf;fhadhu;‟ vd;w rq;fg; Gytiu ,yf;fpa Mrpupau; vd;gu;. „rkaf; fzf;fu;‟
vd;Dk; NghJ rka E}yhiu- rka thjpfisf; Fwpj;jJ. ,d;Wk; “fzf;F tof;F
,y;iy vd;w cyfg; Ngr;Rj; njhlupy;> „E}y; tof;fpYk; cyf tof;fpYk; ,y;iy‟ vd;w
nghUNs nghjpe;jpUf;fpwJ.

njhy;fhg;gpak; nra;As; vd;w nrhy;iyNa ',yf;fpag; nghUspy; toq;FfpwJ.

'ey;ypirg; Gytu; nra;As; cWg;ngd ty;ypjpw; $wp tFj;Jiuj;jdNu” (njhy;: 1259) vd

1
,yf;fpak; midj;jpw;Fk; nghJg; ngauhfTk;> „nrtpAiwr; nra;As;‟> „mq;fjr; nra;As;‟
vdj; (njhy;: 1385> 1386) jdpj; jdp ,yf;fpa tiffspd; ngauhfTk; ,r;nrhy;
njhy;fhg;gpaj;jpy; ,lk; ngw;Ws;sJ.

,yf;fz ,yf;fpak; vd ,iaGgl ,d;W ehk; toq;FfpNwhk;. ,tw;Ws;

,yf;fzk; vd;w nrhy; njhy;fhg;gpau; fhye;njhl;Lj; njspthf toq;fpapUf;fTk;
‘,yf;fpak;‟ vd;w nrhy; mq;qdk; toq;fg; ngwhik tpag;igj; jUfpwJ. ed;D}y;
Mrpupau; „,yf;fpak;‟ vd;w nrhy;iy Ms;fpwhu;. „,yf;fpak; fz;ljw;F ,yf;fzk;;
,ak;gypd;>‟ (#: 141) vd;wtplj;Jg; nghJthf „vLj;Jf;fhl;L‟ vd;w nghUspYk; mf;fhl;L
mike;Js;s E}y; vd;w nghUs; glTNk ,r;nrhy;iy mtu; Ms;fpwhu;. gpwpNjhuplj;jpy;
njhy;fhg;gpaiug; gpd;gw;wp ,tUk; nra;As; (#: 268) vd;w nrhy;yhNyNa ftpij
,yf;fpaj;ijf; Fwpg;gpLfpwhu;.

,f;fhyj;jpy;> INuhg;gpau; tUiff;Fg; gpd; „ypl;lNur;ru;‟(Literature) vd;w Mq;fpyr;

nrhy;ypd; ,lj;jpy; „,yf;fpak;‟ vd;w nrhy; Msg;gl;L>mjw;Fupa nghUl;
rpwg;gidj;ijAk; nfhz;L tpsq;FfpwJ.

Mq;fpyj;jpy; xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak; vd;Dk; njhlu;

njhlf;fj;jpy; xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak; vd;w njhliu (Comparative Literature)

Mq;fpyg; Nguhrpupau;fs; Vw;ftpy;iy. Vnddpy;> gjpndl;lhk; E}w;whz;by; ,r;nrhy;
,yf;fpa E}iyf; Fwpj;jJ> Kd;G Nghy ,yf;fpaf; fy;tpiar; Rl;ltpy;iy. vdNt
xg;gpay; ,yf;fpaf; fy;tp vd;why; xg;gpl;Lg; gbg;gJ vd;w mstpy; nghUe;Jk;. xg;gpay;
,yf;fpak; vd;why; nghUe;jhJ vd;wdu;. ,J xU nghUsw;w njhlu; Nghyf; fhl;rp
mspj;jJ. Nguhrpupau; Nyd; $g;gu; (Professor Lane Cooper) xg;gpay;
,yf;fpak;(Comparative Literature) vd;gJ nghUsw;wJk; ,yf;fz mikg;gw;wJkhd
njhlu; vd;whu;. ,ijg; Nghy; ePq;fs;> „xg;gpay; cUisf;fpoq;Ffs;‟ vd;Nwh> „xg;gpay;
ckpfs‟; vd;Nwh $WjYk; $Lk; vd;W Nfyp nra;jhu;. xg;gpLjy; vd;w njhlu; fy;tpNahL
,iaANkad;wpd; E}Yld; ,iaahJ vd mtu; thjpl;lhu;.

Mq;fpyj;jpy; khj;jpA+ Mu;dhy;L (Mathew Arnold) 1848,y;> jdpg;gl vOjpa fbjk;

xd;wpy; xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak;(Comparative Literature) vd;w njhliu Mz;Ls;shu;. ,t;
xg;gpyf;fpa Muha;r;rpapy; INuhg;ghtpNyNa ,q;fpyhe;J gpd;dile;jpUg;gjw;F mtu; mjpy;
tUj;jk; njuptpj;Js;shu;. vdpDk; ,f; fbjk; 1895 tiu ntspaplg; ngwtpy;iy vd;gu;.

2
Nguhrpupau; ghRndl; (Hutcheson Macaulay posnett) epA+rpyhe;jpy;> Mf;yz;l;
gy;fiyf;foff; fy;Y}upapy; Mq;fpyk; kw;Wk; cau;jdp ,yf;fpag; Nguhrpupauhf
,Ue;jtu;. ,tu; jkJ E}nyhd;wpid xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak; vd;w jiyg;gpl;L 1886-,y;
ntspapl;lhu;. Kjd; Kjypy; ,j;njhliug; nghUs; nghjpa Mz;l ngUik ,tiur;rhUk;.
vq;qdkhapDk; ,j;njhlu; gpnuQ;R nkhopiag; gpd;gw;wpNa Mq;fpyj;jpy; ,lk;
ngw;wnjd;gjpy; Iakpy;iy.

gpnuQ;R nkhopapy; xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak; vd;w njhlu;

gpnuQ;R nkhopapy; „ypl;lNur;ru;‟(Literature) vd;w nrhy; ,yf;fpaf; fy;tpiaf;

Fwpf;fNt toq;fpaikahy;> mq;F 19-Mk; E}w;whz;bd; njhlf;fj;jpy; 'ypl;lNur;ru;
fk;Ngh;” (Literature Comparee) vd;w njhlu; vspjpy; mike;jJ. mwptpay; mwpQu; $tpau;
(Cuvier) ‘xg;gpay; clw; $w;wha;T‟ (Anatomic Comparee) vd;w Gfo;kpf;f njhliug;
gad;gLj;jpdhu; (1800). jPn[uhz;L (Degerand) vd;ghu;> 'Historic compar des systemes de
philosophic‟ (1804) vd;w ePz;l njhlhpid Mz;lhH.

Nguhrpupau; Mk;gpau; (Ampere) „Historic Comparative des arts et des literatures' vd;w
kpf ePz;l njhliug; gad;gLj;jpdhu;. ,jidg; gpd;gw;wp ,j;njhliug; gpnuQ;R nkhopapy;
ngUtof;Fg; gLj;jpatu; rhu;Nghd; gy;fiyf; fofj;Jg; Nguhrpupau; tpy;ynkapd; (Abel
Francals Villemain) Mthu; (1829). mtUf;Fg; gpwF ,j;njhliu mbf;fb gyUk;
gad;gLj;jyhapdH. rhe;jpG+T (Sainte-Benve) vd;ghu; 1869,y; ,j;njhliu kpf
mOj;jkhfg; gad;gLj;jpf; nfhz;lhu;. „etude de literature Comparee‟ vd tpy;ynkapd;
toq;fpa ePz;l njhliur; ‘rhe;jpG+T‟ Literature Comparee' ,uj;jpdr; RUf;fkhf
mioj;jhu;.

gpw nkhopfspy; ,j;njhlH

nrUkd; nkhopapy; 'xg;gPL” vd;w milnkhop ,dkugpay; (Ethnology) cstpay;

(Psychology), tuyhw;wpay; (Historiography), nra;Aszpapay; (poetics) vd;gdtw;wpw;Fg;
nghUe;jpw;W. Mdhy; mjpy; Mq;fpyj;jpw; Nghy ,yf;fpar; nrhy;Yld; xg;gPl;Lr; nrhy;
xl;ltpy;iy. vdNt mtu;fs; „xg;Gik ,yf;fpaj;Jiw‟ (Vergleichenda
Literaturegeschichta) vd;w njhliuNa kpfTk; tpUk;gpdH. ,j;njhluhl;rp gpnuQ;R
Mq;fpyj; njhlHfl;Ff; fhyj;jhy; Kw;gl;ljhFk;.

3
 ,j;jhypak;> ];ghdpak; Nghd;w INuhg;gpa nkhopfs; gytw;wpYk; gpnuQ;R
nkhopiag; gpd;gw;wp ‘,yf;fpa xg;gPL‟ vd;w njhlH epiyngwyhapw;W. u\pa xg;gPl;lwpQu;
mnyf;rhz;lH ntnrNyht];fp (Alexander Veselovsky) nrUkd; nkhopapy;
toq;fpaJNghd;w njhlH xd;iwj; jkJ nkhopapy;gad;gLj;jpdhH.

jkpopy; xg;gpyf;fpak;

jkpopy; Mq;fpyj;ijg; gpd;gw;wp ,j;njhlH tof;fhw;Wf;F te;Js;sJ. gd;nkhop

mwpQH Qh.NjtNeag;ghthzH Kjd;Kjypy; ‘xg;gpad; nkhop E}y;‟ vd;w xg;gPl;L nkhop
E}iy (Philology) ntspapl;lhH. lhf;lH f.ifyhrgjp „xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak;‟ vd;w
jiyg;gpy; E}y; xd;wpid ntspapl;L> mjd;fz; mbg;gilf; Nfhl;ghLfis Kjd;
Kjyhfj; jkpo; cyfpw;F mwpKfg;gLj;jpAs;shH. Mq;fpyg; NguhrpupaH lhf;lH
tp.rr;rpjhde;jk; 'Muha;r;rp” ,jopy; ,jd; nfhs;iffis tpsf;fp Mq;fpyf; fl;Liu
xd;iw ntspapl;Ls;shH.

jkpopy; ',yf;fpa xg;gPL” vdTk; 'xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak;” vdTk; ,U njhlH;fs;

cs;sJ. NguhrpupaH;fs; nudpntyhf;Fk; M];bd; thuDk; vOjpa Mq;fpy E}iyj;
jkpopy; ‘,yf;fpaf; nfhs;if‟ vd nkhop ngaH;j;j nry;tp vy;.FNshwpah Re;jukjp xg;G
,yf;fpak; vd;w nrwpTila njhliuAk; gad;gLj;jpAs;shH;.

„xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak;‟(Comparative Literature) vd;w njhlu; jtWgl mike;Jtpl;l

ngaH vd;W ,d;W gyUk; fUJfpd;wdH. ,d;W xg;gpLtJ kl;LNk NghJnkd;W
nfhz;byH. 'cyf Nehf;fpy; ,yf;fpa Ma;T my;yJ mwptpay; top ,yf;fpa Ma;T vd
,j;Jiw kpf tpuptile;J tpl;ljdhy; gioa ngaH mj;Jizg; nghUe;jtpy;iy vd;gJ
cz;ikNa. vdpDk; xg;gpyf;fpak; vd;w nrwpTila jkpo;j; njhlH ,yf;fpaj;jpd;
xUikiar; Rl;bf; fhl;LfpwJ. jdpj;jdp ,yf;fpa Ma;Tfs; 'jpwdha;T” vdg;gLk;.
,yf;fpaj;ij cyf Nehf;fpy;> mwptpay; top epd;W Ma;tij 'xg;gpyf;fpaj; jpwdha;T”
vd;W $wyhapdH. ,j;jifa fUj;Jfis xg;gpyf;fpa mwpKfk; ekf;F
vLj;Jiuf;fpd;wJ.

%tif ,yf;fpak;

1. Njrpa ,yf;fpak;
2. cyf ,yf;fpak;
3. nghJik ,yf;fpak;

4
1. Njrpa ,yf;fpak;

,yf;fpaj;ijg; gw;wpa Gjpa ghHit> mjid XusT gFj;Jzu Kw;gLfpwJ.

vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf Njrpa ,yf;fpak;> cyf ,yf;fpak;> nghJik ,yf;fpak; xg;gpyf;fpak;
vd;gtw;iwf; Fwpg;gplyhk;. Njrpa ,yf;fpak; my;yJ Njr ,yf;fpak; vd;gjd;fz;
me;ehl;L Njrpag; gz;Gfs; - gz;ghL> ehfupfk; Nghy;git ntspg;gilahf kPf;$He;J
epw;Fk;. vt;tpyf;fpaj;jpYk; mJ Njhd;wpankhop> ehL> ,dg; gz;Gfs; fhzg;gLjy;
,ay;NgahFk;. vdpDk; ,tw;iw kpf mOj;jKwf;nfhz;L ,tw;wpw;nfdNt Njhd;wp
tpsq;Ftdtw;iwj; Njrpa ,yf;fpak; vd;wiof;fpNwhk;. INuhg;ghtpy; 19-Mk; E}w;whz;bd;
,ilg;gFjptiu rpwg;Gw;W tpsq;fpa Gidtpaw;fhyk; (Romanticism) ,j;Njrpa
,yf;fpaj;jpw;Nf kpFrpwg;G ey;fpaJ. jj;jkJ Njrpa ,yf;fpaNk rpwe;jnjd epiy
ehl;Lk; Muha;r;rp NkNyhq;fpaJ. mjd; gadhfg; gy Njrpa ,yf;fpaq;fspilNa %yKk;
jhf;fKk; gw;wpa Muha;r;rp Kfpo;j;jJ. ,q;qdk; xg;gPl;bd; Kjw;gbf;Fj; Njrpa
,yf;fpaNk top NfhypaJ. Njrpa ,yf;fpaj;jpypUe;j kpf mOj;jkhd gw;Wj;jhd;
mJgpwnkhop ,yf;fpaq;fl;Ff; nfhLj;jijAk; mtw;wpypUe;J ngw;wijAk; Muhaj;
J}z;baJ. xU ehl;Lf;Fupa Njrpak; cyfj; Njrpaj;jpw;F tpj;jpl;lJ.

nrUkhdpaHfs; jq;fs; Njrpa ,yf;fpaNk kpfr; rpwe;jJ vdg;ngUik

nfhz;lhbdH. gpuQ;R nkhopapdNuh jq;fSilaNj INuhg;gpa ,yf;fpa tsHr;rpf;F
cjtpaJ vd;wdH. jkpoHfSf;Fk; ,j;jF kdg;ghd;ik cz;L. rpyg;gjpfhuKk;>
ngupaGuhzKk; jkpou;jk; Njrpa ,yf;fpaq;fs;vdr;rpwg;gpj;J mwpQu;fs; vOjpAs;sdH.

xg;gpyf;fpak; xU ehl;L ,yf;fpaj;jpYs;s Njrpag; gz;Gfisg; Gwf;fzpf;f

Ntz;Lk; vd;W $wtpy;iy. kdpj ,d xUikg;ghl;il czu Ntz;Lk; vd;gjw;fhfj;
jdpkdpjdpd; rpwg;gpay;Gfis xUtd; kwe;J tplNtz;Lkh vd;d? gpwpnjhU tifahff;
$wpdhy; jdpj; Njrpa ,yf;fpaq;fspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfis mwpe;j xUtuhNyjhd; mjd;
cyf xUikg; ghl;ilAk; czu KbAk;. “Njrpa khepy tpUg;G ntWg;Gfisf; fle;j
epiyiaNa xg;gpyf;fpak; cWjpahf tpUk;GfpwJ. Mdhy; mjw;fhfg; gy;NtW Njrpa
,yf;fpa kuGfspd; ,Ug;igAk; rpwg;igAk; kwf;fNth> Fiwj;J kjpg;gplNth mJ
tpUk;gtpy;iy> vd;W xg;gPl;lwpQu; nudpntyhf;F $WfpwhH. NguhrpupaH tp.rr;rpjhde;jk;
mtu;fSk; 'nkhop NtWghl;lhy; tpisAk; ,yf;fpaj;jpd; rpwg;gpay;Gfs; vspjhfg;
Gwf;fzpf;fj; jf;fdty;y” vd;w fUj;ij typAWj;Jfpd;whH.!

5
2. cyf ,yf;fpak;

Njrpa ,yf;fpaj;jpw;F kWjiyahfg; gd;dhl;byf;fpak; (international Literature),

cyfg; nghJik ,yf;fpak; (Universal Literature), cyf ,yf;fpak;> (World Literature)
vd;w njhlHfisr; Rl;LtH. cyf ,yf;fpak; vd;w njhlH cyfpy; Njhd;wpa midj;
jpyf;fpaq;fisAk; Fwpf;Fk;. mjw;F Nky; cyfnky;yhk; Nghw;Wk; rpwe;j
,yf;fpaq;fis kl;Lk; mJ Rl;b epw;fTk; fhz;fpNwhk;. jpUts;Stiu> fk;giu ehk;
cyff; ftpQH vd;fpNwhk;. N`hkH> ntH[py;> kpy;ld; Nghd;NwhuJ fhg;gpaq;fis
„cyff; fhg;gpaq;fs;‟ vd;fpd;wdH. ,d;W ,j;jifa cyfpw; rpwe;j ,yf;fpag;
gFjpfisj; njhFj;J> 'cyf ,yf;fpak; vd;w ngauhy; Nkiyehl;by; gy;NtW njhif
E}y;fs; ntsptUfpd;wd. jkpopYk; ,j;jifa njhif E}y;fs; gy ‘njd;dpe;jpa
,yf;fpak;‟> „,e;jpa ,yf;fpak;‟> „cyf ,yf;fpak;‟ vdg; gy;NtW tiffshf
ntsptUjy; Ntz;Lk;.

nrUkd; ehl;Lg; ngUq;ftpQH fNj Kjd; Kjyhf ,j;njhliu Ml;rpf;Ff;

nfhzu;e;jjhff; $WtH. jkJ 'jhNrh (Tasso) ehlfj;ijg; gpuQ;rpy; nkhop ngaHj;j
NghJ> mJgw;wpf; fUj;Jiuf;ifapy;> „cyf ,yf;fpak;‟ (World Literature) vd;w njhliu>
fp.gp. 1827-,y; fNj (Goethe) Ml;rpf;Ff; nfhzHe;jhH. mjd; gpwF ,j; njhliu mtH
gyKiw gad;gLj;jpAs;shH. mtH epidT jdpnahU cyf ,yf;fpaj;ijg;
gw;wpajha;,Ue;jJ. jdpg;gl;l ,yf;fpaq;fspilNa fhzg;gLk; NtWghLfspd; ePq;fpa XH
cyfg; nghJ ,yf;fpaj;ijg; ngw neLq;fhykhff; $Lk; vd;W mtu; fUjpdhH.

My;gHl;n[uhHL „cyf ,yf;fpak;‟ vd;gjw;F tpsf;fk; $Wkplj;J> midtuhYk;

nghJthf mDgtpf;fg;gLk; ,yf;fpa E}y; njhFjpfis ,J Rl;Lk;. midj;J kdpj
,dKk; EfHtjhf ,Uf;f Ntz;L nkdpDk; eilKiwapy; Nkiy ehl;L ehfupff;
FOtpdH jk;Ks; nghJthf EfUk; E}y; gFjpfisNa ,J Fwpf;fpd;wJ vd;W
$WfpwhH.! Nkdhl;bdHf;Fk; mnkupf;fHf;Fk; fPio ehl;L ,yf;fpaq;fisg; gw;wpa
mwpKfk; NghjhJ. jq;fSila njhd;ikkpf;f fpNuf;f> cNuhk ,yf;fpaq;fisg; gw;wp
mwpe;J nfhz;Ls;s msT> mtHfs; jkpo; tlnkhop ,yf;fpaq;fis mwpe;jpyH.
,t;tpuz;bYk; $l tlnkhop ,yf;fpak; gw;wp mwpe;Js;s msT mtHfs; jkpopyf;fpak;
gw;wp mwpe;J nfhz;byH. cyf ,yf;fpag; gl;baypy; Nkiy ehl;byf;fpaj;jpd; msT>
fPio ehl;byf;fpaKk; ,lk; ngWk; ehNs> ,j;njhlHg; nghUs; epiwTWk; fhykhFk;.

6
3. nghJik ,yf;fpak;

nghJik ,yf;fpak; (General Literature) vd;gJ gy;NtW ,yf;fpaq;fspilNaAs;s

nghJj; jd;ikfis Muha;tjhFk;. cyfg; nghJthd ,yf;fpaf; nfhs;iffSk;
jpwdha;Tf; Nfhl;ghLfSk; ,jpylq;Fk;. ghy; thd; jPfk; fUj;Jg;gb nghJik ,yf;fpak;
ehl;L vy;iyfisf; fle;j ,yf;fpa ,af;fq;fisAk; ,yf;fpag; Nghf;FfisAk;
fw;fpd;wJ. xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpw;F Kd; nghJik ,yf;fpaNk rpwg;Gw;wpUe;jJ. ,jd;fz;
u\paH mjpf mf;fiw fhl;bdH. Nkiy ehLfs; gytw;wpy; 'nghJik ,yf;fpak;”
jdpj;Jiwahf Kd;dH tpsq;fp te;jJ ,d;W mjd; ,lj;ij xg;gpyf;fpak;
ifg;gw;wpAs;sJ.

ghy; thd; jPfk; fUj;Jg;gb nghJik ,yf;fpak; vd;gJ gy;NtW ,yf;fpaq;fspd;

nghJikg; gz;Gfis Muha;tJ. xg;gpyf;fpak; vd;gJ ,Unkhop ,yf;fpa cwTfis
(Binary relation) Muha;tJ. xg;gpyf;fpaKk; jpwdha;T rhHe;jNjahjypd;> ,it ,uz;Lk;
xd;W gl Ntz;Lk; vd;W nudpntyhf;F tw;GWj;JfpwhH. ,d;iwa mnkupf;f
xg;gpyf;fpaf; Nfhl;ghL nghJik ,yf;fpaj;ijAk; cs;slf;fpaNjahFk;.

Njr ,yf;fpak; vd;w ghHit Njrpaj; jd;ikiar; Rl;LfpwJ. cyf ,yf;fpag;

ghHit cyfshtpa rpwg;igf; fUJfpwJ. nghJtpyf;fpag; ghHit nghJikg;gz;Gfis
epidT$HtJ. xg;gpyf;fpag;ghHit ,tw;wpilNaAs;s cwitAk; xg;GikiaAk;
Muha;tjhFk;.

xNu ,yf;fpaj;jpYk; ,e;ehd;F ghHitfl;Fk; ,lKz;L. vdpDk; xt;nthd;wpy;

xt;nthU ghHitf;Fupa jpwd; kpFe;J epw;Fk;. vq;qdkhapDk; ,d;W ,e;ehd;F
tifahfr; Rl;lg;gLk; ,yf;fpag; ghHitfsidj;Jk; xg;gpyf;fpakhf xd;wptpl;ld.
m/jhtJ gpwnty;yhk; xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; cl;gpupTfshfptpl;ld. ,jdhy; ,j;Jiw
gpwghHitfisAk; jd;Ds; mlf;fpf; nfhs;Sk; jFjp ngw;Wtpl;lJ vd;fpwhH
jkpoz;zy;.

jkpopy; xg;gpyf;fpa tsHr;rp epiy

jkpo; nkhopapy; ,yf;fz xg;gPL tsu;e;Js;s msT ,yf;fpa xg;gPL

tsuhikf;Ff; fhuzk; tpsq;ftpy;iy. njhy;fhg;gpaH ,t; ,Utif xg;gPLfl;Fk;
Njhw;Wtha; nra;Js;shH vd;W Kd;dH vLj;Jf; fhl;lg; ngw;wJ. ,ilf;fhyj;jpy;
tlnkhopAld; xd;Wgl;l tsu;r;rp epiyfs; gy Vw;gl;L te;Js;sd. vdpDk; xg;gPL gw;wpa
rpe;jid ruptu Kfpo;j;jjhfj; njupatpy;iy.
7
 nrd;w E}w;whz;bd; ,Wjp Kjy; ,d;Wtiu xg;gPl;Lr; rpe;jid fhy; nfhs;sj;
njhlq;fpAs;sJ. [p.A.Nghg;igaH> v];.fpU\;zrhkp Iaq;fhH>vd;.Nf.rpj;jhe;jh Nghd;w
mwpQH ngUkf;fs; rq;f ,yf;fpak; fpNuf;f ,yf;fpaj;JlDk; tPuAfg; ghly;fSlDk;
xg;gplj;jf;fJ vd;w fUj;ij tw;GWj;jpdH.

NguhrpupaH itahGupg; gps;isAk;> t.Nt.R.IaH mtHfSk; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f msT

xg;gpyf;fpaj;ij typAWj;jpapUg;gJld;> ,j;Jiwapy; Kd;NdhbfshfTk; tpsq;fpAs;sdH.
jpuhtpl ,yf;fpaq;fisAk; ,e;jpa ,yf;fpaq;fisAk; xg;G Nehf;fpf; fw;wtDila
fy;tpawpT kpfTk; gue;Js;sjhAk;> nropg;Gs;sjhAk; ,Uj;jy; xUjiy... ek;Ks;
xt;nthU nkhopahUk; gpw jpuhtpl nkhopfs; xt;nthd;wpYKs;s rpwe;j
,yf;fpaq;fisAk; tlnkhop ,yf;fpaq;fisAk; fw;W mDgtpj;Jg; gu];guk; jd;
kjpg;igj; Njbf;nfhs;Sjy; Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ NguhrpupaH itahGupg;gps;isapd;
fUj;jhFk;. vdpDk; mtUila E}y;fspd; Nehf;Fk; Nghf;Fk;> tlnkhopia cau;j;J
kjpg;gpLtJ Nghy mike;J tpl;ljhy;> jkpopy; mtH topg;gl;l xU jdpnewp (School of
Thought) Njhd;wTk; mjw;F NeH vjpuhfj; jkpio tlnkhopiatpl caHj;J kjpg;gpLk;
newp xd;W Njhd;wTk; NeHe;jd. t.Nt.R.IaH fk;gidf; fpNuf;f> ,yj;jPd;> Mq;fpyf;
fhg;gpaq;fSlDk;> thy;kPfpAlDk; xg;gpl;L mH;fspDk; fk;gd; fhtpak; jpUe;jpa
epiyapy; fhzg;gLtjw;Fj; jf;f rhd;Wfs; gy je;Js;sH;.

“fk;guhkhazkhdJ N`hkH vOjpa ,ypahijAk; tpHf;fPypad; vOjpa

VdapijAk;> kpy;lDila RtHf;f e\;lk; vd;w fhtpaj;ijAk; tpah] ghujj;ijAk;
jdf;Nf KjD}yhf ,Ue;j thy;kPfp uhkhazj;ijAk;$lg; ngUq;fhg;gpa yl;rzj;jpd;
mk;rq;fSs; mNefkha; vy;yhtw;wpYk; ntd;W tpl;lJ vd;W nrhy;YNthk;. ,t;tpkup
rdj;ijj; njhlHe;J thrpg;NghUf;F vkJ ,t;tgpg; uhaj;ij nka;g;gpf;f KaYNthk;> ”
vd;W mtH njhlq;Ftjw;Nfw;gg; gy rhd;WfSk; jUfpd;whH> “Kamba Ramayana-A Study”
vd;w mtuJ Mq;fpy E}iyf; fw;gtHfSk; ,jid ed;FzHtH. jPtpid taj;jhy;
“jkpopy; vd;d ,Uf;fpwJ” vd;W vOJgH;fNs eLepiyahsHfs; vd;Wk;> jkpopy; jpUe;jpa
tbtj;jpy; ,Uf;fpwJ" vd;Wk; jg;gpj; jtwpf; $WgtHfs; vy;yhk;> mH;fs; gw;gy
rhd;Wfs; fhl;bdhYq;$l xUrhHGilatHfs; vd;Wk; rpyH nrhy;yp tUfpd;wdH. mtu;fs;
t.Nt.R. IaiuAk; jkpod;Gkpf;ftH vd;W $WtJ jkpOf;Fg; ngUikNaahFk;.

jdpehaf mbfshH> lhf;lH K.t.> lhf;lH t.Rg.kh.> lhf;lH f.ifyhrgjp Nghd;w

ngUkf;fs; ,j;Jiwapy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f msT gzpahw;wpAs;sdH. jdpehaf mbfshH
jkpopy; ,aw;ifg; ghl;Lg; gw;wpa jkJ Ma;T E}ypy; fpNuf;fk;> ,yj;jPd;> Mq;fpy

8
,yf;fpaq;fSld; xg;gpl;Ls;shH. „jpUts;StH‟ gw;wpa jkJ E}ypy; fpNuf;f cNuhk
xOf;f ,ay;fSlDk; Gj;j rkaj;JlDk; jpUf;Fwis mtH xg;gpl;Lf; fhl;bAs;sH;.
„,e;jpar; rpe;jidAk; cNuhk ];lha;f;F thjKk;‟ vd;w mtuJ NgUiuAk;
Fwpg;gplj;jf;fjhFk;. lhf;H; K.tujuhrdhH ,aw;ifg; GidT> Ky;iyj; jpizg; ghl;L>
ifaW epiyg;ghl;Lg; Nghd;wtw;wpy; xg;gPl;L Kiwiag; gpd;gw;wp tpsf;fpAs;shH. mtuJ
„goe;jkpo; ,yf;fpaj;jpy; ,aw;if‟ ‘Ky;iyj; jpiz‟ ‘GytH fz;zPH‟ Nghd;w E}y;fs;
Fwpg;gplj;jf;fd. lhf;lH t.Rg.khzpf;fj;jpd; „jkpo;f; fhjy;‟ fpNuf;f> cNuhkg; ngz;ikg;
gz;igAk;> fhjYwitAk; rq;f ,yf;fpaj;Jld; xg;gpLfpd;wJ. lhf;lH f.ifyhrgjpapd;
„jkpo; tPuAfg; ghly;’ (Tamil Heroic Poetry) gw;wpa Mq;fpy Ma;T E}y; jkpopy;
Xg;gpyf;fpa tsHr;rpf;F xUgb Kd;Ndw;wk; jUtjhFk; vdyhk;. mtH Nkw;nfhz;l Ma;T
Kiw rq;f ,yf;fpaj;jpw;Nf xU Gjpa ghHitia ey;FfpwJ vdpy; kpifahfhJ.

,q;Fr; nrd;w guk;giuapy; tho;e;j gy Nguhrpupag; ngUkf;fSk; ,j;Jiwapy;

VNjDk; xU tifapy; njhz;L nra;Js;sik epidT $uj;jf;fjhFk;. mtHfSs;
gz;bjkzp K.fjpNurr; nrl;bahUk;> kiwkiy mbfshUk; tlnkhop E}y;fisj; jkpopy;
nkhop ngau;j;Js;sik Fwpg;gplj; jf;fjhFk;.

,d;W Nkiy ehl;Lj; jkpowpQu; gyu; ,t; xg;gPl;Lj; Jiwapy; gzpahw;wp tUtJk;
Fwpg;gplj; jf;fjhFk;. N[.Mu;.khH> fkpy; Rtygpy;> [hu;[; vy;.`hu;j;> NguhrpupaH ,.gp.nryp
n\t; kw;Wk; gyH jkpopyf;fpa xg;gPl;bw;F cWJiz Gupe;J tUfpd;wdH. ,Jtiu
epfo;e;Js;s cyfj; jkpo; khehLfs; midj;Jk; xg;gPl;b w;F XusT Cf;fk; ey;fpAs;sd.
,k;khehl;L kyu;fspy; ntspte;Js;s fl;Liufs; xU rpy Fwpg;gplj; jf;fthW
xg;gpyf;fpa Kaw;rpapy; <Lgl;Ls;sitahFk;. ,e;jpahtpy; epfOk; „midj;jpe;jpag;
gy;fiyf; fofj; jkpohrpupa kd;wf;’ fUj;juq;F kyu;fSs; xg;gpaw; fl;Liufs; xU
rpytw;iwNaDk; nfhz;L ntsptUtJ ey;y mwpFwpahFk;.

jpU.v];.,uhkfpU\;zd;> rpjk;gu uFehjd;> lhf;lu; tp.rr;rpjhde;jk;> Nguhrpupau;

m.rPdpthruhftd;> Nguhrpupau; v];.rpq;fhuNtY> Nguhrpupau; tp.I.Rg;gpukzpak; Nghd;w
mwpQu; ngUkf;fs; ,j;Jiwapy; fhl;b te;Js;s <LghLk;> Kaw;rpAk; ,j;Jiw
tsu;r;rpf;Fg; gad;gl;Ls;sd.

Nguhrpupau; nj.ngh.kP. mtu;fs; nkhop tpsf;f ,ay; JiwapYk; xg;gpyf;fpaj;

JiwapYk; nra;Js;s gzpfs; ghuhl;lj; jf;fdthFk;. ,j;Jiwapy; jhk; Mu;tk; fhl;baJ
kl;Lkd;wpg; gpwu; gyiuAk; <LgLj;jpaJ ,tu;fspd; jdpr; rpwg;ghFk;.

9
 ,d;W xg;gpyf;fpak; jkpopy; fhy;nfhs;tjw;F ey;y #o;epiy ,Uf;fpwJ. mnkupf;f
ehl;by; mWgJ gy;fiyf; fofq;fl;F Nky; xg;gpyf;fpak; jdpj; Jiwahfr;
nray;gLk;NghJ> jkpofj;jpy; mjw;F xU gy;fiyf; fofj;jpNyDk; ,lk; mspf;fyhk;.
mz;zhkiyg; gy;fiyf;fofKk; Nfusg; gy;fiyf;fofKk; nkhop tpsf;f ,ay;
(Linguistics) tsu;r;rpf;Fj; jdpj; Jiwfs; fz;Ls;sd. ,e;j 'xg;gpyf;fpa tsu;r;rpf;Fk;”
ek; gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; tha;g;gspf;ff; $Lk;. tlnkhop ,yf;fpaKk; ,d;Dk; ed;F
xg;gpl;L Muhag;gl;lhy; ,e;jpa ,yf;fpa tsu;r;rpf;F mJ cWJiz GupAk;. ,d;Dk;
tlnkhop ,yf;fpaq;fs; gy Kiwahfj; jkpopy; nkhop ngau;f;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
njd;dpe;jpa nkhopfspd; ,yf;fpaq;fspilNa xg;gPl;il tsu;g;gJk; ,d;wpaikahg;
gzpahFk;. ehd;F epiyfspy; ,q;F xg;gPl;il tsu;f;f tha;g;G ,Uf;fpwJ.

jkpo;-tlnkhop> jkpo;-njd;dpe;jpa nkhopfs;> jkpo;-,e;jpa nkhopfs;> fpof;fhrpa

nkhopfs;> jkpo;Nkiy ehl;L nkhopfs;.

jkpopy; fhy;nfhz;L tpl;l xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;TKiw jioj;Jr; nropf;FNky;

jkpopyf;fpaj;jpd; ngUik ntw;wp Muthukhf ,y;yhky;> 'cs;sq;if ney;ypf;
fdpahFk;. cyf ,yf;fpa tsu;r;rpf;Fj; jkpopdj;jpd; gq;F ,Njh ,j;Jiz
mstpdjhFk;” vd ehk; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lk; tha;g;gpidg; ngw md;Wjhd; ,aYk;.

jkpo; ,yf;fpak; ,uz;lhapuk; Mz;Lg; goikAk; gug;Gk; tsKk; tho;Tk;

cilajhfypd;> ,yf;fpa Ma;Tf; nfhs;iffs; vj;jidAz;Nlh> mj;jidAk; ,q; Fg;
gad;gLk;. mt;tifapy; jkpo; ,yf;fpaj;ijg; GJik Nehf;fpy; mZfp> mjd; mUik
ngUikfis vLj;Jf;fhl;l ,JNt rpwe;j newpahFk;. xg;gpay; newpahy; jkpopyf;fpak;
NkYk; xspngw;Wr; rpwf;Fk; vd;gJ cWjp.

xg;gPl;by; mwptpay; Kiwfs;;

mwptpay; (Science) xg;gPL mjd; mbg;gilahd KiwahFk;. tpUg;G ntWg;gw;w

kdj;Jld; rpy tpjpfisg; gpd;gw;wp Muha;e;J cz;ik fhz;fpd;w Ma;Tfsidj;Jk;
'mwptpay; Kiwfs;” vd;W ngau; ngWfpd;wd. ,t; tifapy; mwptpay; NtW> mjd;
Kiw NtW vdg; gpupj;jy; ,ayhJ.

gytw;iw xg;gpl;Lg; nghJj; jd;ik fhz;gJ xU jd;ik cz;nld Xu;e;J

m/Jsjhntdr; Nrhjpj;J cz;ik fhz;gJ gyfhYk; Nrhjpj;Jg; ghu;j;J xNu KbT
tUfpwjh vd mwptJ gFj;Jg; gFj;J Ma;tJ nfhz;l KbNt Kbe;j KbT vd;dhky;
NkYk; NkYk; Ma;tjpy; Mu;tk; fhl;LtJ Gjpad fhzg; ngWNky; gioa KbTfisj;

10
jaq;fhky; khw;wpf; nfhs;tJ vy;iy te;Jtpl;ljhf vz;zhky; vd;Wk;Nkd;Nky;
Ma;tijNa tpUk;GtJ vd;gdnty;yhk; mwptpay; Kiwapd; mbg;gil ,ay;GfshFk;.

tpjpfSk; KiwAk; khwhjpUf;Fk; tiu vj;jid Kiw Nrhjid nra;J

ghu;j;jhYk; KbTk; khwh jpUg;gNj mwptpay; topg;gl;ljhFk;. mwptpaypd; jhf;fk; ,d;W
vy;yhj;JiwfspYk; CLUtp epw;gjhy;> mjd; KiwAk; ,d;W midj;Jj; JiwfspYk;
gutpapUf;fpwJ.

lhf;lu; f.ifyhrgjp Fwpg;gpLtJ Nghy;>etPd xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak; ,j;jhf;fj;jpd;

tpisTfspy; xd;W. etPd xg;gpaiyg; gz;ila xg;gpaypypUe;J (mt;thW
$wf;$Lkhdhy;) NtWgLj;JtJ mjpw; ifahSk; KiwNaahFk;. tpQ;Qhd Kiw
tpQ;Qhdj;jpw;F Ke;jpNah gpe;jpNah Njhd;Wtjy;y mJ tpQ;Qhdj;jpd; cld;
gpwtpNaahFk;. mJNghyNt etPd xg;gpay; etPd Kiwapdpd;Wk; Njhd;WtJ.
tpQ;Qhdj;jpy; KiwiaAk; nghUisAk; gpupf;f KbahjJ Nghy> xg;gpay;
,yf;fpaj;ijAk; xg;gpay; KiwikiaAk; xd;wpypUe;J xd;W gpupj;Jtpl ,ayhJ.

,aw;if mwptpay; (Natural Science) tsu;j;Jj; je;Js;s Kiwfis> mt;thNw

,yf;fpaj;jpw;F khw;wp mjd; Ma;it Nkw;nfhs;StJ Kjw;gbahf mUk;gpw;W.
Kjyhtjhfg; nghUl;rhu;Gilik>(Objectivity)| jw;rhu;G ,d;ik (Impersonality)| Iakw;w
JzpT (Certainty) vd;w eLepiyahd cz;ikfisj; jpul;Ltjw;Fj; Jiz GupAk;
Kaw;rpf; $Wfisr; Rl;lyhk;. ,it nghJthd mwptpaw; Fwpf;NfhSf;F top elj;Jtd.

mLj;jJ> xd;W Njhd;Wtjw;Ff; fhuzkhd Kd;dpfo;Tfis> njhlf;fj;ij

Ma;fpd;w ,aw;if mwptpay; Kiwia ,yf;fpaj;jpYk; gpd;gw;WtjhFk;. ,g; 'gpwg;GwT
Ma;T”(genetic method) tuyhw;W mbg;gilia mwpe;J nfhs;spd;> ,yf;fpaj;jpYk; mJ
gad;gLjy; $Lk;. ,yf;fpaq;fspilNaAs;s ,dTwTfisf; fhz ,J Ke;JfpwJ. xU
nghUs; Njhd;w Ntz;LNky; mjw;Fr; rpy fhuzq;fs; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. “fhuzkpd;wpf;
fhupakpy;iy. tpj;jpd;wp tpistpy;iy.”“cyfpy; elg;gdtw;wpw;nfy;yhk;”fhuzk; cz;L|
,f;fhuzq;fs; xNu khjpupahf ,Ue;J #o;epiyfSk; xj;jpUf;Fkhdhy; xNu khjpupahd
tpisTfisNa jUk;” vd;w fUj;J ,jd; topg;gl;ljhFk;. ,t;thW xd;wpd; Njhw;wKk;>
tsu;r;rpAk; gw;wpa (Origin and Development) epiyfs;> mjd; Njhw;wj;jpw;Ff; fhuzkhd
Kd;dpfo;r;rpfs; ,tw;iw Ma;tNj gpwg;GwT gw;wpa Ma;thFk;. ,yf;fpaq;fspd; fhy
Kiwgw;wp Kd;dNu mwpe;jpUe; jhy;> mtw;wpilNa cs;s cwTfis ehk; ,k;
Kiwiaf; nfhz;L Muha;jy; $Lk;. ,yf;fpaf; fy;tpapy; ,J ‘fhuz fhupa Ma;thf'

11
(Casue and effect theory) kyu;e;Js;sJ. Xu; ,yf;fpaj; Njhw;wj;jpw;Fr; r%f> murpay;>
nghUspay; fhuzq;fis mbg; gilahff; fhl;b ,J tpsf;FfpwJ.

mwptpaypy; ifahSk; 'msit KiwfisAk; ,yf;fpaj;jpw; ifahs

Kad;Ws;sdu;. Gs;sp tptuk; (Statistics), tpsf;f ml;ltiz (Charts), tiuglk; (Graph)
Nghd;wtw;iwg; gad;gLj;jp ,yf;fpa Ma;it Nkw;nfhs;Sjyhy; Kd;dpYk; njspthf
,yf;fpaj;ij tpsf;f Kad;Ws;sdu;.

capupay; nfhs;iffis (Biological concepts) ,yf;fpaj;jpy; rhu;j;jp mjd;

Njhw;wk;> tsu;r;rp> khw;wk;> cUtk; Nghd;wtw;iw Muhag; ngupJk; Kad;Ws;sdu;.
,t;tifapy; jhu;tpd;> n`u;gu;l; ];ngd;ru; Nghd;Nwhu; fz;L tpsf;fpa $u;jywf; Nfhl;ghL
(Evolutionary theory) ngupJk; gpd;gw;wg;gl;lJ.

rhd;W topg; nghJik fhZjy; (induction method) ca;j;Jzu; Kiw (Deduction

method), gFj;jha;jy; (analysis) ,izj;jha;jy; (Synthesis) xg;gpl;lha;jy; (Comparison)
Nghy;td Kiwg;gltike;j mwpthuha;r;rp midj;jpw;Fk; nghJthFk;. MapDk; mwptpay;
rhu;e;j Kiwfisf; nfhz;Nl ,yf;fpag;ghq;F midj;ijAk; Muha;e;J tpl KbAk;
vd;gij ,d;W rpyu; kWf;fpd;wdu;. mwptpaiy tpl ,yf;fpaj;NjhL neUq;fpa
cwTilaJ fiyj;Jiw (humanities) MFk;. vdNtjhd; Nguhrpupau; nudpntyhf;Ff;
fiyj;Jiw Ma;T KiwfisAk; ,yf;fpaj;jpy; nghUj;jp Ma;tijg; ngupJk;
tuNtw;fpwhu;. jj;Jtk; (Philosophy), tuyhW (History), rl;ltpay; (Jurisprudence)
nja;tpftpay; (Theology), nkhop E}y; (Philology) Mfpait tsu;j;Jj; je;Js;s Ma;T
KiwfSk; cyfg; nghJthditNaahFk;. mtw;iw ,yf;fpaj;jpy; nghUj;jp Ma;tjhy;
,yf;fpa Muha;r;rp NkYk; njspTgLk;. mwptpay; top Ma;T KiwfSf;Fj; jUfpw
msT rpwg;ig ,f;fiyapay; rhu;e;j ‘tuyhw;W top Ma;TKiwfl;Fk; juNtz;Lk;.
Kd;dJ nghUs; ,d;dnjd;W fhl;b epw;Fk; (Explain).gpd;dJ nghUisg; Gupaitf;Fk;
(Comprehension). Xu; mwptpaywpQd; xU epfo;r;rpia tpsf;Fk;NghJ mjw;Ff; fhuzkhd
Kd;dpfo;Tfisf; fzf;fpLthd;. Mdhy; tuyhw;W top mwpQNdh me;epfo;r;rpia
tpsf;fpg; Gupa itg;gjpy; mjpf mf;fiw fhl;Lthd;.

xd;iwg;Gupe;J nfhs;s Kay;tnjd;gJk; jdpj;jd;ik fhl;LtJk; tpUg;G

ntWg;Gf;F cl;gl;l jhFk;. mwptpay; mwpQd; nghJ tpjpfis epWTtjpy;
Fwpf;NfhSilatd;. tuyhw;wwpQd; xg;gw;wJk; jpUk;g epfohjJkhd cz;ikiag;
gw;wpf;nfhs;s Kw;gLthd;. RUf;fkhff; $wpdhy; Kd;dJ nghJg; gLj;JtJ> gpd;dJ

12
jdpg;gLj;JtJ. vy;yhtw;iwAk; mwptpayha;tha;f; fhz;ghu; rpyu; ,f;fiyapaiyAk;
mwptpay; vd;Nw fhl;l Kw;gLtu;. md;dhu;fF
; Kd;dJ ,aw;if mwptpaYk; (Science of
Nature) gpd;dJ gz;ghl;lwptpaYk; (Science of Culture) MFk;. jpl;lj;ijAk;
jdpj;Jtj;ijAk; gz;ghl;lwptpay; kpfTk; typAWj;Jk;. mwptpay; jpUk;gj; jpUk;gj;
Njhd;Wk; cz;ikfs; njhlu;ghdJ| tuyhW mLj;jLj;J tUk; epfo;Tfs; njhlu;ghdJ.

mwptpay; Kiw tFf;Fk; nghJtpjpfs; ,yf;fpaj;jpw;Fg; ngupJk; xj;J

tUtjpy;iy. vdNt ,yf;fpaj;jpy; mwptpay; topNgha;g; nghJtpjpfs; fhz;gjh?
fiyapay; topr; nrd;W jdpj;jd;ikiag; Gupe;J nfhs;tjh? vdr; rpyu; jpiff;fpd;wdu;.
mwptpay; Kiwapd; rpw;rpy Fiwfs; jilfisf;fz;L mk;Kiwia Kw;wpYk;
Gwf;fzpg;gJ jtwhFk;.

,yf;fpaj;ijg; gFj;jha mwptpay; top Njit. ,yf;fpaj;ijg; Gupe;J nfhs;sf;

fiyapay; top Njit. xd;wpd;wp xd;W mikahJ. Muha;r;rp gilg;Gf;Fj; Jiz
nra;Ak;. ,itapuz;Lk; ,iztjhy; gpwf;Fk; ,yf;fpaf; nfhs;iffisj; jUtNj
xg;gpay; ,yf;fpa khFk;. ,yf;fpa Efu;Nt ek; Fwpf;Nfhs;. vdpDk; ,jw;F topfhl;bNa
,t; Ma;T MFk;. ,J ,yf;fpaj;ij NkYk; ed;F Efu;tjw;Fk;>Gjpa ,yf;fpak;
gilg;gjw;Fk; JizGupAk;. ,t;thW „jdpikj;jpwd;‟ Nghw;Wk; ,yf;fpaj;ijg; ‘nghJikj;
jpwk;‟ fhZk; mwptpaypy; itj;Jg; GJikahf MuhAk; Jiwf;Fj;jhd; ‘,yf;fpa xg;gPL‟
vd;W ngau;. ,t;thW xg;gPl;by; mwptpay; Kiwfs; Fwpj;J jkpoz;zy; xg;gpyf;fpa
mwpKfk; vd;Dk; E}ypy; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shH.

tpdhf;fs; :

1. xg;gpyf;fpak; nrhw;nghUs; - tpsf;fk; jUf?

2. jkpopy; xg;gpyf;fpak; Fwpj;J vLj;Jiuf;f?
3. %tif ,yf;fpaq;fs; Fwpj;J njhFj;Jiuf;f?
4. jkpopy; xg;gpyf;fpa tsHr;rp epiyf; Fwpj;J tpsf;Ff?
5. xg;gPl;by; mwptpay; Kiwfs; tpsf;Ff?

13
 myF: 2

gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghL

,yf;fpa xg;gPl;Lj; Jiwapy; Kw;gl;lJ> kw;wtu;fl;F topfhl;baha; mike;jJ

gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghNlahFk;. gy;NtW xg;gPl;lwpQu;fs; .cUthf;fpaJk; nrwpT kpf;fJkhfpa
gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghl;bidf; fPo;tUkhW njhFj;Jiuf;fyhk;.

fhuz fhupa Kiwapy; Muha;jy; (Cause and effect Theory) vy;yh tpisTfl;Fk;
fhuzk; cz;L vd;Wk;> fhuzq;fSk; #o;epiyfSk; khwhjpUf;Fk; tiu mtw;whyhFk;
tpisTk; khwhjpUf;Fk; vd;Wk; nfhs;fpd;w mwptpay; mbg;gilapy; ,t; Ma;T
,aq;FtjhFk;. r%f> murpay;> nghUspay; fhuzq;fspd; mbg;gilapy; ,yf;fpak;
Njhd;WfpwJ vd;gu;. mwpQu; njapd; Fwpg;gpl;lJ Nghy ‘,yf;fpa tuyhW vd;gJ
tuyhw;iwr; RUf;fkhfj; jUk; ifNaNlahFk;‟ (Literary history is a manual of history).

,yf;fpaq;fSf;F ehl;Lg; ghly; mbg;gilAz;L vd;gij typAWj;jp>

,yf;fpaq;fspd; Njhw;wk; tsu;r;rp gw;wp Muha;tjhy; mtw;iw ed;F Gupe;J nfhs;s
KbAk; vd;W fUjpdhu;fs;. NkYk; ,yf;fpak; ehLtpl;L ehL guTfpd;w tpjj;ijf;
fz;lwpa ,t; Ma;T ngupJk; cjtpahfapUe;jJ.

cwTila nkhopfspYs;s ,yf;fpaq;fis xg;gpl;lhuha;e;J mtw;wpd; %yj;i jAk;

jhf;fj;ijAk; (Sources and Influences) fz;lwpjy;: gj;njhd;gjhk; E}w;whz;by;> ,yf;fpa
xg;gPl;by; ,k;%y Muha;r;rpNa NkNyhq;fp epd;wnjd;gu;. ,dnkhopfspilNa cs;s
,yf;fpa cwT Muha;r;rpiag; „gpwg;GwT Ma;TKiw‟ (Genetic Approach) vd;gu;. fUj;J
(Thematology) mbg;gilapy; ,yf;fpaq;fspilNa ,lk; ngau;e;jtw;iwf; fz;Lgpbg;gJk;>
tbt mbg;gilapy; (Morphology) ,dnkhopfspilNa gutpAs;stw;iwf; fz;lwptJk;
vd ,J ,U$Wgl;L tsu;e;jJ. nghJthf ,yf;fpa mbf;fUj;Jf;fs; (Themes)
Fwpf;Nfhs;fs; (Idea and motifs), fUg;gpd;dy; (Plots) ,yf;fpa tiffs; (Genres) tbtk;
(Form) eil (Style) ,yf;fpa czu;T Nghd;wtw;wpy; ngw;wJ vd;d GFj;jpaJ ahJ vd
(Sources and Influences) Muha;tJ midj;Jk; ,jpylq;Fk;.

,yf;fpak; Mw;wy;kpf;f Nghf;Ffshy; fhye;NjhWk; ce;jg;gLfpwJ vd;Wk;>

,g;Nghf;Ffspdpd;Wk; > njhlu;Gila nkhopfs; jg;gpf;ftpayhJ vd;Wk; fUjpdu;. xU
Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpiaj; njhlu;e;J> cwTila nkhop ,yf;fpaq;fspnyy;yhk;

14
xUtpjkhd tsu;r;rpg; Nghf;Nf fhzg;gLtjw;F ,g;Nghf;Ffspd; jhf;fNk fhuzkhFk;
(The concept of currents and the cross currents of literature).

,yf;fpaj;ij tuyhw;W Nehf;fpy; (Historical View) Muha;tNj gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghL

vdr; RUq;ff; $wyhk;. ,yf;fpaj;ij ed;F Gupe;Jnfhs;s ,t; Ma;T Kiwfs;
gad;gLk; vd;W fUjpdu;. ,jid mwptpay; top mZFjy; (Scientific Approach) vd;Wk;
$wyhk;.

nrUkdpapy; fNj mtu;fs; cyf ,yf;fpak; gw;wpj; J}tpa tpj;J nrd;w

E}w;whz;by; INuhg;ghtpy; Kistpl;lJ. ,yf;fpaj;jpd; nghJikg; gz;Gfis mwpAk;
Mu;tj;ij ,J J}z;baJ. fNjapd; E}y;fsidj;Jk; gpnuQ;rpy; nkhopngau;f;fg;
gl;ljdhy; mjd; jhf;fk; ed;Fzug;gl;lJ. NkYk; nrUkdpapy; nkhopE}y; (Philology)
Ma;tpy;> nkhop xg;gPL tsu;e;jJk; ,yf;fpa xg;gPl;bw;F xU topfhl;b Mapw;W. gioa
Gidtpay; (Romanticism) tsu;r;rp ngw;W khwpaJ cyfpay; (Positivism) jiy
J}f;fpaJ. Gidtpaw; fhyj;jpy; „Njrpa ,df;fUj;J‟ ed;F fhy; nfhz;L Kjpu;e;jJ.
midj;J ehl;L ,yf;fpaf; fUj;jhff; fdpe;jJ. ,k; kdepiyAk;> $tpaupd; clw;
$w;Wg; gFg;gha;T xg;gPl;L Kiwfs; Gfo;ngw;W tpsq;fpa #o;epiyAk; gpnuQ;rpy; xg;gpay;
,yf;fpak; tsuf; fhuzq;fshapd.

rhu;Nghdpy; „,yf;fpa xg;gPl;Lf; fofk;‟ (Institute de Literature Comparee)

Njhd;wpaJ. ghy; thd;jPfk; (Pal Van Tieghem) vOjpa „,yf;fpa xg;gPL‟ (La Literature
Comparee) vd;w E}y; mbg;gilahd xg;gPl;Lf; nfhs;if tpsf;f E}yhff; fUjg;gl;lJ.
ngu;dhz;L ghy;nld;];ngu;fu; (Fernand Baldensperger) gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghl;bid tpsf;Fk;
%d;W ngUk; E}y;fis ntspapl;lhu;. N[hrg; nlf;];l; (Joseph Texte) Kjyhf
ghy;nld;];ngu;nfu;> ghy; `rhu;l; (Paul Hazard), thd; jPfk;> fhNu (Carre) ghilyd;>
(Bataillon) nuhl;bau; (Roddier)| Nghd;w mwpQu; gyuhYk; ,t; xg;gPL Kf;fpa ,yf;fpaf;
fy;tpahf cUg;ngw;wJ.

ghy;nld;];ngu;fu; 1921-,y; „,yf;fpa xg;gPl;L Ma;Tkyu;‟ (Revue de literature

comparee) xd;W njhlq;fpdhu;. gpwg;GwT Ma;it (Genetic studies) mtu; kpfTk;
Nghw;wpdhu;. mtiug; gpd;gw;wp INuhg;gpa vOj;jhsu; gyUk; fiyfspd; tsu;r;rpiaAk;
Njhw;wj;jpw;fhd %yf;$WfisAk; Ma;e;jwptJ> mtw;iw kpf ed;F Gupe;J
nfhs;Sjw;fhd rpwe;j topnadf; fUjpdu;. ,jdhy; KOf;f KOf;f %yKk; jhf;fKk;
gw;wpajhd E}w;Wf;fzf;fhd fl;Liufis „,yf;fpa xg;gPl;L Ma;Tkyu;‟ ntspapl;lJ.

15
 [hu;[; gpuhz;nl]; (George Brandes) Mw;wy; kpf;f Nghf;Ff; nfhs;ifia (Concept
of Currents) Kjd; Kjyhfg; GFj;jpdhu;. ngupbdhz;l; G&ndBu; (Ferdinand Brunetiere)>
ghuprpy; 1900-,y; Kjy; xg;gPl;lwpQu; khehl;by; ,ij Mjupj;Jg; Ngrpdhu;. mwpQu;
`pg;Nghiyl; njapd; (Hippolyte Taine 18281893) fhuz fhupa Ma;it (causes and
effects) typAWj;jp> vt;tpjkhd ,yf;fpaj; Njhw;wj;jpw;Fk; fhuzk; cz;nld;whu;. mJ
,aw;ifapy; my;yJ ngsjpfj;jpy; nghUl;fspd; Nru;fi
; fapdhy; Gjpanjhd;W Njhd;WtJ
Nghd;wnjd xg;gpl;Lf; fhl;b tpsf;fpdhu;. fiyapd; xt;nthU gilg;Gk; ,q;qdk; xU
fhuzj;jhy; cUthtJld;> mjdhy; mJ ,q;qdk; Njhd;wpanjd tpsf;fpAiuf;fg;gLk;
vdTk; Fwpg;gpl;lhu;. G+jtpay; nghUs;fisg; Nghyg; Gyd;fshy; czug;glhjdTk;
(Spiritual events) mg;nghUl; jd;ikAilad (matter) Nghy cUthtdNtahFk;.
Fwpg;gpl;l rpy %yf;$Wfs; cUkhwpAk; kW mikg;Gg; ngw;Wk; NtWgl;lNjhu;
cUtikg;Gila nghUs;fshtJ Nghy Ez;nghUl; fUj;Jf;fSk; ,q;qdk; khwpaike;J
GJtbtq;fs; ngw;W cUthfpd;wd. ,q;qdk; xU nrbapd; tsu;r;rpf;Ff; fhuzkhd
Ntjpay; khw;wq;fisg; Nghy> xU ghl;L my;yJ Xtpaj;jpd; gilg;Gf;Fk; rpy Ez;
nghUl; fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wq;fs; fhuzkhfpd;wd. ,q;qdk; tpsf;fpa njapd; ,yf;fpa
xg;gPl;lwpQd; ,yf;fpaj; Njhw;wj;jpw;F %yfhuzkhd ,dk;> #o;epiy> fhyk;> Gytdpd;
kdj;jpwd; Mfpatw;iw kdj;jpw; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk; vd;whu;. ,t;tifapy; mwptpay;
Ma;itg; NghyNt ,yf;fpa Ma;it Nkw;nfhs;s KbAk; vd;Wk; mjidr; rupghu;j;J
NkYk; NkYk; jpUj;jKwr; nra;a KbAk; vd;Wk; mtu; tpsf;fpdhu;. ,Wjpahf xg;gpay;
,yf;fpak;> cyf ,yf;fpak; vd;w Nfhl;ghl;bw;F ek;ik mioj;Jr; nry;y Ntz;Lk;
vd;gNj mtuJ Fwpf;NfhshFk;.

,q;qdk; gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb> ,uz;Lk; ,uz;Lf;F Nkw;gl;ldTkhd

,yf;fpaq;fspilNaAs;s cwT epiyfis Muha;tJ jhd; Kjw;fz; xg;gpay;
,yf;fpak; vd;W fUjg;gl;lJ. ,jw;F xg;gPl;lha;thsd; Fiwe;jJ ,uz;L nkhopfspy;
Nju;r;rp ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;W fUjpdu;. ngUk; ghYk; Nkw;F INuhg;gpa ehLfspd;
,yf;fpaq;fspilNaAs;s cwT gw;wpa rhd;Wfisf; fhz;gjpNyNa> nrd;w E}w;whz;by;
xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak; fUj;ijr; nrYj;jpaJ vdyhk;.

mnkupf;ff; Nfhl;ghL

gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghl;bd; topg;gl;lNj mnkupf;fupd; xg;gpaw;Nfhl;ghL vdyhk;.

vdpDk; Kd;dJ fLik kpf;fJ gpd;dJ nefpo;Tk; tpupTKilaJ. mnkupf;ff;
Nfhl;ghl;by; kpf Kw;Nghf;fhd $Wfs; gytw;iwf; fhzyhk;. gpnuQ;R ehl;bdu; ‘,yf;fpa

16
xg;gPl;by;‟ xg;gPl;bw;F mjpf mOj;jk; je;jdu;. mnkupf;fNuh „,yf;fpaj;jpw;F‟ mjpf
mOj;jk; nfhLj;jdu;. cwTila ,yf;fpaq;fis kl;Lky;yhky; xg;GikAila
vt;tpyf;fpaj;ijAk; xg;gplyhk; vd;W mnkupf;fu; nfhs;ifia tpupTgLj;jpdu;. „NtWgl;l
gy nkhopfspYk; tpsq;Fk; ,yf;fpaq;fspw; nghUe;jpAs;s capUs;s cwTfisf;
fz;lwptNj ,t; xg;gPL’ vd;W fUjpdu;. ,q;qdk; gpwg;Gwtw;w ntt;NtW ,yf;fpaq;fspd;
jiyrpwe;j E}y;fisg; gFj;Jk; xg;Gik fz;Lk; (Analytical and analogical studies)
Muha;tJ> ,yf;fpaq;fspd; KUfpaiy ntspf;nfhzu;e;J tpsf;fTk; tuyhw;W
KbTfisf; fhzTk; cjTk; vd;W Fwpg;gpl;ldu;.

gpnuQ;R ehl;ltu; Nghw;wpa %yKk; jhf;fKk; gw;wpa nfhs;iffis ,tu;fs;

ntWj;jdu;. tpUg;G ntWg;Gf;F Mshf;FtJ vd;Wk; ,yf;fpaj;ij KOikahf
Nehf;fhky; gpupj;Jg; gpupj;Jr; rpWrpW $Wfshf xg;gplj; J}z;Ltnjd;Wk; jj;jkJ
ehl;L,yf;fpaNk rpwe;jJ vDk; kdg;ghd;ikapy; Muhag;gLtJ vd;Wk; $wpg; gpnuQ;Rf;
Nfhl;ghl;ilf; Fiw $wpdu;. ,yf;fpa Muha;r;rp cyf Nehf;fpy; mika Ntz;Lk;
vd;wdu;. mnkupf;f ehL FbNaw;w ehlhifahy; INuhg;ghitr; Nru;e;j gy nkhopapdUk;
FbNawpAs;s ehlhifahy; mq;F „cyfg; nghJik kdg;ghd;ik‟ kpfTk; ntw;wp ngw;W
tpsq;fpaJ.

goik Nghw;WtJk; jdp ,yf;fpag; gz;ghl;L tsu;r;rp epiy fz;lJkhfpa

gpnuQ;Rf;F khwhf mnkupf;fr; #o;epiy ,Ue;jjhy;> ,e;ehl;bd; „xg;gPl;Lj;JiwAk;‟
cyfshtpajhf tsu Neu;e;jJ. NkYk; mnkupf;fhtpd; GJj; jpwdha;thsu;fspd; (New
Critics) nry;thf;Fg; ngUfpapUe;jJk; ,jw;F xU fhuzkhFk;. ,g; „GJj;
jpwdha;thsu;fs;‟ ,yf;fpaj;ij mjd; jdpj;j epiyapy; Nehf;fp> mjpyike;Js;s
jpwd;fisf; nfhz;Nl kjpg;gPL nra;a Ntz;Lk; vd;W kpf mOj;jkhf vLj;Jf; $wpdu;.
Mrpupad; tuyhNwh (Biography of the author) ,yf;fpa tuyhNwh Njitaw;wJ vd;wdu;.
,yf;fpak; Njhd;wpa gpd;dzp> mjd; Mrpupad; gw;wpa Ma;Tfshy;> tuyhw;wha;thy; -
tpUg;G ntWg;Gj; Njhd;wp ,yf;fpaj;jpd; kjpg;gPL FiwTgl;LtpLnkd;wdu;. ,yf;fpaj;ij
mt;tpyf;fpaj;jpw;fhf kjpg;gpl Ntz;LNk jtpug; gpwthW KaYjy; $lhnjd;wdu;.

,e;epiyapy;> mnkupf;fhtpy; ,Ughw;gl;l epiy ,Ue;jJ. xd;W Kd;ida

goikahd epiy „Mrpupad; tuyhW rhu;e;jJ| tuyhw;W top tupirg; gLj;JtJ
ke;jkhdJ. kw;wJ GJj;jpwdha;thsu;fs; tpupj;Jf; $wpaJ KOtJk; jw;rhu;gw;wJ.
gpwtw;Wld; njhlu;gw;wJ (Detached), mzpeyd; Ma;thf miktJ (Rhapsodic),
gpd;dzpAk; mwpQUila ,yf;fpa Ma;Tf; fUtpfSk; (Scholarly apparatuses and

17
Backgrounds)gw;wpf; ftiyg;glhjJ. mjw;Fg; gjpyhf gilf;fg;gl;l E}y;fspy; mtw;iwg;
gilj;jtupd; xg;gw;w jdpj;jpwd;fisf; fhz;gJ. ngUk;ghYk; ,it ,uz;bw;Fk;>
,ilg;gl;l topiaNa mwpQu;fs; ngupJk; Nghw;wpdu;. gpw;$wpa GJj; jpwdha;thsupd;
Nfhl;ghl;lhy; ,yf;fpa xg;gPl;by; 'tuyhw;Wf;F ,Ue;j Kf;fpaj;Jtk; Fiwf;fg;gl;lJ.
xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak; KUfpay; Nehf;fpy; (Aesthetic View) tsu ,g;GJj; jpwdha;Nt
fhuzkhFk;. GJj;jpwdha;thsupd; tuyhw;W kWg;G ,af;fj;ijg; gpd; te;Njhu; KOtJk;
Vw;Wf;nfhz;byu;. vdpDk;> mj;jpwdha;thsupd; jhf;fj;jhy; „xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak;‟ Gjpa
jpUg;gKk; Gjpa tpsf;fKk; ngw;wJ.

mnkupf;fhtpy; 1899-,y; nfhyk;gpah gy;fiyf;fofj;jpy; Mu;ju; fpwp];bapd;

(Arthur Christy) Kaw;rpahy; xg;gpay; ,yf;fpaj;Jiw Vw;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. gpd;du; `hu;Ntu;L>
tp];fhd;rpd;> tlfNuhypdh Nghd;w gy;fiyf; fofq;fspnyy;yhk; ,yf;fpa xg;gPl;Lj;Jiw
Vw;gl;lJ. 1945-f;Fg; gpwF 60-f;F Nkw;gl;l ,lq;fspy; ,j;Jiw Vw;gl;lJ vd;gu;.
INuhg;ghtpNyh fhu;NghDf;F mLj;J cl;nur;rpy; (Utreccht) kl;LNk ,yf;fpa xg;gPl;Lf;
fofk; mikf;fg; ngw;wJ. mnkupf;fhtpy; fz;l ngUtsu;r;rp NtW vq;Fk;
fhZjw;fupajhFk;.

Nay; gy;fiyf; fofj;jpy; ,t; xg;gpay; Jiw kpf cau;epiy mile;jnjd;gu;.

M];fhu; N[.fhk;g;ngy; nudpntyhf;F (Nay; gy;fiyf; fofk;)> tlfNuhypdhitr; Nru;e;j
ntu;du; ghy; gpuPnlupr;R (Werner Paul Friederich)> ,e;jpahdh gy;fiyf; fofj;ijr; rhu;e;j
N`hu;];l; gpnuQ;R (Horst Frenz) Nghd;Nwhu; jiyrpwe;j mnkupf;f xg;gPl;lwpQu;fspy;
Fwpg;gplj; jf;ftu;fshtu;.

ntHdH gphPnlhpr;R> gpnuQ;R ehl;Lr; rhHNghd; gy;fiyf; fofj;jpy; tpsq;fpa

ngu;dhl; ghy;nld;]; ngu;nfu;> ghy;thd;jPfk; Nghd;NwhUld; njhlu;G nfhz;L tpsq;fpatu;.
,tu; gynkhop toq;Fk; ];tpl;ru;yhe;jpy; gpwe;jjhYk; ,sikapNyNa gy nkhop
mwpTilatuhf fy;tpapy; Nju;r;rp ngw;wjhYk; ,tiu xg;gPl;lha;thsuhfg; gpwe;jtu;
vd;Nw rpwg;gpg;gu;. INuhg;ghtpy; ‘kdpjg; gz;G epiyf; fsd;fs; cyfg; nghJikahdit‟
(Universality of human values) vd;w fUj;ij typAWj;jpj; njhz;lhw;wpa ngUik
,tUf;Fz;L. nfhyk;gpah gy;fiyf; fofj;jpy; Mu;ju; fpwp];b „xg;gpay; ,yf;fpar;
nra;jp kly;‟ (Comparative Literature News Letter) vd;w ,jio> 1942 Kjy; 1946 tiu
gjpg;gpj;J ntspapl;lhu;. gpuPnlupr;R 1945 Kjy;> jkJ nrhe;jr; nrytpy; ,J Nghd;wnjhU
nra;jp kliyj; jl;nlOj;Jg; gbtkhf ntspapl;L Vwj;jho 350 Mu;tyu;fSld; njhlu;G
nfhz;lhu;. gj;jhz;Lfspy; mnkupf;fhtpy; xg;gpay; ,yf;fpaj;Jiw ngUtsu;r;rp fz;lJ.

18
jw;fhy nkhopf; fofj;jpy; (Modern Language Association) ,yf;fpa xg;gPl;bw;F xU gpupT
njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. xuPfd; gy;fiyf;fof (Oregon) topahf 1949 Kjy; „xg;gpay;
,yf;fpak;‟ (Comparative Literature) vd;w ,jo; ntsptuj; njhlq;fpaJ. gpuPnlupr;R
,jidj; Njhw;Wtpj;jJ kl;Lkd;wpj; JizahrpupauhfTk; tpsq;fpdhu;. ,tu; ntspapl;l
nra;jp kly;> 1952 njhlq;fp tlfNuhypdh gy;fiyf; fofj;jpypUe;J „xg;gpay;> nghJ
,yf;fpa Mz;L kyuhf‟(The Year book of Comparative and General Literature) ntsptuj;
njhlq;fpaJ. mg;gy;fiyf; fofj;jpy; Mq;fpyKk; nrUkdpAk; Nghjpj;J te;J> xg;gpay;
,yf;fpaj; JiwiaAk; tsu;j;j gpuPnlupr;R mtu;fNs ,k; kyUf;F xd;gjhz;Lfs; tiu
Mrpupauhfg; gzpahw;wpdhu;. ,f;fhyj;jpy; xg;gpay; ,yf;fpaj;jpd; tpsf;fk;> nfhs;if>
gad;> vy;iy> KiwahTk; ,tuhy; njspTWj;jg;gl;ld.

gpnuQ;R ehl;bd; ghy;ld;];ngu;fUld; Nru;e;J gpuPnlupr;R „xg;gpay; ,yf;fpaf; fUtp

E}w;nwhif’ (Bibliography of comparative Literature) xd;iw 1950-,y; ntspapl;lhu;. ,J
gbg;gbahf tsu;e;J xg;gpLjw;fhd gFjpfisr; Rl;bf;fhl;Lk; gl;bay;fs; 33>000
nfhz;ljhf Mapw;W. ,J Nghd;W mnkupf;f n[u;kd;> my;yJ gpnuQ;R n[u;kd; my;yJ
Mq;fpy gpnuQ;R xg;gpay; ,yf;fpaf; fUtp E}y; njhiffs; gy ntspte;jd.

rpy fhyk; mnkupf;f xg;gPl;lwpQupy; rpyu; KOJk; gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghl;L top

epd;wdu;. kw;Wk; rpyu; mij Kw;Wk; kWj;J mnkupf;ff; fUj;ijNa typAWj;jpdu;.
gpuPnlupr;R ,t; ,uz;L fUj;Jf;fisAk; cs;slf;fpatu; vdyhk;. Muha;r;rpapy;
Kiwfl;Nf (Methodology) rpwg;gspg;gijtpl ,yf;fpaj;jpy; kpFjpAk; ftdk; nrYj;Jf
vd ,tu; Ntz;bdhu;. ,j;Jiwapy; vr;.vr;. n`d;wp upkhf;F (Henry Remak) xU
eLepiyf; Nfhl;ghl;il tFj;jhu;.

1954-,y; midj;Jyf xg;gpay; ,yf;fpaf; fofk; (International Comparative

Literature Association) epWtg;gl;lJ. 1955-,y;> ntdprpy; mjd; Kjy; khehL eilngw;wJ.
mjd; ,uz;lhk; khehl;il tl fNuhypdhitr; Nru;e;j rhg;gy; `py; ypy; (Chapel Hill)
1958-,y;> gpuPnlupr;R elj;jpdhu;. mg;NghJ mnkupf;f xg;gpay; ,yf;fpaf; fofKk;
epWtg;gl;lJ. murpay; topg;gl;l nkhop> ehL> ,dk; Nghd;w jilfs; jfu;ff
; g;gl;L>
,yf;fpa xUikg;ghL Nghw;wg;gl;lJ. ,yf;fpaj;ij Ez;fiyfNshLk;>
mwptpaNyhLk;>tuyhW> r%ftpay;> jj;Jtk;> cstpay; Nghd;wtw;NwhLk; xg;gpl;L
Muhayhk; vd;W mnkupf;fu; ,jd; Ma;Tf;fsj;ij kpfTk; tpupT gLj;jpdu;. ,J gpnuQ;R
ehl;ltu; nfhs;iff;F mg;ghw;gl;lJ. „xg;gPl;bw;fhf xg;gPL‟ (Comparison for its own sake)
vd;gij mnkupf;fu; kWj;jdu;. %yKk; jhf;fKk; fz;Lgpbg;gJ 19-Mk; E}w;whz;bd;

19
ngUtutpw;whf ,Ue;jJ. mjid KOtJk; Njitaw;wJ vd kWj;j mnkupf;fu;
,yf;fpa xg;gPL mjd; KUfpaiy ntspf; nfhzu;tjw;Nf vd;wdu;. ,t;tifapy;
mnkupf;ff; Nfhl;ghl;il KUfpay; Nehf;F (Aesthetic view) cilaJ vdyhk;. gpuPnlupr;R
gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghl;il mwptpay; Kiwapy; mZFjy; (Scientific Approach) vd;Wk;>
mnkupf;ff; Nfhl;ghl;il KUfpay; Kiwapy; mZFjy; (Aesthetic Approach) vd;Wk;
tUzpg;ghu;. mtu; Fwpg;gpLfpd;w tpsf;fj; jpypUe;J> mnkupf;fhtpy; ,j;Jiw vt;thW
tsu;r;rp ngw;wJ vd mwpayhk;.

ekJ xopT Neuq;fspy; ehk; vOJfpd;w Muha;r;rpf; fl;Liufs;> gbf;fpd;w

Ma;Tj;jhs;fs;> ehl;L kf;fswpa vOJk; E}y;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpy; ehk; ekJ Ritia>
rhu;G epiyia> jpwikia ntspg;gLj;JfpNwhk;. ek;kpy; rpyu; mbg;nghUs; Ma;T
(Thematology) nra;fpd;wdu;. kw;wtu;fs; ,yf;fpa tiffis cyfshtpa epiyapy;
Ma;fpd;wdu; kw;Wk; rpyu; jhf;fk; gw;wpa Ma;it tpUk;Gfpd;wdu;. rpyu; ,ilj;
njhlu;ghsu;fspd; (Intermediaries) ,d;wpaikahikia Ma;fpd;wdu; rpyu; jq;fSila
,uz;L my;yJ %d;W ,yf;fpaq;fspd; mwpit tuyhw;NwhLk; rkaj;NjhLk;>
njhlu;GgLj;jp Ma;fpd;wdu;. kw;wtu;fs; Ez;fiyfSlNdh my;yJ fiyj;
jpwdha;TlNdh njhlu;GgLj;jp Ma;fpd;wdu;.

,yf;fpaj;jpd; rKjhag; gz;igg; gaDs;s Ma;Tj; Jiwnadf; nfhs;tNj jk;

Kd;Ds;s xg;gpay; Ma;T vd;gJ rpyuJ fUj;jhfTsJ. kw;Wk; rpyu; jiyrpwe;j
KUfpaw; fUj;Jf;fis Nkw;nfhz;L Muha;jypy; jk; kpF jpwik Gydhfr; nra;fpd;wdu;.
,f;fUj;J tif NtWghLfshy;> ntt;NtW tifahd rpwe;j Ma;Tfis ehk; ngw
KbfpwJ. fl;LiufSk; E}y;fSk; kpfr; rpW jpwd; Kjy; cyfshtpa ,af;fq;fs;
rhu;e;j ngUq;Nfhl;ghLfs; tiu NtWgl mikfpd;wd. mitfs; mupjhd nghUs; Kjy;
mbf;fb gad;gLk; nghUl;$Wfs; tiu Muha;fpd;wd. MapDk; mit xt;nthd;Wk; me;j
Mrpupaupd; xg;gw;w jdpr;rpwg;igg; Gydhf;Ffpd;wd. xg;gpay; ,yf;fpaj;jpy; mt;mt;
Mrpupau; vt;tpjkhd Ma;it Nkw;nfhs;s tpUk;Gfpwhu; vd;gijAk; mit Gydhf;fp
epw;fpd;wd. ,j;jF kdq;ftUk; Gjpa> Kbtw;w Ma;Tf;fskhf xg;gpay; ,yf;fpa Ma;Tj;
Jiw tpsq;FfpwJ. (Fascinating, new. inviting field which is comparative literature).

,d ehL vy;iyfisf; fle;j epiyapy; itj;J ,yf;fpa Ma;it Nkw;nfhs;tNj

xg;gpay; ,yf;fpa Ma;T vd;gu;. ,e;epiyapy; cyf ,yf;fpak;> nghJ ,yf;fpak;
Mfpatw;NwhL xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak; xd;W gLfpwJ vd nudpntyhf;F tw;GWj;Jfpwhu;.

20
,yf;fpaj; jpwdha;T> ,yf;fpa tuyhW> ,yf;fpaf; nfhs;if %d;Wk; gpupj;jwpa
Kbahjd vdTk; xd;wpndhd;W nrwpTilad vd;Wk; fUJtNj xg;gpaw; Nfhl;ghlhFk;.

,yf;fpaj;jpd; KOikiaf; (Totality of Literature) fUj;jpw;nfhz;L Ma;tJ ,J.

vy;yh ,yf;fpag;gilg;GfisAk; ,yf;fpa mDgtq;fisAk; xd;whff; fUJk;
kdTzu;Tld;> cyfshtpa ghu;itapy; midj;J ,yf;fpaq;fisAk; fw;gJ xg;gpay;
,yf;fpak; vd;w nudpntyhf;F fUj;Jr; rpe;jpf;fj; jf;fjhFk;. (It will study all literature
from an International perspective with a consciousness of the unity of all liteary creation and
experience)

Nguhrpupau; vr;.vr;.upkhf;F (H.H.Remak) jUk; tpsf;fk;

xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak; vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l ehl;L vy;iyfl;F mg;ghw;gl;l ,yf;fpa

Ma;thFk;. xU gf;fk; ,yf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; kWgf;fk; gpw mwpT rkak; rhu;e;j
Jiwfl;FkpilNaAs;s cwTj; njhlu;Gfis Muha;tJ. mit fiyfs;> jj;Jtk;>
tuyhW> r%f mwptpay;> mwptpay;> rkak; KjypadthFk;. (The study of literature beyond
the confines of one particular country and the study of the relationships between literature on the
one hand and the other area of knowledge and belief such as the arts, philosophy, history, the
social sciences, the sciences, religion etc., on the other hand)

cyf Nehf;fpy; ,yf;fpaj;ij Ma;tJ> ,yf;fpaq;fspilNaAs;s cwit Ma;tJ>

xg;Gikfis (Parallalisms and analogies) Ma;tJ> ,yf;fpaj;ijg; gpwfiyfSlDk;
mwptpay; tuyhw;Wj; JiwfSlDk; xj;JNehf;fp xg;gpl;L Ma;tJ> ,yf;fpak;
tbtikg;Gf; $Wfshy; (Structures) cUthtnjdTk; gy;NtW fiyf; $Wfshy;
Mf;fg;ngWtJ (Systems) vdTk; ,JNghyg; GJik Nehf;fpy; Ma;tJ vd,t;thW
,t;nthg;gpay; ,yf;fpaj;Jiw tpupe;J nfhz;Nl nry;fpwJ.

Njrpa ,yf;fpaq;fis ,J Gwf;fzpg;gjhfNth> xU nkhop ,yf;fpaj;jpd;

jdpg;gz;Gfisf; Fiwj;J kjpg;gpLtjhfNth fUJjy; jtW. ,d;W ehk; fw;gJ Nghyj;
jdpnkhop ,yf;fpaj;jpd; rpwg;gpay;Gfisf; fw;fyhk;. Mdhy; ,yf;fpak; vy;yhk; Xupdk;
vd;w cau;T jho;tw;w kdj;Jld; Muha Ntz;Lk;. fiyfSf;Fk; mf;fiyfspy;
xd;whfpa ,yf;fpaf; fiyf;Fk; ,dTwT cz;L xg;Gik> cz;L jj;Jtk; my;yJ
mwptpaYld; njhlu;Gz;L. midj;ijAk; fUj;jpw; nfhs;SkhW gue;Jgl;l Mokhd
,yf;fpa Muha;r;rpf;Fg; Gjpa Gjpa ,yf;fpaf; nfhs;iffisAk;> Ma;Tf;fsq;fisAk;
xg;gpay; ,yf;fpak; ey;FfpwJ.

21
xg;gpyf;fpaKk; nkhop ngau;g;Gj; JiwAk;

„cyf ,yf;fpa xUik‟ fhz Ntz;LNky; nkhopj;jiliaf; fle;jhf Ntz;Lk;.

mjw;Fg; gpwnkhopawpT kpfTk; ,d;wpaikahjjhFk;. vOjg; gbf;fj; njupAk; msNtDk;
gpwnkhopfspy; gapw;rp ngw;why;> mJ ngUk; gad; tpistpf;Fk;. xg;gPl;lhsd; Fiwe;jJ
,U nkhop mwpthtJ ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gu;. INuhg;ghtpYk;> mnkupf;fhtpYk; jk;
nkhopNahL mz;il nkhopfspy; xd;iwNah njhd;ik kpf;f fpNuf;fk;> ,yj;jPd;
nkhopfisNah fw;Fk; Kiw vq;Fk; gutpAs;sJ. ,e;jpa ehl;by; xUtu; kPJ xUtu;
nfhz;l mr;rj;jpdhy; ,k;Kiw fhy;nfhs;stpy;iy. jk;nkhopawpNthL gpwpJ xU
nkhopawpTk; ngWtjhy; fy;tp epiwTWfpwJ vd;gij ehk; czu;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
Mz;lhd;> mbik czu;tpd;wp mOf;fhW> mr;rk; vd;w gifikapd;wp ,e;jpau;fs;
xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l nkhopfis cte;J fw;Fk; ehNs xg;gpyf;fpa tsu;r;rpf;F
ed;dhshFk;.

Kf;fpakhfg; gz;ghl;L> ehfupf nkhopfisNaDk; Nkiyehl;by; fpNuf;fKk;>

,yj;jPDk; fPioehl;by; tlnkhopAk;> njd;nkhopAk; fw;f Ntz;Lk;. vdpDk; ,J
vj;jid Ngu;f;Ff; if $LfpwJ? xUtu; midj;JnkhopfisAk; fw;gnjd;gJ ,ayhj
xd;W. ,e;j epiyapy;jhd; „nkhopngau;g;G‟ ,d;wpaikahj jtpu;ff
; Kbahj fUtpahfg;
gad;gLfpwJ. Mdhy; nkhopngau;g;igg; gyu; Vw;gjpy;iy. mjid Kw;wpYk; %yk;
Nghd;wnjd xg;g kWf;fpd;wdu;. „Nghyp‟ vd ntWf;fpd;wdu;. cl;Nuh tpy;rd; (Woodrow
Wilson) „xUtUila nrhw;fs; nkhop ngau;f;fg;gl;L Nfl;fg;gLfpd;w nghOJ> mJ xU
fUj;jpd; gy ghfq;fSk; Kwpe;J Nghapdikiaf; fhz;gJ NghypUf;fpwJ.’ vdf; Nfyp
nra;jhu;. fiyapy; cl;fUj;Jk; fiyaikg;Gk; gpupf;f Kbahjd vd;Wk; mjid nkhop
ngau;f;f KbahJ vd;Wk; thjpLtu;. Fwpg;gpl;l nkhopfspd; xypaikg;Gk; eilaoFk;
kw;nwhU nkhopapy; mikah. jd;Dzu;r;rpg; ghf;fshfpa ftpijfis nkhopngau;f;f
nthz;zhJ. Mdhy; fij> ehlfk; Nghd;wtw;iw XusT nkhop ngau;f;fyhk;. ciueil
tbthd fl;Liufis ,d;Dk; njspthf nkhopngau;f;ff; $Lk;.

,q;qdnky;yhk; jilfis mLf;fpf; $wp nkhopngau;g;Ng Njitapy;iy vd

cjwptplyhk; vd;why;> mjidj; jtpug; gpwpnjhU fUtpAk; fpilahJ. vdNt
,j;Jiwapidr; rpwg;ghfg; Nghw;wp tsu;g;gJ kpfTk; ,d;wpaikahjjhfpwJ. Nkiy
ehLfspy; ,j;Jiwf;Fg; Ng&f;fk; ey;fg;gl;L tUfpwJ. gy fiyf;fofq;fs; gpw
nkhopfisAk; mtw;wpd; topg;gl;l nkhop ngau;g;Gf; fy;tpiaAk; jdpg;ghlkhf itj;J
mq;F mwpQu;fs; $b Muha;fpd;wdu;. ,jdhy; nkhopngau;g;Gf;fiy NkYk; NkYk;

22
tsu;r;rp ngw;Wf; $u;ik ngw;W tUfpwJ. kpfr; rpwe;jnjhU E}iy xUtu; nkhop
ngau;j;Jf; nfhLj;jhy;> mJ %y E}Yld; ,iae;Js;sjh vd;gij Ma;thsu;fl;F
mDg;gp cz;ikawpe;J nfhz;L> nkhop ngau;g;Gf;F „lhf;lu;‟ gl;lk; toq;Ffpd;wd>
mnkupf;fg; gy;fiyf; fofq;fs;.

,q;F ek; epiy Neu; KuzhdJ. ,sq;fiyg; gbg;gpy; xU jhs; nkhopngau;g;G

cz;L Mdhy; mJ jhd; khztu;fs; Gwf;fzpf;Fk; jpUehshFk;. mJ jtpur; nra;j p
,jo;fspy; jg;Gk; jtWkhf nkhopngau;g;Gj; jpUg;gzp eilngWfpwJ. kiwkiy-
abfshiug; NghyNth> gz;bj kzpatu;fisg; NghyNth nkhopngau;g;Gj; Jiwapy;
<Lglty;yhu; ,d;W vtUk; ,yu;. Mu;tkpd;ikNa ,jw;F %y fhuzk; Mw;wypd;ikad;W.
,dpNaDk; ek;kpy; rpyupd; ftdkhtJ ,j;jpir Nehf;fpj; jpUk;Gkhf! Nrf;];gpaupNyh>
iggpspNyh> jpUf;FwspNyh> rpyk;gpNyh fhzg;gLk; kpfTau; e;j gFjpfs; cyiff; ftUk;
Mw;wYilad. mtw;iw midtUk; gbf;Fk; tha;g;gspf;f Ntz;Lk;. mit nkhop
ngau;f;fg;gl;lhy; midtu; cs;sj;ijAk; <u;fF
; k; vd;gJWjp. Njitaw;wtw;iw nkhop
ngau;j;jhy; Rit Fd;wNt nra;Ak;.

nkhop ngau;g;G xd;Wk; Fw;wKila> gopg;gpw;Fupa Jiwad;W . %y Mrpupaid

tpl nkhop ngau;g;ghsid kl;lkhf kjpf;fpd;w epiy khwNtz;Lk;. nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs;
gy ,lq;fspy; „,uz;lhe;jukhf‟ ,Ug;gjhff; fUJfpd;wdu;. MapDk; rpy ,lq;fspy; %y
Mrpupau;fNs mtu;fspYk; Nkhrkhf ,Ug;gij kWf;f KbahJ. %y E}iy khw;w
KbahJ mjw;F NkYk; NkYk; jpUe;jpa tbtk; ju KbahJ. Mdhy; nkhop ngau;g;G
E}iy NkYk; NkYk; jpUj;jpg; GJg;gpf;fyhk;. jpUf;FwSf;F Kd;ida nkhop
ngau;g;Gf;fspYk; jpUe;jpa ngau;g;Gf;fisg; gilf;f ekf;F ,d;Dk;
tha;g;gpUf;fpwjy;yth?Mdhy; ehk; jpUf;Fwisj; jpUj;j KbahJ jpUj;jf;$lhJ. vdpDk;
fUj;Jf;fs; ,lk; tpl;L ,lk; ngauNt nra;fpd;wd.

xNu nkhopapYk; gilg;NghDila mDgtk; gbg;Nghdhy; „nkhop ngau;j;J‟

mDgtpf;fg;gLfpwJ. kdpjDf;F kdpjd; fUj;Jf;fs; ,lk; khWtJ xUtif nkhop
ngau;g;NgahFk;. fhyj;jpw;Ff; fhyKk;> ehl;Lf;F ehLk;> nkhopf;F nkhopAk;> fUj;Jf; fs;
nrd;Nwwp> nkhop ngau;f;fg; gl;Nl tsu;e;J tUfpd;wd. fUj;jstpy; elf;Fk; ,k;nkhop
ngau;g;G> nkhop mstpy; fhl;rp jUtNj nkhop ngau;g;Gj; Jiw ahFk;. vdNt nkhop
ngau;g;Gf; fiy ,aw;iff;F KuzhdJ md;W vd;gij ehk; czu;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

nkhop ngau;g;Gf;fiy njhd;Wnjhl;L kuG topahf tUtjhFk;

vk;nkhopahsuplKk; fhzg; gLtjhFk;. njhy;fhg;gpau; „topE}y;‟ gw;wp tpsf;F kplj;J>

23
“njhFj;jy;> tpupj;jy;> njhiftpup> nkhop ngau;j;J mju;g;gl ahj;jNyhL mid
kugpdNt” (njhy;: 1597) vd;W Fwpg;gpLfpwhu;. „KjD}yhrpupad; tpupj;Jr; nra;jjidj;
njhFj;Jr; nra;jYk;> njhFj;Jr; nra;jjid tpupj;Jr; nra;jYk;> mt;tpU tifapidAk;
njhiftpupahfr; nrhy;YjYk;> tlnkhopg; gDtiy nkhop ngau;j;Jj; jkpo; nkhopahw;
nra;jYk; vd;wthW’ vd ,jid ,sk;G+uzu; tpsf;Ffpd;whu;. mtu; fhyj;Jk; Kd;Dk;
tlnkhop E}y;fNs nkhop ngau;f;fg;gl;L te;jd thjypd; ,q;qdk; ciunaOjpdhu;.
njhy;fhg;gpau; gpwnkhop E}y;fis mbnahw;wp nkhop ngau;j;J mikj;jiyNa
tpUk;gpdhu; vd;gjw;F „nkhopngau;j;J mju;g;gl ahj;jy;‟ vd;w nrhy;yhl;rp cjtp
nra;fpd;wJ.

ek; Jiw capUs;s thOk; ,yf;fpaj;ijg; gw;wpaJ. xU fUj;J> ek;Kl; GFe;J

ek;ik capu;g;gpf;f ty;y capUs;s fUj;J> ve;j nkhopapw; nrhy;yg;gl;lhYk; mJ
fpNuf;fNkh `Pg;UNth> tlnkhopNah vJ thapDk; mf;fUj;J ek;KilaNjahFk;. cyfg;
nghJthd ,k; KUfpaw; fiyapy; ‘Njrpak;‟ vd;w ehl;Lupikia epiyehl;LtJ
jtwhFk;. Xupyf;fpaj;jpy; Njrpaj;jd;ik ,Uf;fyhk;. MapDk; mf;fiy cyfg;
nghJthdNjahFk;.

gz;ghl;by; cyf xUik vd;gJ mbg;gil cz;ikahFk;. (In Culture,

Internationalismis the basic fact) “ehk; ek;Kila ,dj;ij Nerpg;gJ cz;ikahdhy;>
cyfpw; rpe;jpf;fg;gl;ltw;wpYk; nrhy;yg;gl;ltw;wpYk; kpfr; rpwe; jtw;iwj; je;J mjid
tsg;gLj;j kpfTk; Mu;tk; cilatu;fshapUf;f Ntz;Lk;. mjw;F <lhf ek;Kila
rpwe;j fUj;Jf;fis cyf kdpj ,dj;jpw;Fg; nghJthd Nrkpg;Gf; fUT+yj;jpy; Nru;ff
;
ehKk; flikg;gl;bUf;fpNwhk;” vd;W My;gu;l; n[uhy;L Fwpg;gpLtijf; fhzyhk;.

jkpopy; nkhop ngau;g;Gf; fiy gw;wp xU rpy fl;Liufs; vOjg;gl;L te;Js;sd.

,JfhWk; vj;jidNah E}y;fs; nkhop ngau;f;fg;gl;Ls;sd. tlnkhop E}y;fs;> Mq;fpy
E}y;fs; Nghy;td gynkhop ngau;f;fg;gl;Ls;sd. rhfpj;jpa mfhnjkpapdUk;
njd;dpe;jpag; Gj;jff; FOtpdUk; ,e;jpa nkhop E}y;fisAk; njd;dpe;jpa nkhop
E}y;fisAk; rpwg;ghff; fijfis nkhop ngau;j;J tUfpd;wdu;. MapDk; ,itnay;yhk;
fliy epug;g xU Jspiag; nga;tJ Nghd;w jhFk;. ,dpNaDk; ,j;Jiw ed;F tsu;r;rp
ngw;W xg;gpyf;fpaf; Nfhl;ghl;il tsg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. ,f;fUj;Jfs; midj;Jk;
jkpoz;zy; xg;gpyf;fpa mwpKfk; vd;Wk; E}y; top ekf;F vLj;Jiuj;jdthFk;.

24
tpdhf;fs; :

1. gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghL tpthp?

2. mnkhpf;f Nfhl;ghl;bidj; njhFj;Jiuf;f?
3. xg;gpyf;fpak; Fwpj;J vr;.vr;. hpkhHf;F jUk; tpsf;fj;jpid vLj;Jiuf;f?
4. xg;gpyf;fpaKk; nkhopg;ngaHg;G JiwAk; Fwpj;J fl;Liu tiuf?

25
 myF 3

1. xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpy; Gjpa gupkhzk;

#rd; ghRndl; tuT

“xg;gpyf;fpak; gz;ghLfisf; fle;J gpujpfis Muha;tjpy; <LgLfpwJ. ,J

gy;Jiw rhHe;jJ. ,J fhyKk; ntspAk; fle;j ,yf;fpaq;fspd; njhlHG tbtq;fisf;
fUj;jpw;nfhs;fpwJ." - #rd; ghRndl;

xg;gpyf;fpak; vd;w njhlH> ,yf;fpak; fw;gpj;jypy; gj;njhd;gjhk; E}w;whz;bd;

njhlf;fj;jpNyNa INuhg;ghtpy; cUg;ngw;Wtpl;lJ. ,j;njhlH Kjd;Kjypy; gpuhd;rpYk;
(1816 & cours de literature compare'e) ,jidj; njhlHe;J Mq;fpyj;jpYk; (1848 - khj;a+
mHdhy;L Comparative Literature) ,jidaLj;J n[HkdpapYk; (1854 Nkhup];NfupaH -
vergleichande literature geschichte) ifahsg;gl;lJ. xg;gpyf;fpak; Fwpj;j Ma;Tfs;>
gy;fiyf;fof epiyapy; 1890-fspy; gpuhd;rpYk; mnkupf;fhtpYk; njhlq;fp tpl;ld.

xg;gpyf;fpak; vDk; fUj;jikg;igf; nfhs;if mbg;gilapy; cyfpw;F

mwpKfg;gLj;jpatHfs;> gpnuQ;R ehl;bdNu MtH. gpnuQ;R ehl;bdH xg;gpyf;fpaj;ij
,yf;fpa tuyhw;wpd; xU fpisahfNt fUjpdH. INuhg;ghtpy; ehLfs; [dehafj;jpw;Fk;
tpLjiyf;Fk; Nghuhba #oypy; - Njrpak; vd;w rpe;jid murpaypd; ika tpirahfr;
nray;gl;l #oypy; gpuhd;rpy; xg;gpyf;fpak; Kfpo;j;jJ. ,jd; tpisthf ,Ugjhk;
E}w;whz;bd; njhlf;fj;jpy; xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpid xU jdpj;Jiwahf cyfpw;F
mwpKfg;gLj;jpa GUneBH Kjyhd gpnuQ;R xg;gpay; mwpQHfs;> xg;gpyf;fpaj;ij jkJ
Njrpag;gz;Gfisj; NjLtjw;Fk; tiuaWg;gjw;Fkhd xU fUtpahfNt ghHj;jdH.
'gpnuQ;R> Mq;fpyk;> n[Hkd; Mfpa ehl;bduhfpa ehk; xt;nthUtUk;> ekJ jiyrpwe;j
gilg;ghsHfspd; rpwe;j Njrpag;gz;Gfisg; Gupe;J nfhs;tjw;F xg;gpyf;fpa tuyhW
ek;ikf; $Hikg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;” vd;whH> GUneBH.

gpnuQ;R xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;T ngupJk; ,yf;fpaj; njhlHGfisAk; jhf;fq;fisAk;

fz;lwptjhfNt mike;jJ. gpnuQ;Rehl;L xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; je;ijahff; fUjg;gLk;
ghy;thd;jPfk; (Paulvan Tieghem) “gy;NtW ,yf;fpaq;fSf;fpilNa gu];guk; fhzg;gLk;
cwT epiyfisg; gw;wpa Ma;Nt xg;gpyf;fpak;" vd tiuaWj;jhH. vdNt cwTepiy

26
xg;gPL> ,yf;fpaj;jpd; gpwg;gpaiyf; fz;lwpAk; %yKk; jhf;fKk; gw;wpa Ma;thfNt
tsHe;jJ. ,e;j xg;gPl;lha;tpy; tuyhw;Wg; ghHitAk; mwptpay; mZFKiwAk;
gpd;gw;wg;gl;ld. gilg;ghsHfSf;F ,ilapyhd nka;ikj; njhlHGfisf; fz;lwptjw;F
rKjha tuyhw;Wg; ghHitia ikag;gLj;jpdH. ,yf;fpaq;fspy; fhzg;gLk; xj;j
jd;ikfis tpsf;Ftjw;Ff; fhuz fhupa Ma;itg; gad;gLj;jpdH. xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;it
XH mwptpay; gupNrhjid Nghy epfo;j;jpf;fhl;l KbAnkd njapd;> $wpdhH. gpnuQ;R
xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;tpy; mwptpay; ghHitAk; nka;ikj; njhlHGfSk; mjpff;ftdk;
ngw;wikf;F> md;iwa INuhg;ghtpy; „fhz;gnjy;yhk; cz;ik‟ vDk; NeHf;fhl;rpthj
(Positivism) jj;Jtk; NkNyhq;fpapUe;jik xU fhuzkhFk;. N[.vk;.fhH> tpy;ynkapd;>
Mk;gpaH> ifahHL (Guyard) MfpNahH Fwpg;gplj;jf;f gpnuQ;R ehl;L xg;gpyf;fpa
mwpQHfs; MtH. INuhg;gpa mnkupf;f ehLfspy; 1950-fs; tiu gpnuQ;R xg;gpyf;fpa
Ma;T Kiwahd jhf;ff;Nfhl;ghNl nry;thf;Fg; ngw;wpUe;jJ.

1960-fspy; nudpnty;yf;> upkhf; Nghd;w mnkupf;f xg;gpay; mwpQHfs;> gpnuQ;R

xg;gpay; mwpQHfspd; jhf;ff; Nfhl;ghl;il kWjypj;J ,izepiy Ma;T Kiwapid
Kd;dpWj;jpdH. ,tHfs; ,yf;fpak; rKjhaj;NjhLk;tuyhw;NwhLk; njhlHGgLj;jg;
gLtijf; fz;bj;jdH. ,yf;fpak; jdpKOikahf - jdpg;nghUshf - fw;gidapd;
ntspg;ghlhfg; gapyg;gl Ntz;Lnkd;W tw;GWj;jpdH. gpnuQ;R ehl;bd; mwptpay;
mZFKiwf;F khwhf mofpay; mZFKiwia Kjd;ikg;gLj;jpdH. mj;NjhL>
,yf;fpaj;ij ,yf;fpaj;NjhL kl;Lky;yhJ Vida mwpTj; JiwfSlDk;
xg;gplyhnkd;W xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; vy;iyia NtnwhU Nfhzj; jpypUe;J tpupTgLj;jpdH.
“xg;gpyf;fpak; vd;gJ Fwpg;gpl;l ehl;nly;iyiaj; jhz;ba ,yf;fpa Ma;T@ mJ
,yf;fpaq;fSf;fpilapyhd cwTepiyfis xUGwk; Ma;fpwJ. kWGwk;> ,yf;fpaj;ijf;
fiyfs;> jj;Jtk;> tuyhW Kjyhd Vida mwpTj;JiwfSld; xg;gpl;L Muha;fpwJ"
vd;gJ upkhf;fpd; xg;gpyf;fpak; Fwpj;j Gfo;tha;e;j tiuaiwahFk;. tpsf;fKiwAk;
fpilj;jsj; jd;ikAk; nfhz;l mnkupf;ff; Nfhl;ghL GJj;jpwdha;T (New Criticism)
vd;w jpwdha;TKiwapd; gpd;dzpapy; Njhd;wpaJ. Myd;Nll;> fpspae;j;G&f;]; Nghd;w
GJj; jpwdha;thsHfs;> ,yf;fpaj;ijg; gilg;ghsNdhLk; r%fj;NjhLk; njhlHGgLj;jhJ>
jdpg;nghUshfTk;> KOr; Rje;jpukhdjhfTk;> fw;gidapd; ntspg;ghlhfTk; fz;ltHfs;.

#rd;ghRndl;bd; tuT

NkiyehLfspy; 1950-fspYk; 1960-fspYk; nry;thf;Fg; ngw;Wj; jpfo;e;j ,j;jifa

xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;T> 1970-fspy; Njf;fepiy mile;jJ. 1970 njhlq;fp 1990 tiu

27
,Ugjhz;Lf; fhyfl;lj;jpy;> INuhg;ghtpy; > ,yf;fpa Ma;tpy; GJg;GJj; jpwdha;Tf;
nfhs;iffs; mikg;gpay;> gpd;idaikg;gpay;> fl;ltpo;g;G> gpd;id etPdj;Jtk;>
ngz;zpak;> gpd;idf; fhydpak; vd;W #whtspf; fhw;wha;r; Rod;W tPrpd.
,f;Nfhl;ghLfs; cUthdNghJ> mtw;Wf;F cld;ghlhfNth vjpHkiwahfNth xg;gpyf;fpa
mwpQHfs; vjpHtpidahw;wtpy;iy Gjpa xg;gpyf;fpaf; Nfhl;ghLfis Kd;nkhopatpy;iy@
nksdk; rhjpj;jdH. mtHfs; ,g;Gjpa Nfhl;ghLfisf; fle;J xg;gpyf;fpak;
tsuNtz;bajd; mtrpaj;ij czutpy;iy. ,jd; fhuzkhf 1980-fspy; xg;gpyf;fpa
Kiwapay;> xg;gpyf;fpaf; nfhs;iffs; Fwpj;j E}y;fs; vJTk; ntsptutpy;iy
,e;epiyapy; xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;tpd; ePz;l nksdj;ijf; fiyj;jtH> ,q;fpyhe;J ehl;L
xg;gpyf;fpag; Nguhrpupiaahd #rd;ghRndl; MthH. ,tuJ „xg;gpyf;fpak;-XH tpkHrd
mwpKfk;‟ (1993) vDk; E}y;> gpd;idf;fhydpar; #oypy; gpd;idaikg;gpay; Kjyhd
Gjpa ,yf;fpaf; nfhs;iffs; tsHe;j #oypy; - xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpw;fhd Gjpa fsq;fis>
milahsq;fis Kd;itf;fpd;wJ. ,e;E}y; 1990 tiu epfo;e;j - Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;Lte;j -
xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;Tfis Muha;e;J mjd; gpd;dzpapy;> xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; Gjpa>
Nfhzq;fisg; gupkhzq;fis Kd;itf;fpd;wJ. ,e;j E}ypd; cl;gFjpfshf mikAk;
gpd;tUk; ,ay; jiyg;Gf;fNs ,jidr; Rl;bf;fhl;Lk;. mit :

0. mwpKfk; : ,d;W xg;gpyf;fpak; vd;gJ ahJ?

1. xg;gpyf;fpak; vt;thW eilKiwf;F te;jJ?
2. INuhg;gpa vy;iyfisf; fle;j xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; khw;Wf; fUj;jikg;Gf;fs;
3. gpupj;jhdpa epyg;gFjpfspy; ,yf;fpaq;fis xg;gpLjy;
4. gpd;idf;fhydpa cyfpy; xg;gpay; milahsq;fs;
5. gz;ghLfisf; fl;likj;jy; : gazpaH fijfspd; murpay;
6. ghypdk; kw;Wk; mbf;fUj;jpay; : ifdptNu fij xU jdpepiy Ma;T
7. xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpypUe;J nkhopngaHg;gpay; Ma;TfSf;F

,e;j E}ypy; gpd;id etPdj;Jt ,yf;fpaf; nfhs;iffspd; > rhuj;ij cs;thq;fpf;

nfhz;L> mf;Nfhl;ghLfspd; thHj;ijfspy; xg;gpyf;fpak; Fwpj;j nrhy;yhliy
Kd;itf;fpwhH> #rd;ghRndl;. ,tH> ,q;fpyhe;J ehl;L thHtpf; gy;fiyf;fofj;jpd;
xg;gpyf;fpag; Nguhrpupia gpupj;jhdpa kw;Wk; xg;gpay; gz;ghl;L Ma;Tfs; ikaj;jpd;
jiytH. cyfpYs;s gy gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; Nguhrpupauhfg; gzpahw;wpa ghRndl;>
xg;gpyf;fpak;> muq;ff;fiy> kfspupay;> nkhopngaHg;gpay; Mfpatw;iwr; rpwg;G
Ma;Tf;fsq;fshf tupj;Jf; nfhz;ltH. nkhopngaHg;gpay; Ma;Tfs; (1980)>nkhopngaHg;G:

28
tuyhWk; gz;ghLk; (1990> ,izMrpupaH: ny/gpntNu) Mfpa E}y;fspd; MrpupaH.
nkhopngaHg;ghsuhfr; nray;GupAk; ghRndl;> ftpijfSk; GidfpwhH.

xg;gpyf;fpak; Fwpj;j jdJ E}ypy;> ghRndl; xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; ,d;iwa epiyia

kl;Lky;y> vjpH fhyj;ijAk; Nfs;tpf;Fs;shf;FfpwhH@ Njrpag; gz;ghLfspd; vOr;rpapy;
Njhd;wpa xg;gpyf;fpak;> INuhg;gpaika Ma;Tg; ghHitiaf; fle;J nry;y Ntz;bajd;
mtrpaj;ijAk; typAWj;JfpwhH. ,jd; fhuzkhf xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;Tyfpy; ePz;l
fhykhfg; gpd;gw;wg;gl;L te;j gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghl;bidAk; mnkupf;ff; Nfhl;ghl;bidAk;
kWguprPyidf;F cl;gLj;JfpwhH. ,dp ,jidr; rw;W tpupthff; fhz;Nghk;.

jhf;ff; Nfhl;ghl;by; gpnuQ;RNjrpaKk; Nkyhz;ikAk;

cwTila,yf;fpaq;fSf;fpilapyhd nfhs;tpid nfhLg;gpidfisf;

fz;lwptjhfNt gpnuQ;R xg;gpyf;fpaMa;Tmike;jJ. ,jid N[.vk;.fhupd; gpd;tUk;
xg;gpyf;fpak; Fwpj;j tiuaiw cWjpg;gLj;Jk;. “xg;gpyf;fpak; ,yf;fpa tuyhw;wpd; xU
fpis. ,J igud; (Mq;fpyk;) g+\fpd; (U\pah)> NfhNj (n[Hkd;) fhHiyy; (Mq;fpyk;)>
thy;lH ];fhl; (Mq;fpyk;) kw;Wk; tpf;dp (gpnuQ;R) MfpNahupd; gilg;GfSf;fpilapyhd
nka;ikj; njhlHGfisf; fz;lwpAk; gd;dhl;L cwT epiyfs; gw;wpa Ma;T” vd;fpwhH>
N[.vk;.fhH. gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghl;bd; tuyhw;Wj; jd;ikiaAk; mwptpay; ghHitiaAk;
mnkupf;f xg;gpay; mwpQHfs; tpkHrdj;jpw;Fl;gLj;jpdH. Mdhy; ghRndl;> gpnuQ;Rf;
Nfhl;ghl;bid NtnwhU Nfhzj;jpy; tUkhW tpkHrpf;fpwhH: ,uz;L NtWgl;l
mikg;GfspYs;s ,uz;L gpujpfis my;yJ ,uz;L vOj;jhsHfis Ma;fpd;w „,Uik
Ma;thf‟ tpsq;FfpwJ> gpnuQ;R xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;T. ,e;j Ma;tpy; gpnuQ;R ,yf;fpak;
nfhLg;gtuhf my;yJ ngWgtuhfNt vg;NghJk; nray;gl;lJ. ,t;thW cwTepiy
Ma;thf – „md;gspg;Gr; nra;Ak;‟ nray;Kiwahf ,yf;fpaj; jhf;fq;fisg; NgRtjhfNt
gpnuQ;R xg;gpyf;fpak; mikfpwJ. NkYk; gpnuQ;R xg;gpayhsHfs; gpnuQ;R caHT
kdg;ghd;ikiaj;jq;fs; Ma;tpy; gpufldg;gLj;jpajhfTk; #rd;ghRndl; kjpg;gpLfpwhH.

gpd;idf;fhydpar; #oypy; xt;nthU gz;ghLk; ,jug;gz;ghLfis mq;ff

P upf;Fk;
„jpwitj;‟ jd;ik nfhz;ljhf mikaNtz;Lnkd vjpHghHf;fpwJ. ,jpy; gz;ghl;L
Nkyhjpf;fj;jpw;F - xUFwpg;gpl;l gz;ghl;il ikag;gLj;jp Vida gz;ghLfis
tpspk;Gepiyg; gLj;Jtjw;F - ,lkpy;iy.

29
mnkupf;ff; Nfhl;ghl;bd; my; murpay; jd;ik

gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghl;bd; kPJ mnkupf;fHfs; epfo;j;jpa jhf;Fjy;fisg; Nghy>

mnkupf;ff; Nfhl;ghL ngupa mstpy; mwpQHfspd; jhf;Fjy;fSf;Fk; tpkHrdj;jpw;Fk;
cl;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy. ,e;epiyia Kjypy; khw;wpaikj;jtH> #rd;ghRndl;Nl.
,yf;fpaq;fis ehl;nly;iyfisf; fle;J cwTfsw;w epiyapYk; xg;gpLjy;> Vida
mwpTj;JiwfSld; ,yf;fpaj;ij xg;gpLjy; xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;it cyfshtpa
jd;ikapdjhfTk; gy;Jiw rhHe;jjhfTk; mnkupf;ff; Nfhl;ghL tpupTgLj;jpaJ. Mdhy;
mNj rkaj;jpy; XH ,yf;fpaj;jpd; nkhop> ,dk;> rhHe;j jdpj;jd;ikfis Njrpaj;
jd;ikfis - mnkupf;ff; Nfhl;ghL Gwf;fzpj;jJ. ,uz;lhk; cyfg;NghUf;Fg; gpd;dhy;
If;fpa ehLfs;> fhkd;nty;j; ehLfs; Nghd;w mikg;Gf;fs; Nghupy;yh cyifg;gw;wpr;
rpe;jpj;jNghJ mnkupf;f xg;gpay; jpwdha;thsHfs; cyfshtpa fiyiag; gw;wpr;
rpe;jpj;jdH. ,jd; tpisthf ntspg;gilahfNt Njrpaj; jd;ikfisg; Gwf;fzpj;jdH.

/gpuhd;fha;]; vd;fpw mnkupf;f xg;gpay; mwpQH> “Njrpa ,yf;fpak; vd;W XH

Ma;Tg;gpupit mikf;f KbahJ mJ ,LFwpahfNt FWfpa ghHitia cilaJ
xg;gpyf;fpak; vd;gJ xU fy;tpapay; Jiw vd;gijidAk; jhz;baJ. ,J cyf
,yf;fpaq;fs; Fwpj;j xl;Lnkhj;jg; ghHitAilaJ...” vd;fpwhH. gz;ghl;L
Ntw;Wikfisg; Gwf;fzpj;J> xg;gpyf;fpaj;ij Kd;itf;Fk; ,j;jifa ghHit>
'xg;gpyf;fpaj;ij xUtifahd cyfr; rkak; Nghy; Kd;nkhoptjhf mikfpwJ”
vd;fpwhH> ghRndl;. nudpnty; yf;Fk; thuDk; ,yf;fpaf; nfhs;if E}ypy; cyf
,yf;fpa xUik Fwpj;J$Wk.; gpd;tUk; fUj;jpidAk;> ghrndl; mq;fjkhf
tpkuprpf;fpwhH. 'xg;gpyf;fpak; nkhopapay; Gyiktha;e;j mwpthspfsplj;jpy; mjpfkhf
vjpHghHf;fpwJ. mJ ekJ ghHitfis tprhyg;gLj;Jk;gb Nfl;fpwJ@ miltjw;F
vspjw;w tl;lhu kw;Wk; khepy czHTfis mlf;fpahsr; nrhy;fpwJ"> xg;gpay; mwpQupd;
,j;jifa ntspg;ghL 'xUtifg;gl;l rHNtNjrpa J}JtH> If;fpaehLfspd;
xg;gpyf;fpaq;fSf;fhfg; gzpahw;Wtijg; NghypUf;fpwJ” vd;fpwhH> ghRndl. NkYk;
nty;yf;> thud; MfpNahupd; 'fiyAk; kdpjKk; xd;nwd;gijg; Nghy ,yf;fpaKk;
xd;Nw” vd;w $w;wpid rHtNjrpa neUf;fbfSf;Fg; (cyfg;NghHfs;) gpwF cUthd
,yf;fpaq; Fwpj;j ,yl;rpag; ghHit” vd kjpg;gpLfpwhH.

,NjNghd;W nty;yf;> upkhf; Nghd;w mnkupf;f xg;gpay; mwpQHfs;> xg;gpyf;fpa

Ma;tpy; ,yf;fpag; gpujpia kl;Lk; Ma;Tf;F vLj;Jf; nfhz;L> mg;gpujp cUthd #oy;
Fwpj;j gpur;rpidfisf; fzf;fpnyLj;Jf; nfhs;shjijAk; #rd;ghRndl;

30
tpkHrdj;jpw;Fl;gLj;JfpwhH. nudpnty;yf; xg;gpyf;fpaj;ij Kd;nkhope;j NghJ
gpd;tUkhW ciuj;jhH: xg;gpyf;fpak; nkhop> ,dk;> murpay; vy;iyfisf; fle;j
Rje;jpukhd ,yf;fpa Ma;NthL jhd; jd;id milahsg;gLj;jpf;nfhs;fpwJ. ,J xU
KiwapaYf;Fs; rpiwg;gLtjy;y... cz;ikahd tuyhw;Wj; njhlHGfSf;Fs;>
rpiwg;gLtjhf xg;gPL ,Uj;jy; $lhJ ... tuyhw;W uPjpahf cwTfsw;w nkhopfs;
my;yJ ,yf;fpa tiffspd; jhf;fq;fis thrpg;G my;yJ ,izepiyfspypUe;J
fz;lwpfpd;w xg;gPl;L epfo;Nt mjpf kjpg;Gilajhf ,Uf;Fk;... tuyhW> nfhs;if kw;Wk;
jpwdha;T vd;gd ,yf;fpa Ma;tpd; %d;W Kjd;ikf; fpisfshFk;. ,k; %d;Wk;
xd;Nwhnlhd;W jk;ik <LgLj;jpf; nfhs;td... xg;gpyf;fpak; nraw;ifahd tuk;Gfisf;
fle;J vspikahd ,yf;fpak; Fwpj;j Ma;thf cUntLf;fpd;wNghJ jhd;
nrOikailAk;. ,q;F ,yf;fpak; Fwpj;j r%f> nghUshjhu> murpay; tp\aq;fs;
ntspg;gilahf Ntz;Lnkd;Nw jtpHf;fg;gl;bUf;fpd;wd. vdNt „xg;gpyf;fpaj;ij murpay;
mw;w jd;ikapy; khw;wpaJjhd; mnkupf;fg; gs;spapd; rhjid‟ vd;W #rd;ghRndl;
tpkHrpf;fpwhH. mnkupf;ff; Nfhl;ghl;bd; kPjhd #rd;ghRndl; bd; tpkHrdk; ,uz;L
ikaq;fspy; epiynfhs;fpwJ.

1) ,yf;fpaj;jpd; Njrpag; gz;Gfs; fzf;fpnyLj;Jf; nfhs;sg; gl Ntz;Lk;@ mit

Gwf;fzpf;fj;jf;fdty;y.

2) ,yf;fpak; mJ gpwg;ngLj;j rKjha> murpay; #oypy; itj;Jg; ghHf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.

ghRndl;bd; ,e;j epiyg;ghL Xustpw;F gpnuQ;R xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;TKiwf;F

neUf;fkhdjhf ,Uf;fpwJ. ghRndl;> mnkupf;f xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; cyfshtpa
jd;ikf;Fk; cUttpay; rhHe;j mofpay; newpKiwf;Fk; vjpuhf itf;fpd;w
tpkHrdq;fs;> gpd;idetPdj;Jt> gpd;idf;fhydpa nfhs;ifg; gpd;Gyj;jpy; Gupe;J
nfhs;sg; glNtz;Lk;. gpd;id etPdj;Jtk; Ngupyf;fpak;> kdpj xUik Kjyhd
ngUq;fijahly;fis - ikaq;fis - kWf;fpwJ@ ngz;zpa ,yf;fpak;> Mg;gpupf;fg;
gz;ghL Kjyhd rpWfijahly;fis tpspk;Gepiyfis Mjupf;fpwJ. mNjNghd;W
,yf;fpaj;ij XH murpay; nray;ghlhfg; ghHf;fpwJ. gpd;idf; fhydpaf; nfhs;ifAk;>
Njrpa milahsj;ijAk; jha;g;gz;ghl;ilANk typAWj;JfpwJ. ,e;jg; gpd;dzpapy;>
mnkupf;f xg;gpay; mwpQHfs; Kd;itj;j cyfshtpa gz;ghl;L kjpg;Gf;fs; vDk;
fUj;jikg;G etPdf;Nfhl;ghl;liyfshy; mbj;Jr; nry;yg;gl;bUg;gij vLj;Jf;f hl;lNt
ghRndl; tpUk;GfpwhH.

31
 ve;j Ma;Tg;nghUspYk; jj;Jt tprhuizapYk; nghJ> jdp vd;w ,uz;L
mk;rq;fs; ,Uf;fpd;wd> ,tw;wpy; VNjDk; xd;iw ikag;gLj;jp kw;nwhd;iwg;
Gwf;fzpf;fpwNghJ> (vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf Njrpaj;jd;ikiag; Gwf;fzpj;J cyfshtpa
jd;ikia ikag;gLj;Jjy;) Gwf;fzpf;fg;gl;lJ jd;idg; Gwf;fzpj;jijg; Gwf;fzpf;Fk;.
xg;gpyf;fpa tuyhw;wpYk; ,J jhd; ele;jpUf;fpwJ. Mdhy;,j;jifa Gwf;fzpg;Gfs;
Gwtakhdjhf eLepiyik rhHe;jjhf mikahJ. xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;tpy; ,yf;fpaj;jpd;
cyfshtpa jd;ikAk; (nghJ epajpfs;) Nghw;wg;gly; Ntz;Lk; . mNj Neuj;jpy; mjd;
Njrpaj;jd;ikAk; ghuhl;lg;glNtz;Lk;. mNjNghd;W ,yf;fpaj;jpd; mofpay; jd; ik
Nghw;wg;gLfpw Ntisapy;> mjd; r%fj;jd;ikAk; fzf;fpnyLj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gl
Ntz;Lk;. ,t;thW ,yf;fpaj;jpy; cs;s nghJ> jdp vd;fpw mk;rq;fis Kuz;gLj;jpg;
ghHf;fhJ> mt;tpuz;L mk;rq;fisAk; rkkhfg;ghtpj;jNy ,izthf;fk; nra;jNy -
tpQ;Qhdg; g+Htkhd ,aq;fpay; ghHitahFk;. ikak; x tpspk;G Mfpa ,uz;ilAk;
Kuz;gLj;jpg; ghHf;fpw Ntisapy;> mtw;Wf;fpilapyhd ,aq;fpay; cwTk;
fzf;fpnyLj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gl Ntz;Lk;.

INuhg;gpa ikag;ghHit

fPo;j;jpir ,yf;fpaq;fs; - Mrpa ,yf;fpaq;fs; gw;wpa INuhg;gpaHfspd;

kjpg;gPLfspy; fhzg;gLk; INuhg;gpaikag; ghHitiaAk; jdJ E}ypy; ghRndl; fzf;fpy;
vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwhH. 1835-,y; nkf;fhNy fPo;j;jpir ,yf;fpaq;fs; Fwpj;j jdJ fUj;ij
,g;gbj; njuptpf;fpwhH.

“xU rpwe;j INuhg;gpa E}yfj;jpd; XH mLf;F> ,e;jpah kw;Wk; mNugpa ehLfspd;

xl;Lnkhj;j ,yf;fpaq;fSf;Fr; rkkhdJ vd;w $w;iw kWf;ff;$ba fPo;j;jpirapayhsH
vtiuAk; ehd; fhztpy;iy. NkYk;> muhgpa> rk];fpUj ftpijiag; Gfo;tha;e;j
INuhg;gpa ehl;byf;fpaq;fNshL xg;gplf;$ba Jzpr;ry; kpf;f fP o;j;jpirapayhsH
vtiuAk; ehd; re;jpj;jjpy;iy"

kj;jpa Mrpah kw;Wk; ,e;jpaj; Jizf;fz;lj;jpd; gz;ghl;Lg; ghuk;gupak; kPjhd

nkf;fhNyapd; ,e;jj; jhf;Fjy; ,d;W ,dntwpr; rhHGilajhfTk; mgj;jkhdjhfTk;
njd;gLtjhff; Fwpg;gpLk; ghRndl;> ckHfa;ahkpd; Ughaj;ij nkhopngaHj;j
/gpl;n[uhy;Lk; fPo;j;jpir ,yf;fpaj;ijg; gw;wpj; jho;e;j fUj;JilatuhfNt ,Ue;jjhfr;
nrhy;fpwhH. jkJ INuhg;gpag; gz;ghl;il „Nkyhdjhff;‟ fUjp mNjNghJ> Mrpa
Mg;gpupf;fg; gz;ghl;ilg; GuhjhdkhdjhfTk; Foe;ijj; jdkhdjhfTk; fUJk;
INuhg;gpaHfspd; ,g;ghHit> Vfhjpgj;jpa murpaypd; xU gFjpNa md;wp Ntwpy;iy

32
vd;fpwhH> ghRndl;. NkYk; N\f;];gpaH Kjyhd Mq;fpy vOj;jhsHfspd; gilg;Gf;fs;
,e;jpah Nghd;w Mrpa ehLfSf;F ,wf;Fkjp nra;ag;gl;lJk; 'gz;ghl;Lf;
fhydpakakhf;fyhfg; ghHf;fg;gl Ntz;Lnkd;W #rd; Rl;br;nry;fpwhH.

,e;jg; gz;ghl;Lf;fhydpahjpf;fg; ghHit INuhg;gpa xg;gpayhsHfsplKk;

,Ue;jnjd;gij gpd;tUk; rp.vy;.nud;dpd; (1967) $w;wpd; %yk; czuyhk;. “kdpjHfspd;
rpe;jid Kiwfspy; mbg;gil NtWghLfs; cs;sd. XH Mg;gpupf;f nkhop XH INuhg;gpa
nkhopf;F ,izahdJ my;y. rk];fpUjk; ,e;Njh - INuhg;gpa nkhopahf ,Ue;jhYk;
$l mjd; ,e;jpa tPr;rpd; fhuzkhf rpe;jid tbtpy; ,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;gpw;Ff;
Fiwthd jFjpAilajhfNt ,Uf;fpwJ. kpy;ldpd; RtHf;f ePf;fj;ijAk;>
,uhkhazj;ijAk; rpe;jid czHr;rp mbg;gilapy; xg;gpl ,ayhJ. INuhg;gpa
nkhopfspy; cs;s ,ilf;fhy> etPd ,yf;fpaq;fs;jhd; xg;gpyf;fpathjpfSf;Fupa
nghUj;jkhd Ma;Tg;nghUs;”.

,t;thW INuhg;gpaHfspd; xg;gpyf;fpag; ghHitAk;> fPo;j;jpir ,yf;fpaq;fs;

Fwpj;j mtHfsJ kjpg;gPLk;> „INuhg;gpaikag; ghHit‟ nfhz;L tpsq;Ftij ,e;j
E}ypy; #rd;ghRndl; tpupthf tpsf;fpAs;shH. gpd;idf;fhydpaf; nfhs;ifahsHfSs;
xUtuhd vl;tHL i]j; (Edward Said) jdJ „fPo;j;jpirapay;‟ (Orientalism) vDk;
E}ypy;> „fPo;j;jpirapay;‟ vd;gNj Nkw;fj;jpaghzp> fPo;j; jpirNky; Mjpf;fKk;
kWfl;likg;Gk; mjpfhuKk; nrYj;Jtjw;fhd nrhy;yhlyhf mikfpwJ vd;W $WtJk;
,q;Ff; ftdj;jw;FupaJ.

xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; vjpHfhyk;

1950-fspYk; 1960-fspYk; xg;gpyf;fpaj;Jiwf;Fg; gwe;J te;j Nkw;fj;jpa

khztHfs;> 1970-fspy; ,yf;fpaf; nfhs;if> kfspH Ma;Tfs;> Fwpapay;> jpiug;glk;
kw;Wk; Ma;Tfs;> gz;ghl;L Ma;Tfs; Mfpa Gjpa fy;tpj;JiwfSf;Fg; gwe;J nrd;wdH@
kl;Lky;yhJ ,tHfs;> „xg;gpyf;fpaj;ij tuyhw;Wf;F Ke;ija fhy fl;lj;ijr; NrHe;j
ilNdhru]hfg; ghHj;jdH‟ vd;W #rd;ghRndl; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH. vdNt> ,d;W
xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpw;fhd #oYk;> Gjpa Njly;fSk;> khw;W tbtq;fSk; cz;ikapy;>
%d;whk; cyf ehLfspNyNa ,Uf;fpd;wd vd;W ghrndl; fUJfpwhH. gpd;idf; fhydpar;
#oypy;> INuhg;gpa ikag;ghHit Mg;gpupf;f ,yf;fpaq;fisf; Fiwj;J kjpg;gpLk; ghHit
jfHe;J Ngha;tpl;lJ. Mg;gpupf;ff; fyhr;rhuj;ij tYtw;wjhf fUjpa n`fypag;ghHit
,d;W Nthy; Nrhapd;fh Nghd;w gilg;ghsHfshYk; N[k;]; ];dPl; Nghd;w jpwdha;

33
thsHfshYk; jhf;FjYf;Fs;shfpwJ. Nthy;Nrhapd;fh> rpDth Mr;rpgp Nghd;w Mg;gpupf;f
vOj;jhsHfs;> tpspk;gpypUe;J ,yf;fpa muq;fpd; ikaj;jpw;F tUfpwhHfs;. ngUk;
tpUJfisg; ngWfpwhHfs;.

gpd;idf;fhydpar; #oypy; xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpw;fhd khw;W tbtq;fshf -

xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; Gjpa njhlf;fq;fshf - #rd; ghRndl;> gz;ghl;L Ma;Tfs;>
nkhopngaHg;gpay;> ghypdk;rhHe;j mbf;fUj;jpay; Ma;T Mfpatw;iw Kd; nkhopfpwhH.
,itjhk; INuhg;gpa xg;gpyf;fpa tbtq;fSf;F khw;whd gpd;id INuhg;gpa xg;gpyf;fpa
tbtq;fs; vd;W Fwpg;gpLfpwhH. my;tuyhw;Wj; jd;ikAk;> my; murpay; jd;ikAk;
nfhz;l mnkupf;f cUttpay; mZFKiwf;F khwhf> gz;ghl;L milahsj;ijAk;>
gz;ghl;Lj;jhf;fj;jpd; murpay; tpisTfisAk; vLj;Jf; fhl;Ltjhf ,g;Gjpa xg;gpyf;fpa
tbtq;fs; mikAnkd;W ghRndl; $WfpwhH. ghRndl; Kd; nkhope;j Gjpa xg;gpyf;fpa
tbtq;fs; gw;wp ,dp tpupthff; fhz;Nghk;.

xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpypUe;J nkhopngaHg;gpaiy Nehf;fp

nkhopngaHg;gpay; Fwpj;j gioa ghHitfspy; %yE}Yk; %yE}yhrpupaDk;

Kjd;ik ngw;wdH nkhop ngaHg;Gk; nkhopngaHg;ghsUk; ,uz;lhe; juj;jpduhf kjpg;gplg;
ngw;wdH. nkhopngaHg;ghsd; %yE}ypd mbikahfTk; NrtfdhfTk; %yE}yplk;
tpRthrq; fhl;LgtdhfTk; cUtfk; nra;ag;gl;lhd;. nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ> %yE}ypd;
jho;e;j efyhf fUjg;gl;lJ. kl;Lky;yhJ nkhopngaHg;G vd;gij „nrj;j kdpjid
tho;tpw;Fj; jpUk;gf; nfhzHtJ‟ (gTz;L)> „capUs;s tho;f;iff;Fg; gpe;jpaJ‟ (thy;lH
ngQ;rkpd; - 1923) vdTk; mwpQHfs; cUtfk; nra;jdH. Mdhy; 1980-fSf;Fg;gpd;
nkhopngaHg;G Fwpj;j ,g;ghHitfs; jfHe;J Nghapd. %yk; (Original) vd;w xd;Nw
,y;iy. %yg;gilg;G vd;W nrhy;yg;gLtJ $l> xU fUj;jpd; xU nghUspd; tpupthf;fk;
jhd;. RUq;fr;nrhd;dhy;> %yNk xUtifapy; xd;wpd; nkhopngaHg;Gj;jhd; vd;W njupjh
$wpdhH. vdNt nkhop ngaHg;G vd;gJ xU rpwg;ghd nray;ghL. xU gpujp> ,d;ndhU
#oypy; mjd; tho;f;ifiaj; njhlHtjw;F mJ cjTfpwJ. nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;l gpujp>
GJr;#oypy; mjd; njhlHr;rpahd ,Uj;jiyg; ngWtjd; thapyhf mJNt xU
%ygilg;ghf - mryhf - cUthfp tpLfpwJ.

,thd; N]hfH (Evan Zohar) nkhopngaHg;G Fwpj;j ~gd;ik xOq;fikTfs;‟

(Polysystems) vd;w nfhs;ifia cUthf;fpAs;shH. ,jd;gb> xU nkhopapd;
,yf;fpaj;jpw;Fs; Ntw;Wnkhop ,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;Gfs; ,lk;ngWfpd;w NghJ xU
jdpg;gl;l ,yf;fpa mikg;Gf;Fs; gd;ik mikg;Gfs; cUthfpd;wd vd;gJ nghUshFk;.

34
,jd; mbg;gilapy;> gd;ikf; fyhr;rhur; #oy;fs; cUthfpd;wd. ,yf;fpak; vd;gij
xU gd;ik mikg;G vd;W ghHf;fpw ,g;ghHit> jdpg;gl;l ,yf;fpa mikg;Gfis
gd;Kfq; nfhz;l xU KOikapd; gFjpfshfg; ghHf;fpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf>
Ngupyf;fpaq;fs; x tpspk;G ,yf;fpaq;fs;> ngUk; ghd;ikg; gz;ghL x rpWghd;ikg;
gz;ghL vd;fpw tpthjq;fs; khw;wk; ngWfpd;wd. NkYk;> nkhop ngaHg;Gfs;> ngUk;
gz;ghl;L khw;wr; #oy;fspy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. ,t;thW N]hfH $Wfpd;whH.
NkYk;> mtH xU gz;ghL cWjpahf cyfpy; epiyngw;W tpl;lNghJ - mJ Vfhjpgj;jpa
epiyapy; ,Uf;fpwNghJ - nkhopngaHg;gpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; Fiwe;J tpLfpwJ vd;fpwhH.
,jw;Fr; rhd;whf gpupl;b\; gz;ghL gpw gz;ghLfis fhydpahjpf;fk; nrYj;jpa NghJ
Mq;fpyj;jpy; FiwthfNt nkhopngaHg;Gfs; nra;ag;gl;ljhf mtH Fwpg;gpLfpwhH.

,d;iwa #oypy; nkhopngaHg;gpay; Ma;Tfs; nkhopapay;> ,yf;fpa Ma;T>

tuyhW> khDltpay;> cstpay;> r%ftpay;> ,dkugpay; Mfpatw;wpypUe;J
cUthfpd;wd. MfNt nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ xU tpspk;Gepiyr; nray;ghL my;y. mJ
xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; xU cl;gpupTk; my;y> „xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; vjpHfhyNk nkhop ngaHg;gpay;
Ma;Tfs; jhk;‟ vd;fpwhH> #rd; ghRndl;. Kjypy; nkhopapaypd; cl;gpupthf ,Ue;j
Fwpapay; (Semiotics) ,d;W tpupe;J gue;J nkhopapaiyNa mjd; xU fpisahf
khw;wptpl;lJ. ,ijg;Nghy> xg;gpyf;fpak;> nkhopngaHg;gpay; Mfpatw;Wf;F ,ilapyhd
cwTk; kW rpe;jidf;Fupanjd;fpwhH> ghRndl;. ,tiug; Nghd;Nw Me;Nu ny/gpntNuAk;
'cyfg;gz;ghl;L tsHr;rpapy; Kjd;ikahd tbtikf;Fk; rf;jpahf nkhop ngaHg;Gr;
nray;gLfpwJ. vdNt nkhopngaHg;igf; fUj;jpw;nfhs;shj xg;gpyf; fpa Ma;T cupa
,lj;ijg; ngwKbahJ” vd;fpwhH. NkYk;> mtH nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ „jpUk;g vOJjy;‟
(Rewriting) vd;w mbg;gilapy; gapyg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;fpwhH.

nkhopngaHg;G Ma;Tfs;> gpujpfs; kw;Wk; #oy;fs;> nfhs;if kw;Wk;

nray;Kiwfisf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;fpd;wd@ gz;ghLfSf;fpilapyhd gupkhw;wq;f isAk;
mjd; fUj;jpay; jhf;fq;fisAk; ftdj;jpw; nfhs;fpd;wd vd;fpwhH> #rd;ghRndl;.
vdNt nkhopngaHg;G Ma;T> gz;ghl;L mbg;gil Ma;NthLk; njhlHGilajhfpwJ.

gz;ghl;L Ma;Tfs;

xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpd; Gjpa njhlf;fq;fSs; xd;whf - Gjpa Ma;Tf;fsq;fSs; xd;whf

miktJ gz;ghl;L Ma;Tfs; MFk;. khwptUk; ,d;iwa cyfpy; cyfkakhf;fypy;
gz;ghL> nkhop> Njrk;> tuyhW kw;Wk; milahsk; vd;gd gw;wpa fUj;Jf;fs; khw;wr;
nray;ghl;by; ,Uf;fpd;wd. ,r;#oypy; ,yf;fpag;gpujpfish; gz;ghl;L cw;gj;jpfshff;
35
fhz;gJk;> mtw;iw „gpujp epjpj;Jt murpaNyhL‟ njhlHGgLj;jpf; fhz;gJk; gz;ghl;L
Ma;thf mikfpwJ. RUq;ff;$wpd;> ,yf;fpag; gpujpfis Njrpag; gz;ghl;L
milahsq;fshfTk; gz;ghl;Lj;jhf;fj;jpd; murpay; tpisTfshfTk; fhz;gJ>
xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpy; ,lk;ngWk; gz;ghl;L Ma;Tfspd; mbg;gilfshFk;.

,yf;fpaj;ij tiuaWg;gjpYk; Muha;tjpYk; INuhg;gpaupd; khjpuptbtj;ij -

kjpg;gPl;ilf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;shJ> nrhe;jf; fyhr;rhuj;jpypUe;J Ma;itj; njhlq;FtJ
vd;gJk; gz;ghl;L Ma;Tfspd; ikag; gFjpahFk;. ,t;tifg; gz;ghl;L Ma;Tfs;
gpd;idf; fhydpa ,yf;fpaf;nfhs;ifapd; xU gFjpahfNt czug;g Lfpd;wd. ,jd;gb
,yf;fpa> nkhopj; Jiwapduhy; Gwf;fzpf;fg;gl;l mNjNghJ r%f khdpltpaypd; xU
gFjpahf INuhg;ghtpy; fw;gpf;fg;gl;l ~Mg;gpupf;f ,yf;fpak;‟ vd;gJ ,d;W jdpj;j
tiuaiwfisf; nfhz;l Jiwapdjhf cUg;ngw;Ws;sJ. tpspk;Gepiyg;gLj;jg; gl;l
Mg;gpupf;f ,yf;fpak;> Nthy;Nrhapd;fh Nghd;Nwhuhy; ,d;W ikaj;jpw;F tUfpwJ.
,NjNghd;W cyfg;gz;ghl;Lf; fhyg;gFjpfis tiuaWg;gjpy; gpd;gw;wg;gl;Lte;j
INuhg;gpa khjpupfs;> Gwe;js;sg;gl;L ,d;W> rPd> Mg;gpupf;f> ,e;jpa khjpupfs;
ftdj;jpw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. NkYk; ,Unkhop my;yJ gd;nkhopf;fyg;gpdr; r%fq;fspy;
cUthfp tsHfpd;w ,yf;fpaq;fSk; gz;ghl;L Ma;tpy; rpwg;gplk; ngWfpd;wd.

xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpy;> gz;ghl;L Ma;T vq;qdk; epfo;j;jg;glyhk; vd;gjw;F #rd;

ghRndl;bd; „gz;ghLfisf; fl;likj;jy; gazpaH fijfspd; murpay;‟ (Constructing
cultures: The Politics of Travellers Tales) vd;w fl;Liu xU rpwe;j Kd;Djhuzkhf
mikfpwJ. ,f;fl;Liuapy; kpify; /g+f;Nfh $Wk; xg;gPl;bd; gpd;tUk; ,uz;L
tbtq;fisr; #rd; Rl;LfpwhH.

1) mse;jwpAk; xg;gPL (Comparision of measurement) rkj;Jtj;jpw;Fk;

rkj;Jtkpd;ikf;FKs;s cwTfis epWTtjw;fhff; $Wfisg; gFg;gha;jy;>

2) xOq;fiktpd; xg;gPL : (Comparision of order) vspikf; $Wfs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd;

itg;G KiwfspYs;s NtWghLfis epWTtJ.

fle;j fhyj;jpy; epfo;j;jg;gl;l Kjy;tifahd xg;gPL> Kjd;ik kw;Wk;

Jizikg; gilg;ghsHfs; ngUk; kw;Wk; rpWgpujpfs; tYthd kw;Wk; eype;j gz;ghLfs;
- ngUk;ghd;ikapdH kw;Wk; rpWghd;ikapdH nkhopfs; vd;gdtw;iwf; fl;likj;J
mtw;wpYs;s fUj;jpay; rhHe;j mjpfhug;gbepiyfisj; jf;f itf;fpwJ.

36
 Kjy;tif xg;gPl;bw;Fr; rhd;whff; fy;tpahsH nkf;fhNy> xg;gPl;lwpQH rp.vy;. nud;
MfpNahH ,e;jpaf; fyhr;rhuj;ijAk; Mg;gpupf;ff; fyhr;rhuj;ijAk; jho;thdjhfTk;
INuhg;gpaf; fyhr;rhuj;ij caHthdjhfTk; kjpg;gpl;lijf; $wyhk;. jkpopy; Rthkpehj
NjrpfH Nghd;w ,yf;fzpfs; rk];fpUjj;ij „Njtghi\‟ vd;Wk; jkpio nkhopNa
md;W vd;Wk; $wpaik> rk];fpUjj;ij tYthd gz;ghlhfTk; jkpio eype;j
gz;ghlhfTk; fl;likf;fpwJ. ,g;ghHit Kjy;tif xg;gPl;bw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;lhFk;.
,uz;lhtJ tif xOq;fiktpd; xg;gPl;bw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;lhfg; gpd;tUk; xg;gPl;L tpsf;fk;
mikfpwJ. ,e;jpa Njrpathjk; vd;w nghJj;jsj;jpy; ghujp Kd;dpWj;jpa murpay;
tpLjiyAk;> Mrhd; typAWj;jpa r%f tpLjiyAk;> mg;ghuhT tpUk;gpa cyfkdpj
xUik thjKk; xd;Nwhnlhd;W Kuz;gl;litay;y@ ,k;%d;W epiyg;ghLfSk;
gd;Kfj;jd;ik nfhz;l ,e;jpa Njrpaj;jpd; %d;W gupzhkq;fNs.

„gz;ghLfisf; fl;likj;jy; : gazpaH fijfspd; murpay;‟ vd;w fl;Liuapy;

NtW gpuNjrq;fSf;Fg; gazpj;j INuhg;gpag; gazpaupd; kw;w gz;ghLfisg; gw;wpa
mDgtq;fshf mikAk; gazf; Fwpg;Gfs;> ehl;Fwpg;Gfs;> fbjq;fs;> fijfs;
Mfpatw;iw ghRndl; kWthrpg;gpw;F cl;gLj;jpg; gpd;tUkhW tpkHrpf;fpwhH: 'ahj;jpiu
Nkw;nfhz;l gazpaH> jhk; fz;l Gjpa ,lq;fis „fd;dpepyk;‟ vd;W miog;gJ>
fw;gopg;G cUtf kdg;ghd;ikiaAk; gpw fyhr;rhuj;ijg; ngz;lhsj; Jbf;Fk; „GU\‟
kNdhghtj;ijAk; vLj;Jf; fhl;LfpwJ. NkYk; Mjpthrp epiyapy; cs;s kf;fspd;
gof;ftof;fq;fisAk; ek;gpf;iffisAk; tptupf;Fk;NghJ gazpaH jhk; rhHe;jpUf;Fk;
rkak;> gz;ghL Mfpatw;iwg; Gdpjg;gLj;jpAk; NkyhdjhfTk; fhl;Lfpd;wdH. Gjpa ,lk;
gw;wpa tiuglj;ij cUthf;FtjpYk; ,j;jifa gz;ghl;L Nkyhjpf;f czHT
,Uf;fpwJ vd;W ghRndl; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH.

,e;jpa ,yf;fpar;#oypy; tq;fhsf; fijfspy; ,lk;ngWk; m];]hkpaiug; gw;wpa

fPohd rpj;jpupg;Gk; gz;ghl;L Nkyhjpf;f czHtpd; ntspg;ghLfshff; fUjpg;
ghHf;fj;jf;fd. ,NjNghd;W kiyahs ehl;Lg;Gwf; fijfs; kw;Wk; jpiug;glq;fspy;
jkpoHfisg; (ghz;b) gw;wpa Fzr;rpj;jpupg;Gk; ,q;Ff; ftdj;jpw;FupaJ. kiyahsf;
fyhr;rhu tbtq;fspy;> jkpoHfs; jpUlHfshf> Ruz;ly; thjpfshf> rkak; rhHe;j
%lek;gpf;if nfhz;ltHfshf> GfOiuf;F mbgzpAk; Nghyp murpay;thjpfs;fshf
(fhz;f : mz;ikapy; ntspte;j mr;rndahZ vdpf;fp\;lk;> Nge;jk;/igyp Mfpa
jpiug;glq;fs;) rpj;jpupf;fg;gLtJ> jkpo;g;gz;ghL kPJ kiyahspfs; nfhz;Ls;s
vupr;riyAk; ntWg;GzHitAk; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ. NkYk;> mz;ilg; gz;ghl;ilf;
fPohdjhff; fhl;bj; jk; gz;ghl;il Nkyhdjhff; fhl;l Kaw;rpf;Fk; Nkyhz;ikAzHTk;

37
,jpy; njd;gLfpwJ. ,yf;fpag;gilg;Gfish; gz;ghl;L cw;gj;jpfshff; fhZk;
ghHitf;F ,e;E}ypYs;s ehkf;fy;yhH ts;sj;Njhs; ftpijfspy; fhe;jpak; vd;w fl;Liu
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf mikAk;. ,f;fl;Liuapy; ts;sj;Njhs; kiyahsg; gz;ghl;Lg;
gpd;dzpapy; Guhzpf milahsq;fNshL fhe;jpiaAk; fhe;jpaj;ijAk; cs;thq;Fk;
jd;ikAk;> ehkf;fy;yhH jkpo;g;gz;ghl;Lg; gpd;dzpapy; ts;Stk;> ts;syhH Mfpa jkpo;
milahsq;fNshL fhe;jpiaAk; fhe;jpaj;ijAk; cs;thq;fpa tpjKk; tpsf;fg;
gl;Ls;sd.

,t;thwhd gz;ghL> nkhop> Njrk;> tuyhW kw;Wk; milahsk; Mfpa

fUj;Jf;fspy; gpnuQ;R xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;Tk; ftdk; nrYj;jpaJ. vd;whYk; mjdJ
Nehf;fk; gz;ghl;L kuGfspd; Njhw;wk;> NtHfis tiuaWg;gjhfNtmike;jJ. Mdhy;>
,d;iwa Gjpa gz;ghl;L Ma;Tfs; ,yf;fpag;gilg;Gfis thOk; gz;ghLfspd;
cw;gj;jpfshfTk;> gpujpepjpj;Jt murpaypd; ntspg;ghLfshfTk; ghHf;fpwJ. nkhop> ,d>
murpay; vy;iyfisf; fle;j Rje;jpukhd gilg;ghf ,yf;fpaj;ijg; ghHj;j mnkupf;ff;
Nfhl;ghl;bd; ,yf;fpaj;jpd; cyfg;nghJthd jd;ik vd;fpw fUj;ij> gz;ghl;L Ma;T
kWf;fpwJ ,yf;fpaj;ij gz;ghL kw;Wk; Njrpa milahsj;ij fl;likf;fpw -
kWepHzak; nra;fpw - murpay; nray; ghl;bdjhfg; ghHf;fpwJ.

ghypdk; rhHe;j mbf;fUj;jpay; Ma;Tfs;

,Ugj;Njhuhk; E}w;whz;bd; xg;gpyf;fpa Ma;tpw;fhd Gjpa ghijahfTk;

gazkhfTk; #rd;ghRndl; Kd;nkhopfpd;w kw;nwhd;W> ghypdk; rhHe;j mbf;fUj;jpay;
(Thematology) Ma;thFk;. mbf;fUj;J vd;gJ xU gilg;gpd; mbehjkhf ,ioNahLk;
ruL@ gilg;gpd; ghLnghUs;@ ghj;jpug;gilg;NghL njhlHGgLj;jpg; Ngrg;gLtJ. ,Ugjhk;
E}w;whz;bd; gpw;gFjpapy; cy;upr; it];ld;> `hupnytpd; mnkupf;f xg;gpay; mwpQHfs;>
mbf;fUj;jpay; Ma;tpy; ftdk; nrYj;jpdH. „fhjyH re;jpg;G‟> „a+ypr]; njhd;kk;‟ Nghd;w
mbf;fUj;Jf;fs; INuhg;gpa ,yf;fpaq;fspy; njhlHe;J tUk; jd;ik xg;gpaywpQHfshy;
vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,yf;fpaj;jpy; njhlHe;JtUk; ghLnghUs;>ghj;jpug;gilg;G
Mfpatw;wpd; njhlHr;rp ePl;rpkl;Lky;yhJ> njhlHe;J tUk; Fwpg;gpl;l ctikfs;>
FwpaPLfs;> cUtfq;fspd; tUifAk; mbf;fUj;jpay; Ma;tpy; ,lk;ngw;wd.
mbf;fUj;Jf;fspd; ,lg;ngaHr;rpAk; tho;f;ifr; Row;rpAk; xg;gpay; mwpQHfshy;
Muhag;gl;ld. ,e;j E}ypy; ,lk;ngWk; „jkpo;-kiyahsf; fhg;gpaq;fspy; thdtH tUif‟
vDk; fl;Liu xU Fwpg;gpl;l mbf;fUj;jpd; Njhw;wk;> tsHr;rp> ePl;rpia vLj;Jiuf;fpwJ.

38
 ,j;jifa mbf;fUj;jpay; Ma;itg; ngz;zpaf; nfhs;if rhHe;J „ghypd‟
Ma;thf Nkw;nfhs;tijNa ghRndl; tw;GWj;JfpwhH. Mzhjpf;fg; gz;ghLfspy; cUthd
,yf;fpaj;jpy; njhlHe;J ,lk;ngWk; gbkk; mbf;fUj;Jfs; Mfpatw;wpy; ngz;fspd;
r%f> cstpay; kw;Wk; mofpay; mDgtq;fs; vq;qdk; rpj;jpupf;fg; gl;Ls;sd vd;gijf;
fz;lwpa Ntz;Lnkd ghRndl; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH. ,yf;fpaj;jpd; nkhopapy; ghypdr;rhHG>
,yf;fpaj;jpy; „jha;‟ gbkk; gw;wpa rpj;jpupg;G Mfpatw;iw xg;gpay; Nehf;fpy; ghRndl;
fz;lwpe;Jr; nrhy;ypAs;shH.

Mq;fpyj;jpYs;s ,ilf;fhy rhfrf;fw;gidf; fijfspy; „MHjH‟ vDk; tPud;

njhlHghdit njhlHe;J ,lk;ngWk; jha;j;nja;tk; gw;wpa fd;dp> md;id> fpotp (my;)
#dpaf;fhup vDk; %d;W FwpaPl;Lj; njhy;gbkq;fs; tho;f;ifr;Row;rpapd; gpwg;G>
,dg;ngUf;f tsk; (g+g;G)> ,wg;G vd;Dk; %d;iwf; Fwpf;fpd;wd vd;fpwhH> ghRndl;.
NkYk; MHjH rhfrf;fw;gidf; fijfspy; „ngUe;jha;‟ tpspk;G epiyf;Fj;
js;sg;gl;bUf;fpwhs; vd;Wk; kjpg;gpLfpwhH. mj;NjhL ,f;fijfspy; „jhapd; mopT‟ vd;gJ
Fwpg;gplj;jf;f mbf;fUj;jhf ,lk; ngWtjhfTk; ghRndl; $WfpwhH.

„jkpo;f;fhg;gpaq;fspy; fijj;jiytp gbkk;‟ vDk; jiyg;G ghypdk; rhHe;j

mbf;fUj;jpay; Ma;thf mikAk;. gz;ilj; jkpo;f;fhg;gpaq;fs; Mzhjpf;fg; gz;ghL
NkNyhq;fpa r%fj;jpy; Kfpo;j;jhYk;> ngz; gw;wpa gbkk; jiyikj;Jtk; tha;e;jjhfNt
fhl;lg;gl;bUf;fpwJ. Ik;ngUq; fhg;gpaq;fSs; ehd;fpy; ngz; ghj;jpuq;fs; (fz;zfp>
kzpNkfiy> tisahgjp> Fz;lyNfrp) jiyikg; gz;Giladthfr;
rpj;jpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. fhg;gpaj; jiytpapd; gbkk;> mePjpf;F vjpuhdjhfTk;> r%fj;JaH
ePf;FtjhfTk;> jw;fhj;Jf; nfhs;tjhfTk; mike;Js;sd.

,Jtiu #rd;ghRndl; Kd;nkhope;jjhf ehk; Fwpg;gpl;l xg;gpyf;fpaj;jpw;fhd

Gjpa Ma;Tg; gFjpfshd nkhopngaHg;gpay; Ma;Tfs;> gz;ghl;L Ma;Tfs;> ghypdk;
rhHe;j mbf;fUj;jpay; Ma;Tfs; vd;gdtw;iwj; njhFj;J „gpd;idf;fhydpaf; Nfhl;ghL‟
vd;w ngaupy; (mnkupf;ff;Nfhl;ghL> gpnuQ;Rf; Nfhl;ghL vd;gd Nghd;W) miof;fyhk;.
,f;Nfhl;ghL ,d;iwa Gjpa jpwdha;T mZFKiwfshd gpd;idaikg;gpay;> gpd;id
etPdj;Jtk;> ngz;zpak; Mfpatw;wpd; rhuhk;rj;ij cl;nrupj;jjhf mike;Js;sJ.
NtWtifapy; nrhy;tjhdhy; ghRndl;bd; gpd;idf;fhydpa xg;gpyf;fpaf; Nfhl;ghL>
gpd;idetPd ,yf;fpaj;jpwdha;T mZFKiwfis Ma;Tf; fUtpfshff; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
,jd; fhuzkhf ,d;iwa #oYf;fhd ,af;fk; tha;e;j xg;gpyf;fpaf; Nfhl;ghlhf
ghRndl;bd; xg;gpyf;fpaf;Nfhl;ghL tpsq;FfpwJ. ghRndl; Kd;itj;Js;s ,g;Gjpa

39
xg;gpyf;fpaf; Nfhl;ghL INuhg;gpa> mnkupf;f vy;iyfisf; fle;jjhfTk; %d;whk; cyf
ehLfSf;fhdjhfTk; tpsq;FfpwJ. ,j;jifa fUj;Jf;fis gh. Mde;jFkhH ,e;jpa
xg;gpyf;fpak; #rd;ghRndl;il Kd;itj;J vd;Dk; E}ypy; vLj;Jiuj;Js;shH.

2. ,e;jpaf; ftpijapy; Nkiy ,yf;fpaj; jhf;fk;

Mq;fpNyaH Ml;rpapd; cld;tpisthf ,e;jpahtpy; Vw;gl;l Mq;fpyf;fy;tp>

,e;jpaHfSf;F Mq;fpynkhop mwpitAk; mjd; thapyhf Nkiy ,yf;fpa
mwpKfj;ijAk; Vw;gLj;jpaJ. ,jd; tpisthf ,e;jpa vOj;jhsHfs; Mq;fpy kw;Wk; gpw
INuhg;gpa> mnkupf;f ,yf;fpaq;fspd; Vw;gpw;Fk; jhf;fj;jpw;Fk; MshdhHfs;. ,jdhy;
fPio ehl;L ,e;jpaf; ftpij Nkiy ,yf;fpa Milmzpfyd;fis mzpe;J Gjpa
nghypNthL fhl;rpaspj;jJ. ,ilf;fhy ,e;jpa ,yf;fpaj;jpy; nry;thf;Fg; ngw;wpUe;j
ngUq;fhg;gpa kw;Wk; gpuge;j ,yf;fpa kuGfspd; gz;bjj;jdj;jpYk; tUzidg;
ghq;fpYk; mYj;Jg;Nghd ,sq;ftpQHfspd; Gjpa Njly;fSf;F NtHl;];nthHj;> n\y;yp>
fPl;]; Nghd;w Mq;fpyg; Gidtpay; ftpQHfspd; „jd;DzHr;rpg;gh‟ (Lyric) tbtk;
ifnfhLj;J cjtpapUf;fpwJ. jw;fhy ,yf;fpaj;ij ,e;jpankhopfspy; njhlq;fp
itj;jvy;yhf; ftpQHfSk; ngUq;fhg;gpa tbtpypUe;JtpyfpFWq;fhg;gpaj;jpw;Fk;
jd;DzHr;rpg;gh tbtj;jpw;Fk; nrd;wpUg;gij xU nghJthd mk;rkhff; fhzyhk;.
jd;DzHr;rpg;gh tbtk; ,e;jpa ,yf;fpaj;jpw;Fg; Gjpajd;W (rq;fg;ghly;> ,e;jpa gf;jpg;
ghRuq;fs;). vd;whYk; me;j tbtk; jw;fhyj;jpy; jdpkdpjdpd; Ra mDgtj;ij
ntspg;gilahfg; ghLfpd;w mftaj; jd;ikiag; ngw;wJ. Nkiy ,yf;fpaj;jpd; jhf;fNk
vd;gJ kWf;f ,ayhj cz;ik.

,e;jpa ,yf;fpaj;ij [dehafg;gLj;j tpUk;gpa jw;fhyf; ftpQHfSf;F mNj

tpjkhd rpe;ijAila NtHl;];nthHj;> fPl;];> igud; Mfpa Mq;fpyg; Gidtpay;
ftpQHfs; MjHrkhf ,Ue;jpUg;gij ,e;jpa ,yf;fpa jpwdha;thsHfs; gyH
vLj;Jf;fhl;bAs;sdH. Mq;fpy Gidtpay; Nghf;fpd; jhf;fj;ij tq;f nkhopapy; jh$H
kw;Wk; mtuJ ghujp FOtpdhplj;Jk; kuhj;jpapy; ,utpfpuz; kz;lyp ftpQHfsplj;Jk; -
`pe;jpapy; „rhahthj‟ ,af;ff; ftpQHfspj;Jk; - gQ;rhgpapy; igtPHrpq; kw;Wk; Nkh`d;
ftpQHfsplj;Jk; - jkpopy; ghujp guk;giuapduplj;Jk; - kiyahsj;jpy; Fkhud; Mrhd;>
ts;sj;Njhs; top ftpQHfsplj;Jk;> njYq;fpy; „ghtftpj;t‟ ftpQHfsplj;Jk; -
fd;dlj;jpy; „eNthjah‟ kw;Wk; „nfypauFk;G‟ ,yf;fpa mikg;gpidr; NrHe;NjhuplKk;
fhzyhk;. ghujp jd;id „n\y;ypjhrd;‟ vd;W mioj;Jf; nfhz;lJk;>
tpehaf;fuhe;jpfhiu NfrtRjH „kfhuh\;buj;jpd; igud;‟ vd;W mioj;jJk; ,jid

40
ntspg;gilahf czHj;Jk;. ,ilf;fhy ,yf;fpag; ghzpapypUe;J ,e;jpaf; ftpijiaj;
jw;fhyg; ghzpf;F mioj;Jr; nrd;w ftpQHfs; „jd;DzHr;rpg;gh‟ tbtj;ijg; Gfo;ngwr;
nra;jNjhL rhndl;> Xl; Kjyhd Mq;fpy ahg;G tbtq;fspYk; ftpij ahj;Js;sdH.
,tHfspy; gyiu ,uhgHl; gpnusdpq;fpd; ehlf mfkdf; Fuy; (Dramatic monologue)
cj;jp <Hj;Js;sJ. mNjNghy; Mq;fpy ,yf;fpaj;jpYs;s fl;lw;wahg;G (Blank verse)
tbtKk; thy;l; tpl;kdpd; tpLepiyg;ghTk; (Free verse) ,tHfspd; Gjpa ahg;gpag;
gupNrhjidfSf;F Kd;khjpupfshf ,Ue;jpUf;fpd;wd. gj;njhd;gjhk; E}w;whz;bd;
,WjpapypUe;J ,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;bd; Kw;gFjp tiu ,e;jpa ,yf;fpaj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;
Nkiy ,yf;fpaj; jhf;fj;jpd; nghJthd mk;rq;fs; ,itNa MFk;.

,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;bd; gpw;gFjpapy;> ,e;jpa Rje;jpuj;jpw;Fg; gpd; Vw;gl;l ,yl;rpaj;

Njhy;tpfisAk; ,ae;jpukakhd efuehfupfj;jhy; me;epag;gl;Lg; Nghd jdp kdpj
czHTfisAk; gpujhdkhfj; jhq;fp ntspte;j ,e;jpag; „GJf;ftpij‟ tbtj;jpy;
b.v];.vypal;> v];uhgTz;L Mfpa Mq;fpyg; GJf;ftpQHfspd; jhf;fj;ijf; fhzyhk;.
jkpopy; rp. kzpapd; „eufKk;‟ kiyahsj;jpy; ma;ag;gg; gzpf;fupd; „FUf;N\j;uKk;‟
vypal;bd; „jupRepyk;‟ (Wast Land) ftpijapd; jhf;fj;jhy; cUg;ngw;wit efu tho;tpd;
F&uj;ijAk; kdpjtho;tpd; me;epakhjiyAk; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lgit. vypal;bd; jupR
epyj;jpy; fpNuf;fg;Guhzj;jpy; tUk; me;jfH iluprPa]; Njk;]; ejpf;fiuapy; mkHe;J
,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;L efutho;tpd; kjpg;gPLfis vz;zpg;ghHf;fpwhH. ma;ag;gg;gzpf;fupd;
FUf;N\j;jpuj;jpy; kfhghuj ,jpfhrj;jpy; tUk; me;jfuhd jpUjuh\;bud; rQ;raidg;
ghHj;J FUf;N\j;jpuj;jpy; vd;d elf;fpwJ vd;W Nfl;f> rQ;rad; ,d;iwa
FUf;N\j;ukhd efu tho;tpd; eufj; jd;ikia tptupf;fpwhH. mNjNghy; ,e;jpag;
GJf;ftpijapy; Nghj;yH> ky;yhHnk> upy;Nf Nghd;w gpuhd;]; FwpaPl;Lf; ftpQHfspd;
jhf;fj;ijAk; fhzKbfpwJ.

,dp ,e;jpaf; ftpijapy; rhndl;> Xl;> fl;lw;w ahg;G Mfpa Mq;fpy ,yf;fpa
tbtq;fSk; ehlf mfkdf; Fuy; vDk; ,yf;fpa cj;jpAk; nry;thf;Fg; ngw;W
tpsq;Ftijr; rpy rhd;Wfs; %yk; fhz;Nghk;.

,e;jpaf; ftpijapy; rhndl;

,j;jhypaf; ftpQH ghba 'Sonnetto' vDk; ftpij tbitg; gpd;gw;wp rhndl;

(Sonnet) vDk; Mq;fpyj; jd;DzHr;rpf; ftpij tbtk; cUg;ngw;wJ. ,/J xU fUj;ij
ikakhff;nfhz;L 14 mbfspy; mbapWjp vJif ngw;W mikag;ngWtjhFk;@

41
vLj;Jf;nfhz;l nghUspd; Njhw;Wtha;> tsHr;rp> KbT vDk; Kg;gFjpapidf;
nfhz;liktjhFk;. Mq;fpy ,yf;fpaj;jpy; N\f;];gpaH ,t;tbtj;ijr; rpwg;ghff;
ifahz;Ls;shH. ,e;jpaf; ftpijapy; rhndl; ghtbtj;ij Kjypy; ifahz;ltH tq;ff;
ftpQH ikf;Nfy; kJ#jd;jj; (1824-1873) MthH. Mq;fpyf; ftpQHfs; NtHl;];nthHj;>
nld;dprd; kw;Wk; gpnuQ;R ehlfhrpupaH tpf;lH `;a+Nfh MfpNahUf;F ,tH fbjq;fs;
vOjpAs;shH. ,tH jhe;Nj> nld;dprd;> `;a+Nfh><];tu re;jpu tpj;ahrhfH MfpNahH
gw;wpAk; =gQ;rkp> tp[ajrkp Mfpa rka tpohf;fs; gw;wpAk; rhndl;Lfs; ,aw;wpAs;shH.
,tuJ „mkuh‟> „gq;fgh\h‟ vDk; rhndl;Lfs; KiwNa NjrTzHitAk;
nkhopAzHitAk; ntspg;gLj;Jgit.

kuhj;jpapy; NfRtRjH (1866-1906) N\f;];gpaH kw;Wk; vyprngj; gpnusdpq;

MfpNahupd; rhndl;Lfis nkhop ngaHj;jNjhL jhDk; Rakhf rhndl;Lfs;
vOjpAs;shH. ,tuJ ez;guhd [p.tp.fuhe;jpfhH „j;upgjh‟ vDk; ftpij E}ypy; kuhj;jpa
kag;gLj;jg;gl;l rhndl; tbtj;ij „Kf;jRdPj;‟ tbtj;ijf; ifahz;Ls;shH.
fd;dlj;jpYk; ,NjNghy; rhndl; ngaupy; tbtk; „RdPjh vd;w ,e;jpa kakhf
khw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ. njhlf;fj;jpy; fd;dlf; ftpQH Nfhtpe;jig jdJ rhndl;Lfis>
„rJHjr gjp‟ (4+10) vd;Wk; Nge;j;Nu> kh];jp MfpNahH m\;ll; gjp (8+6) vd;Wk; (14
mbfisf; nfhz;l ghtbtk; vd;fpw nghUspy;) mioj;jJk; rhndl; tbtj;ijf; fd;dl
kakhf;Fk; - ,e;jpa kakhf;Fk; - Kaw;rpapd; ntspg;ghLfNs MFk;. ,NjNghy; jkpopy;
gupjpkhw; fiyQH „jdpg;ghRuk;‟ vd;w ngaupy; rhndl; tbtj;ijj; jkpo;g;gLj;j
Kaw;rpj;jpUf;fpwhH. ,tH jhd; vOjpa rhndl;Lfis vy;yhk; njhFj;J jdpg;ghRuj;
njhif‟ vd;w ngaupy; E}yhf ntspapl;Ls;shH (1901). mbapWjpnaJiff;Fg; gjpy;
mbKjnyJif mika flTs;> mwpT> moF> kyH> ts;StH> vWk;G Kjyhd
nghUl;fspy; gupjpkhw; fiyQH ghf;fs; Gide;Js;shH. ,tH ,aw;wpa ehw;gj;J %d;W
rhndl;LfisAk; Mq;fpyj;jpy; [p.a+. Nghg; nkhopg;ngaHj;Js;shH.

gupjpkhw; fiyQH „fly;‟ gw;wp vOjpAs;s 'rhndl;' ftpij xd;W

vLj;Jf;fhl;bw;Ff; fPNo jug;gLfpwJ.

“thopa flNy! thopa flNy!!

cyfpDf; fpiae;j nthUJizf; fUtpNa!
myfpyh TUtile;Njha;! epyj;jpid
Mf;fp ad;Gld; fhf;Fk; gutha;!

42
 cd;id aLj;J te;JWeh tha;fis
ed;dH nrYj;J eq;fha;! epd;dpsq;
fhjw; wiytdhk; NkhJ fhw;wpdhw;
Gdw; fhnud;Dk; Gdpw;wps kfdhy;
capHj; njhifNahL gapHj;njhif kfpoj;
jhth tpd;ge; jUe;jdpj; jhNa!
Xth njhy;nyd nthypf;Fq; flNy!
cd;wd; ngUikA KaHTq; fUizAe;
Jd;Wkb apd;ikAe; J}a;ikAk;
vd;wdhy; vLj;jpak;gy; ,aYNkh?”
ghujpAk; „ahd;‟> „jdpikapuf;fk;‟ vDk; jiyg;Gfspy; ,uz;L rhndl;Lfs; vOjpAs;shH.

kiyahsj;jpy; gupjpkhw; fiyQiug;Nghy KOf;f rhndl;Lfs; mlq;fpa ftpij

E}iy ntspapl;ltH vk;.gp. mg;gd; MthH. ,tuJ „nts;sp ef;\j;uk; (1938) rhndl;
ftpijj; njhFg;ghFk;. ,NjNghy; m];]hkpapy; `pNj];tHgH g&th „khyf;‟ (1918)>
„rFNyh‟ (fz;zPH> 1922) vDk; ,uz;L rhndl; ftpij E}y;fis ntspapl;Ls;shH.
JHNf];tH rHkh vd;w m];]hkpaf; ftpQUk; kpFjpahd rhndl;tbtf; ftpijfis
vOjp g&thitg; Nghy „rhndl;lhsH‟ miof;fg;gLfpd;whH. `pe;jpapy; „rhahthj‟
,af;ff; ftpQH n[arq;fH gpurhj;jpd; (1889 - 1937) „gtrhfH‟ Kjyhd ftpijfs;
rhndl; ahg;gpy; mike;jitNa.

,e;jpaf; ftpijapy; ‘Xl;’

„Xl;‟ (Ode) vd;gJ ,irj;jd;ik nfhz;L xd;iw my;yJ xUtiu „tpspj;Jg;

ghLk;‟ Mq;fpyf; ftpij tbtk;. ,t;tbtk; NtHl;]; nthHj;> n\y;yp> fPl;]; Mfpa
Mq;fpyg; Gidtpay; ftpQHfshy; nry;thf;Fg; ngw;wJ. ,e;jpa ,yf;fpaj;jpy;
tq;ff;ftpQH kJ #jd;jj; jdJ „g;u[hq;fdh fhtpaj;ij‟ Xl;tbtj;jpy; mikj;Js;shH.
,f;ftpij E}y; fpU\;zd; ,uhijapd; fhjYzHit ntspg;gLj;JfpwJ. rhndl;ilg;
Nghy „Xl;‟ tbTk; „g;ufhj‟ vDk; ngaupy; fd;dl kakhfpAs;sJ. gp.vk;. = fz;la;ah>
ik#H kd;dH = fpU\;zuh[ cilahupd; Kb#l;L tpoh gw;wpa ftpijia „Xl;‟
vOjpAs;shH. b.tp. Fz;lg;ghtpd; ~NgY}upd rpyhgypNfapU‟ (NgY}upd; rpiy kq;ifaH)>
Gl;lg;ghtpd; „NfhkNj];tuh‟> kh];jpapd; „mUzh‟ Mfpad „Xl;‟ tbtf;ftpijfNs.
kiyahsj;jpy; rq;fuf;FWg;gpd; „ir]tk;‟ (Foe;ijg; gUtk;)> „xUfPjk;‟ Mfpa
ftpijfs; „Xl;‟ tbtj;jpy; mike;Js;sd.

43
ehlf mfkdf;Fuy; cj;jp

„ehlfmfkdf;Fuy;‟ vDk; cj;jp Mq;fpy ,yf;fpaj;jpy; ,uhgHl; gpnusdpq;fpdhy;

('My Last dutches') Gfo; ngw;wJ. ehlf Kiwapy; xU ghj;jpuk; cs;Kfj;jd;ikNahL
jdpahfg; Ngrpf;nfhs;tjhf mikAk; ,t;Tj;jpapid ,e;jpaf; ftpijapy; Kjypy;
ifahz;ltH> kJ #jd; jj;jNu. ,tuJ „tPuhq;fdh fht;ah‟ vDk; ftpij E}ypy;
Guhzq;fspy; tUk; ,e;jpa tPuhq;fidfspd; jdpg;Ngr;Rfs; ,lk;ngw;Ws;sd. `pe;jpapy;
n[arq;fHgpurhj;jpd; „Md;R‟ (fz;zPH) ftpijapYk; ehlf mfkdf;Fuy; cj;jp ,lk;
ngw;Ws;sJ.

,e;jpaf; ftpij ,yf;fpaj;jpy; kiyahs nkhopapy; jhd; ehlf mfkdf;Fuy;

cj;jp mjpfkhd ftpQHfshy; ifahsg;gl;Ls;sJ. kiyahsj;jpy; ,jid Kjypy;
ifahz;ltH Fkhud; Mrhd; MthH. ,tH jdJ „rpe;jhtp];laharPj‟ (rpe;jidapy;
%o;fpa rPij)> „yPyh‟ vDk; FWq;fhg;gpaq;fspy; ,t;Tj;jpiaf; ifahz;Ls;shH.
,tUf;Fg; gpd; ghyhkzpak;kh „kOtpd;nw fj‟ vd;Dk; ftpijapy; ,t;Tj;jpiag;
gpd;gw;wpAs;shH. gyuhkdpd; kOthy; cUthd Nfusj;jpd; etPd fhyepiy ,f;ftpijapy;
glk;gpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. QhdgPl tpUJf; ftpQH „[p‟ rq;fuFWg;gpd; „ngUe;jr;rd;‟ vDk;
kj;jpa Nfusj;jpy; toq;Fk; ,jpfhrk; gw;wpa ftpijapy; ehlf mfkdf;F uy; cj;jp
,lk; ngw;Ws;sJ. ,NjNghd;W rq;qk;Go fpU\;zgps;isapd; „cd;kj;jj;jpd;nw
Xlf;Foy;‟ (cd;kj;jj;jpd; Gy;yhq;Foy;) ftpijapYk; ,t;Tj;jpapd; gpujpgypg;igf;
fhzyhk;. Nkw;$wpa Gidtpay; ftpQHfSf;Fg; gpd; elg;gpay; ghzp ftpQH
tapNyhg;gs;sp =juNkNdhdpYk; ,t;Tj;jpapd; jhf;fj;ijf; fhzKbfpwJ. ,tuJ
„Fw;wf;fhud;‟> „Fbnahopf;fy;‟ (ntspNaw;wk;) vDk; ,uz;L ftpijfSk; ehlf
mfkdf;Fuy; ghzpapy; mike;Js;sd.

m];]hkpapy; Njt fz;l g&th jdJ rpy ftpijfis ehlf mfkdf;Fuy;

cj;jpapy; thHj;Js;shH. ,tuJ „]hfH Njf;fprh‟ (fliyg; ghHj;jjpy;iyah?) vDk;
ngaupa ftpijapy; ,t;Tj;jp rpwg;Gw mike;Js;sJ. kuhj;jpapy; „jpthfH‟> jdJ „ehl;a
r`jh‟ vDk; ftpij ehlfj;jpy; ,t;Tj;jpiaf; ifahz;Ls;shH.

fl;lw;w ahg;G tbtk;

N\f;];gpaH ifahz;l „fl;lw;w ahg;G‟ (Blank verse) tbtj;jpd; jhf;fj;jhy;

,e;jpa kWkyHr;rpf; ftpQHfs; jj;jk; nkhopfspy; ahg;gpay; tpjpKiw xOq;FfSf;F

44
cl;glhj Gjpa fl;Lg;ghLfsw;w ahg;G tbtq;fis cUthf;f Kaw;rpj;Js;sdH.
,jw;fhfmiriambg;gilahff; nfhz;l nra;As; tbtpypUe;J tpLgl;L gioa
,irg;ghly; tbtq;fisg; GJg;gpj;Js;sdH. ,t;tifapy; ,e;jpaf; ftpijapy;
fl;lw;wahg;G tbtj;ij Kjypy; ifahz;ltH> kJ #jd;jj; MthH. ,tuJ
„,e;jpu[pj;jpd; tij‟ (Nkfehj;gj;) vDk; ftpijf; fhg;gpak; fl;lw;w ahg;G tbTilaJ.
fl;lw;w ahg;G tbtj;jpy; mike;j Kjy; Mrpaf; ftpijg; gilg;G ,JNt vdr; Rl;lg;
gLfpwJ. ,jpy; gioa „gpahH‟ ahg;igf; fl;lw;wjhfg; GJg;gpj;J „mkpj;uhf;\H re;j‟ vdg;
ngaupl;Ls;shH. m];]hkp ,yf;fpaj;jpy; kJ #jdupd; jhf;fk; ngw;w Nghyhehj;jh];
jdJ „rPjh-`ud; fht;ahtpy;‟ (1888) fl;lw;w ahg;G tbtj;ijf; ifahz;Ls;shH.
njYq;fpy; Fu[hl Ntq;fl mg;ghuhT cUthf;fpa „Kj;ahy ruhY‟ vd;w GJtifahd
,irj;jd;ik nfhz;l ftpij tbtKk; ,j;jifaNj. fd;dlj; jpy; Nf.tp. Gl;lg;gh
gioa ~ufNs‟ ahg;gpidf; fl;Lg;ghLfs; ePq;fpajhfg; GJg;gpj;J „rus ufNs‟ vDk;
GJtif ahg;gpid cUthf;fpAs;shH. ,tuJ rpj;uhq;fjh> jhdh[p vDk;
FWq;fhg;gpaq;fs; fl;lw;w ahg;G tbtj;jpy; mike;Js;sd.

KbTiu

,e;jpaf; ftpijiaj; jw;fhyg; ghzpf;F mioj;J te;j Mq;fpyf; fy;tpngw;w

,e;jpaf; ftpQHfs; jhd;Kjd;Kjypy; Nkiy ,yf;fpaj; jhf;fj;jpw;Fs;shfpAs;sdH.
,e;jpaf; ftpijia [dehafg;gLj;j tpUk;gpa ,tHfis> ,Nj tpjkhd [dehaf
rpe;jidAila NtHl;];XHj;> fPl;];> igud; Mfpa Gidtpay; ftpQHfs; ngupJk;
<Hj;Js;sdH. ,jd; fhuzkhf jd;DzHr;rpg;gh tbtKk; - Xl;> rhndl; Kjyhd Mq;fpy
ahg;G tbtq;fSk; - ehlf mfkdf;Fuy; Nghd;w cj;jpfSk; - ,e;jpaf; ftpijapy;
nry;thf;Fg; ngw;wd. „rhndl;‟ Kjyhd ahg;G tbtj;ij ,e;jpaf; ftpQHfs; jk;nkhop
,yf;fpa kuGfSf;Nfw;g ,e;jpakakhf;f Kaw;rpj;Js;sdH.

,e;jpa tpLjiyf;Fg;gpd; ntspte;j etPd ,e;jpaf; ftpijapy; b.v];.vypal;>

v];uh gTz;L Mfpa Mq;fpyg; GJf;ftpQHfspd; jhf;fj;ij czuKbfpwJ.Nkiy
,yf;fpaj;jpd; kPjhd vjpHtpidapd; njhlf;fj;ij tq;fhs ,yf;fpaj;jpYk; ngUf;fj;ij
kiyahs ,yf;fpaj;jpYk; fhzKbfpwJ.

3. rPf;fpaf; fUj;jpaYk; jkpo;r;rpe;jid kuGk;

gpuhkzpaj;ijAk; rhjpf;fUj;jpaiyAk; Kd;dpWj;jpa itjPf rka

kuGfSf;nfjpuhf kdpjFy rkj;Jtj;ijAk; rNfhjuj;Jtj;ijAk; Kd;itj;j xU

45
rkanewpjhd; rPf;fpak;. khw;WkuG rhHe;jJk; tpkHrdg; gpuf;iQAilaJkhd rPf;fpa
rkak; 15-Mk; E}w;whz;bd; ,Wjpapy; MjpFUthd FUehdf;fhy; (1469-1539)
Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;lJ. “vtDk; ,e;JTky;y Kry;khDky;y vy;yhUk; khe;jH” vd
kjq;fSf;F Nkyhd kdpj rkj;Jtj;ij miw $tpa FUehdf;> Xupiwf; Nfhl;ghl;il
typAWj;jpdhH.

1. flTs; jpUehkq;fis n[gpj;jy;

2. flTs; Gfiog;ghLjy;

3. jk;kplKs;sij mz;il mayhNuhL NrHe;J gfpHe;Jz;Zjy;.

vd;gd ehdf;fpd; Kf;fpakhd NghjidfshFk;. r%fj;jpd; mbj;jsj;jpy; tho;e;j

xLf;fg;gl;l kf;fSf;F r%f tpLjiyAk; rka tpLjiyAk; toq;fpa rPf;fpaf;
fUj;jpaiy FUehdf;fpw;Fg; gpwF FU mkujhrH> FU mH[{d NjtH> FU `uuha;> FU
Njf; g`hJ}H> FU mq;fjH> FU uhkjhrH> FU `u Nfhtpe;jH> FU `u fpU\;zH> FU
Nfhtpe;j; rpq; Mfpa xd;gJ FUf;fs; njhlHe;J Kd;ndLj;Jr; nrd;wdH. gj;jhtJ
FUthd FU Nfhtpe;jH rPf;fpaf; fUj;jpaiy 1699-,y; „fhy;rh‟ vDk; ngaupy; xU
epWtdkhf;fpdhH. NghH tPuHfshy; ed;F fl;likf;fg;gl;l fhy;rh „,iwtdpd; NghHg;gil‟
vd;W mwptpf;fg;gl;lJ. fhy;rhtpypUe;j rPf;fpaHfs; kopf;fg;glhj Nfrk;> fr;ir> fq;fh
(rPg;G)> fpHghd;> fuk; (iff;fhg;G) vDk; Ie;J milahsq;fisg; ngw;wdH. ,t;thW FU
Nfhtpe;jH rPf;fpa rkaj;ijj; jdpj;j milahsq;fis cila xU epWtdkhff;
fl;likj;jhH. ,e;j epWtdk; rkj;Jt ,yl;rpaq;fSf;fhfTk; nkhfyhaupd; rka
Nkyhz;ikf;nfjpuhfTk; NghuhbaJ. „jhd;‟ vDk; mfk;ghtj;ij mopj;jtHfshfTk;
mr;rj;jpypUe;J tpLjiy ngw;wtHfshfTk; fhy;rhf;fs; ,Ue;jdH.

jkpo;r; rpe;jid kuGk; rPf;fpa fhy;rhTk;

rPf;fpaf;fUj;jpaiy Kd;itj;j rhjp rkag; gphpTfspy;iy> flTs; xUtNd>

gfpHe;Jz;zy; Kjyhd rkj;Jtf; fUj;jikg;Gfisj; jkpopy; ts;StH fhyk; njhlq;fp
kzpNkfiy> jpU%yH> rpj;jHfs;> jhAkhdtH> ts;syhH vd thioab thioahff;
fhzyhk;. mNj Nghd;W ,iwtid md;ghyd;wp Gwr; rlq;Ffshy; mila ,ayhJ>
,iwtd; FU tbtpy; ntspg;gLfpd;whd;. ,iwtd; Mjpae;jkpyh vy;iyaw;w guk;nghUs;
Kjyhd ,iwtd; gw;wpa fUj;JfisAk; jkpo;r;rpe;jid kugpy; guf;f f; fhzyhk;.
,dp,jid tpupthff; fhz;Nghk;.

46
 1. rhjp kWg;G

r%f rkj;Jtj;jpw;Fj; jilahf ,Uf;Fk; rhjpaf; fUj;jpaiyr; rPf;fpak;

td;ikahf kWj;jNjhL kl;Lkpd;wp> rhjp rkj;Jtj;ijr; nray;ghl;L epiyapy;
eilKiwg; gLj;jTk; nra;jJ. rhjpf;fUj;jpaiy „tf;fupj;jJ‟ vd;wioj;j FUehdf;
jd;idj; jho;e;NjhupYk; jho;e;Njhuhf mwptpj;jhH.

“filaUs; filaH midj;jpYk; jho;e;NjhH

mtHjikr; rhHe;Njhd; ehdf;>
caHe;Njhiug; ghHj;J nghwhikg;gLfpwtdy;yd;”
FUehdf; jd; $l;lhspfshfj; jho;j;jg;gl;l kf;fis ,izj;Jf; nfhz;lhH. jhd;
rhjpaw;wtd; (mrhjp)> flTspd; rhjpad; vd;Wk; mwptpj;Jf; nfhz;lhH. jPz;lhikiaAk;
rhjpNtWghLfisAk; fisAk; Kaw;rp njhlHe;J te;j FUkhHfshYk;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ. gj;jhtJk; ,Wjpf; FUTkhd FUNfhtpe;jH NjHT nra;j Ie;J
md;ghsHfSk; (gQ;r; gpahuh) #j;jpu rhjpapdH vd;W milahsg;gLj;jg;gl;ltHfNs.
kl;Lkpd;wp Nfhtpe;jH fhy;rhtpy; NrUgtH jkJ gioa rhjp> rka> ,d> Fy
milahsq;fisf; fistij (Fy;eh\;> juk; eh\;) cWjpnkhopahf vLj;Jf;
nfhs;tijf; fl;lhag;gLj;jpdhH.

jkpo;ehl;by; rhjpkWg;G rPf;fpaj;ijg; Nghd;W eilKiwj; jpl;lq;fSld;

nray;ghl;bw;F te;jJ ,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;by;jhd;. vd;whYk; rhjpaj;jpw;F vjpuhd
fUj;jpaiy jkpo;kugpy; gpd;dpilf; fhyj;jpNyNa fhzKbfpwJ. tpkHrd gpuf;iQAila
jkpo;r;rpj;jHfspd; ghly;fspy; rhjpf;fUj;jpay; td;ikahff; fz;ldk; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

“rhjpg;gpuptpdpy; jP %l;LNthk;"
(ghk;ghl;br;rpj;jH> ghly;:123)
“rhjpnahd;wpy;iy rkankhd;wpy;iy nad;W
XjpAzHe;jwptha; Fjk;gha;"
(Fjk;igr; rpj;jH ghly; 145)

rhjpia kl;Lkpd;wp rhjpf;F Mjuthf ,Ue;j Ntjq;fisAk; Guhzq;fisAk;

rPf;fpa FUkhHfisg; Nghy; „tPzhd E}y;fnsd;Wk;> fl;Lf; fijfnsd;Wk;‟ rpj;jHfs;
tpkHrdk; nra;Js;sdH. Mf r%f rkj;Jtk; vd;fpw rpe;jid rPf;fpaf; fUj;jpaypYk;
jkpo;r; rpe;jidkugpYk; fhzg;gLk; nghJthd mk;rkhFk;.

47
1. ,iwtd; xUtNd

kdpjHfsplj;J rhjpabg;gilapy; Ngjkpy;iy vd;gij typAWj;jpa rPf;fpa rkak;>

rka mbg;gilapYk; kdpjdplj;J Ngjkpy;iy@ vy;yhr; rkaq;fspYk; Xupiwtd; jhd;
,Uf;fpwhd; vd;w fUj;ij tw;GWj;jpaJ.rPf;fpa E}yhd FUfpue;jj;jpy; ,iwtdpd;
ngaHfshf '`up> uhkd;><];tud;> gpuk;kh> gugpuk;kk;> Nfhtpe;jd;> my;yh> fuPk;> ug;> u`pk;>
uh[k;> mJg;” vdg; gy; rkaf; flTsHfspd; ngaHfs; xNu ,iwtdpd; gy ngaHfshfr;
Rl;bf; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd. fhy;rh ,af;fj;ij epWtpa FUNfhtpe;jH ,iwtd; xUtNd@
gs;spthrYf;Fk; Myaj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa NtWghby;iy@ ,e;JitAk; K];yPikAk; xNu
,iwtd; jhd; gilj;Js;shd;@ my;yhTf;Fk; mNgfhTf;Fk; NtWghby;iy@ vy;yh
khe;jUk; xd;Nw vdj; jdJ ftpij xd;wpy; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shH.

“Myaj;jpw;Fk; gs;spthrYf;Fk; Ngjkpy;iy.

mupiaj; Jjpg;gJk; my;yhitj; njhOtJk; xd;Nw
khe;jH NtWgl;Lj; Njhd;wpdhYk; midtUk; xd;Nw
flTsH g+jq;fs; af;\H fe;jUtH ,e;J
,];yhkpaH vd NtWgl;Lj; Njhd;wpdhYk;
Ngjk; vd;gJ eil Ail ehl;by; kl;LNk
my;yhTf;Fk; mNgf;jhTf;Fk; Ngjkpy;iy.
Guhzq;fSf;Fk; FuhDf;Fk; Ngjkpy;iy.
vy;yh khe;jUk; xd;WNghyNt gilf;fg;gl;Ls;sdH."
(fgpjh];> Nfhghy; rpq; (nkh.ng.)> g.52).

,iwtd; xUtNd vd;w ,f;fUj;J jkpo;r;r pe;jid kugpy; jpU%yuplkpUe;Nj

„xd;Nw Fyk; xUtNd Njtd;‟ njhlq;FfpwJ. jpU%yupd; Nahfnewp topte;j rpj;jHfs;
,jidj; njhlHe;J typAWj;jp te;Js;sdH.

“nka;j;Njtd; xd;nwd;W Ntz;lhj gd;kjk;

ngha;j; Njitg; Nghw;Wkb Fjk;gha;” (gh.154)

vd;fpwhH> Fjk;igr; rpj;jH.

rhjp> rkaq;fisf; fle;j „rkur rd;khHf;fj;ij‟ epiyepWj;jpa ts;syhH> „mUfH>

Gj;jH> mud;> mad;> khy;‟ vd miof;fpd;w vy;yhg;ngaHfSk; xNu flTisf;
Fwpf;fpd;wd vd;fpwhH. ,t; xg;Gikfs; %yk; „rka xw;Wik‟ vd;fpw gz;ghl;Lj;

48
jsj;jpyhd rkj;Jtk; vd;gJk; rPf;fpaf; fUj;jpaypYk; jkpo;r; rpe;jid kugpYk;
xd;WNghy; Nghw;wg;gl;bUg;gij ehk; czHfpNwhk;.

3. gfpHe;Jz;zy;

MjpFUthd FUehdf;fpd; Kf;fpakhd %d;W NghjidfSs; xd;W gfpHe;Jz;zy;

(tz;l;rufh) vd;gjhFk;. mjhtJ eP cioj;J <l;baij gpwUld; gfpHe;J nfhs;s
Ntz;Lnkd;gij ehdf; Kf;fpakhd kdpjf; flikahf typAWj;jpdhH. ,jid
eilKiwg; gLj;jj;jhd; ~yq;fiu‟ (nghJ rikay; tpLjpia) Vw;gLj;jpdhH. <l;ba
nry;tj;ijg; gfpHe;jspf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;fpw nghUshjhu uPjpapyhd rkj;Jt rpe;jid
jkpopd; Kjy; ePjpE}yhd jpUf;FwspNyNa fhzg;gLfpwJ. ts;StH <if> xg;GuT
mwpjy; Mfpa mjpfhuq;fspy; nghUl; gfpHitAk; mjpy; fpilf;Fk; ,d;gj;ijAk;>
gfpHe;jspahjhdpd; ,opitAk; Mokhf typAWj;JfpwhH.

“gFj;Jz;L gy;YapH Xk;Gjy; E}NyhH

njhFj;jtw;Ws; vy;yhk; jiy”
vd;gJ ts;Stupd; thf;F. ts;Stupd; gfpHe;Jz;zy; vDk; ,r;rpe;jid
Gj;jf;fhg;gpakhd kzpNkfiyapy; fhg;gpaf; fUthf mikfpwJ.

“kz;jpzp Qhyj;J tho;NthHf;nfy;yhk;

cz;b nfhLj;NjhNu capHnfhLj;NjhH”
vd;gJ kzpNkfiyf; fhg;gpaj;jpd; ghtpfg;gz;G.

kzpNkfiyf; fhg;gpaj;jpy; mKj Rugpapd; %yk; ViofSf;F czT

thuptoq;fg;gl;l fw;gidr; nray;> ,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;by; ,uhkypq;fupd; %yk;
eilKiwj; jpl;lkhf tUfpwJ. Viofspd; grpg;gpzpia Mfhuj;jhy; Nghf;Fk;
[PtfhUz;ar; nraNy xU kdpjDf;F ,iwaUis <l;bj;jUk; vd;Wiuj;j ts;syhH.
r%f> gz;ghl;L> nghUshjhuj; jsq;fspy; kdpjdpd; rkj;Jtj;ij jkpo; kuGk; rPf;fpa
kuGk; typAWj;jp te;jpUf;fpd;wd vd;gij mwpa Kbfpd;wJ.

4. md;Ng ,iwtidailAk; top

Ntjq;fSk; cgepljq;fs; Kjyhd rhj;jpu E}y;fSk; ciuj;j Gwr;rlq;Ffshy;

,iwtid mila KbahJ> md;ghd gf;jpAzHNt ,iwaUisj; jUk; vd;fpwhH>
FUNfhtpe;jH.

49
 “md;Gg; gw;wpyh vJTk; gadw;wNj
XH ,iwapd; jpUg;ngaiu xUkdjha;j; Jjpf;fhj
ngUk; gypj; jPapdhNyh> Nts;tpapdhNyh
fUkhjp rlq;fpdhNyh gandhd;wpy;iy
vy;yh kjq;fspd; Kaw;rp ntWikapy; jhd; KbfpwJ”
fgpjh];> Nfhghy; rpq; (nkh.ng)> g-55)
,f;fUj;J jkpopy; „md;Ng rptk;‟ vd;Wiuj;jpl;l jpU%yupd; jpUe;jpug; ghlypYk; ,lk;
ngw;Ws;sJ.

“vd;Ng tpwfh ,iwr;rp aWj;jpl;L

nghd;Nghw; fdypw; nghupa tWg;gpDk;
md;NghL mfq; FiothHf; fd;wp
vd;Nghy; kzpapid va;jnthz;zhNj" (gh.272)

ts;syhUk; „md;ngDk; gpbf;Fs; mfg;gLk; khkiyNa‟ vd;W ,iwtid tUzpf;fpd;whH.

r%fk;> rkag; gz;ghL> nghUshjhuk; Mfpa midj;Jj; jsq;fspYk; jkpo;r;

rpe;jid kuGk; rPf;fpaf; fUj;jpaYk; xd;Wgl;Lr; nry;fpd;wd. ,jw;fhd fhuzq;fis
,q;Nf tpsf;Fjy; mtrpakhFk;. rPf;fpa fpue;jKk; jkpo; kugpy; vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gl;l
rpj;jHfs;> jhAkhdtH ghly;fSk; gpd;dpilf;fhy ,e;jpar; rpe;jidapd;
ntspg;ghLfshFk;. rPf;fpaf; fUj;jpaYf;F ,izahff; fhl;lg;gl;l jpUf;Fws;>
kzpNkfiy> jpU%yH ghly;fs; vd;gd itjPf kugpw;F vjpuhfj; Njhd;wpa mitjPfr;
rpe;jid rhHGilad. Mf rPf;fpa rpe;jid kuGk; ,q;F mjw;F ,izahff; fhl;lg;gl;l
jkpo; vOj;Jf;fSk; itjPf kugpw;F vjpuhd tpkHrd gpuf;iQAila khw;W kugpy; fhy;
nfhz;Ls;sd. ,e;jg; nghJthd jd;ikapd; fhuzkhf ,e;j xg;Gikfs; epfo;e;Js;sd.

jkpo; vOj;Jf;fspy; rPf;fpa fhy;rhtpd; rpj;jpupg;G

rPf;fpa rkaj;ij epWtpa Kjy; FUthd FUehdf; fp.gp.16Mk; E}w;whz;by;

njd;jpir Nehf;fp epfo;j;jpa ,uz;lhk; cjhrp gazj;jpd; NghJ jkpofk; te;Js;shH.
,g;gazj;jpd; NghJ nrd;id> nrq;fy;gl;L> Mw;fhL khtl;lq;fspd; topahf
,uhNk];tuk; te;J> mq;fpUe;J ,yq;if nrd;W gpd; Nkw;Fj; jpirNehf;fp Nfusj;jpw;Fg;
gazk; nra;Js;shH. ,e;j topj;jlq;fspy; rPf;fpaf; FUj;J thuhf;fs; gy
fl;lg;gl;Ls;sd. jkpo;ehl;by; tuyhw;Wg; gpurpj;jp ngw;w ,e;j epidTr; rpd;dq;fs;
,uhNk];tuk;> rhY}H> fhQ;rpGuk; Nghd;w ,lq;fspy; ,Ug;gjhf rHjhH fg+Hrpq;

50
Fwpg;gpLfpwhH. ,t;thW 16-Mk; E}w;whz;lstpNyNa rPf;fpak; jkpofj;jpw;F
mwpKfkhfpapUe;jhYk; ,jidg; gw;wpa ,yf;fpag; gjpTfs; 19-Mk; E}w;whz;lstpNyNa
Vw;gl;Ls;sd. rpj;jHfspy; xUtuhff; fUjg;gLk; ~rptNahf rhuk;‟ vOjpa g+uzhde;jH
ehdf; guk;giuapy; te;j ghgh uhk;jh]; vd;gtuplk; Qhdk; ngw;wjhff; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ.
,jd; gpd;dH 1899-,y; ntspte;j jkpo; ,yf;fpaf; fiyf; fsQ;rpakhd mgpjhd
rpe;jhkzpapy; rPf;fpa kjk; „cjhrP kjk;‟ vd;w ngaupy; gjpT nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.
,g;gjptpy; “ehdf; ,g;Gjpa kjj;ij epWtpdhH. gQ;rhgpy; fy;ahz re;j; vd;gtUf;F 1319-
,y; gpwe;jhH. ,tH jd; rPliur; rhe;juhfr; nra;jpUe;jhH. ,tUf;Fg; gpd;te;j
FUNfhtpe;jH rPf;fpaHfisr; #uHfshf;fpdhd;. mJKjy; mtHfs; MAj ghzpfshf
cs;sdH” vd;w jfty;fs; ,lk;ngw;Ws;sd. mgpjhdrpe;jhkzpf;Fg; gpd; E}w;whz;bd;
njhlf;fj;jpy; ,e;jpa tpLjiyg; Nghuhl;lg; gpd;dzpapy; rPf;fpa fhy;rhit epWtpa FU
Nfhtpe;jH ghujpapd; ftpijapy; Nghw;wg;gl;Ls;shH.

1. ghujpapd; FUNfhtpe;jH ghly;

,e;jpa Njrpaf; ftpQuhd ghujp gQ;rhg; gj;jpupiffs; kPJ Nghlg;gl;l tof;Ffs;>

jilr;rl;lq;fs; Fwpj;J ,e;jpah gj;jpupifapy; 1906-Mk; Mz;by; vOjpAs;shH. ghujpahH
vOjpa 204 mbfSila „FUNfhtpe;jH‟ vDk; jiyg;gpy; mike;Js;s ePz;l ftpij
1937-Mk; Mz;by; GJr;Nrup ghujp md;gHfshy; 'FUNfhtpe;j ]pk;` tp[ak;' vd;w
jiyg;gpy; 8 gf;fk; nfhz;l rpWE}yhf ntsp te;Js;s J. ,e;neLq;ftpij ghujp
rpth[piag; gw;wp ghly; vOjpa fhyj;ij xl;b 1906-1907fspy; „,e;jpah‟ gj;jpupifapy;
ntspte;jpUf;f Ntz;Lnkd ghujp Ma;thsH> njh.K.rp. uFehjd; $WfpwhH.

FUNfhtpe;jH gw;wpa ,f;ftpijapy;> ghujp FUNfhtpe;jH 1699-,y; (tpf;uk Mz;L>

1756) Mde;jGuj;jpy; $b Ie;J md;gHfis (gQ;r;g;ahuh) njupTnra;J „fhy;rh‟
,af;fj;ij Njhw;Wtpj;j tuyhw;iw tpsf;Ffpd;whH.

“Qhdg;ngUq;fly;> ey;ypirf; ftpQd;

thdk; tPo;e;J cjpupDk; ths;nfhL jLf;Fk;

tPuH ehafd;> Nkjpdp fhj;j

FUNfhtpe;j rpq;fkhq; Nfhkfd;”

51
vd;W FUNfhtpe;jiu mwpTf;flyhfTk;> ftpQuhfTk; rpq;fk; Nghd;w tPuj;jiytdhfTk;
mwpKfg;gLj;JfpwhH> ghujp. ,jd;gpd;dH> FUNfhtpe;jupd; Miziaf; Nfl;L gy
jpirfspYkpUe;J Mde;jGuj;jpw;F E}whapuk; tPuH te;J NrHfpd;wdH. mt;tPuHfisg;
ghHj;J „jUknja;tkhd fhspNjtp gypf;FUjp tpUk;Gfpwhs;. mjd; jhfj;ijj; jPHf;f ahH
tUfpwPHfs;‟ vd;W Nfl;L xt;nthUtuhf ItH tu mtHfis FUNfhtpe;jH gyp
Kbj;jpl;l nra;jpapidj; njhlHe;J ghujp tpsf;FfpwhH. FUNfhtpe;jupd; tuyhw;wpy;
nrhy;yg;gLk; Itupd; FUjpiaf; Nfl;Fk; nghJthd „flTs;‟ ,q;F> jhahf - fhspahf
cUkhw;wk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;shs;. gypapLk; Nrhjidf;Fg; gpd; ItiuAk; Nfhapypd;
cs;spUe;J ntspNa mioj;Jtu tPuHfs; MHf;fpd;wdH. FUNfhtpe;jiu>

“[a [a FUkzp [aFU rpq;fk;”

vd tho;j;Jfpd;wdH. mg;NghJ tPuHfisg; ghHj;J tpspj;J FUNfhtpe;jH ciuahw;Wk;

gFjp Kf;fpakhdJ.

“fhspA ekJ fdf ed;dhl;Lj;

NjtpA nkhd;nwdj; NjHe;jey; yd;gHfhs;!
eLf;f ePnua;j ehidk; KiwAk;
gypaplr; nrd;wJ> ghtid kd;w "
,q;F FUNfhtpe;jupd; tPuHfs; fhspiaAk; ,e;jpa ehl;Lj; NjtpAk; xd;nwd czHe;j
Njrgf;jHfshfr; rpj;jpupf;fg; gLfpd;wdH.

2. t.Nt.R. Iaupd; ‘FUNfhtpe;jrpq;fd;’

FUNfhtpe;jrpq;fpd; tPuj;ijg; Nghw;wp tPutzf;fk; nra;Ak; jd;ik jPtpu

Njrpathjk; NkNyhq;fpa fhyj;jpy; jkpofj;jpy; epytpaij ,d;Dk; rpy rhd;Wfs;
%yKk; ehk; mwpaKbfpwJ. ghujp FUNfhtpe;jH gw;wpf; ftpij vOjpa mNj
fhyfl;lj;jpy; jkpofj;jpd; Kd;dzp jPtputhj ,af;f Rje;jpug; Nghuhl;l tPuUk;
vOj;jhsUkhd t.Nt.R.IaH ~FUNfhtpe;jrpq;fd;‟ vDk; jiyg;gpy; KOikahd E}y;
xd;iw vOjp ntspapl;Ls;shH. Mdhy; jw;NghJ me;E}y; fpilf;ftpy;iy.

3. thQ;rpehjdpd; ‘FUNfhtpe;jH’ tzf;fk;

GJr;Nrupapy; ghujpaplKk; t.Nt.R. IauplKk; njhlHGila MAjg;gapw;rp ngw;w

nrq;Nfhl;il tPud;> thQ;rpehjd;. ,tH yz;ldpy; Ie;jhk; [hH[; Kb#l;L tpoh epfo;e;j

52
1911 [{iy 17-Mk; ehspy; kzpahr;rp uapy; re;jpg;gpy; M\; Jiuia Rl;Lf;nfhd;wNjhL
jd;idAk; kha;j;Jf; nfhz;lhH. mg;N ghJ mtuJ igapypUe;j fbjj;jpy;>

'vq;fs; uhkd;> rpth[p> fpU\;zd;> FUNfhtpe;jrpq; KjypNahH ,Ue;J jHkk;

nropf;f murhl;rp nra;J te;J Njrj;jpy; Nftyk; Nfhkhkprk; jpd;df;$ba xU
kpNyr;rdhfpa [hH[; gQ;rkid Kb#l;l cj;Njrk; nra;J nfhz;L ngUKaw;rp ele;J
tUfpwJ. mtd; vq;fs; ehl;by; fhyb itj;jTlNdNa mtidf; nfhy;Yk; nghUl;L>
3000 kjuhrpfs; gpujpf;iQ nra;J nfhz;bUf;fpNwhk;. mijj; njuptpf;Fk; nghUl;L
,tHfspy; filNadhfpa ehd; ,r;nra;if nra;Njd;. ,Jjhd; ,e;J];jhdj;jpy;
xt;nthUtDk; nra;aNtz;ba flik" vd;W vOjg; gl;bUe;jJ. thQ;rpehjdpd; ,e;jf;
FUtzf;fj;jpw;F ghujpapd; FUNfhtpe;jH ftpijNa J}z;LNfhyhf ,Ue;jpUf;f
Ntz;Lnkd;W fUJtjw;F tha;g;gpUf;fpwJ.

4. ghujpjhrd; Nghw;wpa ‘mfhypaupd; Mz;ik’

[hypad; thyhghf; gLnfhiyf;Fg; (1919) gpd;dUk; njhlHe;J Mq;fpNya murhy;

rPf;fpa kf;fspd; NjrpanaOr;rp xLf;fg;gl;lJ. ,jd; xU gFjpahf mtHfs; ~fpHghd;'
Ve;Jtij Mq;fpNyaHfs; jilnra;jdH. ,jid vjpHj;J gQ;rhgpYk; ehl;bd; gpw
gFjpfspYk; Nghuhl;lq;fs; Vw;gl;ld. mfhypaH XH ,af;fkhf epd;W NghuhbdH. ,e;jg;
Nghuhl;lk; jkpo;f;ftpQH ghujpjhrdhy; tuNtw;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. jkpo;j;Njrpaf; ftpQuhfTk;
Gul;rpf; ftpQuhfTk; miof;fg;ngWk; ghujpjhrd; „NjrNrtfd;‟ gj;jpupifapy; 10.7.1923
md;W 'mfhypaupd; Mz;ik' vDk; jiyg;gpy; ,g;Nghuhl;lj;ij tuNtw;Wf; ftpij
vOjpAs;shH. ,f;ftpijapy; rPf;fpaHfs; „fpHghd;‟ kPJ nfhz;Ls;s gw;Wk; mtHjk;
tPuKk; Nghw;wpg; Gfog;gl;Ls;sd.

“vq;fs; rhjpj; jpUf;ift of;fkhk;

vq;fs; fj;jp vkf;FapH Nghd;wjhk;
jq;fs; td;ikiaf; fhl;Lk; MSNthH
rhjy; NeupDk; ifg;gil tpl;bNlhk;
nghq;fpg; ghAk; flypidg; NghyNt
Ngha;r; rpiwg;gly; vq;fl;F nty;ykhk;
mq;fpt; thW fpsk;gpdhH! ntd;wdH
mfhyp tPuupd; Mz;ikiaf; fz;BNuh”
ghujpjhrdpd; ,f;ftpij> mtH ghujpapd; ,e;jpa Njrpa ,af;fj;jpd; rhHgpy; epd;wNghJ
vOjg;gl;ljhFk;.

53
5. ghujrf;jp kfhfhtpaj;jpy; rPf;fpa fhy;rh

jkpo; vOj;Jf;fspy; rPf;fpa FUf;fSk; mtHfsJ ,yl;rpaq;fSk; kpf tpupthfg;

Ngrg;gLk; gilg;G „ghujrf;jp kfhfhtpak;‟ MFk;. ,J ftpNahfp Rj;jhde;j ghujpahuhy;
,aw;wg;gl;L 1948-,y; ntspte;jJ. ,e;jg; ngUq;fhg;gpak; rpj;jp> nfsup> rhjdh> jhdt>
Rj;jrf;jp vDk; Ie;J fhz;lq;fisAk; 136 glyq;fisAk; cilaJ. 900 gf;f mstpy;
ntspte;Js;s ,f;fhg;gpak;> QhdgPlg;gupR ngw;w ,e;jpf; ftpQH [arq;fu gpurhj;
,aw;wpa „fhkhadp‟ fhtpaj;ijg;Nghy; kdpj kd tsHr;rpiaAk; Md;kj;NjliyAk;
cs;Siwg; nghUshff; nfhz;lJ. mutpe;jupd; kiwQhdj; jj;Jtj;jpy; (Mysticism)
Ml;gl;l Rj;jhde;j ghujpahH> ,f;fhg;gpaj;jpy; kdpj tho;tpd; Ik;ngWk; epiyfis
Ie;J fhz;lq;fshf mikj;J Md;kNrhjidia epfo;j;jpAs;shH. fhz;lq;fspd;
ngaHfisg; Nghd;Nw fhg;gpa khe;jHfspd; ngaHfSk; cUtfj; jd;ik
nfhz;litahFk;. ghuj ehl;bd; Nahf rf;jpia ,k; kz;zpy; kPz;Lk; J}z;btpLtJ
Mrpupaupd; Nehf;fkhf mikfpwJ.

“vy;yh capHf;Fk; ,iwtd; xUtNd

vy;yh clYk; ,iwtd; MyaNk ...

vd;Dk; rku]k; ,jaj; Jbg;gha;>

mfg;Gwj; J}a;ikAk; mile;J ePLop

thOk; tifia toq;Fk; rf;jpNa

gukNahfe; jUk; ghuj rf;jpahk;”

vdg; ghujrf;jpf;F tpsf;fk; jUk; Rj;jhde;jH> ,g;ghuj rf;jp

“khdpliu mjp kdpjHfshf;fp

khjiur; rf;jp kz;lykhf;fp>
Rj;jhd;k rpj;jH RlHngWQ; rq;fNk
cyftho; thf epytr; nra;Ak;”
vd;W ,f;fhg;gpaj;jpd; Kd;Diug; gFjpapy; mutpe;jupd; jj;Jtj;ij Kd;nkhopfpwhH.
,uhkhazk;> kfhghujk;> kzpNkfiy> tisahgjp vdg; gy;rkaf; fhg;gpaq;fSk; rpth[p>
,uhkfpU\;zH> Gj;jH> kfhtPuH> egpehafk;> fpwp];J> FUehdf; vdg; gy;rkaj;
jiytHfSk;> gftj; fPij> iggps;> Fuhd;> fpue;jk; vdg; gy;rkag; Gdpj E}y;fSk;

54
,f;fhg;gpaj;jpd; glyq;fshf mike;J ghuj rf;jpapd; tpsf;fkhf ,e;jf;fhg;gpaj;jpy;
,lk;ngWfpd;wd. Njrk;> ,dk;> nkhop> rkak; Mfpa vy;yh vy;iyfisAk; fle;J kdpj
,dj;ijAk; flTisAk; xd;whff; fhZk; „ghujrf;jp‟ vDk; Rj;jhde;j ghujpahupd;
fUj;jpay; rPf;fpaf; fUj;jpaNyhL kpfTk; neUq;fpf; fhl;rp jUfpwJ. ,uz;lhtJ
fhz;lkhd nfsupfhz;lj;jpy; mike;Js;s gfJ}H glyk;> FUNfhtpe;jH glyk;
%d;whtJ fhz;lkhd rhjdh fhz;lj;jpy; ,lk;ngw;Ws;s FUehdf; glyk;>
fpue;j]hnfGg; glyk; Mfpa ehd;F glyq;fspy; Rj;jhde;j ghujpahH rPf;fpa FUf;fspd;
ngUikiaAk;> rPf;fpa rkaj;jpd; fUj;jhf;fq;fisAk; tpsf;fpAs;shH.

5.1. Nj[; gfJ}upd; tuyhW

rPf;fpa rkaj;jpd; xd;gjhtJ FUthd Nj[;gfJ}upd; tuyhW> ghujrf;jp

kfhfhtpaj;jpy; nfsupfhz;lj;jpd; 25-MtJ glykhd gfJ}H glyj;jpy; tpsf;fg;gLfpwJ.
fhg;gpaj;jpd; ,uz;lhtJ fhz;lkhd nfsupfhz;lk; cyfpd; ,Utpfhuq;fSld; kdpjd;
tPug;NghH Gupe;J tPukdpjdhf tpsq;Fk; epiyia tptupg;gJ. ,jpy; gfJ}H glyj;jpy;
fhg;gpaj; jiytHfSs; xUtdhd rj;jpad; „fypaurd;‟ nra;j nfhLikfis vjpHj;Jg;
NghH Guptjw;fhfj; jd; kidtp ,e;jpiuaplk; tpilngwr; nry;fpwhd;. mg;NghJ mts;
fyq;Ffpwhs;. mr;#o;epiyapy; mtSf;F “Njrf; flikNa capuhk;. ,e;j jUkj;ij
Kd; fhj;j jPud; xUtdpd; rupj;jpuj;ijf; Nfl;gha;” vd;Wiuj;J Nj[;gfJ}upd; tuyhw;iw
vLj;Jiuf;fpwhd;.

“ePq;fW Kaw;rpahsH ePjp nra; fhjyhsH

J}q;fpDq; flik J}q;fhj; JzpTil fUktPuH>
jPq;fW nja;tgf;jH jpahfNk tho;f;ifahdhH
Xq;fpir ngw;w rPf;fH XjpLq; FUf;fshthH!"

vd;W rPf;fpa FUf;fspd; ngUikfis rj;jpad; top vLj;Jiuf;Fk; Rj;jhde;jH>

FUehdf;fpd; topte;j FUf;fspd; tupir $wp mjpy; „rpq;fk;Nghy; vOe;jhd; Mj;kjPud;
gfJ}H‟ vd;fpwhH. NkYk;>

'Mw;wYk; mwpT kpf;fhd; Mj;Jkrf;jp kpf;fhd;

$w;nwjpH tupDk; mQ;rhd; nfhs;iff;Nf capH nfhLg;ghd;”

55
 vd gfJ}upd; rpwg;ig vLj;Jiuf;fpwhH. gfJ}H $H[up vDk; kidtpAk;
Nfhtpe;jrpq; vDk; kfDkhf ,y;ywk; elj;jpa Ntisapy; „,];yhk; kjj;ijg; gug;g
guguj;njOe;j xsuq;frPg;‟ kjk; khw kWj;j gfJ}iu ifJ nra;J jpy;ypf;Ff; nfhzu
MizapLfpwhd;. NghUf;nfOe;j gfJ}iuf; fz;L mOk; $H[upf;F gfJ}H MWjy;
$WfpwhH.

'er;ruh rPwpdhYk; ekd;te;J kpul;bdhYk;

Jr;rneQ;Rila nta;aH RLruk; gha;r;rpdhYk;
mr;rnkhd;wwpahj; jPuH mjHkj;ij vjpHg;gjd;wp
vr;rkaj;Jk; jPikf;F ,zfp ehk; mwpe;jJz;Nlh?"

vd mjHkj;ij vjpHg;gij jHktPuupd; fliknad;W gfJ}H $WfpwhH. NkYk; 'Nrhfk;

vd;gJ khia> Jauk; vd;gJ kdj;jpd; khR> cly; Nja;e;J NghFk; rl;il” vd;W
Md;khTf;Fj; jj;Jt tpsf;fk; je;J $H[upiaj; Njw;WfpwhH. ,q;qdk; gfJ}H
$H[upf;Ff; $wpa MWjy; fhg;gpaj;jpy; rj;jpad; ,e;jpiuf;Ff; $Wk; MWjyhf
mikfpd;wJ.

5.2. FUNfhtpe;jH tuyhW

fhy;rhit epWtpa FUNfhtpe;jupd; tuyhW $Wk; FUNfhtpe;jH glyk;

nfsupfhz;lj;jpd; ,Ugj;NjohtJ glykhf mikfpd;wJ. ,jpy; fypia nty;yr;
nry;Yk; Rj;jDf;F> mtDila je;ij rj;jpad; ntw;wpf;F topahf FUNfhtpe;jd;
tuyhw;iwf; $WfpwhH. ,jpy; Nj[;gfJ}upd; jpahfgyp> gQ;rg;ahuhitj; NjHjy;>
fhy;rhit epWTjy;> jd; ike;jHfis ,oj;jy; vd FUNfhtpe;jupd; tho;f;if epfo;Tfs;
midj;Jk; 420 mbfspy; tpupthfg; glk;gpbj;Jf; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd. ,g;glyj;jpy;
FUNfhtpe;jH> jpahf tPudhf Rj;jhde;juhy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gLfpwhH.

“jPapil mfpiyg; NghYk;> jPl;ba tapuk; NghYk;

Nta;fil neUg;igg; NghYk; tpisfdp kuj;ijg; NghYk;>

jha;kdg; ghrk; NghYk;> jl;ba Vyk; NghYk;>

J}ajpahftPuH tho;f;ifAe; JzpTkk;kh

mj;jifj; jpahftPud;> mfhypaH je;ijahNdhd;

56
 rf;jpYk; rz;bjh]d;> rj;FU g`J}H ike;jd;

tpj;jfQhdrPyd;> tpLjiyj; jtKad;w

rpj;jdhk; FUNfhtpe;jd; rpq;fnkd;wpir ngw;NwhNd!”

,q;F FU Nfhtpe;jUf;F „rf;jpYk; rz;bjhrd;‟ rf;jpia topgLgtH vd xU Gjpa

milahsj;ijf; nfhLj;J jd; jj;Jt kuGf;Fs; ,izj;Jg; ghHf;fpwhH. ,jd; fhuzkhf
rz;biaj; Jjpj;J FUNfhtpe;jH mUs;ngWtJk; ,g;glyj;jpy; ,lk;ngw;Ws;sJ.
„FUNfhtpe;jd; rpq;fk;‟ vd ,q;F Rg;gpukzpa ghujpapd; thf;fhYk; milahsg; gLj;J
fpwhH. FUNfhtpe;jH fhy;rhtpw;fhf NjHTnra;j „gQ;rg;ahuhf;fspy;‟ xUtH jUkd; vd;w
jkpoH vd;W Rj;jhde;jH $WtJ Gjpa nra;jpahf ,Uf;fpwJ. ,r;nra;jp rPf;fpaj;ijj;
jkpnohL neUq;fr;nra;a jkpo;kag;gLj;j - Rj;jhde;jH Nkw;nfhz;l Kaw;rpahfTk;
fUjyhk;. Nrhjidapy; ntd;w Itiug; ghHj;J>

“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mr;re;

Jwg;gjhy;> cz;ikfhf;fj; Jzptjhw; Raeyj;ij

kwg;gjhy; kdpjH nja;t khz;GWtPu uhthH”

vd;W $WfpwhH. ,q;F mr;rj;jpypUe;J tpLjiy ngWtNj Kf;jpf;F mbg;gil vd;w

rPf;fpa fUj;J moFwg; gjpT nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. FUNfhtpe;jH KfyhaHfSf;F vjpuhfg;
NghuhLtjw;F kiyuh[hf;fSf;F miog;G tpLj;jNghJ ,ope;NjhNuhL Nru mtHfs;
kWj;jdH. me;j epiyapy; fhy;rhtpd; ngUikia gha; ee;jyhyplk; $Wk;NghJ 'fhy;rh
rpl;Lf;FUtpfisf; fOFfshf;Fk;” vd;W $wpdhH. ,e;jf; $w;Wk; FUNfhtpe;jH
rPlHfSf;F cgNjrk; nra;j gFjpapy; “rpl;Lf;FUtpia ty;Y}whf;fp> fpyp nfhs;Sk;
rdj;ij NghHnra; Njfupahf;fp ad;G Fytpa rPlUf;F FUkzp cgNjrpj;jhd;” vd
Rj;jhde;juhy; gjpTnra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.

5.3. FUehdf; tuyhW

ghujrf;jp kfhfhtpaj;jpy; FUehdf;fpd; tho;Tk; mtuJ Jzpr;ryhd gzpfSk;

MHtj;ijj; J}z;Lk; fpisf; fijfNshL rhjdh fhz;lj;jpy; Rj;jhde;j ghujpahuhy;
gjpT nra;ag; ngw;Ws;sd. gpuhkzHfspd; rlq;fhr;rhuq;fSf;F vjpuhf Rje;jpukhd
Md;kPf topapy; ehdf; gazk; nra;Js;shH. ehdf;fpd; je;ij re;ijapy; tzpfk; nra;a
mtuplk; rpwpJ gzk; nfhLf;fpwhH. Mdhy;> ehdf; me;jg;gzj;ijg; grpj;jtHfSf;Fk;

57
gpr;irf;fhuHfSf;Fk; ViofSf;Fk; jhdk; nra;J tpLfpwhH. ,NjNghd;W xU jhdpaf;
filapy; ehdf; gzpnra;jNghJ 13 vd;w vz;izf; (Njuh) Nfl;lJk; me;jg; ngaUila
flTisf; Fwpj;j rpe;ijapy; Mo;e;JtpLfpwhH. FUehdf;fpd; tho;tpy; epfo;e;j gpd;tUk;
mupa epfo;r;rpiaAk; Rj;jhde;jH tUzpj;Js;shH. nkf;fhtpy; ehdf;> cjhrpg; gazk;
Nkw;nfhz;lNghJ> mq;F mtH Xuplj;jpy; Gdpjf; fw;fl;blkhd „fhgh‟ ,Uf;Fk; ,lj;ij
Nehf;fp fhiy ePl;b mkHe;jpUe;jhH. mjidf; fz;l `h[p xUtH „fhgh‟ ,Uf;Fk;
jpirapy; fhy; ePl;LtJ mtkupahijf;Fupa njd $w> ehdf; flTs; vy;yhj;
jpirfspYk; ,Uf;fpwhnud tpilapWf;fpwhH. mjidf; Nfl;l `h[p ehdf;fpd; fhy;fis
vjpHj;jpir Nehf;fp efHj;jp itf;f> mg;NghJ vy;NyhUk; Mr;rupag;glj;jf;f tifapy;
fhghTk; mNj jpirNehf;fp efHfpwJ. ,j;jifa MHtj;ijj; J}z;Lk; mw;Gjr; nray;fs;
ghujrf;jp kfhfhtpaj;jpy; tpupthf tpsf;fk; ngw;Ws;sd.

FUehdf;fpd; tho;tpy; epfo;e;j mjprar; nray;fisj; jkpopy; re;jhdnyl;Rkp

vOjpAs;s „FUehdf;‟ tho;f;if tuyhw;W E}ypYk; fhzyhk;. NkYk; kJiu fhkuhrH
gy;fiyf;fof FUehdf; Ma;tfk; ntspapl;Ls;s FUehdf;> rPf;fpak; Fwpj;j
nkhopngaHg;G E}y;fSk; ,q;Ff; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fd.
KbTiu

r%fk;> rkak;> gz;ghL> nghUshjhuk; vd midj;Jj; jsq;fspYk; rPf;fpaf;

fUj;jpaYk; jkpo;r; rpe;jid kuGk; xd;Wgl;Lr; nry;fpd;wd. rPf;fpa „fhy;rhTk;‟
rPf;fpaHfSk; jkpo;ehl;bYk; ,yf;fpaj;jpYk; ed;Kiwapy; tuNtw;fg;gl;Ls;sdH.

4. ghujpjhrd; - fpU\;z rh];jpup ftpijfspy; ,aw;if

ghNte;jH ghujpjhrd; (1891-1964) ,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;Lj; jkpo; ,yf;fpag; Nguhw;wpy;

,aw;ifapaj;ijg; ghatpl;l „Gul;rpf; Fapy;‟> NjTygy;yp Ntq;fl fpU\;zrh];jpup (1897-
1980) ,e;j E}w;wz;Lj; njYq;F ,yf;fpag; g+Q;Nrhiyapy; ,aw;iff; FunyLj;Jg; ghba
„ftpf;Fapy;‟. E}w;whz;L tpohf; fz;l ghujpjhrDk;> fpU\;zrh];jpupAk; ,e;jpahtpy;
mbik ,UisAk; tpLjiy xspiaAk; juprpj;j rkfhy ,e;jpaf; ftpQHfs;.
,t;tpUtUk; fhjiyAk; ,aw;ifiaAk; kdpjidAk; ikag;gLj;jpa Gidtpay;
ftpQHfs;. ,e;j mbj;jsNk ghujpjhrd;> fpU\;zrh];jpup MfpNahuJ ,aw;iff;
ftpijfis xg;gpLtjw;F VJtha; mike;Js;sJ.

58
fpU\;z rh];jpup-XH mwpKfk;

NjTygy;yp Ntq;fl fpU\;zrh];jpup Me;jpu khepyj;jpy; Nkw;F Nfhjhtup

khtl;lj;jpy; - gplhGuk; mUfpYs;s xU rpWfpuhkj;jpy; gpwe;jtH. njYq;F ,yf;fpaj;jpy;
gl;lk; ngw;wtH. fhf;fpehlhtpy; cs;s fy;Y}up xd;wpy; rpyfhyk; njYq;F nkhopg;
gapw;Weuhf gzpahw;wpa ,tH vOj;ijNa jd; tho;f;ifahff; nfhz;lhH. jd;
tho;f;ifapd; ,Wjpf; fhyj;jpy; fpU\;zrh];jpup nrd;id mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp
epiyaj;jpy; njYq;F epfo;r;rp MNyhrfuhfg; gzpahw;wpdhH.

Nkiy ehl;Lg; Gidtpay; ftpQHfspd; jhf;fj;jhy; 1910-1940 fhyfl;lj;jpy;

njYq;F ,yf;fpaj;jpy; cUthd „ghtftpj;tk;‟ (jd;DzHr;rpf; ftpij) ,af;fj;ij
tsHj;njLj;jtH> NjTygy;yp fpU\;zrh];jpup MthH. jw;fhyj; njYq;Ff; ftpij
,yf;fpaj;ijg; nghJ kf;fsplk; nrd;W NrHj;j ngUik> rpwe;j Ngr;rhsuhd fpU\;z
rh];jpupiaNa rhUk;. Me;jpu kf;fspd; MjHr jd;DzHr;rpf; ftpQuhf fpU\;zrh];jpup
fUjg;gl;lhH. ,tuJ rpif myq;fhuk; $l mf;fhy vOj;jhsHfsplKk; kf;fsplKk;
jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;jpaJ.

rpwe;j jd;DzHr;rpf; ftpQuhd fpU\;zrh];jpup fhjiyAk; ,aw;ifiaAk;

gw;wpANk kpFjpahd ftpijfs; vOjpAs;shH. „fpU\;zgf;\k;‟ vd;Dk; ,tuJ Kjy;
ftpijj; njhFjp 1925-,y; ntspte;jJ. ,J ghujpjhrdpd; mofpd; rpupg;igg; Nghy
KOf;f ,aw;iff; ftpijfs; epuk;gpaJ.

1. mofpd; rpupg;Gk; mOifAk;

,aw;ifapd; moif kdf;fz;zhy; fz;L> mjid tpae;J ghLtJ Gidtpay;

ftpQdpd; czHT eydhFk;. ,e;jg; Gidtpay; czHT eyid ghujpjhrd;> fpU\;z
rh];jpup Mfpa ,UtuplKk; fhzKbfpwJ. ghujpjhrd; ,aw;ifapd; mofpy; rpupg;igf;
fhz;fpwhH.

“khiyg; Nghjpy; Nrhiyapd; gf;fk;

nrd;Nwd; FspHe;j njd;wy; te;jJ

te;j njd;wypy; thrk; fko;e;jJ

thrk; te;j trj;jpy; jpUk;gpNdd;

59
 Nrhiy eLtpy; nrhf;Fg; gr;irg;

gl;Lil g+z;L glHe;J fple;J

FYf;nfd;W rpupj;j Ky;iy

kyHf;nfhb fz;Nld; kfpo;r;rp nfhz;NlNd!"

(„rpupj;j Ky;iy‟> Kjy; njhFjp> g. 55)

,ijg; Nghd;w ,d;gr; rpupg;Gf;fspd; rpj;jpupg;Gfs; jhd; mofpd;rpupg;G KOf;f

epiwe;Js;sd.

NjTygy;yp fpU\;zrh];jpupAk; ghujpjhridg; NghyNt ,aw;ifg; nghUs;f spd;

moif tpae;J ghbapUf;fpwhH. rh];jpup ejpapd; moifg; gpd;tUkhW tUzpf;fpwhH.

“jpiur; rPiyfNshLk; tprpwpfNshLk; kuq;fNshLk;

nts;is Eiuj; Jz;lq;fNshLk;

moFk; ngUkpjKk; ctg;Gk;

,sikAk; epiwe;jpUf;Fk; fq;ifj;jhNa eltha; eP"

“njuyNjh tPrpfyNjhl jUyNjhl

tpky b d;B uf d;l jd;l Ky Njhl

KUT B tpA eh k;Nuhj k;G D> [tk;G

gL T ndhg;gq;f f q;fk;k eLttk;k." .

(Nkw;Nfhs;: NrhkRe;jH> g.120)

,j;jifa moF rpupf;Fk; ,d;gf; fhl;rpfs; fpU\;z rh];jpupapd; fpU\;zgPk;

ftpijj; njhFg;gpy; rpyNt. khwhf ,aw;if mofpd; mOFuNy kpFjpahfj;
njd;gLfpwJ. rhd;whf

60
 “ghijapy; Nghd njd;wy;

,uf;fj;NjhL ngU%r;Rtpl;lJ Nghy

Fapy; Nfhntd;W FunyOg;gp

mOjJ Nghy; czHe;Njd;"- fpU\;zgPk;

“jh upNghnaL ke;j gtD

[hypf epl;LHrpdl;Y

NfhfpyK Nfhadp nfhe;Jndj;jp

Nal;rpdpl;Y ];gupQ;rptjp"

Nkw;Nfhs;: rp. ehuhaznul;b> g.121)

ghujpjhrd;> fpU\;zrh];jpup MfpNahuJ cyfNehf;F NtWgl;lit. ,jd;

fhuzkhf ghujpjhrdpd; ,aw;iff; ftpijfs; mofpd; rpupg;ghf mika> rh];jpupapd;
,aw;iff;ftpijfs; mofpd; rpupg;igf; fhl;bYk; mOifia mjpfkhfr; rpj;jpupf;fpd;wd.

2. ,d;gk; jUk; moF

cyftho;tpd; Jd;gq;fis kwf;fr; nra;Ak; ,d;gg;nghUshf ,aw;ifia

NtHl;];nthHj; Kjyhd Mq;fpyg; Gidtpay; ftpQHfs; fz;ldH. mNj Nghy
ghujpjhrDk; fpU\;zrh];jpupAk; ,aw;if moif ,d;gk;jUk; nghUshff; fz;Ls;sdH.
ghujpjhrd;>

“eirNahL Nehf;flh vq;Fk; cs;shs;

ey;yoF trg;gl;lhy; Jd;gkpy;iy.”(moF- mofpd; rpupg;G)

vd;W mofpd;rpupg;gpy; ghbAs;shH. fpU\;zrh];jpup ,aw;ifjhd; jdf;F ,d;gj;ijAk;

kdmikjpiaAk; jUk; vd;W ek;gpdhH. ,jdhy; jdJ ftpijfs; gytw;wpy; ,d;gk;
jUk; ,aw;if mofplk; jd;idf; nfhz;L NrHf;FkhW Ntz;LfpwhH. rhd;whf

61
 ',dpa g+q;fhtpd; kuf;nfhk;Gfspy; NrHe;jpirf;Fk;

NjdPf;fspd; uPq;fhuNk Fapypd; $tNy jUfrhe;jp”

-md;Gf; fhjyp

(g;uza tdjU]h1fy gy;ytpQ;R

Njbk;Nuhj Nfhapy $j> njz;L ]he;jp

(g;uhzfhe;j> fpU\;zgPk;;> g. 34)

3. ,aw;ifapd; ,aq;fpay;

,aw;ifia capHj;Jbg;GilajhfTk;> mjid tsUfpd;w - khWfpd;w -

jd;idg;GJg;gpj;Jf; nfhs;fpd;w ,aq;fpay; gz;GilajhfTk; NjhNuh Nghd;w mnkupf;fg;
Gidtpay; ftpQHfs; fz;Ls;sdH. ,aw;ifapid,aq;fpay; gz;Gilajhff; fhl;Lk;
,g;Nghf;F ghujpjhrd;> fpU\;zrh];jpup Mfpa ,U ftpQHfsplKk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. 'MW'
vDk; ftpijapd; njhlf;fj;jpy; ePuw;w Mw;Wg; ghijiaAk; RLkziyAk;> ntg;gj;ijAk;
tUzpf;Fk; ghujpjhrd;> gpd; ntspapy; FspHfhw;Wk; ePuw;w Mw;wpy; ngUnts;sKk;
ngUf;nfLf;Fk; ,aw;ifapd; khw;wj;ijAk; mjd; moifAk; tUzpf;fpwhH.

“nghype;jJ! Nfhilahl;rp

khw;wpw;Wg; Gul;rp nts;sk;” (MW-mofpd;rpupg;G)

fpU\;zrh];jpup ,Nj Nghy ePNuhilapid „md;Nt\dk;‟ (Njly;) vDk; ftpijapy;

,aq;fpay; gz;Gilajhff; fhl;LfpwhH.

“twz;L jhfq; nfhz;l Xilapd;

tapw;wpy; mlq;fpa flypd; Kof;fk;” (Njly;)

(R1\;fpq;r tpun`dp n]yNaub

fLGyNyh elfpd flyp k;Nuhj"

(md;Nt\dK> fpU\;zgPk; g.23)

62
4. ,iwapd;gKk; jkpod;gKk;

,aw;ifiaAk; fhjy; ,d;gj;ijAk; ,izj;Jg; ghHj;j ftpQHfs; tho;tpd;

KOKjyhf jhq;fs; fUJk; nghUisAk; ,aw;if ,d;gkhfNt fhz;fpwhHfs; .
,iwtid KOKjyhff; fhZk; fpU\;zrh];jpup ,iw ,d;gj;ij ,aw;if
,d;gkhfNt fhz;fpwhH:

“tpupe;J ntz;zpyh ky;ypif ,johf

Njd;nts;sk; kioahfpg; nghopa

jz;ePHj; jhiuapy; ehq;fs; Kq;fpnao

vq;fsplk; te;jha; fUzhepjpNa”

“tpup]p [hgp3yp ky;ypNuffh3

j3hp]p Njdpay Kt;tffh3

Fup]p khgapjh4u jh4u KQ;nrj;jfh3

NtQ;Nr]pdhta;ah fUzhepjp3!"

(Nkw;Nfhs;: NrhkRe;jH> g. 120) )

,q;qdk; ,iwtdpd; tUifia tho;j;jpg; ghLfpwhH> fpU\;zrh];jpup. jkpioj;

jd;tho;tpd; KOKjyhff; fz;l ghujpjhrd; ,aw;if ,d;gj;ijAk; jkpo; ,d;gj;ijAk;
,izj;Jg; ghHf;fpwhH.

„jkpopd; ,dpik‟ vDk; ftpijapYk; jkpopd;gj;ijAk; ,aw;ifapd;gj;ijAk;

mfk;Gwkhf ,izj;Jg; ghHf;fpwhH> ghujpjhrd; .

“fdpapil Vwpa RisAk; - Kw;wy;

fioapil Vwpa rhWk;

gdpkyH Vwpa NjDk; - fha;r;Rg;

ghfpil Vwpa RitAk; @

edpgR nghopAk; ghYk; - njd;id

63
 ey;fpa Fspups ePUk; -

,dpad vd;Ngd; vdpDk; - jkpio

vd;DapH vd;Ngd; fz;BH!”

(jkpopd; ,dpik- Kjw;njhFjp> g.79)

vd tUzpj;Js;shH.

5. ,iwikAk; mopahg;ngz;ikAk;

gpuk;krkh[pahd fpU\;zrh];jpup ,aw;ifia ,iwtdpd; ntspg;ghlhfg; ghHf;f>

gFj;jwpTthjpahd ghujpjhrd; mjid mopahg;ngz; Mw;wyhff; fhz;fpwhH.

“Mfhaj;jpd; ePyg;ngha;ifapy;

mur md;dk; Nghy

KO epyT NrhHTld;

miye;J jpupfpwJ.

Mj;khde;jk; nfhLf;Fk;

njd;jpirf; fhw;Wfs;

kuf; fpisfspy;

Mopj;jpiufspy; xspfpwJ

eldj;ijAk; ryryg;igAk; iftpl;L

ejpAk; cwq;fptpl;lJ

nja;tj;jpd; nkd;ifapy;

,isg;ghWfpwJ ,t;Tyfk;". (Nk.Nfh: rp. MH. rHkh. g. 403)

,f;ftpijapy; fpU\;zrh];jpup ,aw;ifapidAk; gpugQ;rj;ijAk; ,af;Fk; rf;jpahf

,iwtidf; fhz;fpwhH. ghujpjhrd; cyfpid ,af;Fk; rf;jpapid ngz;tbtk; nfhz;l

64
mopah Mw;wyhff; fhz;fpwhH. ,jid mtuJ ghujpaplk; ghbf; fhl;ba Kjy; ghl;by;
fhzyhk;.

“vq;nfq;F fhzpDk; rf;jpalh- jk;gp

VOfly; mts; tz;zklh - mq;Fj;

jq;Fk; ntspapdpw; Nfhbaz;lk; - me;jj;

jhapd; ifg;ge;njd XLklh!- xU

fq;Fypy; VO KfpypdKk; - te;J

fHr;rid nra;tJ fz;lJz;Nlh?- vdpy;

kq;if eifj;j xypnadyhk; - mts;

ke;j eifapq;F kpd;Djlh!"

fpU\;zrh];jpupapd; ,aw;ifiag; gw;wpa ghHit ,iwik rhHe;j Md;kPfj; Njlyhf

mika - ghujpjhrd; ghHit> nghUspay; rhHe;j ,aq;fpay; Mw;wyhf mikfpwJ.
(rhHthfk;> rhq;fpak;) cz;L.

Kbthfr; rpy...

 ghujpjhrd; fpU\;zrh];jpup MfpNahuJ ,aw;iff; ftpijfspy;> ,aw;ifapd;

moif kdf;fz;zhy; fz;L tpae;J ghLjy;> ,aw;ifia ,d;gk; jUk;
nghUshfg; ghHj;jy;> ,aw;if ,d;gj;jpy; xd;Wfyj;jy;> ,aw;ifia ,aq;fpay;
jd;ikAilajhff; fhZjy;.
 fhjiyAk; ,aw;ifiaAk; ,izj;Jg;ghLjy; Mfpa Gidtpay;
czHTeyDf;Fupa nghJg;gz;Gfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 ghujpjhrdpd; moF rpupj;Jf; fhl;rpaspf;f> fpU\;zrh];jpupapd; moF
mOifaha;f; fhl;rpjUfpwJ. ,aw;ifiaAk; rKjhaj;ijAk; ,izj;Jg; ghHf;Fk;
ghujpjhrdpd; ghHit rh];jpupaplk; ,y;iy.
 ,aw;ifiag; gw;wpa jj;Jtepiyg;ghL vd;W tUfpw NghJ fpU\;zrh];jpup
NtHl;];nthHj;ijg; Nghy; ,aw;ifia ,iwikrhHe;j Md;kPf ntspg;ghlhff;
fz;Ls;shH. ghujpjhrd; fPl;];> n\y;ypiag; Nghy; mwptpay; mbg;gil rhHe;J
mopahg;nghUspd; ,af;fkhf ,aw;ifiaf; fhz;fpwhH.

65
  mopah ,aw;ifAk; jkpOk; ghujpjhrdpd; Gidtpay; Fwpf;Nfhs;fshf
mike;Js;sd.
 ghujpjhrd; Rakupahij ,af;fr; rhHGila gFj;jwpTthjpahfTk;>
fpU\;zrh];jpup gpuk;krkh[ rhHGila Md;kPfthjpahfTk; ,Ue;jjhy;
mtHfSila cyf Nehf;fpYk; ,aw;if Fwpj;j ghHitapYk; NtWghLfs;
cs;sd.
 nkhopiaAk; ,aw;ifiaAk; mopahrf;jpiaAk; ,izj;Jg;ghHf;fpw jdpj;Jtkpf;f
ghujpjhrDf;F ,izahd ,aw;iff;ftpQiu ,e;jpa ,yf;fpaj;jpy; fhz;gjupJ.

5. ehkf;fy;yhH - ts;sj;Njhs; ftpijfspy; fhe;jpak;

,e;jpa Njrpaj;jpd; Kjy; vOr;rpapy; - jpyfH topapy; cUthd ,e;jpaf;

ftpQHfSf;F ghujp> NfrtRjH (kuhj;jp)> ikjpyp ruz;Fg;jh (,e;jp) Nghd;NwhH rpwe;j
vLj;Jf;fhl;Lf;fs;. ,e;jpa Njrpaj;jpd; ,uz;lhtJ vOr;rpapy; - fhe;jpa miyapy; -
cUg;ngw;w ftpQHfSf;F `pe;jpapy; rpahuhk; ruz;Fg;jhTk;> njYq;fpy; fupnks;s
rj;aehuhazhTk;> jkpopy; ehkf;fy; ,uhkypq;fk; gps;isAk; (1878-1972)> kiyahsj;jpy;
ts;sj;Njhs; ehuhazNkNdhDk; (1888-1959) rpwe;j vLj;Jf;fhl;Lf;fshf tpsq;Ffpd;wdH.

ehkf;fy;yhUk; ts;sj;NjhSk; nghJthd r%f> murpay; jj;Jtg;gpd;dzpapy;

cUthdtHfs;. ehkf;fy;yhH 1920-,y; fy;fj;jhtpy; ele;j fhq;fpu]; khehl;bw;Fr; nrd;W
fhe;jpaf; nfhs;ifia Mjupj;jhH. ts;sj;Njhs; 1925-,y; Nfusj;jpYs;s itf;fk;
vDkplj;jpy; ele;j Myag; gFjp EioT rj;jpahfpufj;jpy; fhe;jpiar; re;jpj;jhH@ 1927>
1928-Mk; Mz;Lfspy; KiwNa nrd;id> fy;fj;jh efuq;fspy; ele;j fhq;fpu];
khehLfspy; fye;J nfhz;lhH. fhe;jpapd; m`pk;ir nfhs;ifapid mtuJ fjH>
kJtpyf;F> tFg;G xw;Wik> jPz;lhik xopg;G Kjyhd epHkhzj; jpl;lq;fis
kf;fspilNa gpurhuk; nra;Ak; Nehf;fpy; ,UtUk; kpFjpahd ghly;fis vOjpAs;sdH.
md;iwa nrd;id khfhz murhq;fk; (1949-,y;) jkpopy; ,uhkypq;fk; gps;isiaAk;
kiyahsj;jpy; ts;sj;Njhs; ehuhazNkNdhidAk; „muritf; ftpQuhf‟ mwptpj;J>
gl;lk; toq;fpg; ghuhl;baJ. ,e;jpa muR ,UtUf;Fk; „gj;kg+\z;‟ tpUJ toq;fpAs;sJ.
,tHfspUtUk; 1945Mk; Mz;L jpUr;rpapy; ele;j ,uapy;Nt njhopyhsH khehl;by; xNu
Nkilapy; NgrpapUf;fpd;wdH. ,t;thW tuyhw;Wg; nghJikfs; ,Uf;Fk; ,tHfspd;
ftpijfs; „fhe;jpak;‟ vd;fpw Gs;spapy; re;jpf;fpd;wd.

66
fhe;jp gw;wpa rpj;jpupg;G

kfhj;khfhe;jpiaj; jiytuhfTk;> FUthfTk;> fz;fz;l nja;tkhfTk; Vw;W

ehkf;fy;yhUk;> ts;sj;NjhSk; ftpijfs; gy Gide;Js;sdH. ehkf;fy;yhH fhe;jpiag;
gw;wp vOjpa ftpijfs; „fhe;jp mQ;ryp‟ vDk; ngaupy; njhFf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
ts;sj;Njhs; fhe;jpiag; gw;wp vOjpa ftpijfspy; „vd;nwFUehjd;‟> „ghgNkhrdk;‟> „Xk;
rhe;jp rhe;jp‟> „ghG[p‟> „ghjghk;R‟ Mfpa ftpijfs; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fd.

gy;rkag; ngupNahupd; cUtfk;

Gj;jH> VR> egp vd midj;J kjg; ngupNahHfspd; cUtfkhf fhe;jpiaf; fhl;Lk;

jd;ik ,UtuJ ftpijfspYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,t;TUtfj; jd;ik ts;sj;Njhspd;
„vd;Dila FUehjd;‟ ftpijapy; gpd;tUkhW mike;Js;sJ.

“fpwp];JNjtdpd; jpahfg; gz;Gk;

fz;zgu khj;khtpd; jUkk; fhj;jYk;

Gj;jdpd; m`pk;irAk; rq;fudpd;

mwpthw;wYk; uQ;rpNjtdpd; ,uf;fTzHTk;

mupr;re;jpudpd; tha;ikAk; Kfk;kJ egpapd;

kdTWjpAk; xd;wha;r; NrHe;j Xuhisf;

fhzNtz;Lnkdpy; vd; FUtpdUNf nry;tPH

Mq;ftd; tuyhw;iw thrpg;gPH”. (gf;.260-61)

fhe;jpiag; gy;rkag; ngupNahupd; cUtfkhff; fhZk; ,j;jd;ik ehkf;fy;yhupd;

gpd;tUk; „rj;jpa%Hj;jp ek;fhe;jp‟ ftpijapy; ,lk; ngw;Ws;sJ.

“kfk;kJ egpNa vd;W

kjpAshH nrhy;Yth Ud;id

td;ngUk; rpYitjd;dpy;

itj;jtH miwe;j NghJk;

67
 ,d;gNk EfHe;j Njtd;

VRNt vd;ghUd;id

Gdpjd; mg; ngsj;jndd;W

Nghw;WthUd;id ahUk;" (gf;. 66-67)

,uhkypq;fk;gps;is „cyfk; tho;f‟ (g.111) ftpijapYk; ,Nj tpjkhf fhe;jpiar;

rpj;jpupj;Js;shH.

Guhzkakhf;fYk; jkpo;kag;gLj;jYk;

ts;sj;Njhs; gy;rkaj; jiytHfspd; cUtfkhff; fhe;jpiaf; fhl;Lk; mNj

Neuj;jpy;> ,e;jpag; Guhz GUlHfspd; cUtfkhfTk; fhe;jpiaf; fhz;fpd;whH. itf;fk;
rj;jpahf;fpufj;jpw;F te;j fhe;jpia ts;sj;Njhs; ,g;gbg; ghHf;fpwhH.

“tpRthkpj;jpudpd; fLe;jt typikAk;

kpjpiy kd;ddpd; mUq;fHk NahfKk;
gP\;kupd; mwg;NghHj; jpwKk;
tpJudpd; ,d;nrhy; jpwKk;
xd;W NrHe;jpUe;j XH Mz;kfdplk;
,sk;gupjpapd; xspaUNf nrd;Nwd;” (ghgNkhrdk;> gf;.323)

,f;ftpijapy; fhe;jpia tpOe;J tzq;Ftij> fhrpf;Fr; nrd;W fq;ifapy; %o;fpg;ngWk;

tpNkhrdj;jpw;F xg;ghdjhff; $WfpwhH. ,NjNghyf; fhe;jpapd; ghjj;J}rpapd; (mbg;nghb)
Gdpjg; ngUikapid tpsf;Fk; „ghjghk;R‟ vDk; jiyg;gpyike;j ftpijapy; fhe;jpia
„etjHkdhf‟ ts;sj;Njhs; fhl;Lfpd;whH. fhe;jpia Guhzka khf;Fk; ,j;jd;ik
,uhkypq;fk; gps;isapd; ftpijapy; ,y;iy. khwhf> fhe;jpia - fhe;jpaj;ij
jkpo;kag;gLj;Jk; Kaw;rp fhzg;gLfpwJ. ehkf;fy;yhH jkJ ftpijfspy; gy ,lq;fspy;
fhe;jpia ts;Stupd; topte;j jkpodhff; fhz;fpwhH. rhd;whf :

'ts;Stupd; topte;j jkpoh! ePjhd;

tha;ikAld; jha;ik mwk; tsHj;j ts;sy;"
(N[hjp kiwe;J nfhz;NlNj> gf;. 93)

68
 ts;sj;Njhs; fhe;jpia ,e;jpag; GuhzPf milahsq;fNshL xU
Guhzj;jiytuhf kiyahs kf;fSf;F mwpKfg;gLj;jpapUf;fpwhH. ehkf;fy;yhNuh
ts;Stuhf ts;syhuhf jkpo; milahsq;fNshLfhe;jpiaj; jkpo;kakhf;fp
jkpo;g;gz;ghl;NlhL ,izj;Jf; fhl;bAs;shH.

fhe;jpaj;jpd; rpj;jpupg;G

m`pk;ir - rj;jpak;

m`pk;ir> rj;jpak; Mfpa ,uz;Lk;jhd; fhe;jpaj;jpd; mbg;gilf;

fUj;jhf;fq;fshFk;. ,jid ,uhkypq;fk; gps;is Ntjhuz;ak; cg;Gr;
rj;jpahfpufj;jpd;NghJ ,aw;wpa ghlypd; njhlf;fj;jpy; kpf mUikahf tpsf;fpAs;shH.
rhd;whf :

“fj;jp apd;wp uj;j kpd;wp Aj;j nkhd;W tUFJ

rj;jp aj;jpd; epj;jp aj;ij ek;Gk; ahUk; NrUtPH!”(gf;.115)

„m`pk;ir vd;gjd; mfuhjp‟ ahf fhe;jpiaf; fhl;Lk; ehkf;fy;yhH m`pk;ir vd;gjd;

nghUisg; gpd;tUkhW tiuaWf;fpwhH.

“nfhy;yhjpUg;gJ xd;Nw jhd;

$Wk; m`pk;ir vd;wy;y

vy;yhr; nraypYk; ed;Ndhf;fk;

,ize;j (J) m`pk;ir jd;dhf;fk;"

(fhe;jptop> gf;.99)

rj;jpaj;jpd; %Hj;jpahf fhe;jpiaf; fhl;b> „rj;jpa rq;fehjk;‟ Cjj; jkpoiu

miof;Fk; ehkf;fy;yhH> rj;jpak; nty;Yk; vd;fpw fUj;ijg; gy ghly;fspy;
typAWj;jpAs;shH.

ts;sj;Njhs;> m`pk;irapd; rpwg;ig typAWj;jp „m`pk;]‟ vDk; jiyg;gpy;

ftpijnahd;W tiue;Js;shH. mjpy;> m`pk;iria g+rpf;fj; jf;f ngz;nja;tkhfr;
rpj;jpupf;fpwhH. mr;rpj;jpupg;G tUkhW.

69
 “neLq;fhykha; ,k;irahy; ntw;wp <l;bajhy;

Njhy;tpaile;J NghapUf;fpwJ ,t;Tyfk;

Ek;kd;id g+kpapd; mikjpnaDk; Gfo;g;gl;lhilapy;

cld; gpwe;jhupd; FUjp njwpj;jplhky;

m`pk;iriaNa g+ir nra;jpLtPH

m`pk;ir jhd; ekf;F Ntz;baijj; jUgts;” (gf;. 638)

,f;ftpijapy; XH murpay; MAjk; vd;fpw epiyapy; kl;Lky;yhJ vy;yh

epiyapYk; td;Kiwia (,k;ir) r%fj;jpw;F vjpuhdjhff; fhl;LfpwhH.

fjH - ifj;njhopy;

,e;jpahtpd; RNjrpag; nghUshjhuj;jpd; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;fhf fhe;jp Kd;itj;j

epHkhzj;jpl;lk; fjH - ifj;njhopy; Kd;Ndw;wkhFk;. fjHj; njhopYf;F mbg;gilahd
fjHE}iy cUthf;fpLk; ,uhl;ilapd; kPJ ehkf;fy;yhUk; ts;sj;NjhSk; ghly;fs;
Gide;Js;sdH ,t;tifapy; ehkf;fy;yhupd; MLuhl;Nl ghlYk; ts;sj;Njhspd; ,uhl;ilg;
ghlYk; (rf;ufhj) Fwpg;gplj;jf;fd.

fjH ,uhl;bdj;jpd; ngUikapidf; fhl;baNjhL ifj;njhopypd; ngUikapidAk;

fjuhil mzptjd; rpwg;igAk; ,t;tpUtUk; typAWj;jpAs;sdH. mNj rkaj;jpy;
,ae;jpuj; njhopypidf; fbe;J NgRfpd;wdH.

,uhkypq;fk; gps;is>

“fjHj;Jzp thq;fiyNah - mk;kh! -

fjHj;Jzp thq;fiyNah - Iah!

Viofs; E}w;wJ@ vspatH nea;jJ -

$Ok; ,y;yhjtH Fiwgy jPHg;gJ”

vdf; fjHg;gpurhug; ghly; xd;iwAk; ,aw;wpAs;shH. ,NjNghy fhe;jpabfs; 1929-Mk;

Mz;L fjH epjpf;fhfg; gzk; jpul;lf; Nfusk; te;jNghJ 'fjuhil iff;nfhs;tPH

70
vtUk;” (fhjp t]dq;fs; iff;nfhs;tpd; vtUk;) vd;w gpurhug;ghliy ts;sj;Njhs;
,aw;wpdhH. ,g;ghlypypUe;J rpy tupfs;:

“iftpuy; gj;Jk; ,d;wpy;iyNah ekf;F

g+g;gjpy;iyah Kiwaha;g; gUj;jpfs;

,ae;jpuq;fs; Jg;gpa E}y;fshyhd

Milfis mwNt iftpL eP!

iffshy; cUthFk; fjuhilia

gf;jpNahL jupg;ghnad; NfusNj rNk" (gf;.393)

tFg;G xw;Wik

,e;jpar; r%fj;jpd; Nkk;ghl;bw;fhf fhe;jpabfs; tFj;j epHkhzj; jpl;lq;fSs;

gy;rkag; gpuptpdupd; xw;WikAk; ,d;wpaikahj xd;whFk;. ,jid ehkf;fy;yhH>
ts;sj;Njhs; Mfpa ,UtUk; jk; ftpijfspy; typAWj;jpAs;sdH.

“kjq;fspd; ngauhy; khWgl; bDk;

kw;W ek; RfJf;fnky;yhk;

epjq;fye; njy;yh tpjj;jpYk; gpd;dp

ePf;nfhzhj; njhlHGfs; cilj;jhk;"

(Rje;jur;rgjk;> gf;. 122)

vdf;$Wk; ,uhkypq;fk; gps;is> etfhspapy; ele;j ,e;J K];yPk; fytuj;ijf;

fz;bj;J tFg;G xw;Wikia tw;GWj;jp „tlehl;by; nfhLik‟ vd;w ghliyAk;
,aw;wpAs;shH.

“gs;spthrypy; kNfrDk; Myaj;jpy; my;yhTk;

gs;sp nfhz;bUe;jJ X! goq;fijaha;g; NghdNj”

(,ul;bg;gb> gf;. 499)

71
vdtUj;jg;gLk; ts;sj;Njhs;> ,e;jpa md;idiaj; njhOtNj ekJ Kjyhk; kjk; vd;W
„xe;ehkj;nj kjk;‟ vd;w ftpijapy; tUkhW $Wfpd;whH.

“Kjypy; ,e;jpaH ehk;> K];yPk; - ,e;J - fpwp];Jt

thjpfsha; khWtJ ,uz;lhtjha; ,Uf;fl;Lk;

mj;Jitjk; NgRk; ehNkhH xw;iwr; r%fk;

ghujj;jhiaj; njhOtNj ekf;F Kjyhk; kjk;"

(gf;. 544)

jPz;lhik xopg;G

,e;jpa Njrpa xw;Wikf;Fk; tsHr;rpf;Fk; jilahf ,Uf;fpw rhjp NtWghl;bidf;

fisa fhe;jpabfs; Kd; itj;j jPz;lhik xopg;gpid Mjupj;J ts;sj;NjhSk;
ehkf;fy;yhUk; ftpijfs; gy vOjpAs;sdH.

,uhkypq;fH jPz;lhikj; jPikia ehl;iltpl;L Xl;lr; nrhy;YfpwhH.

'Xl;llh! Xl;llh ehl;il tpl;Nl Xl;llh

jPl;llh kdpjUf;Fs; jPz;lnyd;w jPikNa"

(Xl;llh> gf;.168)

ts;sj;Njhs; fhe;jpabfspd; jPz;lhik xopg;G Nehf;fpy; vOjpa ftpijfspy;

„Njhzpahj;jpiu‟. „Rj;jupy; Rj;jd;‟ vDk; ftpijfs; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fd. gbg;gjw;Ff;$lj;
jil tpjpf;Fk; jPz;lhikf; nfhLikapid mtuJ „Njhzpahj;jpiu‟ ftpij
tpsf;FfpwJ. „tPnlupe;J NghdhYk; ehd; mDkjpNad;‟ vdf; $Wk; caH rhjpf;fhud;
xUtdpd; rhjpa Nkyhz;ikAzHT „Rj;jupy; Rj;jd;‟ ftpijapy; Gyg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
,f;ftpijapd; ,Wjpapy; „kiyahsf; FLk;gq;fnsy;yhk; jPz;lhikj; jPapy; vupfpwNj‟
vd ts;sj;Njhs; tUj;jg; gLfpd;whH. „[hjpg;ghtk;‟ vd;w ftpij jPz;lhikf;F
mbj;jskhd rhjpia ,g;gbf; fz;bf;fpd;wJ.

“[hjp! ,J eufj;jpypUe;J caUk; Xir

ghH jpd;Dk; gprhrpd; Vl;by; ,uz;nlOj;J" (gf;.408)

72
 ,Jtiu tpsf;fpa m`pk;ir fjH> ifj;njhopy;> tFg;G xw;Wik> jPz;lhik
xopg;G Mfpa fhe;jpa epHkhzj;jpl;lq;fs; jtpu tptrhapfs; Kd;Ndw;wk; vd;w epHkhzj;
jpl;lk; Fwpj;Jk; ts;sj;Njhs; rpy ftpijfs; Gide;Js;shH. ehkf; fy;yhH ghly;fspy;
kJ tpyf;F> Rfhjhuf; fy;tp vd vQ;rpa gpw epHkhzj; jpl;lq;fs; midj;Jk; gpur;rhuk;
nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. fhe;jpabfs; kiwtpd;NghJ ehkf;fy;yhH „N[hjp kiwe;J nfhz;lNj!‟
vd;w ghliyg; Gida> ts;sj;Njhs; „ghG[p‟ vd;w ,uq;fw;ftpijia ,aw;wpdhH.
fhe;jpabfspd; kiwtpw;Fg; gpd;dUk; ,f;ftpQHfs; fhe;jpiaAk; fhe;jpaj;ijAk; Nghw;wpg;
Gfo;e;Js;sdH.

fhe;jpathjpfs; kPjhd tpkHrdk;

fhe;jpabfs; kiwtpw;Fg; gpd; mtuJ rPlHfshy; fhe;jpak; ruptug;

gpd;gw;wg;gltpy;iy vd;gij ts;sj;NjhSk; ,uhkypq;fk; gps;isAk; jk; ftpijfspy;
tpkHrdkhf Kd; itj;Js;sdH. ehkf;fy;yhH fhe;jpak; ntWk; Ngr;rstpdjhf
nray;jd;ikaw;Wg; Ngha; tpl;lijg; gpd;tUkhW tpsf;FfpwhH.

“fhe;jp fhe;jp fhe;jpnad;W fhjilf;ff; $tpNdhk;

fhe;jp nrhd;d rhe;jpkl;Lk; fhjpy; Vwtpy;iyNa
g+irNahL NfhapYf;Fs; g+l;bitf;Fk; rhkpNghy;
XirNahL fhe;jpg;nghk;ik CHtyq;fs; nra;fpNwhk;"
(vr;rupf;if> gf;. 98-99)

ts;sj;Njhs; 1951 ,y; vOjpa „fhe;jpapd; Nj[];‟ vd;w ftpijapy; Nghyp

fhe;jpathjpfspd; Njhw;wj;jpw;Fk; nraYf;Fkhd Kuiz ,g;gb tpkHrpf;fpwhH:

“gz;G khwpa fhe;jp rPlHfs; jk;

fjuhilapy; xspj;J itj;j fglKk;" (gf;. 570)

,tHfspd; tpkHrdk; ,d;Wk; jkpo; - kiyahs ,yf;fpa cyfpy; njhlHe;J

xypf;fpd;wJ.

KbTfs;

 fhe;jpia Gj;jd;> VR> egpnad gy;rkag; ngupNahupd; cUtfkhff; fhZk; Nghf;F

ehkf;fy;yhH> ts;sj;Njhs; Mfpa ,UtuJ ftpijfspYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.

73
  ,uhkypq;fk; gps;is fhe;jpia ts;StuhfTk;> ts;syhuhfTk; fhe;jpapd;
mbg;gilf; fUj;jpayhd m`pk;ir kw;Wk; rj;jpaj;ij KiwNa ts;Stupd;
nfhy;yhik> tha;ikahfTk; jkpo; milahsq;fNshL fhz;fpwhH. fhe;jpiaAk;
fhe;jpaj;ijAk; jkpo;kag;gLj;Jk; ,k;Kaw;rpf;F jkpo;j; NjrpaTzHT
ehkf;fy;yhupd; ftpij MSikapy; Mjpf;fk; nrYj;jpaNj fhuzkhFk;.
 ts;sj;Njhs; ftpijfspy; fhe;jpAk; fhe;jpaf; nfhs;iffSk; Guhzg;gLj;jy;>
nja;tf
P g;gLj;jy; Mfpa jd;ikfisg; ngw;Ws;sd. ,jw;F ts;sj;Njhs; ftpij
MSikapYk; kiyahsg; gz;ghl;bYk; „GuhzPfk;‟ jiyaha mk;rkhf Mjpf;fk;
nrYj;jpAs;sNj fhuzkhFk;.
 Njrpaj; jiytuhd fhe;jpiaAk; fhe;jpaf; nfhs;iffisAk; ,UtUk; jj;jk;
,d> nkhop> gz;ghl;L milahsq;fNshL tl;lhu Njrpa czHNthL cs;thq;f
Kaw;rpj;Js;sdH. ,e;jpa Njrpaj;jpd; „GuhzPf kuG‟ vd;fpw nghJ
milahsj;jpypUe;J NtWgl;l rpy jdpj;j ghuk;gupakhd milahsq;fNshL
jkpo;j;Njrpak; mikfpwJ. Mdhy; kiyahsj; Njrpak; vd;gJ ,e;jpa Njrpaj;jpd;
nghJthd milahskhd GuhzPfkuG vd;gNjhL ,ize;Nj nry;fpwJ.
 ehkf;fy;yhH fhe;jpapd; epHkhzj; jpl;lq;fs; midj;ijAk; jk; ghly;fspy;
gpur;rhuk; nra;a> ts;sj;Njhs; jiyaha epHkhzj; jpl;lq;fis kl;LNk jk;
ftpijfspy; gpur;rhuk; nra;Js;shH. ,t;tpUtuJ ftpijfspYk; fhe;jpathjpfspd;
kPjhd tpkHrdKk; ,lk;ngw;Ws;sJ.
 ehkf;fy;yhupd; fhe;jpaf; ftpijfspy; gpur;rhu mk;rNk NkNyhq;fpf; fhzg;gl
ts;sj;Njhs; ftpijfspy; gpur;rhuj;NjhL fiyak;rKk; ,ize;J fhzg;gLfpwJ.

tpdhf;fs; :

1. mnkhpf;ff; Nfhl;ghl;bd; my; murpay; jd;ik Fwpj;J tpsf;Ff?

2. ,e;jpa ftpijapy; Nkiy ,yf;fpaj; jhf;fk; Fwpj;J vOJf?
3. jkpo;r;rpe;jid kuGk; rPf;fpa fhy;rhTk; tpsf;Ff?
4. ghujpjhrd; ftpijfspy; ,aw;ifia Fwpj;J njhFj;Jiuf;f?
5. ts;sj;Njhs; ftpijfspy; fhe;jpak; Fwpj;J vLj;Jiuf;f?

74
 myF – 4

nkhopngau;g;G ,ay;Gk; kuGk;

,d;iwa cyfpy; tsu;e;J tUfpd;w gy Jiwfspy; nkhopngau;g;Gj; JiwAk;

xd;W. tpaf;fj;jf;f tifapy; nkhopngau;g;Gj; Jiw gbj;jtu;fspilNa jhf;fj;ij
Vw;gLj;jpAs;sJ. kf;fs; gpw nkhopfspYs;s ey;y fUj;Jfis mwpe;J nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk; vd;W vz;Zfpd;wdh;. vdNt gpw nkhopf; fUj;Jfs; gynkhop ty;Yeu;fshy;
nkhopngau;f;fg; gLfpd;wd. gynkhop ty;Yeu;fspd; mwpthYk;> njhopy;El;g
Kd;Ndw;wj;jpd; tpisthYk;> nkhopngau;g;Gj;Jiw msthYk;> ,ay;ghYk;> gug;ghYk;>
tiffshYk; kf;fspd; fy;tp kw;Wk; murpay;> rKjha tho;f;ifapy; rpwg;gplk; ngw;Wj;
jpfo;fpd;wJ.

Rg;gpukzpa ghujpahu; jkpo; fw;gtu;fspd; ,U flikfs; gw;wpf; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shu;.

mtw;wpy; xd;W> jkpo; nkhopapYs;s ,yf;fpa> fUj;jpay; E}y;fisg; gpw ehl;lhu; fw;f
top tif nra;a Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ. mjid>

“NjkJuj; jkpNohir cyfnkyhk;

guTk;tif nra;jy; Ntz;Lk;” (ghujpahu;>Nj.fPj.> gh.v.22)

vd;Dk; mbfs; czu;j;Jk;.

kw;wJ> cyf ,yf;fpa mwptpay; E}y;fspy; rpwe;jd> ey;yd vy;yhk; jkpo;

nkhopapy; ngau;j;Jj; juy; Ntz;L vd;gJ. mjid>

“gpw ehl;L ey;ywpQu; rhj;jpuq;fs;

jkpo; nkhopapw; ngau;j;jy; Ntz;Lk;” (ghujpahu;> Nj.fPj.> gh.v.22)

vd;Dk; mbfs; czu;j;Jk;.

,e;j ,U flikfSf;Fk; Vw;g> cyf Njrehl;Lr; #o;epiyfSk; mike;J

tuf;fhzyhk;. mwptpay;> ,ae;jpu El;gq;fs; tsu;e;j jd; fhuzkhf cyfj;njhlu;G
ehSf;F ehs; tsu;e;J nfhz;Nl tUfpwJ. ,j;jifa tsu;r;rpAk; nkhopngau;g;gpd;
,d;wpaikahikia czu;j;jp tUfpd;wJ.

75
 cyfg; gazpfs; ,d;gg; nghOJNghf;Ff;fhfr; Rw;Wg;gazk; nra;jy;> cyfr;
nra;jpfs; clDf;Fld; thndhyp> njhiyf;fhl;rp top kf;fSf;Fr; Nru;jy;> ehlfq;fs;>
ftpijfs;> nrhw;nghopTfs;> rpWfijfs;> Gjpdq;fs; Kjypatw;iw midtUk; mwpe;J
nfhs;Sjy;> mwptpay; fUj;Jfis cldbahf midtUk; mwpe;J nfhs;SkhW
nra;jy; Kjypa Njitfs; gy ,d;W nkhopngau;g;Gg; gzpia Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngw
nra;Jtpl;ld.

,j;jF ,d;wpaikahj nkhopngau;g;gpy; Nju;e;j ty;Yeu;fs; vy;yh ehLfSf;Fk;

Njitg;gLfpd;wdu;. Vnddpy; xU ehl;L nkhopapYs;s ,yf;fpa tsq;fs;> mwptpay;
fUj;Jfisg; gpw ehl;L kf;fs; mwpe;J nfhs;s tpUk;Gfpd;wdu;. mtu;fSf;F me;epa
nkhop xU jilahf ,Uf;fpwJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf [g;ghd; nkhopapYs;s mwptpay;
fUj;Jfisj; jkpo;ehl;ltu; Gupe;J nfhs;s KbahJ. vdNt [g;ghd; nkhopapYs;s
mwptpay; fUj;Jfisj; jkpopy; nkhopngau;g;gJ vd;gJ Njitahfpd;wJ. NkYk;>
ehl;Lf;F ehL Ml;rpnkhop ntt;Ntwhf mike;jpUj;jypd; xU ehl;L murhq;f Fwpg; Gfis
,d;ndhU ehl;L murhq;f Fwpg;Gfshf khw;w nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs; Njitg;gLfpd;wdu;.
xUkhepyj;jpw;F tUif jUk; khepy nkhop njupahj murpay; jiytu;fs; Mw;Wk;
nrhw;nghopit me;j khepy nkhopapy; NkilapNyNa nkhop ngau;j;Jg; Ngr
nkhopngau;g;G El;gk; mwpe;j> ,Unkhop mwpe;j ty;Yeu;fs; ,d;wpaikahj ,lk;
ngWfpd;wdu;. gy epWtdq;fs; jq;fSf;F tUk; may;ehl;Lf; fbjq;fisj; jha;nkhopapy;
juTk; nkhopngau;g;ghsiu Ntz;Lfpd;wdu;.

,yf;fzk;> nkhopapay;> thf;fpa mikg;G> eil Kjyhd epiyfspy;

%ynkhopf;Fk; (Source Language), ngWk; nkhopf;Fk; (Target Language) cs;s xw;Wik
Ntw;Wikfs; ahit? NtWghLfis fle;J rhpahf nkhopngaHg;gJ vg;gb?
nkhopngaHf;f ,ayhjdit ahit? ed;F nkhopngaHf;Fk; newpKiwfs; vd;d vd;d ?
nkhopngaHg;gpd; tiffs; ahit? vspikahf nkhopngaHg;gJ vg;gb? mwptpay;
nkhopngau;g;G kw;Wk; fzpdp nkhopngau;g;gpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ahit? nkhopngau;g;gpy;
nrhy; mstpy;> njhlu; mstpy;> thf;fpa mstpy; vd;ndd;d rpf;fy;fs; cs;sd?
mtw;wpd; jPu;Tfs; ahit? vd;gd gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;tJ nkhopngau;g;Gr; nra;Nthu;
mwpa Ntz;LtdthFk;.

kdpjd; mwpT tsu;r;rp ngw;w fhyj;jpypUe;J kw;wtu;fisg; gw;wpAk;> mtu;fsJ

nray;fisg; gw;wpAk; mwpe;J nfhs;Sk; Mu;tk; cilatdhf ,Ue;jpUf;fpwhd;. ehfupfk;
tsu tsu kdpjdpd; mwpTj;jpwk; NkYk; tsu;r;rp mile;jJ. mJ nkhopiaAk;

76
tsg;gLj;jj; njhlq;fpaJ. Ngr;R nkhopf;F tuptbtk; Njhd;wpa gpd; xt;nthU nkhopf;Fk;
ntt;NtW vOj;J tbtk; cUthfpaJ. vdNt cyf nkhopfs; midj;Jk;> xyp> tbtk;
Mfpatw;why; ntt;NtwhfNt fhzg;gLfpd;wd. xU nkhopia kw;nwhU nkhop NgRNthu;
vq;qdk; njupe;J nfhs;tJ? cyfj;njhlu;Gf;F vJ mbg;gilahf mika KbAk;? vd;w
tpdh vOfpwJ. ,e;j tpdhtpw;Fupa tpilahfNt ehfupfk; tsu;e;j ehLfspilNa Vw;gl;l
r%f> tzpf> Nghu; Kiwj; njhlu;Gfshy; jtpu;ff
; ,ayhj epiyapy; gad;jUk; kdpj
,dj;ij ,izf;Fk; fUtpahf> ,yf;fpa mwptpay; fUtpahf nkhopngau;g;Gf;fiy
tpuptile;Js;sJ.

nkhopngau;g;G - tpsf;fk;

nkhopngau;g;G vd;gJ nkhop (Language), ngau;g;G (Shifting) vDk; ,U nrhw;fs;

,ize;jJ. cs;sj;J czu;Tfis> vz;zq;fis> fUj;Jfisg; gpwUf;F czu;j;jg;
gad;gLk; fUtp nkhop MFk;. ngau;g;G vdpy; khw;Wjy; (Change) vd;gjhFk;. vdNt
nkhopngau;g;G vd;gJ nkhop khw;Wjy; MFk;. mjhtJ %ynkhopf;fUj;Jfis mjw;F
,izahd ngau;g;G nkhopf;F khw;WjyhFk;. „Translation' vd;w Mq;fpyr; nrhy;
'Translatus' vd;w ,yj;jPd; nrhy;ypypUe;J cUthdJ. ,yj;jPdpy; ,r;nrhy; ePf;Fjy; (To
remove) vd;w nghUspy; Xhplj;jpypUe;J xU fUj;jpid kw;NwhH ,lj;jpw;F khw;Wjiyf;
Fwpf;fpwJ.

rk];fpUj nkhopapy; ‘&ge;ju;‟ ‘mDth\;‟ vd;w ,U nrhw;fs; nkhopngau;g;igf;

Fwpg;gpLfpd;wd. nkhopngau;g;Gf; Fwpj;Jg; gy mwpQu;fs; tpsf;fpAs;sdu;.

xU nkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfisg; gpw nkhopfSf;F khw;Wtij nkhopngau;g;G

vd;gu;. ve;j nkhopapypUe;J fUj;Jfis khw;WfpNwhNkh mk;nkhopia %ynkhop (Source
Language) vdTk;> vk;nkhopapy; fUj;Jfis khw;WfpNwhNkh mk;nkhopia ,yf;F nkhop
(Target Language) my;yJ ngWk;nkhop (Receptor Language) vdTk; $Wtu;.

“%y nkhopapYs;s nra;jpfis mjw;F ,izahf NtWnkhopr; nrhw;fspy;

khw;WtNj nkhopngau;g;G" vd;W N[.rp> fhl;Nghu;L (J.C. Catford) Fwpg;gpLfpwhu;.
“nghUSf;F KjyplKk; eilf;F ,uz;lhkplKk; jUk; tifapy; %ynkhopr; nra;jpf;F
kpf neUq;fpa ,ay;ghd epfuidg; ngWk;nkhopapy; jUtNj nkhopngau;g;G" vd A.
ielh Fwpg;gpLfpwhu;. (A. Nida and Charles Taber, 1975:12)

77
 “xU nkhopapYs;s FwpaPLfis kw;nwhU nkhopf; FwpaPLfshf khw;WtJ
nkhopngau;g;G" vd gh];nel; Fwpg;gpLfpwhu;> (Bassnett - Mc Guire, 1988:13) NkYk;>
%ynkhopapd; fUj;JfSk;> ngWk;nkhopapd; fUj;JfSk; xd;W Nghy ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
%ynkhop mikg;Gf;F Vw;wthW %ynkhop ,Ug;gJ Nghy ngWk;nkhop mikg;Gf;F
Vw;wthW ngWk;nkhopAk; mike;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. mt;thW ,y;iynadpd; nkhopngau;g;G
rpwg;ghf mikahJ.

gPl;lu; epA+khu;f; (Peter Newmark) mtu;fs;> nkhopngau;g;G vd;gJ xU fiy (Craft)

vd;Wk; xU nkhopapYs;s nra;jpfisg; gpw nkhopapy; khw;WtjhFk; vdf;$Wfpwhu;> (S.
Kanakaraj, 2003:4) kh.R. jpUkiy (1982) mtu;fs;> jUk; nkhopapd; njhlUf;fhd
epfuidg; ngWk;nkhopapy; NjLk; xU eltbf;if vd;Wk;> jUk; nkhopg;gDtYf;fhd
epfuidg; ngWk;nkhopapy; NjLtnjd;Wk; $Wfpwhu;.

‘%yj;jpdpd;Wk;‟ khWglhkYk;> gbg;gjw;F ,dpikahfTk; ,Uf;FkhW xU

nkhopapypUe;J kw;nwhU nkhopapy; khw;wp vOJk; xU KiwNa nkhopngau;g;G vd;gJ
ngQ;rkpd; N[htl; (Benjamin Jowett) vd;w mwpQupd; fUj;jhFk;. %ynkhopfspy;
cs;stw;iwg; ngau;g;Gnkhopapy; khw;wpj; jUtJ nkhopngau;g;G. ,J nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy;
jUtjd;W. nghUis KOikahfj; jUtjhFk; vd khypd; x];fp vd;gtu; $Wfpwhu;.

“xU nkhopapYs;s rpe;jidfs; kw;Wk; nfhs;iffisg; gpwpnjhU nkhopf;F

khw;WtNj nkhopngau;g;G vd;W kNf];tup ghyfpU\;zd; Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;” (ngk;k]hdp
=`up> 1999 : 1216).

“nkhop ngau;g;G vd;gJ xU fiy. nkhopngau;g;G vd;gJ ntWkNd nkhop khw;wk;

kl;Lky;y my;yJ %yf;fUj;ijNah %yf;fijiaNah mbg;gilahf itj;Jf; jOtp
vOJtJk; my;y. RUq;fr; nrhd;dhy; nkhopngau;g;G vd;gJ $Ltpl;Lf;$L ghAk; xU
fiy" vd;fpwhu; gpughfu; Nkf;tp (tP. re;jpud;> 1999:72).

“xUnkhopapd; fw;gid tsj;ijAk;> fiy eaj;ijAk;> nrQ;nrhw;

ftpapd;gj;ijAk;> tPwhu;e;j gz;ghl;Lg; ghuk;gupaj;ijAk; glk; gpbj;Jf; fhl;lty;yNj
nkhopngau;g;G" vd;W f.j. jpUehTf;fuR Fwpg;gpLfpwhu; (ngk;k]hdp = `up> 1999:1216).

,t;thwhd tpsf;fq;fisf; nfhz;L nkhopngau;g;G vd;gJ xU nkhopapYs;s

gDty; $Wfis ,d;ndhU nkhopapy; vLj;Jiug;gJ vdf; nfhs;syhk;. mt;thW

78
vLj;Jiuf;Fk; NghJ %y nkhopapd; fUj;J my;yJ vz;zk; rpijT ngwf;$lhJ
vd;gJ mtrpak;.

nkhopngau;g;G vd;gJ xypiaAk;> nrhy;iyAk; vOj;Jg; ngau;g;Gr; nra;tNjhL

mjd; gz;ghl;ilAk; nkhop EZf;fq;fisAk; cs;slf;fp epw;Fk;.

mfpy cyfg;nghUs; tpsf;fkspg;Nghu; fofk; (International Association of

Conference Interpreters) nkhopngau;g;G vd;why; vd;d vd;gjd; tpsf;fj;ijr; rpwpJ
jpUj;jk; nra;J njspTgLj;jpAs;sJ.

“nkhopngau;g;ngd;gJ ntWk; nrhy;iyg;ngau;g;gjd;W> mr;nrhy;NyhL njhlu;Gila

nghUs;> czu;r;rp> mofpa jd;ik Mfpa midj;ijAk; xl;L nkhj;jkhf KOikahf
khw;wk; nra;tjhFk;.”

“Kjypy; nra;jpia KOikahf czu;e;J mtw;iw NtWgLj;jp kW cUthf; fk;

nra;J NtW nkhopf;Fg; gz;ghl;Lr; rpijT Vw;glhky; vLj;Jr; nrhy;tjhFk;”.

“nkhopngau;g;ngd;gJ nkhopf;Fk; nkhopNgrf;$ba rKjhar; #oYf;Fk; cs;s

cwit mstpl;Lg; ghu;ff
; f;$ba Xu; mjpfhug; gug;ghfpwJ. xU nkhop mike;Js;s
r%fr;#oypd; fl;Lg;ghl;bw;Fs;spUe;J mjd; mbg;gilapy; epfOk; xU nkhopg;gupkhw;w
epfo;ntdTk;> mNj Neuj;jpy; jUk;nkhop Mrpupau; ngWk;nkhopAld; fUj;Jf;Nfhit
cwit Vw;gLj;Jk; epfo;T vdTk; nkhopngau;g;igf; $wyhk;.

nkhopngau;g;G vd;gJ xU nkhopr; nra;jpfisg; gpwpnjhU nkhopapy; jUtJ

kl;Lkd;W mjw;Fk; Nkyhf xU nkhopg; gilg;G jd; Mtzg;gjpTfshff; nfhz;Ls;s
midj;J tifg; gz;ghl;Lr; rq;fjpfisAk; NtnwhU nkhop %yk;> mjhtJ khw;W
nkhop thrfu;fSf;F mwpKfk; nra;Ak; ,d;wpaikahj ,af;fkhFk;. Nguh.fp. ehr;rpKj;J
mtu;fs; $wp tUtJ Nghy;> “Xu; ,yf;fpa ciu gpe;ija thrfu;fSf;Fg; nghUis
czu;j;Jk; ghq;fikTld; xg;gpl;Lf; $wj;jf;fJ nkhopngau;g;ghFk;.”

Nkw;fhZk; tpsf;fq;fis Nehf;Fk; nghOJ nkhopngau;g;G vd;w nrhy; nkhop>

ngau;g;G Mfpa ,U nrhw;fspd; $l;biztpy; Njhd;wpaJ. nkhop vd;gJ kdpjDila
clYWg;Gfspd; xj;jpirthy; cUthf;fg;gLk; xypf;Nfhit. mJ NgRgtu;> Nfl;gtu;
Mfpa ,UtupilNa epfo;tjd; %yk; fUj;J my;yJ kdczu;r;rpapid kw;wtu; mwpe;J
nfhs;s cjTfpwJ. ngau;j;jy; vd;w nrhy;ypid Muha;e;jhy; xU nkhopapy;
cs;stw;iw ,d;ndhU nkhopf;Fg; Nghf;Fjy; my;yJ nrYj;Jjy; vd;W nghUs;gLk;.

79
vdNt nkhopngau;j;jy; vd;gjw;F xU nkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfs;> epfo;Tfs;>
ciuahly;fisf; $l;lhkYk;> Fiwj;jplhkYk; ,d;ndhU nkhopf;Fg; ngau;j;njLj;jy;
vd;W nghUs; nfhs;tJ nghUj;jkhdJ.

nghJthff; $Wk; nghOJ nkhopngau;g;G vd;gJ %ynkhopapYs;s nra;jpfisf;

$l;lhkYk;> Fiwf;fhkYk;> fUj;Jg; gpwo;r;rp Vw;glhkYk;> ngWk;nkhop thrfu;fs; gbj;J
Gupe;J nfhs;Sk; tpjj;jpYk;> mtu;fs; %ynkhop thrfiug; Nghy; kdepiyia milAk;
tpjj;jpYk;> ngWk;nkhopapd; ,ay;Gf;Nfw;wthW %ynkhopr; nra;jpfisg; ngau;j;jyhFk;.

NkYk; nkhopngau;g;ghdJ %ynkhopapy; mike;Js;s gFjp (Source Language

Text) kw;nwhU ngWk;nkhopapy; (Target Language) Mf;fg;gLtJ| cs;sij cs;sthNw
tpupthf;fhky;> RUf;fhky; jug;gLtJ| czu;T Fd;whky;> kpfhky; XusT ,ad;wtiu>
xj;j tbTilajha;j; jk;jk; jha;nkhopapy; ,ay;ghff; fw;W mwptJ NghyTk;> ghb
czu;tJ NghyTk;> njspthf> eakhfg; ngau;j;J cUthf;fg;gLtJ MFk;.

1. cs;sij cs;sthW ngau;j;jy;

2. RUf;fhky; ngau;j;jy;
3. czu;T Fd;whky; kpfhky; ngau;j;jy;
4. xj;j tbtikag; ngau;j;jy;
Mfpait nkhopngau;g;gpy; Kf;fpa ,lj;ijg; ngWfpd;wd.

1. cs;sij cs;sthW ngau;j;jy;

cs;sij cs;sthW ngau;j;jy; vd;gJ %ynkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfis vt;tpj
khw;wKkpd;wp ngWk;nkhopapy; nkhopngau;j;jyhFk;. Mdhy; %ynkhopapy; cs;s
nra;jpapd; nghUs; nkhopngau;g;ghsDf;F ed;F njupe;jpUe;jhy;> jhdwpe;j
fUj;Jfisnay;yhk; mjDs; GFj;jp nkhopngau;g;gJk; cz;L.

rhd;whf „Cowards die many times' vd;w njhlupd; ,ay;ghd nkhopngau;g;G

‘Nfhiofs; gd;Kiw rhfpwhu;fs;‟ vd;gjhFk;. ,e;jj; njhlUf;F NtnwhU jhdwpe;j
ftpijj; njhliuf; $wp nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;Lnkd Mu;tkha; nfhz;L

“neQ;R nghWf;Fjpy;iyNa - ,e;j

epiynfl;l kdpjiu epidj;Jtpl;lhy;

mQ;rp mQ;rpr; rhthu;" vd;W nkhopngau;g;gJ jtwhFk;.

80
2. RUf;fhky; ngau;j;jy;
xU fUj;ij tpupthf;fhkYk;> RUf;fhkYk; nkhopngau;j;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) “Mahatma Gandhi, the father of Bharat got freedom through Satya-Kiraga for India”

1. „rj;jpahfpufj;jpd; top ,e;jpa tpLjiyiaf; fhe;jp ngw;whu;’ vd;w njhlUk;.

2. ,e;jpa tpLjiyiaf; fhe;jp mz;zy; ghuj Njrj;jpd; je;ij vt;thW ngw;whu;?
rj;jpahfpufj;jhy; my;yth? vd;w njhlUk; %ynkhopapYs;s fUj;ijj;jhd;
jUfpd;wd. vd;whYk; Kjy; nkhopngau;g;G %ynkhopg; gFjpiar; RUf;fpAk;>
,uz;lhk; nkhopngau;g;G tpupthf;fpAk; jUfpd;wd. Mdhy; rupahd
nkhopngau;g;ghdJ
„ghujj;je;ij kfhj;kh fhe;jp rj;jpahfpufj;jhy; ,e;jpahtpw;F tpLjiyngw;Wj; je;jhu; ’
vd;gjhFk;.

3. czu;T Fd;whky;> kpfhky; ngau;j;jy;

“Among the stone side stood as a stone” vd;w njhlupd; ,ay;ghd nkhopngau;g;G
„fw;fSf;fpilNahu; fy;nyd epd;Nwd;‟ vd;gjhFk;. mg;gb ,y;yhky; „fUq;fy;Yf;F
,ilNahu; ngUq;Fd;wha; epw;fpNwd;’ vd;gJ czu;it kpFe;Jf; fhl;LtjhFk;.
cku;fa;ahk; ghly; mb xd;iw

'mOj fz;zPu; Mnwy;yhk;

mjpNyhu; vOj;ij mopj;jpLNkh”

vd;W ftpkzp Njrpf tpehafk; gps;is nkhopngau;j;Js;shu;. ,jpy; cku;fa;ahkpd;

ghly; njhliu tpl> tpjp typikiar; Rl;Lk; czu;T tPr;R kpf;fpUj;jy; fhzyhk;.

cku;fa;ahk; xU nrhy;iy mopj;jpLNkh vd;Wjhd; ghbAs;shu;. me;j ,lj;jpy; Xu;

vOj;ij mopj;jpLNkh vd;W $Wtjd;%yk; czu;itg; ngUf;fp ,Uj;jiyf; fhzyhk;.
mg;gbay;yhky;

“mOj fz;zPu; ePnuy;yhk; mjpNyhu;

njhliu mopj;jpLNkh"

vd;W nkhopngau;j;jpUg;gpd; tpjpf;Fj; jUk; mopf;Fk; Mw;wy; gw;wpa Ntfk;

Fiwe;jpUg;gijf; fhzyhk;.

81
4. xj;j tbtikag; ngau;j;jy;
jkpo; thf;fpa mikg;gpw;Fk;> Mq;fpy thf;fpa mikg;gpw;FkpilNa NtWghL
cs;sJ. jkpo; thf;fpa mikg;G vOtha;> nrag;gLnghUs;> gadpiy (SOV) vd;gjhFk;.
Mq;fpy thf;fpa mikg;G vOtha;> gadpiy> nrag;gLnghUs; (SVO) vd;gjhFk;. jkpopy;
tpidail (Adverb) tpidf;F Kd;tUk; Mq;fpyj;jpy; tpidf;Fg; gpd; tUk;. ,t;thNw
rhu;G thf;fpaq;fSk; khwp mikAk;. vdNt ,U nkhopf;Fk; tbt xUikg;ghl;il
cUthf;FtJ vspjd;W> nghUj;jKk; md;W. Mq;fpy nra;Aspd; xyp mikg;G
ngUk;ghYk; ,iaGj; njhilapy; mikAk;.

(v.fh.) “Twinkle twinkle little star

How I wonder what you are”

Mdhy; jkpo; nra;As;fs; ngUk;ghYk; vJif> Nkhidj; njhilfshy; rpwg;Gg; ngWk;.

jkpo; nra;Al;fspy; ,iaGj; njhil kpf mUfpNa tUk;.

nkhopngau;g;G fiy kw;Wk; mwptpay;

jkpopy; nkhopngau;g;G vd;w fiyr; nrhy; kpfTk; gioikahdJ. nkhopngau;g;G

vd;gJ xU tpid my;yJ njhopy; MFk;. ve;j nkhopia Mjhukhff; nfhz;L
nkhopngau;f;fg;gLfpwNjh mJ %ynkhop (Source Language) MFk;. ve;j nkhopapy;
nkhopngau;f;fg;gLfpwNjh mJ ngWk;nkhop (Target Language) MFk;.

nkhopngau;g;Gf;Fk; gilg;ghw;wy; Njit. mJTk; xU fiyjhd; vd;fpd;wdu; rpyu;.

nkhopngau;g;G xU fiyQDila gilg;ghw;wNyhLk;> czu;NthLk; mikatpy;iy
vd;why; mJ rpwg;ghf ,Uf;fhJ. vdNt nkhopngau;g;Gk; xU fiyNa vd;fpd;wdu;.
,jdhNyNa xU E}Yf;Fg; gy nkhopngau;g;Gfs; Njhd;wpAs;sd. tptpypaj;ijAk;>
jpUf;FwisAk; gy nkhopfspy; nkhop ngau;j;Js;sdu;. ,t;thW nra;Neu;j;jpf;F Vw;g
xd;wd; Nky; gythfg; ngUFtJ gilg;ghw;wYila fiyf;Nf rhUk; vdf;$wp
nkhopngau;g;gpay; xU fiyNa vdthjpLtu;.

%y E}ypYs;s nghUis khw;whky; mg;gbNa nfhz;L tUtNj nkhopngau;g;gpd;

mbg;gilg; gz;G. nkhopngau;g;Gf;F vdg; nghJthf mike;Js;s tpjpfis Kiwg;gb
Nkw;nfhs;tjdhNyNa ,J rhj;jpakhFk; vd;w fUj;J epiyapNyNa> nkhopngau;g;G Xu;
mwptpay; vd;gJ tw;GWj;jg;gLfpwJ. %ynkhop kw;Wk; ngWk; nkhopapd; nkhopf;$WfSk;

82
mtw;wpd; ,af;FepiyfSk; gw;wpa mwpT kpfTk; mtrpak; vd ,tu;fshy;
typAWj;jg;gLfpwJ.

,t;tpU rhuUk; jk;jk; fUj;J epiyapNy jj;jk; E}y;fis vOjpAs;sdu;.

rhd;whf nkhopapaywpQu; ielh> „nkhopngau;g;G mwptpay;‟ (Science of Translation) vd;W
jd;Dila E}iyAk;> jpNahlu;rNtup ‘nkhop ngau;g;Gf;fiy‟ (Art of Translation) vd
jd;Dila E}iyAk; miof;fpd;wdu;. nkhopngau;g;gpd; topKiwfs; gw;wpa ,uz;L
Nfhzq;fisNa ,t;tpUrhuupd; fUj;JfSk; fhl;Lfpd;wd. „mOj;jk;’ vjw;Fj; jUtJ-
gilg;ghw;wy; rhu;e;j nra;Neu;j;jpf;fh> tpjpKiwfis Nkw;nfhz;l ikfpw nra;jpwDf;fh
vd;w epiyapy; xU rhuhu; ,jidf; fiynad;Wk;> gpwpnjhU rhuhu; mwptpay; vd;Wk;
$Wfpd;wdNuad;wp ,it ngupJk; Kuz;gl;lit my;y. nkhopngau;g;G xU fiyahf
,Ue;jhYk; mwptpayhf ,Ue;jhYk;> E}yhrpupaDila fUj;Jfs; rpijTglhky;
ngWk;nkhopapy; jug;gly; Ntz;Lk;. mJNt nkhopngau;g;Gf;Fr; rpwg;ig nfhLf;Fk;.

nkhopngau;g;gpd; gad;fs;

cyfnkq;Fk; thOk; kf;fis xUq;fpizj;J tUtJ nkhopngau;g;Ng MFk;.

r%f tsu;r;rpapd; xt;nthU fhy fl;lj;jpYk; nkhopngau;g;G jd; gq;fpidr; rpwg;ghf
nray;gLj;JfpwJ. kf;fspd; tho;f;ifapy; NeubahfTk;> kiwKfkhfTk; nkhopngau;g;G
gad;gLfpwJ.

,d;iwa cyfk; jfty;fs; epiwe;jJ. ,d;W cyfk; KOtJk; gutpAs;s

jfty;fisj; jha;nkhop %yk; mwpe;J nfhs;s nkhopngau;g;G gad; gLfpwJ.
njhiyf;fhl;rp> thndhyp> nra;jp ,jo;fs; Nghd;w jfty; njhlu;Gf; fUtpfs;>
nkhopngau;g;G ,y;yhtpby; nray;gLtJ fbdk;. ehk; jpdKk; mwpe;jpLk; cyfr;
nra;jpfs; gy;NtW nkhopfspypUe;J Mq;fpyj;jpw;F nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;L gpd; mq;fpUe;J
jkpohf;fg;gl;litjhd;. vdNt cyfnkq;Fk; jfty;fisg; gug;gpl nkhopngau;g;G
gad;gLfpwJ.

nkhopngau;g;ghdJ cyfr; rpwg;Gtha;e;j mwpQHfspd; ,yf;fpaq;fs;> tuyhWfs;

Kjypatw;iw mwpe;Jf;nfhs;s gad;gLfpwJ. xU ehl;by; Xu; mwptpay; Kaw;rp ntw;wp
ngWfpw NghJ mijg;gpw ehl;bdu;> gpw nkhopapdu; mwpe;J nfhs;s gad;gLfpwJ.
mwpQu;fspd; jj;Jtq;fSk;> mtu;fspd; nray;ghLfSk; cyfk; KOtjw;Fk; gut Jiz
nra;fpwJ.

83
 ,utPe;jpuehj;jh$u; Nghd;w ftpQu;fs;> gpNukre;j; Nghd;w gilg;ghsu;fs;>
N\f;];gpau;> ngu;dhl;\h Nghd;w ehlf Mrpupau;fs; gw;wpAk; mtu;fspd; gilg;Gfs;
gw;wpAk; njupe;J nfhs;sTk; gad;gLfpwJ.

mwptpay;> njhopy;El;gk;> gy;NtW kf;fspd; nkhop> ,dk;> gz;ghL> ehfupfk;

Nghd;wtw;iw mwpaTk gpwnkhop jpiug;glq;fspd; fij mk;rq;fs;> jpiug;glq;fisj;
jahupf;Fk; Kiwfs;> jpiug;gl cj;jpfs; vd;gdtw;iw mwpaTk; gad;gLfpwJ.

kf;fspd; mwpTg; ngUf;fj;jpw;Fk;> tho;f;ifapd; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;Fk; gad;gLfpwJ.

xt;nthU ehLk; mLj;j ehl;L murpay; nghUshjhu epfo;r;rpfspy; mf;fiw nfhs;Sk;
fl;lhaj;Jf;Fs;shfp ,Uf;fpwJ. ,ij xt;nthU nkhopapdUk; clDf;Fld; mwpe;J
nfhs;sTk; gad;gLfpwJ.

gynkhopfs; Ngrg;gLk; xU ehl;by; xUikg;ghl;il tsu;g;gjw;F fyhr;rhug;

gupkhw;wKk;> mjw;F mbg;gilahd nkhopngau;g;Gg; gzpfSk; ,d;wpaikahjit. ,e;j
ehLfspd; murpay; epu;thfj;jpw;F cjt> rl;lk;> Miz> nra;jp Mfpatw;wpidg; gy
nkhopfspy; ngWtjw;Fg; gad;gLfpwJ.

tzpf cyfpy; nghUs;fspd; cw;gj;jp> jd;ik> juk;> gad;> gad;gLj;Jk; tpjk;

Mfpatw;iwg; gy nkhopfspy; ngWtjw;Fg; gad;gLfpwJ. xU rKjhak; nkhopfisg;
gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; gytopfspYk; gadilfpwJ. mJ NghyNt nkhopngau;g;igg;
gad;gLj;jpf; nfhs;tjd; %yKk; nkhopAk; mJ rhu;e;Js;s rKjhaKk; gadilfpd;wd.

nkhopngau;g;ghy; xU nkhopapy; cs;s nra;jpfs; kw;nwhU nkhopf;Fr;

nry;fpd;wd. mt;thW nry;tjhy; rKjhag;gad;ghLk; kw;Wk; nkhopg;gad;ghLk;
mjpfkhfpwJ. NkYk; mwpT tsu;r;rpf;Fk;> Njrpa xUikg;ghl;bw;Fk; nkhopngau;g;Gfs;
ngupJk; JizGupfpd;wd.

fy;tp> gzp> Rw;Wyh fhuzkhf Ntw;WehLfSf;F kf;fs; nry;fpd;wdu;. mq;Fg;

gy nkhopfs; Ngrg;gLfpd;wd. mk;nkhopfisj; njupahj epiyapy; mtu;fs;
jfty;njhlu;G nfhs;tjw;F nkhopngau;g;G Njitahfpd;wJ.

mnkupf;fh> u\;ah> gpuhd;];> [g;ghd;> rPdk;> n[u;kd; Nghd;w ehLfs; mwptpay;>

njhopy;El;g Ma;Tfspy; tsu;r;rpaile;Js;sd. ,e;jpah Nghd;w tsUk; ehLfs; ,e;j
ehl;ilr;rhu;e;jpUf;f Ntz;bAs;sJ. vdNt me;ehLfspd; Ma;T KbTfis
Mq;fpyj;jpyhtJ nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;baJ mtrpak;. mg;NghJjhd; mwptpaypd;

84
khw;wj;ij czu;e;J nfhs;s KbAk;. ,jdhy; mwptpay;> njhopy; El;g Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;F
nkhopngau;g;G mtrpak;.

,d;W cyfkakhf;fy; fhuzkhf xU ehl;by; cw;gj;jpahFk; nghUis

cyfnkq;Fk; tpw;gidr; nra;ayhk;. xU ehl;by; cw;gj;jpahFk; nghUis kw;nwhU
ehl;bYs;stHfSf;Fj; njhpag;gLj;j nra;ag;gLk; tpsk;guq;fs; me;j ehl;L kf;fs;
nkhopfspNyNa ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. vdNt tpsk;guq;fisr; nra;tjw;Fk; nkhopngau;g;G
Njitahfpd;wJ.

nkhopngau;g;gpdhy; nghJnkhop gq;F ngWfpwJ. nrhy;yhf;fk;> njhluikg;G>

fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wk; Nghd;wit Vw;gLfpd;wd. cyf ehLfspy; gpd;gw;wg;gLk; gz;ghl;Lf;
$Wfisg; Gupe;J nfhz;L fUj;Jfisg; gupkhwpf; nfhs;s nkhopngau;g;Gg; gad;gLfpwJ.

xUtu; cyfnkq;Fk; gutyhf mwpag;gl nkhopngau;g;G mtrpak;. xU Jiwapy;

xUtu; ngw;w rhjidfs; cyfnkq;Fk; gutpl nkhopngau;g;Gfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
nkhopngau;g;G kdpjid FWfpa tl;lj;jpw;Fs; thotplhky;> cyF jOtpa gue;Jgl;l
rpe;jidAld; tho topNaw;gLj;JfpwJ.

E}yfj;jpy; nkhopngau;g;gpd; gad;fs;

xU ehL Kd;Ndw Ntz;Lkhdhy; me;ehl;by; E}yfk;> fy;tp> fyhr;rhuk;> njhopy;

Nghd;wit rpwg;ghf mika Ntz;Lk;.

xt;nthU E}yfKk; rpwg;ghf ,aq;f Ntz;Lk;. fy;tp tsu;r;rpf;F

cWJizahfTk;> KJnfYk;ghfTk; ,Ug;gJ E}yfNk. kdpju;fs; gy nkhopfisg;
gad;gLj;Jtjhy; E}yfj;jpy; nkhopngau;g;G Njitg;gLfpwJ. xt;nthU nkhopf;Fk; xU
ngupa fyhr;rhu ghuk;gupak; ,Uf;fpwJ. xU FOtpdu; rpe;jpg;gJ Nghy; ,d;ndhU
FOtpdu; rpe;jpg;gJ ,y;iy> czu;tjpy;iy. fyhr;rhuq;fs; NtWgLfpd;wd. mjdhy;
nkhopngau;g;Gr; nray;KiwAk; rpf;fyhdjhf khWfpwJ.

nkhopfspd; tsu;r;rpf;Fk; mjd; rpe;jid tsu;r;rpf;Fk; nkhopngau;g;G ngupJk;

Jiz nra;fpwJ. E}yfq;fspy; gy nkhopfspy; E}y;fs; ,Uf;fpd;wd> mtw;iw
midtuhYk; gbj;Jg; Gupe;J nfhs;s ,ayhJ. vdNt thrfu;fSf;Fj; njupe;j
nkhopfspy; E}y;fspYs;s jfty;fisf; nfhLg;gJ E}yfq;fspd; flikahf ,Uf;fpwJ.
vdNt thrfu;fSf;Fj; njupe;j nkhopfspy; E}w;fspYs;s jfty;fisf; nfhLf;f

85
E}yfq;fs; nray;gl;L tUfpd;wd. mjw;F> E}yfj;jpdu; nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fspd;
cjtpAld; nkhopngau;g;Gg; gzpapy; <Lgl;L tUfpd;wdu;.

ngUk;ghYk; ngupa E}yfq;fspy; Mq;fpy nkhopapy; vOjg;gl;l mwptpay; Ma;Tf;

fl;Liufs; u\;ad;> n[u;kd;> [g;ghd; nkhopfspy; nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;L itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
mit Nghd;W u\;ad;> n[u;kd;> [g;ghd; nkhopfspy; ntspte;Js;s fl;Liufs;> E}y;fs;
Mq;fpy nkhopapy; nkhopngau;g;Gr; nra;J itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,t;thW xU
nkhopapypUe;J gpw nkhopapy; nkhopngau;g;Gr; nra;tij ,UnkhopfSf;Fs; epfOk;
nkhopngau;g;G vd nkhopngau;g;G mwpQu;fs; $Wfpd;wdu;.

,UnkhopfSf;Fs; epfOk; nkhopngau;g;G (Inter Lingual Translation)

,k;nkhopngau;g;Gr; nray;fs; cyfj;jpy; cs;s midj;Jg; ngupa E}yfq;fspy;

Njit Nehf;fPl;Lg; gzpg;gpuptpy; (Reference Service Section) Njit Nehf;fPl;Lg; gzp
mYtyupd; (Reference Librarian or Information Scientist or Documentation Officer)
cjtpAld; eilngWfpwJ. ngUk;ghyhd mwptpay; Ma;T njhopy;El;gq;fs;> Ma;T
mwpf;iffs;> Ma;Tf; fl;Liufs; Mq;fpy nkhopapy; ntsptUtijg;Nghd;W> u\;ad;>
n[u;kd;> gpnuQ;R> [g;ghdpa> rPd nkhopfspYk; mit ntsptUfpd;wd. Mq;fpy
nkhopiaj;jtpu gpw nkhopfspy; ntsptUfpd;w Ma;Tf; fl;Liufis vy;NyhuhYk;
gbj;Jg; Gupe;J nfhs;tJ fbdk;. vdNt ,j;jifa rpf;fiyj; jPu;g;gjw;fhfNt
nkhopngau;g;Gg; gzp E}yfq;fspy; Vw;gLj;jg; gl;Ls;sJ. ,g;gzpapd; Nehf;fk; xU ehL
mwptpay; njhopy; El;gj; jfty;fis mwpe;J nray;gl cjtpahf ,Uf;fpwJ.

,g;gzp gpd;tUk; ikaq;fspy; eilngw;W tUfpd;wJ.

1) ,e;jpa Njrpa mwptpay; Mtz ikak; (Indian National Scientific Documentation

Centre) - INSEDOC
2) ghJfhg;Gj; jfty; mwptpay; Mtz ikak; (Defence Scientific Information and
Documentation Centre)- DESIDOC
3) Njrpa r%f mwptpay; Mtz ikak; (National Social Science Documentation
Centre)-NSSDOC
4) Njrpa nkhopngau;g;G ikak;> rpfhf;Nfh (National Transalation Centre Chicaco)-NTC
5) cyf nkhopngau;g;G ikak;> nly;gpl; neju;yhe;J (International Transalation
Centre, Delft in Netherland)

86
,e;jpa Njrpa mwptpay; Mtz ikak;

(Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre)INSEDOC

,k;ikak; tpQ;QhdpfSf;Fk;> Ma;T epWtdq;fs;> njhopyfq;fs; Mfpatw;wpw;Fk;

mwptpay; jfty;fis toq;Fk; nghUl;L 1952-Mk; Mz;L And];Nfh cjtpAld;
Muk;gpf;fg;gl;lJ. ,jd; rhu;G epWtdk; 1963-Mk; Mz;L cUthf;fg;gl;lJ. ,jd; Jiz
epWtdq;fs; nrd;id> ngq;fðu;> nfhy;fj;jh Mfpa %d;W efuq;fspy; kz;ly
ikaq;fshf (Regional Centres) ,aq;fp tUfpwJ.

nray;ghLfs; (Functions of INSEDOC)

nra;jpfisj; njspthfr; nrhy;tJ nkhopngaHg;ghsUf;F vspjhd nray; md;W.

Mq;fpyj;jpy; kl;Lk; Gyik ngw;wtHfSf;F u\;ad;> n[Hkd;> [g;ghd; nkhopfspy; cs;s
Ma;T mwpf;iffisg; Ghpe;J nfhs;tJ fbdk;. vdNt u\;ad;> n[u;kd;> [g;ghd;
nkhopfspy; tUk; nra;jpfis Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngau;g;gJ ,d;wpaikahjJ MfpwJ.

,e;jpa Njrpa mwptpay; Mtz ikakhdJ gy;NtW nkhopfSf;Fk;

nkhopngau;g;G ty;Yeu;fis KO Neuk; gzpapy; mku;j;jp Nrit nra;J tUfpwJ.
u\;ad;> n[u;kd;> [g;ghd; nkhopfSf;F kpfr; rpwe;j nkhopngau;g;G trjpfs; cs;sd.

,k;ikaj;jpy; 1. ciueil (Literal) 2. ,ay;ghd (Free) kw;Wk; 3.

gadpl;lhsu;fspd; Njitf;fhf nkhopngau;j;jy; (Translation based on necessity) vd;Dk;
%d;W tiffspy; nkhopngau;g;G eilngWfpwJ.

Njrpa nkhopngau;g;G (National Index of Translation)

,e;jpa Njrpa mwptpay; Mtz ikakhdJ u\;a nkhopfspy; tuf;$ba njhopy;

El;g rQ;rpiffis nkhopngau;j;J ,e;jpahtpy; cs;s Ma;T tsu;r;rp epWtdq;fSf;F
mDg;gp itf;fpwJ.

mjpf mstpyhd nkhopngau;g;Gfs; gy epWtdq;fspd; Ntz;LNfhSf;F ,zq;f

fl;Liufs;> fUj;juq;f Ma;T mwpf;iffs;> rQ;rpiffs;> mwptpay; njhopy;El;g
jfty;fs; midj;Jk; nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;L Gj;jfq;fshf ntspaplg; gLtjpy;iy. Mdhy;
mt;thW nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;l Mtzq;fis E}yfj;jpy; jdpg;gpupthf itg;gu;.
Njitg;gLk; NghJ mk;nkhop ngau;g;G Mtzq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtu;.

87
ghJfhg;G mwptpay; Mtz ikak;

(Defence Scientific Information and Documentation -DESIDOC

ghJfhg;Gj; njhlu;ghd mwptpay; njhopy; El;gj; jfty;fisg; ngw;W

nray;gLj;Jk; Nehf;Fld; ,e;jpa murhy; ,e;jpa ghJfhg;G Ma;T tsu;r;rp epWtdk;
(Defence Research and Development Organization)-DRDO cUthf;fg;gl;lJ. ,jd; rhu;G
epWtdkhd Scientific Information Bureau (SIB) ,e;jpa ghJfhg;G mikr;ruit cjtpAld;
1967 ,y; Defence Scientific Information and Documentation –DESIDOC vd;W ngaH khw;wk;
nra;ag;gl;L ,aq;fptUfpwJ.

nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fq;fs;

rKjhaj;jpw;Fk;> nkhopngau;g;Gf;FkpilNa kpFe;j njhlu;G cz;L. Vnddpy;

kf;fs; gpwehl;Lr; nra;jpfis clDf;Fld; mwpa Kw;gLfpd;wdu;. ,jdhy; gpwehl;Lr;
nra;jpfs; nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;L tUfpd;wd. cyf ,yf;fpaq;fs;> mwptpay;> murpay;
nra;jpfs; gynkhopfspy; nkhopngau;f;fg;gLfpd;wd. rKjha tsu;r;rpapy; xt;nthU
fhyfl;lj;jpYk; nkhopngau;g;G Kf;fpa ,lk; tfpf;fpd;wJ.

fUj;J tsu;r;rp> mwpT tsu;r;rp> xUtiu xUtu; ed;F Gupe;J nfhs;Sjy;>

mwpKfq;nfhs;Sjy; vDk; ,itNa nkhopngau;g;gpd; nghJthd Nehf;fq;fshf
mikfpd;wd. fUj;J tsu;r;rp> mwpT tsu;r;rp vd;gd mwptpay;> nghUshjhuk;> tuyhW>
Gtpapay; Nghd;w nkhopngau;g;Gfspy; Kjd;ikahfpd;wd. xUtiunahUtu; mwpKfk;
nfhs;tjidAk; Gupe;J nfhs;tjidAk; ,yf;fpak; kw;Wk; fiy nkhopngau;g;Gfs;
mbg;gilahff; nfhs;fpd;wd. ,it nghJepiy Nehf;fq;fshFk;. nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs;
jq;fSf;nfdj; jdpj;j Nehf;fq;fisAk; nkhopngau;j;jYf;Ff; nfhz;Ls;sdu;.

nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fq;fisg; gad;ghl;L mbg;gilapy; Kidtu; e. KUNfr

ghz;bad; gpd;tUkhW ghFgLj;Jfpwhu;. mit 1.nghJNehf;fk;> 2. jdpkdpj Nehf;fk;>
3. epWtdNehf;fk;> 4. murpay; Nehf;fk; vd;gdthFk;.

1. nghJ Nehf;fk;

,uz;lhapuk; Mz;LfSf;Fk; mjpfkhNt cyfnkq;Fk; gy;NtW gFjpfspy;

tho;e;J te;j kf;fs; VNjDk; xU tifapy; r%fj; njhlu;G nfhz;L tho;e;J
te;Js;sdu;. tzpf mbg;gilapy; nghUl;fisg; gupkhw;wk; nra;jdu;:

88
mjpfhuj;JtKilNahu; tYthd gilapd; cjtpAld; kw;nwhU ehl;bd; kPJ gilnaLj;J
me;ehl;bidf; ifg;gw;wp jk;Kila MSiff;Ff; fPo; nfhz;L te;jdu;. 14-Mk;
E}w;whz;by; INuhg;ghtpy; Vw;gl;l njhopw;Gul;rp fhuzkhf> INuhg;gpau; fg;gy;fs; %yk;
Mrpa> Mg;gpupf;f ehLfSf;Fg; gazk; nra;J> fhY}d;wpdu;. ehsiltpy;> me;ehLfisf;
ifg;gw;wp FbNaw;w ehLfshf;fpdu;. ,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;bd; njhlf;fj;jpy; mnkupf;fh>
[g;ghd; Nghd;w Gjpa ty;yuR ehLfs;> FbNaw;w ehLfis kWgq;fPL nra;a Ntz;ba
NghJ> eilngw;w ,U cyfg; Nghu;fSk;> cyf ehLfspy; ngUk; ghjpg;gpid
Vw;gLj;jpd. xU ehl;by; Vw;gLk; nghUspay; khw;wk;> murpay; vOr;rp Nghd;wd VNjh xU
epiyapy; kw;nwhU ehl;ilAk; ghjpf;fpd;wd. mJNghy fiy> ,yf;fpak; Nghd;wdTk;
ghjpg;ig Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd. ,it nkhopngau;g;gpd; mbg;gil Nehf;fj;jpid
typAWj;Jfpd;wd vd e. KUNfrghz;bad; $wpAs;shH.

,d;iwa cyfpy; jfty; njhlu;Gj;Jiw tsu;r;rpapd; fhuzkhf cyfk; xU

G+Nfhsf; fpuhkkhfr; (Global Village) RUq;fptpl;lJ. mJ Nghy> cyf kakhf;fy;> vDk;
jhuf ke;jpuk; vq;Fk; xypf;fpd;wJ. ,j;jifa #oy; nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fj;jpid
tbtikg;gjpy; Kf;fpakhd gq;fhw;Wfpd;wJ.

mwptpay; tsu;r;rpapd; fhuzkhf mwptpay; E}w;fs; gy nkhopfspy; vOjg;gl;L

tUfpd;wd. mJNghy ,yf;fpag; gilg;GfSk; gy nkhopfspy; vOjg;gl;L tUfpd;wd.
gy;NtW nkhopfspy; vOjg;gl;L tUfpd;w ,it Nghd;w nra;jpfis mwpe;J nfhs;s
ruhrup kdpju;fSk; tpiofpd;wdu;. ,jd; fhuzkhf me;epa nkhopfspy; vOjg;gl;Ls;s
mwptpay;> ,yf;fpa E}w;fisj; jha;nkhopapy; gbf;f tpUk;Gfpwtu;fSf;F nkhopngau;g;G
tug;gpurhjkhf mike;Js;sJ. ,t;thW gpw nkhopapYs;s E}w;fisj; jha;nkhopapy;
ntspf;nfhzu;tJ jhd; nkhopngau;g;gpd; nghJthd Nehf;fkhFk;.

%ynkhopapYs;s nra;jpfisg; ngWk; nkhopf;F khw;Wfpd;w NghJ> %ynkhop

thrfu;fSf;Fk; ngWk;nkhop thrfu;fSf;FkpilNa xU neUq;fpaj; njhlu;G cUthf
topNaw;gLfpwJ. %ynkhop ngWk;nkhop Mfpa ,Unkhop thrfu;fSf;FkpilNa xj;j
fUj;jpid Vw;gLj;j nkhopngau;g;G KaYfpwJ. vdNt rhjp> kjk;> ,dk;> nkhop> ehL>
gz;ghL> epwk; Nghd;w gy;NtW epiyfspy; gpupe;J fhzg;gLfpw kf;fSf;fpilNa xU
xw;Wikia Vw;gLj;j KaYtNj nkhopngau;g;gpd; jiyaha Nehf;fkhFk;. ,jidj; jhd;
nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fs; nra;J tUfpd;wd.

89
2. jdpkdpj Nehf;fk;

nkhopngau;g;G vd;w Mf;fkhdJ njhlf;ffhyf;fl;lj;jpy; jdpkdpju;fspd;

fLikahd Kaw;rpapd; tpisthFk;. ,uz;L my;yJ ,uz;bDf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l nkhopfs;
mwpe;jtu;fs; vq;Fk; tho;fpd;wdu;. mtu;fspy; gyu; nkhopngau;g;Gf; Fwpj;Jr;
rpe;jpf;ftpy;iy. ,U nkhopfSf;fpilapyhd r%fj; njhlu;gpidAk;> xU nkhopapYs;s
E}ypid kw;nwhU nkhopf;Ff; nfhz;L tuNtz;ba NjitapidAk; mwpe;jtu;fs; jhd;
ehsiltpy; nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fshf khWfpd;wdu;. ,U nkhopfspYk; ntspahFk;
Mtzq;fs;> E}y;fs; Nghd;wtw;iw xg;gpl;L Nehf;fpg; gpw nkhopapYs;s mupa fUj;Jfs;>
tsk; Nghd;wd jd;Dila jha;nkhopf;Ff; nfhz;L tug;gl Ntz;Lnkd;w
nkhopngau;g;ghsupd; Nehf;fk; jhd; ngUk;ghyhd nkhopngau;g;G Kaw;rpfSf;F
mbg;gilahf tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. gz;ilf; fhyj;jpy; nkhopngau;g;gpy; <Lgl;l ngUk;ghyhd
nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs; vt;tpjkhd gpujpgyidAk; vjpu;Nehf;fp nkhopngau;g;gpy;
<Lgltpy;iy. kw;nwhU nkhopapYs;s caHthd ,yf;fpag;gilg;Gfs; rkak;> nka;apay;
Nghd;wd jhd; NgRk; nkhopapy; ntspahf Ntz;Lk; vd;W nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs;
fUjpapUf;f Ntz;Lk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf thy;kPfp tlnkhopapy; vOjpa ,uhkhazj;ijj;
jOtpj; jkpopy; fk;gu; vOjpa fk;guhkhazg;gilg;G rka Nehf;fk; jtpu;j;J> NtW ve;j
Nehf;fpDf;fhf vOjg;gl;lJ vd;gJ Ma;tpw;FupaJ.

jw;nghOJ ,yf;fpa nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs;> mwptpay; nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs;

Nghd;Nwhu; nkhopngau;g;gpy; mjpf mstpy; <Lgl;L tUfpd;wdu;. ,tu;fSila Nehf;fk;
ntspehl;L ,yf;fpa tiffs; kw;Wk; mwptpay; nra;jpfisj; jha;nkhopapy; nfhz;L tu
Ntz;Lk; vd;gNjahFk;.

3. epWtdq;fspd; Nehf;fk;

njhlf;fj;jpy; jdpkdpju;fspd; Kaw;rpapdhy; njhlq;fg;gl;l nkhopngau;g;G>

ehsiltpy; epWtdq;fSld; njhlu;Gilajhf tsu;r;rpaile;jJ. nkhopngau;g;G
E}y;fisj; jahupj;J ntspapLjy; vd;gJ> gy;NtWgl;l Nehf;fKilajhf khw;wkilAk;
NghJ> epWtdq;fs; nkhopngau;g;gpy; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jfpd;wd. nkhopngau;g;G
E}y;fis ntspapLk; Nehf;fKila epWtdq;fisj; jdpahu; gjpg;gfq;fs;> muR
muRrhu;G / nghJ epWtdq;fs; vd ,UngUk; gpupTfshf e. KUNfrghz;bad;
gFj;Js;shH;.

90
jdpahu; gjpg;gfq;fspd; Nehf;fk;

rpy gjpg;gfj;jpdu; tzpfNehf;Fld; nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fis ntspapl;L

tUfpd;wdu;. ngUk;ghyhd gjpg;gfj;jhu; nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fis ntspapLtjd; %yk;
fUj;Jyfpy; ngUk; khw;wj;jpid Vw;gLj;j KbAk; vd;w ek;gpf;ifapy; nray;gl;L
tUfpd;wdu;.

jkpofg;gjpg;gfq;fspd; Nehf;fk;

jkpo;ehl;by; nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fis ntspapl Ntz;Lnkd;w Nehf;fpy; nraw;gl;l

gjpg;gfq;fspd; nraw;ghLfs; Nghw;wj;jf;fd. gpwehl;L ,yf;fpag; gilg;Gfisj; jkpohf;fp
ntspapLtjd; %yk; jkpopyf;fpak; tsHr;rpailtJld; Gjpa jsq;fis milAk; vd;w
ek;gpf;if nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fis ntspapl;l gy gjpg;gfq;fSf;F cz;L.

tpbay;> fhyr;RtL> milahsk;> miyfs;> f;upah> re;jpah Nghd;w gjpg;gfq;fs;

gy;Jiw mstpy; jkpoupilNa fUj;jpay; uPjpapy; tpopg;Gzu;T Vw;gl nkhopngau;g;G
E}y;fs; cjTk; vd;w Nehf;fj;Jld; njhlu;e;J nraw;gl;L tUfpd;wd.

midj;Jyf epWtdq;fspd; Nehf;fk;

If;fpa ehLfs; mitapd; gz;ghl;L cWg;ghd And];Nfh fy;tp> fiy> gz;ghl;L

tsu;r;rpapy; xUq;fpize;j Nehf;FilaJ. cyfnkq;Fk; thOk; kf;fs;> cyf
nkhopfspy; rpwe;J tpsq;Fk; gilg;Gfis mwpe;J nfhs;tjw;fhf> cyfpYs;s
Kf;fpakhd nkhopfSf;fpilapy; nkhopngau;g;gpid Cf;Ftpf;fpd;wJ. xt;nthU
ehl;bYKs;s gz;ghl;L epWtdq;fSld; njhlu;G nfhz;L> gpwehl;L ,yf;fpag;
gilg;Gfs; ntsptuj; Njitahd nghUSjtp mspg;gJld;> %y Mrpupaupd;
mDkjpiaAk; ngw;Wj; jUfpwJ. And];Nfh> nrd;idapYs;s njd;nkhopfs; Gj;jf
epWtdk;> GJjpy;ypapYs;s Ne\dy; Gf; bu];l; Nghd;wtw;Wld; ,ize;J> nkhopngau;g;G
E}y;fs; jkpopy; ntsptu cjtpAs;sJ.

ntspehl;L epWtdq;fspd; Nehf;fk;

1917-,y; eilngw;w Nrhtpaj; Gul;rpf;Fg; gpd;du;> u\;ahtpy; Ml;rp nra;j

Ml;rpahsu;fs;> nghJTilikf; fUj;ijg; gpur;rhuk; nra;Ak; Nehf;fj;jpy; Vuhskhd
murpay; E}y;fisj; jkpohf;fp ntspapl;ldu;. ,yf;fpak;> nghUspay;> kUj;Jtk;>
nka;apay; Nghd;w u\pa E}y;fs; ngUkstpy; jkpo;nkhopngau;g;gpy; ntspahfpd. kPu;>

91
uhJfh> GNuhfpu]; Nghd;w gjpg;gfq;fs; njhlu;e;J jkpopy; nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fis
kypthd tpiyapy; ntspapl;ld. 1960-f;Fg;gpd;du; rPdhtpypUe;j Nrhrypr murhq;fk; gP[pq;
gjpg;gfk; %yk;> murpay;> ,yf;fpa E}y;fspd; nkhopngaHg;Gfisj; jkpopy; ntspapl;lJ.
,jdhy; jkpofj;jpy; nghJTilikf; fUj;jpidg; gug;gpl Ntz;Lnkd;w Nehf;fpy;
ntspehl;Lg; gjpg;gfq;fs; nraw;gl;ljid mwpa Kbfpd;wJ. ,j;jifa nraw;ghl;by;
murpay; Nehf;fk; nghjpe;Js;sJ. vdpDk; lhy;];lha;> nrfht;> Ju;fNdt;> fhu;ff
; p>
n\yNfht;> jh];jhNat;]f
; p Nghd;w u\;a ,yf;fpa MSikfspd; gilg;GfSk;> Y}Rd;
Nghd;w rPdg; gilg;ghsupd; gilg;GfSk; jkpofnkq;Fk; gutpajw;F epWtdq;fspd;
Nehf;fk;jhd; fhuzkhFk;.

nrd;idapYs;s gpnuQ;R J}jufk;> GJr;NrupapYs;s ,e;jpa Ma;Tf;fhd gpnuQ;R

epWtdk;> n[u;kd; murpd; rhu;Gila N`hu;]l
; ; n`u;l;lkd; /ntu;yhf; epWtdk;> ];tp];
ehl;bd; gh]y; epWtdk; Nghd;wd jkpopy; nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fs; ntspaPl;by; ftdk;
nrYj;jpAs;sd. gpnuQ;R J}jufk; gpnuQ;R ,yf;fpak;> jpiug;glk; jj;Jtk; njhlu;ghd
E}y;fisj; jkpohf;fp ntspapLtjpy; njhlu;e;J nraw;gl;L tUfpwJ. gpnuQ;R
gz;ghl;ilAk;> murpaiyAk; jkpoupilNa gug;Gtjw;fhd Nehf;fj;jpid ,j;jifa nkhop
ngau;g;Gfs; nfhz;Ls;sd.

,e;jpa muR epWtdq;fspd; Nehf;fk;

,e;jpa nkhopfspy; ,yf;fpa Nkk;ghl;bDf;fhf epWtg;gl;l rhfpj;a mfhnjkpAk;>

Ne\dy; Gf; bu];l;Lk; nkhopngau;g;G E}y; ntspaPl;by; Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpd;wd. “xU
,e;jpa nkhopapypUe;J gpw ,e;jpa nkhopfSf;Fk;> gpw ehl;L nkhopfspypUe;J ,e;jpa
nkhopfSf;Fk;> ,e;jpa nkhopfspypUe;J gpwehl;L nkhopfSf;Fk; nkhopngau;g;gpidr;
nra;jy; my;yJ Cf;fg;gLj;Jjy;” vd;gjidr; rhfpj;a mfhnjkp jdJ Nehf;fkhff;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,t;tpU epWtdq;fspd; nraw;ghLfs; fhuzkhfj; jkpopy; gy;Jiw
E}y;fs; nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;L ntspahfpAs;sd. ,e;jpahtpy; Ngrg;gLfpd;w gy;NtW
nkhopfSf;fpilNa njhlu;gpid Vw;gLj;Jk; tifapy; ,e;jpa muR epWtdq;fspd;
nkhopngaHg;G Nehf;fk; mike;Js;sJ.

jkpo;ehl;L muR epWtd Nehf;fk;

jkpio caHfy;tpapy; gapw;W nkhopahf;f Ntz;Lnkdf; fUjpa jkpof murhq;fk;

jkpo;ehl;Lg; ghlE}y; epWtdk; %yk; gy;Jiwg; ghlE}y;fisj; jkpopy; nkhopngau;j;J

92
ntspapl;Ls;sJ. mNj epWtdk; jkpopYs;s ,yf;fpag; gilg;Gfisg; gpw nkhopfspYk;>
gpwnkhopg; gilg;Gfisj; jkpopYk; nkhopngau;j;J ntspapl;Ls;sJ.

jkpof muR> Ml;rpr; nrhy;yfuhjpAk;> ehw;gj;J ehd;F rpwg;Gr; nrhw;fs;

JizafuhjpfisAk; ntspapl;Ls;sJ. jkpo; nkhopapid Ml;rp nkhopahf;f Ntz;Lk;
vd;w Nehf;fj;jpy; ,j;jifa gy;Jiw mfuhjpfs; ntspaplg;gl;Ls;sd. jkpo;nkhopia
Ml;rp nkhopahfTk;> cau;fy;tpapy; gapw;W nkhopahfTk; tsKilajhf
Mf;Ftjw;Nfw;g> jkpof murpd; nkhopngau;g;G Nehf;fk; mike;Js;sJ.

njd; nkhopfs; Gj;jf epWtdk;

mnkupf;fhtpYs;s /Nghu;L mwf;fl;lisapd; Mjutpy; 1955-,y; epWtg;gl;l

njd;nkhopfs; Gj;jf epWtdk;> njd;dpe;jpa nkhopfSf;fpilapy; nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fs;
ntspaPl;bid Cf;Ftpj;jJ. cyfnkq;Fk; gpwnkhopfspy; ntspahd gy;Jiw
E}y;fisj; njd;dpe;jpa nkhopfspy; ntspapLtJ ,e;epWtdj;jpd; Kjd;ik Nehf;fkhFk;.
njd;nkhopfs; Gj;jf epWtdj;jpd; Kaw;rpapdhy; jkpopy; E}w;Wf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l
nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fs; ntspahfpAs;sd.

4. murpay; Nehf;fk;

Nkiyehl;L murpay; rk;ge;jkhd gy E}w;fs; ,e;jpa nkhopfspy;

nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;Ls;sd. u\;a> rPdehl;L nghJTilik E}w;fs; gy
nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;Ls;sd. murpayhsu;fs; cyf> Njrpa murpaiyj; njupe;J
nfhs;tjw;fhf gy nkhopfspYs;s murpay; E}y;fs; nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;L tUfpd;wd.
,JTk; nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fkhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ. murpay; mbg;gilapyhd
Nehf;fpidr; nraw;gLj;j nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fs; cjTfpd;wd. Nkw;fz;ltw;iwj; jtpu
fPo;tUtdtw;iwAk; nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fq;fshf Fwpg;gplyhk;.

1. nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;l E}y;fs; gpwehLfisg;gw;wp mwpaTk;> el; Gwit tsu;f;fTk;

el;Gld; nray;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gijNa Kf;fpa Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;L
tpsq;Ffpd;wd.
2. mwpT tsu;r;rp> fUj;J tsu;r;rp> mwpKfk; nfhs;Sjy;> mwpKfg;gLj;Jjy;> Gupe;J
nfhs;Sjy;> njspTWj;Jjy; MfpaitNa nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fk; vdyhk;.
3. xU rpwe;j E}y; %ynkhopapy; ghjpg;ig Vw;gLj;jpdhy; ngau;g;GE}y; XusT
ghjpg;ig Vw;gLj;j Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fkhf mikfpwJ.

93
 4. gpw nkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfisg; ngau;g;Gnkhopapy; jUtJ nkhopngau;g;gpd;
Nehf;fkhFk;.
5. xt;nthU nkhopAk;> jdpj;jd;ik tha;e;jJ. mj;jdpj;jd;ikiag;
ngau;g;Gnkhopapy; juNtz;Lk; vd;gJ nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fkhFk;.
6. xU nkhopapYs;s mwpthu;e;j nra;jpfis kw;nwhU nkhopf;F khw;WtNj
nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fkhFk;.
7. nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fNk> gpw nkhopfspYs;s fUj;Jfis kf;fspilNa
mwpKfg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. kf;fs; Gupe;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk; vd;gJjhd;.
nghJthff; $Wkplj;J gpwnkhop ,yf;fpaq;fs;> mwptpay; rpe;jidfs;> murpay;
fUj;Jfs; Nghd;wtw;iwg; ngau;g;Gnkhopapy; jUtNj nkhopngau;g;gpd; Nehf;fkhFk;.

nkhopngau;g;gpd; ,ay;Gfs;

nghJthf nkhopngau;g;G fPo;f;fhZk; %d;W Kf;fpa ,ay;Gfisg; ngw;wpUf;f

Ntz;Lk;.

1. %yE}ypd; fUj;Jfis KOikahff; nfhz;ljhf nkhopngau;g;G mika

Ntz;Lk;.
2. eilAk;> fUj;Jfis czu;j;Jk; Nghf;Fk;> %yE}ypy; vk;Kiwapy;
mike;Js;sdNth> mk;KiwapNyNa nkhopngau;g;gpYk; mika Ntz;Lk;.
3. %yE}ypy; cs;s vspikAk;> njspTk; mjd; nkhopngau;g;Gk; ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
,e;j %d;W ,ay;GfisAk; nfhz;lijr; rpwe;j nkhopngau;g;ghf mwpQH;
Nghw;Wtu;. NkYk;> %yE}ypidf; $l;bNah> Fiwj;Njh nkhopngau;f;ff;$lhJ.

%yE}ypd; czu;T KOtijAk; nkhopngau;g;G ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. gbg;gtu;

kdjpy; nkhopngau;g;G vd;w czu;T Vw;glf;$lhJ. ngWk;nkhopf;Fupa fiyr;nrhw;fis
nkhopngau;g;gpd; NghJ gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. %yE}ypYs;s nghUis czu;j;jf;$ba
nrhy; ngWk; nkhopapy; ,y;iynadpy; Gjpa nrhy;yhf;fk; nra;a Ntz;Lk; . ,t;thW
tiuaWf;fg;gl;bUe;jhYk;> nkhopngau;g;Gfs; vt;thW mika Ntz;Lk; vd;Dk; Nfs;tpf;F
mwpQu;fSk;> jpwdha;thsu;fSk; gy;NtW fUj;Jfis ntspapl;L tUfpd;wdu;.

fUj;Jf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;J nkhopngau;g;gJjhd; ey;yKiw vd;W

mwpQu;fs; nghJthff; fUJfpd;wdu;. mJkl;Lky;yhky; nkhopngau;g;G %yj;ij
xl;bapUf;f Ntz;Lk;. gbg;gjw;F ,dpikahf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,t;tpuz;Lk; jhd;
nkhopngau;g;gpd; capu;ehb vdyhk;.

94
nkhopngau;g;ghsu;

xU nkhopapYs;s nra;jpfis kw;nwhU nkhopapy; khw;wp mikf;Fk; gzpapy;

<LgLNthiu nkhopngau;g;ghsu; vd;gu;. ,U NtW nkhop ,dj;jpw;fpilNa xU
gq;Nfw;ghsdhf ,Ue;J xU nkhopj;njhlu;ig Vw;gLj;Jk; ,izg;gpd; eLepiyg;
gzpahsdhf ,Ug;gtd; nkhopngau;g;ghsd;. nkhopngau;g;ghsd; xU nkhopapy; khw;wk;
ngw;w nra;jpia kWgbAk; ,d;ndhU nkhopf;F flj;Jgtdhf ,Ug;gtd; vd;W `T];
(1977) $Wfpwhu;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs; „midj;Jyf mwpT ,izg;ghsu;fs;‟ vd;whu; Nrhtpaj;

ftpQu; G\;fpd;. ,UnkhopfSf;fpilNa Xu; ,izg;Gg; ghyk; mikf;Fk; mupa gzpiar;
nra;Ak; nghWg;gpid Vw;Wf; nfhz;ltu;fs; nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs;. ,f;fUj;J
nkhopngau;g;G cyfpw;F kpfTk; nghUj;jkhdjhFk;.

xU nkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfisg; gpw nkhopapy; nkhopngau;f;Fk; NghJ

nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs; Mu;tj;Jld; nkhopngau;g;G Kaw;rpia Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
NkYk; ahUf;fhf nkhopngau;f;fg; NghfpNwhk; vd;gijf; fUj;jpy; nfhz;L nkhopngau;f;f
Ntz;Lk;. %yE}ypy; cs;s fUj;Jfis khw;whky; %yE}ypy; cs;s fUj;Jfis
xl;bNa nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs; nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;. %yE}ypypUe;J tpyfpr; nrd;why;
mJ nkhopngau;g;ghf ,uhJ. ,jdhy; nkhopngau;g;ghsu; gzp kpfTk; fbdkhdNj.

nkhopngau;g;ghsu; nkhopngau;f;Fk; NghJ mk;nkhopngau;g;G njspthf ,Uf;fpwjh?

vd;gijf; ftdpj;J mjw;Nfw;wthW nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;.

nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;ba gFjpia nkhopngau;g;ghsu; xUKiw KOtJkhf ed;F

gbj;J> nra;jpfis mwpe;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. mt;thW nra;j gpd;du; mtw;iwg;gy
myFfshfg; (Units) gpupj;Jf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. mjd;gpwF mtw;wpd; jd;ik> msT>
mikg;G> mjpy; cs;s rpf;fy; Nghd;wtw;iw mwpe;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. nkhopapd; rpwpa
myF cUgdhFk; (Morpheme). rpy Neuq;fspy; ,t;TUgd; xU nrhy;yhfTk;
mike;jpUf;Fk; (Single lexical item). cUgd; nghUs; jUk; rpwpa myfhf ,Ue;j
NghjpYk; nrhy; epiyapNyNa nkhopngau;g;ghsu; mjpf ftdk; nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;.
mt;thW nra;tjd; %yk; nkhopngau;g;ghdJ rpwg;ghf mikAk;. cUgd;> nrhy; Nghd;w
epiyfis kl;Lk; nkhopngau;g;ghsu; ftdj;jpy; nfhs;shky; thf;fpa epiyapy;
epfud;fisf; (Equivalence) fz;lwpa Ntz;Lk;. MfNt %ynkhopapy; ,Ue;J ngWk;
nkhopf;F nkhopngau;f;Fk; NghJ fUj;JfSf;Nf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

95
mjw;fLj;jgbahf thf;fpak;> kuGj;njhlH> nrhy;> cUgd; Nghd;wtw;iw kdjpy; nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk;. Vnddpy; nkhopngaHg;ghsH %yE}iyg; gbj;jTld; Kjyhtjhf mtu; kdjpy;
vOtJ mjpy; nrhy;yg;gl;Ls;s fUj;JfNs> mjd; gpd;dNu kw;w nkhopapay; $Wfshfpa
njhlu; kw;Wk; nrhy; Nghd;wtw;iw epidg;gu;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs; ftdj;jpy; nfhs;s Ntz;bait

gbj;jtu;fSf;F kl;Lky;yhky; rhjhuz kf;fSf;Fk; Gupaf;$ba tpjj;jpy;

nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;. nkhopapYs;s nrhw;fis> kw;nwhU nkhopapy; mg;gbNa nfhz;L
te;Jtpl Ntz;Lk; vd;gijAk;> %yE}ypd; mikg;G> tupir Kiw Kjypatw;iw
mg;gbNa gpd;gw;w Ntz;Lnkd;gijAk; nkhopngau;g;ghsu; Nehf;fkhff; nfhs;sf; $lhJ.
%ynkhopapYs;s nrhw;fSf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLf;fhky;> fUj;JfSf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;. %yE}ypy; fhzg;gLfpd;w czu;T Fd;whky; nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;.
ve;j nkhopapy; nkhopngau;f;fg; NghfpNwhNkh me;j nkhopapd; #oYf;F Vw;g
nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;. %yE}ypd; Mw;nwhOf;fhd eil> vspik> ,dpik>
nghUl;nrwpT> Kjypatw;iwf; $bakl;by; nkhopngau;g;gpYk; ,lk;ngwr; nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
nkhopngau;g;ghsu; jhk; mwpe;j Jiwfspy; cs;s E}y;fis nkhopngau;f;f Kay
Ntz;Lk;. jhk; njspthf mwpe;j Jiwfspy; cs;s E}y;fis nkhopngau;j;jhy; fUj;J
rpijtpd;wp nkhopngau;g;ig mikf;f KbAk;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsupd; jFjpfs;

nkhopngau;g;ghsu; nkhopg;gw;W kpf;ftuhf vk;nkhopiaAk; tpUk;Gk; gz;G

cilatuhf> Ntw;W nkhopfis Mu;tj;Jld; Kiwahff; fw;Fk; Mu;tk; cilatuhf
,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsu; %y nkhopapYk;> ngau;g;G nkhopapYk; rpwe;j mwpTk;> Mw;wYk;

ngw;wtuhfTk;> mj;Jiwapd; md;whl tsu;r;rpapy; NghJkhd mwpTk;> Gupe;J nfhs;Sk;
jd;ikAk; ngw;wtuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

,Unkhopfspd; kuGfisAk; ed;F czHe;jtuha; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. nrhy; jpwDk;>

nrhw;gapw;rpAk; ed;F czu;e;jtuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. tof;fpy; cs;s gonkhopfisAk;>
nrhy; eaq;fisAk; rpwg;ghfg; gapd;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsd; xU gilg;ghsp ,y;iy vd;whYk; gilf;Fk; jpwd;

tha;e;jtdhf ,Ug;gJ rpwg;ghFk;. xt;nthU fhy fl;lj;jpYk; toq;fg;gLfpd;w

96
nrhy;ypw;Fupa nghUisj; njupe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. rhd;whf ‘thil‟ vd;Dk; nrhy;Yf;Fr;
rq;f fhyj;jpy; ‘eWkzk;‟ vDk; nghUs; czu;j;j> jw;fhyj;jpy; „Ju;ehw;wk;‟ vDk;
nghUspidf; nfhLf;fpwJ. ,t;tifahd nghUs; khw;wj;jpidj; njupe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzk; ed;F njupe;jtuhfTk;> nghUis kpfj; njspthfg;

Gupe;J nfhs;gtuhfTk; ,Uj;jy; ,d;wpaikahjjhFk;.

%ynkhopapYs;s rpW gFjpiaf; $l $l;lNth Fiwf;fNth $lhJ. nrhy;Yf;Fr;

nrhy; nkhopngau;g;gjidj; jtpu;g;gtuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

%ynkhop mwpTk;> ngWk;nkhop mwpTk; ngw;wpUg;gNjhL Jiw rhu;e;j mwpitAk;

ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. rhd;whf mwptpay; nra;jpfis nkhopngau;f;F k; NghJ FwpaPLfs;
gw;wpa mwpitg; ngw;wpUg;gJ rpwg;gpidj; jUk;. H2SO4 vd;gJ fe;jf mkpyj;ijAk;>
HNO3 vd;gJ iel;upf; mkpyj;ijAk; Fwpf;Fk; vd;gijj; njupe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

gad;ghl;by; cs;s nrhw;fisNa gad;gLj;Jgtuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. rhd;whf

N\f;];gpau; ehlfq;fspy; 'Thou' vd;gJ 'you' vd;gijf; Fwpf;Fk;. Mdhy; ,g;NghJ
„Thou' vd;W vOJk; NghJ gpwUf;Fg; GupahJ. vdNt „Thou' vd;gjw;Fg; gjpyhf 'You'
vd;gijf; Fwpj;jhy; midtUk; Gupe;J nfhs;tu;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsu; vk;nkhopiaAk; Mu;tj;Jld; fw;Wj; NjWk; Mu;tk; cilatuhf

,Uj;jy; rpwg;ghFk;. nrhy;yhf;fk; nra;Ak; jpwd;> rpe;jidj;jpwd;> cyfpay; mwpT
MfpadTk; ngw;wpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ehlfk;> rpWfij> Gjpdq;fs; Nghd;w fw;gid nrwpe;j
E}y;fis nkhopkhw;wk; nra;Ak; nghOJ> me;j nkhopapdhpd; kuGnewp> gof;ftof;fq;fs;>
eil> cil Mfpadtw;iwg; gw;wp nkhopngau;g;ghsu; mwpe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsu; nkhopngau;f;Fk; NghJ jdf;F Vw;gLk; re;Njfq;fisg; gpwuplk;

Nfl;L njupe;J nfhs;syhk;. Vnddpy; rpy rkaq;fspy; nkhopngau;g;ghsUila mwpT
NghJkhdjhf mikahJ. Mdhy; nkhopngau;g;Gg; gzpapy; nkhopngau;g;ghsNu <Lgl
Ntz;Lk;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsu; eLepiyNahL nray;gLtJ mtrpak;. nkhopngau;f;Fk; NghJ

jhd; rhu;e;jpUf;fpd;w kjk;> ,dk; Mfpatw;Wf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLf;ff; $lhJ.

,yf;fpaj;jpd; kPJ Mu;tk; cilatuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

cyf mwpT ngw;wtuhfj; jpfo Ntz;Lk;.

97
 nkhopngau;g;G E}y;fisg; gbg;gtuJ kdepiyf;F Vw;wthW nkhopngau;f;fj;
njupe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

rkfhyj;jpa E}y;fisg; gw;wpa mwpTk;> fhyg;Nghf;fpy; Vw;gLk; nkhopeil

khWjy;fisf; ifahSk; jpwDk;> nkhopngau;g;ghsUf;F ,d;wpaikahj jFjpfshff;
fUjg;ngWfpd;wd.

nkhopngau;g;ghsu; %ynkhopfspd; cr;rupg;G Kiwfisg; gw;wpa njspthd

fUj;Jilatuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; . mg;gb ,y;iynadpd; ,lk;> ngau; ,itfisr;
rupahf cr;rupf;Fk; KiwapidahtJ mwpe;jpUj;jy; NjitahFk;.

%yE}yhrpupaupd; fUj;ijg; Gupe;J nfhz;bUg;gNjhL mtuJ nkhopeil> cj;jp>

nry;thf;F MfpaitfisAk;> ,U nkhopfspd; nrhy;yhw;wy;> nrhy; eak;> nrhy; tof;F>
njhdpg;nghUs; MfpaitfisAk; mwpe;jpUj;jy; nkhopngau;g;ghsUf;F kpfj; Njitahd
jFjpfs; MFk;.

%yE}y; Kd;G gpw nkhopfspy; nkhopngau;f;fg;gl;Ls;sjh vd;gjid

nkhopngau;g;ghsu; mwpe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. mt;nkhopngau;g;G E}iy KOtJkhf gbj;j
gpwF mjpYs;s Fiwfis ePf;Fk; tifapy; GJ nkhopngau;g;G mika Ntz;Lk;.

nkhopngau;g;gpd; Njit> jiyg;ig mikg;gjpy; njspT> mfuhjp cjtpAld; gy

nghUs; jUk; nrhw;fisg; ngau;j;jy; Mfpatw;iwAk; nkhopngau;g;ghsu; fUj;jpy;
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.

mwptpay; E}y;fis nkhopngau;f;Fk; NghJ vspa nrhy;yhf;fj;ijg; gad;gLj;j

njupe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

Ma;e;J ghu;fF
; k; mwpTk;> rpwe;j Mu;tKk;> epidthw;wYk; ngw;wpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
rKjha tsu;r;rpapd; mbg;gilf; nfhs;iffis mwpe;J nfhs;Sk; Mu;tk; cilatuhf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

%yE}yhrpupaiug; Nghy; nkhopngau;g;ghsUk; Xu; gilg;ghrpupauhfj; jpfo

Ntz;Lk;. Mdhy; %yE}y; Mrpupaiu tpQ;RtJ mtdJ Ntiyad;W vd;fpwhu; lhf;lu;
[hd;rd;.

%yE}y; Mrpupau; gad;gLj;jpAs;s nrhw;fSf;F Kjd;ik jUtijf; fhl;bYk;

mtu; ve;j czu;Tld; fUj;ij ntspapl;Ls;shu; vd;gjid nkhopngau;g;ghsu; ftdpf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
98
 %yE}y; Mrpupaidg; gpujpgypf;Fk; tpjkhfr; rpwe;j Kiwapy; rupahd nghUs;
nfhz;L nkhopngau;f;Fk; ty;yik ngw;W ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

NkYk;> nkhopj;jpwd;> nrhw;fsQ;rpa mwpT> nrhw;nghUspay; mwpT>

r%fg;gz;ghl;L czu;T> ,yf;Fnkhop kuGfis xl;b nkhopngau;g;Gr; nra;Ak; Mw;wy;>
,yf;fz mwpT vd ,it midj;Jk; nkhopngau;g;ghsUf;fhd jFjpfshFk;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fspd; jFjpfs; Fwpj;J epA+khu;f; $wpAs;s fUj;Jfs; gpd;tUkhW :

1. nkhopngau;g;ghsu; jha; nkhopapy; rpwe;j mwpT ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. mg;nghOJ

jhd; %ynkhopapy; cs;s fUj;Jfis jpwk;gl nkhopngau;f;f KbAk;.
2. %ynkhop> ngWk; nkhopapYs;s nrhw;fspd; tuyhW (Etymology) gw;wpj;
njupe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3. %ynkhop> ngWk; nkhopapYs;s nkhop eilapidj; njupe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4. vOJtjpy; Nju;e;jtuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
5. ,yf;fpa mwpT kl;Lk; ,Ue;jhy; NghjhJ. elj;ij tpjpKiwfs; (Moral) gw;wpAk;
mwpe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
6. ,yf;fpak; rhu;e;j mwpitAk;> ,yf;fpak; rhuhj mwpitAk; ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsupd; flikfs;

xU nkhopngau;g;ghsupd; flikfis Ie;jhf KidtH vd;. fpU\;zd;

nkhopngaHg;gpay; vd;Dk; jdJ E}ypy; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shH.

1. %ynkhopapd; nkhopngau;g;G myFfisNa ifahs Ntz;Lk;.

2. %ynkhop myFfs; tUzid Fwpj;jitahfNth> czu;T rhu;e;jitahfNth>
mwpTepiy rhu;e;jitahfNth ,Uf;fyhk;. ,tw;iwnay;yhk; ed;F Muha;e;J
nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;.
3. nra;jpapd; #oiy kPl;LUthf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4. eilapay; tpisTfis kjpg;gpl Ntz;Lk;.
5. ,yf;F nkhopapy; (ngWk;nkhop) nkhopngau;j;jg;gpd; mijg; guprPypf;f my;yJ
kjpg;gpl Ntz;Lk;.
nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fspd; flikfs; Fwpj;J epA+khu;f; $wpAs;s fUj;Jfs; gpd;tUkhW :

1. nkhopngau;g;gpid ,ay;ghd nkhopeilapy; vOj Ntz;Lk;.

2. %ynkhop thu;j;ijfisg; ngWk;nkhopapy; mg;gbNa gad;gLj;jf; $lhJ.

99
3. nkhopngau;g;ghsu; %yE}iy nkhopngau;f;fpd;w NghJ Kjypy; thu;j;ij> gpd;du;
thf;fpak;> gj;jp vd;w epiyapy; ngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;.
4. jiyg;gpid nkhopngau;f;ff; $lhJ. Njitg;gbd; nghUs; khwhky; nkhopngau;f;f
Ntz;Lk;.
5. ePskhd jiyg;gpid nkhopngau;f;Fk; NghJ nghUs; khWglhky; ,U rpwpa
jiyg;Gfspy; nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;.
6. %ynkhopr; nrhy;Yf;F epfuhf ngWk; nkhopapy; gy nrhw;fs; ,Ue;jhYk;>
nghUj;jkhd nrhy;iyNa Nju;e;njLf;f Ntz;Lk;.
7. %ynkhopapYs;s fyhr;rhu nrhw;fSf;F epfuhf ngWk;nkhopapy; nrhw;fs;
,y;yhtpl;lhYk; Fiwe;j msT nghUj;jkhf cs;s nrhy;iyahtJ Nju;e;njLf;f
Ntz;Lk;. ,y;yhtpby; %ynkhopr; nrhy;iyg; ngWk;nkhopapy; xypngau;g;Gr;
(Transliteration) nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
8. mwptpay; fiyr; nrhw;fis nkhopngau;f;Fk; NghJ gof;fj;jpy; cs;s vy;NyhUk;
Gupaf;$ba nrhw;fisNa Nju;e;njLf;f Ntz;Lk;. rhd;whf fk;g;A+l;lu; vd;gjw;F
fzpg;ghd;> fzpg;nghwp> kw;Wk; fzpdp vd;Dk; nrhw;fs; fhzg;gl;lhYk; fzpdp
vd;w nrhy;Ny midtuhYk; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf; $baJ.
9. %ynkhopapy; fhzg;gLfpd;w rq;Nfj epfo;r;rpfis (Allusion) ngWk; nkhopapy;
nkhopngau;f;ff; $lhJ. mt;thW nkhopngau;g;gpd; ngWk;nkhop thrfu;fSf;Ff;
Fog;gj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk;.
10. Kf;fpa nra;jpfis nkhopngau;f;fpd;w NghJ ngWk;nkhop thrfu;fs; Gupfpd;w
tpjj;jpy; mr;nra;jpfis Nkw;NfhspNyh my;yJ mbf;Fwpg;gpNyh ntspapl
Ntz;Lk;.
11. Kjy; vOj;Jfis kl;Lk; nfhz;L cUthf;fg;gLk; thu;j;ijfis (Acronym)
nkhopngau;f;Fk; NghJ thrfu;fSf;Fg; GupahJ. vdNt thrfu;fs; GupAk; tpjj;jpy;
mj;jifa thu;j;ijfspd; tpupthf;fj;ijAk; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;. rhd;whf, „Radar'
vd;gij Radio Detection and Ranging vd;Wk;> „SITE' vd;gij Satellite
Instructional Television Experiment vd;Wk; tpupthf;fk; nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
12. nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs; nkhopngau;g;Gr; nra;fpd;w NghJ ngWk;nkhop thrfu;fisf;
fUj;jpw; nfhz;L nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;. nkhopngau;g;G E}iyg;gbf;fpd;w
thrfu;fs; czu;T nfhs;Sk; gb nkhopngau;g;Gr; nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
13. nkhopngau;g;gpy; mu;j;jk; my;yJ nghUz;ik Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpd;wJ. gy;NtW
epiyfspy; mu;j;jq;fs; mikfpd;wd. mit nkhopapay; (Linguistics), mDkhdk;

100
 (Inferential), fyhr;rhuk; (Cultural), FwpaPL (Code), ghlk; (Subjective) kw;Wk;
nghUszp (Semiotic), vd;gdthFk;. ,tw;iwg; Gupe;J nfhz;L nkhopngau;g;ghsu;
nkhopngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;.

nkhopngau;g;ghsupd; tiffs;

nkhopngau;g;gpy; gyu; <Lgl;L tUfpd;wdu;. nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs; midtUk; xNu

khjpupahf nkhopngau;g;gjpy;iy. nkhop ngau;g;ghsu;fis Ie;J tiffshfg; gpupg;gu;.

1. mwptpay; njhopy; El;g nkhopngau;g;ghsu;

2. gj;jpupif nkhopngau;g;ghsu;
3. ,yf;fpa nkhopngau;g;ghsu;
4. Nkilg;Ngr;R nkhopngau;g;ghsu;
5. gl;lak; ngw;w nkhopngau;g;ghsu;

1. mwptpay; njhopy;El;g nkhopngau;g;ghsu;

mwptpay;> njhopy;El;gj; Jiwfspd; fz;Lgpbg;Gfs;> Gjpa fUtpfs;>

gj;jpupiffspy; tUk; mwptpay; nra;jpfs; Mfpatw;iwg; gw;wpa nra;jpfis
,t;tifapdu; nkhopngau;g;Gr; nra;fpd;wdu;.

2. gj;jpupif nkhopngau;g;ghsu;

may;ehLfspy; eilngWk; Kf;fpa epfo;r;rp> jiytu;fspd; Ngr;Rfs;> md;whlr;

nra;jpfs; Nghd;wtw;iwg; ghku kf;fs; Gupe;J nfhs;Sk; gb nkhopngau;g;Nghu;
,t;tifiar; rhu;e;jtu;fs;.

3. ,yf;fpa nkhopngau;g;ghsu;

Gjpdk;> rpWfij> ftpij> fl;Liu> tho;f;if tuyhW> gaz E}y;fs;

Nghd;wtw;iw nkhopngau;g;Nghu; ,yf;fpa nkhopngau;g;Nghu; Mtu;. mwptpaiy
nkhopngau;f;Fk; NghJ fw;gidf;F ,lk; ,y;iy. Mdhy; ,yf;fpa nkhopngau;g;gpy;
%ynkhopapy; cs;s fw;gid rpijahky; ngau;f;f Ntz;Lk;. xUtupd; fw;gidiag;
gpwpnjhU nkhopapy; mg;gbNa ngau;g;gJ fbdk;. ,j;jifa fbdr; nraiy ntw;wpAld;
Kbg;gtiug; gyu; ghuhl;Ltu;. epWtdq;fs;> muR Kjypad gupRfs; toq;fp
Cf;Ftpf;fpd;wd.

101
4. Nkilg;Ngr;R nkhopngau;g;ghsu;

Nkilg;Ngr;R nkhopngau;g;ghsupd; gzp kpfTk; rpf;fyhdJ: nghJ kf;fs; $b

,Uf;Fk; mitapy; jiytu;fspd; Ngr;ir clDf;Fld; nkhopngau;g;gJ ,tu;fs; gzp.
Mq;fpyj;jpy; ,tu;fis „Interpreter' vd;Wk; jkpopy; ‘Nkilg;Ngr;R tpupthf;Feu;‟ vd;Wk;
$Wtu;. n[dPth ehl;by; ,tu;fSf;nfd gapw;rp epiyak; cs;sJ. ,f;fhyj;jpy;
rl;lkd;wq;fs;> ehlhSkd;wq;fs;> If;fpa ehLfspd; Nguit> cyfg; Nguitfs;
Kjypatw;wpy; ,j;jifNahupd; gzp ngUfp tUfpwJ.

5. gl;lak; ngw;w nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs;

,tu;fs; nkhopngau;g;Gg; gl;lg;gbg;Gg; gbj;Jg; gl;lk; ngw;wtu;fs;. rl;lj;Jiwr;

rhd;wpjo;fis nkhopngau;g;gJ ,tu;fs; gzp. n[u;kdp> neju;yhe;jpy; ,tu;fs; jdpf;
FOthf cs;sdu;. ,tu;fisj; jtpu ePjpkd;wq;fspy; tprhuiz eilngWk; NghJ
ePjpgjpfSf;Fg; GupAk; tifapy; thf;F%yq;fis nkhopngau;f;f nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwhu;fs;.

tpdhf;fs; :

1. nkhopngaHg;gpd; gad; Fwpj;J vOJf?

2. nkhopngaHg;gpd; Nehf;fq;fis vLj;Jiuf;f?
3. nkhopngaHg;ghshpd; jFjpfis tpsf;Ff?
4. nkhopngaHg;ghshpd; flikfs; Fwpj;J epA+khHf; $wpa fUj;Jf;fis
tpsf;Ff?
5. nkhopg;ngaHg;ghshpd; tiffis tpsf;Ff?

102
 myF – 5

nkhopngaHg;gpd; Njhw;wKk; tsHr;rpAk;

NkiyehLfspy; nkhopngaHg;gpd; tuyhW

I. njhlf;ffhyk; (Early Period)

njhlf;ffhyj;jpy; INuhg;gpa> mnkupf;fh Nghd;w ehLfspd; fyhr;rhuk; kw;Wk;

gz;ghL nkhopngaHg;Gj; JiwapYk; khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;jpaJ. Nuhk; ehl;by; nkhopngaHg;G
mwpQHfs; nrhy;ypw;F nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G (Word for word Translation) fUj;Jf;F fUj;J
nkhopngaHg;G (Sense for Sense Translation) Nghd;w nkhopngaHg;Gfspy; <Lgl;ldH. mNj
Neuj;jpy; ,t;tpU nkhopngaHg;GfspYk; vJ rpwe;jJ vdTk; jq;fSf;Fs; fUj;Jfisg;
gupkhwpf; nfhz;ldH.

goq;fhyj;jpy; nkhopngaHg;G (fp.K. 3000)

a+jH (Jewish) ,d kf;fs; mNugpa nkhopfspy; cwthbdH. ,tHfs; cyf

tHj;jfq;fspy; <Lgl;L te;jdH. mt;thW <Lgl;l nghOJ mtHfSf;F `Pg;U (Hebrew)-
nkhopapy; NgrTk;> mk;nkhopapd; vOj;Jfis mwpe;J nfhs;sTk; ,ayhky; Nghapw;W.
vdNt A+jH ,dj; jiytH nenfkpah (Nehemiah) vd;gtH a+jH ,d kf;fSf;fhf
`Pg;U nkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfis mNugpa nkhopapy; nkhopngaHf;f Vw;ghL nra;jhH.

fp.K. %d;whk; E}w;whz;by; nkhopngaHg;G

fp.K. %d;whk; E}w;whz;ilr; rhHe;j Mrpupa (Assyria) ehl;bd; murH lhHfhd;

(Dargon) gy nkhopfspy; NgrpdhH. mjpfmstpy; fpuPf; nkhop NgRk;
mnyf;]hz;bupahtpy;> nkhopngaHg;G mwpQHfs; `Pg;U nkhopapy; ,Ue;j gioa
Vw;ghl;bid (Old Testament) n[Hkd; nkhopf;F nkhopngaHj;jdH. fp.K. 240-,y; fpNuf;f
ehl;ilr; rhHe;j Md;bNuhepf]; (Andronicus) Nuhk; ehl;bd; mbikahf ,Ue;jhH. ,tH
N`hkUila (Homer) xbrp (Odyssey) vDk; fhg;gpaj;ij ,yj;jPd; nkhopapy;
nkhopngaHj;jhH. ,t; nkhopngaHg;Ng fhyj;jpdhw; njhd;ikahdJ. vdNt rNtup
(Savory) vd;gtH Md;bNuhepfi] INuhg;gh ehl;bd; Kjy; nkhopngaHg;ghsH vd;W

103
$wpdhH. „,yj;jPd; ghly;fspd; je;ij‟ vd tHzpf;fg;gl;l vd;dpa]; (Ennius) vd;gtH
fpNuf;f ehlfq;fs; (Greek Plays) gytw;iw ,yj;jPd; nkhopapy; nkhopngaHj;jhH.

fp.K. Kjy; E}w;whz;L

rprNuh (Cicero), Nfl;Ly;y]; (Catullus) Nghd;NwhH fpNuf;f ,yf;fpag;

gilg;GfisAk;> gpw Jiw E}y;fisAk; ,yj;jPd; nkhopapy; nkhopngaHj;jdH.
rprNuhtpd; nkhopngaHg;G fUj;Jf;F fUj;J nkhopngaHg;ghFk;.

N`hNu]; (Horace) kw;Wk; rprNuh (Cicero) ,UtUk; thHj;ijf;F thHj;ij

nkhopngaHg;G> fUj;Jf;F fUj;J nkhopngaHg;G vd;gtw;wpw;F ,ilNaAs;s NtWghl;ilj;
njspTgLj;jpAs;sdH. n`hNu]; jd;Dila ghly;fspd; fiy (Art of Poetry) vd;Dk;
E}ypy; %yE}iyg; Nghy nkhopngaHg;G E}y; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;Wk;> fw;gid
fye;jpUf;ff; $lhJ vd;Wk; $wpAs;shH.

II. ,ilf;fhyk;

vl;L kw;Wk; xd;gjhtJ E}w;whz;Lfspy; nkhopngaHg;G

fp.gp. vl;lhk; E}w;whz;by; mNugpaHfs; mz;il ehLfisj; jk; Ml;rpapd; fPo;

nfhz;L te;jdH. ,jdhy; fy;tp> nghUshjhuk; ,tw;wpy; tsHr;rpaile;j mNugpaHfs;
nka;apay;> kUj;Jtk;> thdE}y;> clypay;> nghUspay;> vz;zpay; Kjypa gy
E}y;fis mNugpa nkhopapy; nkhopngaHj;jdH. Nuhk; ehl;bd; xU gFjpahfpa rpupahitr;
(Syria) rhHe;j gy mwpQHfs; ghf;jhj;jpw;Fr; (Bagdad) nrd;W mup];lhl;by; (Aristotle),
gpNsl;Nlh (Plato) Nfyd; (Galen) Nghd;wtHfSila E}y;fis mNugpa nkhopapy;
nkhopngaHj;jdH. `pg;Ngh fpNuj]; (Hippocrates) jah];Nfhupj]; Nghd;w kUj;Jt
ty;YeHfspd; E}w;fis NahtdPrd; Nghd;NwhH mNugpa nkhopapy; nkhopngaHj;jdH>
vdNt ghf;jhj;ij ~nkhopngaHg;Gg; gs;sp‟ (A School of Translation) vd mioj;jdH. ,J
Nghd;W ];ngapdpYs;s nlhnyNlh (Toledo) vd;w ,lj;jpYk; gy;NtW nkhopngaHg;Gfs;
gy mwpQHfshy; nra;ag;gl;ld. ,t;nkhopngaHg;Gfs; midj;Jk; mNugpa nkhopapypUe;J
,yj;jPd; nkhopapy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;ldthf ,Ue;jd. a+f;ypj; (Euclid) vOjpa
epytpaiyAk;> jhykp vOjpa thdE}ypidAk; mGahfpah ,gpd; My;ghj;upf;
nkhopngaHj;jhH. fpNuf;fr; nrhw;fSf;F epfuhd mNugpar; nrhw;fs; fpilf; fhj NghJ
mr;nrhw;fis xyp tbtkhf;fp mNugpa vOj;jpy; vOjpdH.

104
14-Mk; E}w;whz;by; nkhopngaHg;G

14-Mk; E}w;whz;by; Mf;];NghHilr; rhHe;j itf;sp/g; (Wycliff) vd;gtH

tptpypaj;ij ,yj;jPd; nkhopapypUe;J Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHj;jhH.

15-Mk; E}w;whz;by; nkhopngaHg;G

itf;sp/g;gpd; (Wyclifl) khztuhd [hd;gHtpA+ (JohnPurview) vd;gtH

itf;sp/g;gpd; nkhopngaHg;ghd tptpypaj;jpd; ,uz;lhtJ gjpg;gpid 1525-,y;
ntspapl;lhH. NkYk; Gjpa Vw;ghl;bd; (New Testament) Kjy; gjpg;ig kPz;Lk;
gjpg;gpj;jhH.

III. kWkyHr;rpf;fhyk;

16-Mk; E}w;whz;by; nkhopngaHg;G

n[HkdpapYs;s nkapd;]; efuj;ijr; rhHe;j [hd; $l;ld;gHf; vd;gtuhy; 1456-Mk;

Mz;L mr;Rf;$lk; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ. mJ Nghd;W 16-Mk; E}w;whz;by; tpy;ypak;
fhf;];ld; (Willaim Caxton) vd;gtuhy; ,q;fpyhe;jpy; mr;Rf;$lk; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ.
mjd; gpwF iggps; . nkhopngaHg;gpy; gy gupzhk tsHr;rp Vw;gl;lJ. Mq;fpyk;> lr;R>
RNtjp\;> ];ghdp\;> gpnuQ;R Nghd;w gy INuhg;gpa nkhopfspy; iggps;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;ld.

1525 Mk; Mz;L tpy;ypak; bd;lNy (William Tindale) rhjhuz kf;fSk; gbf;Fk;
tpjj;jpy; gioa Vw;ghl;bid (Old Testament) `Pg;U nkhopapypUe;Jk;> Gjpa Vw;ghl;bid
(New Testament) fpuPf; nkhopapypUe;Jk; nkhopngaHj;jhH. 1522 Mk; Mz;by; khHl;bd;
Y}jH (Martin Luther) iggpis n[Hkd; nkhopapy; nkhopngaHj;jhH. mtH jd;
nkhopngaHg;gpy; fUj;Jf;F Kjyplk; nfhLj;jhH. ,yf;fzj;jpw;F mjpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
nfhLf;ftpy;iy. NkYk; J}a nkhopeilapy; vOjhky; Ngr;R nkhopeilapy; vOjpdhH.
jd;Dila nkhopngaHg;gpy; jha;nkhopahd n[Hkdpapy; cs;s gonkhopfisAk;>
njhlHfisAk; gad;gLj;jpdhH.

1529 Mk; Mz;by; lhdp\; nkhopapYk;> 1526 Mk; Mz;by; RNtjp\; nkhopapYk;
iggps; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;ld. iggps; nkhopngaHg;Gfs; g;uhnl];nld;l; (Protestant) kjk;
tsHtjw;F cjtpd. jhk]; Kd;]; (Thomas Munz) vd;gtH ,yj;jPd; nkhopapypUe;J gy
E}w;fis nkhopngaHj;Js;shH.

105
 gpnuQ;R ehl;ilr; rhHe;j Nlhyl; (Dolet) vd;gtH 1540-Mk; Mz;L „nkhopngaHg;Gf;
Nfhl;ghLfs;‟ vd;w E}ypid ntspapl;lhH. me;E}ypy; mtH xU nkhopapypUe;J kw;nwhU
nkhopf;F nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ nkhopngaHg;ghsH gpd;gw;w Ntz;ba nfhs;iffis
tpsf;fpAs;shH. mit>

1. Kjd; Kjypy; %yE}ypy; ,Uf;fpd;w fUj;Jfis mwpa Ntz;Lk;.

2. %ynkhop (Source Langage) kw;Wk; ngWk;nkhop (Target Language) Mfpatw;wpy;
rpwe;j Gyik ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3. thHj;ijf;F thHj;ij nkhopngaHg;igj; jtpHf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4. kf;fs; gad;gLj;Jfpd;w nkhopeiliag; gpd;gw;w Ntz;Lk;.
5. nkhopngaHg;gpy; rupahd nrhw;fisg; nghUj;jkhd ,lj;jpy; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;
vd;gitahFk;.

Nlhyl;bd; (Dolet) Nfhl;ghLfspypUe;J NtWgl;L [hH[; Nrg;Nkd; (George Chapmen) (1559-

1634) gy nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfis ntspapl;lhH.

1. thHj;ijf;F thHj;ij nkhopngaHf;ff; $lhJ.

2. nkhopngaHg;ghdJ %ynkhop E}y; Nghd;W ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3. %ynkhopf; fUj;Jfisg; ngWk; nkhopapy; KOikahff; nfhz;L tuNtz;Lk;.
ve;jf; fUj;JfisAk; tpl;Ltplf; $lhJ.

NuhkhdpaH fhyj;jpypUe;J jw;fhyk; tiuapYk; cs;s fhyq;fspy; INuhg;gpaHfs;

jhd; nkhopngaHg;gpy; xU kWkyHr;rpiaf; nfhz;L te;jdH. ,f;fhyfl;lj;jpy;
nkhopngaHg;ghsHfs; ,yf;fpak;> gz;ghL> thzpgk;> kjk;> mwptpay; Nghd;wtw;iw
cd;dpg;ghff; ftdpj;J mj;Jiwfspy; cs;s ey;y ehw;fis nkhopngaHj;jdH.

17-Mk; E}w;whz;by; nkhopngaHg;G

tuyhw;W Nehf;fpy; 17> 18> 19> 20-Mk; E}w;whz;Lfspy; nkhopngaHg;Gf;

nfhs;iffspy; Vw;gl;l Kjd;ikahd khw;wq;fs; Fwpg;gplj; jFe;jit. fp.gp. 15-Mk;
E}w;whz;bw;Fg; gpd; fly; topNa tzpfk; nra;j INuhg;gpaH fp.gp. 17-Mk; E}w;whz;by;
Mrpa> Mg;gpupf;f ehLfisj; jq;fs; murhl;rpapd; fPo; nfhz;L tu Kad;wdH. ,jdhy;
Mrpa> Mg;gpupf;f nkhopfisf; fw;Wf; nfhs;sTk;> mk;nkhopfspYs;s rpwg;ghd
E}y;fis INuhg;gpa nkhopfspy; nkhopngaHj;jplTk; Kad;wdH. fp.gp.1625-1660-Mk;
Mz;Lfspy; gpnuQ;Rf;fhuHfs; nkhopngaHg;gpy; KOtPr;Rld; <Lgl;ldH. nkhopngaHg;G
vd;gJ „Nghyr; nra;jy; jpwd;‟ vd;W vz;zpdH. Ihd;nld;`hk; (John Denham)

106
nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ xU fiyahfTk; mNj Neuj;jpy; cj;Ntfk; kpf;fjhfTk; tpsq;f
Ntz;Lk; vd;W typAWj;jpdhH. Mgpu`hk; nfsNy (Abraham Cowley) %ynkhopapy; %y
MrpupaH vg;gb vg;gbf; $wpAs;shNuh> mNj Kiwapy;> mNj topapy;> mNj epiyapy;
rpwpJk; khWglhky; nkhopngaHg;G tpsq;f Ntz;Lk; vd;whH. [hd;biuld; (John Dryden)
vd;Dk; ftpij nkhopngaHg;ghsH jd;Dila gpupnga;]; L Nggpy;]; (Preface to Fables)
kw;Wk; gpupnga;]; L Xtpl;]; vgp];by;]; (Preface to Ovid's Epistles) vd;Dk; E}w;fspy;
nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wpa Nfhl;ghLfis tpsf;fpAs;shH. nkhopngaHg;gpy; %d;W tiffs;
cz;L mit:

1. Metaphrase : thHj;ijf;F thHj;ij nkhopngaHj;jy;

(nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G)
2. Paraphrase (tpupTg;ngaHg;G) : nghUz;ik my;yJ fUj;Jf;F
fUj;JnkhopngaHj;jy;.
3. Imitation (Nghyr; nra;jy;) : %y E}iyg; Nghy; ,Uj;jy;

vd;gdthFk;. ,k;%d;W tif nkhopngaHg;GfspYk; fUj;Jf;F fUj;J nkhopngaHg;Ng

rhyr;rpwe;jJ vd [hd; biuld; $wpdhH. mf;fhyfl;lj;jpYs;s nkhopngaHg;ghsHfspy;
[hd;biuld; rpwe;jtH vd jpNahlH rNtup (Theodore Savory) Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shH> fp.gp. 1603
Mk; Mz;by; [hd; GNshupNah (John Florio) vd;gtH khd;nla;f;fpDila (Montaigne's)
fl;Liufis nkhopngaHj;jhH.

18-Mk; E}w;whz;by; nkhopngaHg;G

18-Mk; E}w;whz;by; nkhopngaHg;G rpwg;gplk; ngw;wJ. mnyf;]hz;lH Nghg;

(Alexander Pope) tpy;ypak; N`hgH (William Cowper) MfpNahH N`hkupd; gilg;Gfis
Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHj;jdH. Nghg;gpDila ,ypal; 1715 kw;Wk; 1720-Mk; Mz;bYk;>
xbrp 1725-Mk; Mz;bYk; ntspte;jd. 1781-,y; xbrpAk;> 1793-,y; ,ypal;Lk; N[.n`r;
th]pdhy; (J.H. Voss) n[Hkd; nkhopapy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;ld.

NfhNj (Goethe) vd;gtH nkhopngaHg;ghdJ %d;W jd;ikfspy; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;

vd;W $wpdhH. mit>

1. ntspehl;L ,yf;fpaq;fisj; njupe;J nfhz;L jha;ehl;L #o;epiyf;Fj;

jf;fthW nkhopngaHg;Gr; nra;a Ntz;Lk;.

107
 2. ntspehl;L fUj;Jfis KOikahfj; njupe;J nfhz;L jha;ehl;L
nkhopeilapy; vOj Ntz;Lk;.
3. %ynkhopapYs;s fUj;JfSf;Fj; jFe;jthW ngWk;nkhop fUj;JfSk;
,Uf;FkhW nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gitahFk;.

18-Mk; E}w;whz;bd; ,Wjpapy; Mq;fpy fpof;fpe;jpa fk;ngdp ,e;jpa ehl;by;

epHthfg;nghWg;gpw;F te;jdH. mg;NghJ mtHfs; nkhop> ,yf;fpak;> gz;ghL kw;Wk;
,e;jpag; ghlq;fs; rk;ge;jkhd Jiwfspy; jdpf;ftdk; nrYj;jpdH. rpy fpof;fpe;jpa
fk;ngdp mjpfhupfs; ,e;jpaHfSila gioa E}w;fis nkhopngaHg;gjpy; MHtk;
fhl;bdH. 1776-Mk; Mz;L `hy;nfl; (Halhed) rk];fpUj nkhopapy; vOjg;gl;l ,e;jpa
rl;lq;fis Mq;fpy nkhopapy; nkhopngaHj;J „The Code of Gentoo laws' vDk; ngaupy;
ntspapl;Ls;shH. 1785-Mk; Mz;L rhHy]; tpy;fpk; (Charles Wilkim) gftj;fPijia
Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHj;Js;shH. fhspjhrH rk];fpUjj;jpy; vOjpa rhFe;jyk; vDk;
ehlfj;ij tpy;ypak; N[hd;]; (William Jones) vd;gtH Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHj;Js;shH.

IV. jw;fhyk;

19-Mk; E}w;whz;by; nkhopngaHg;G

19-Mk; E}w;whz;by; jhk]; fHiyy; (Thomas Carlyle) 1824-,y; n[Hkdpapy;

ntspahd NfhNjapd; (Goethe) tpy;n`y;k; Nka;rH (Wilhem Meister) vd;Dk; E}ypid
Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHj;jhH. igud; (Byron), n\y;yp (Shelley) Nghd;NwhHfs;
gpwnkhopfspYs;s ghly;fis Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH. vl;tpd; gpl;[;n[uhy;L
(Edwin Fitzgerald) ];ngapd; nkhopapy; vOjg;gl;l fhy;nludpd; (Calderon) MW
ehlfq;fis Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHj;Js;shH. NkYk; 1859-Mk; Mz;by; vl;tpd;
gpl;[;n[uhy;L ngHrpad; nkhopapy; ckHfa;ahkhy; vOjg;gl;l &ghaj; (Rubaiyat) vd;Dk;
ftpij E}iy Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHj;jhH

19-Mk; E}w;whz;il kp\dup fhyk; (Missionaries) vd;W $wyhk;. Vnddpy;

,f;fhyfl;lj;jpy; tptpypa E}y; cyfpYs;s E}w;Wf;fzf;fhd nkhopfspy;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;ld. uh[huhk; Nkhfd;uha; kw;Wk; [];ture;jpu tpj;ahrhfH Nghd;NwhH
Mq;fpyk;> rk];fpUj E}w;fis nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH. uh[huhk; Nkhfd;uha; Ntjhe;j
fUj;Jf;fs; mlq;fpa cgep\j;JfisAk;> gftj; fPijiaAk; nkhopngaHj;Js;shH.

108
20-Mk; E}w;whz;by; nkhopngaHg;G

20-Mk; E}w;whz;by; u\;aHfs; mjpf mstpy; nkhopngaHg;gjpy; cyf mstpy;

Kd;Ndhbahfj; jpfo;e;jdH. ,e;E}w;whz;bid nkhopngaHg;G E}y;fspd; ntspaPl;by;
nghw;fhyk; vd;W miof;FksT cyfnkq;Fk; nkhopngaHg;Gg; gzpfs; jPtpukhf
eilngw;wd. ,f;fhyfl;lj;jpy; mwptpay; tsHr;rpapd; fhuzkhf fzpdpAk;
nkhopngaHg;Gj; Jiwf;Fg; gad;gl;lJ. ,jd; fhuzkhf ve;jputpay; nkhopngaHg;Gj;
Njhd;wpw;W. [g;ghdpy; ve;jputpay; nkhopngaHg;G %yk; gy Gj;jfq;fis
nkhopngaHj;jdH. ,e;jf; fhyfl;lj;jpy; gp.gp.rp. ,yf;fpa ciufis thrfHfs; Nfl;Fk;
tpjj;jpy; xyp gug;gpaJ. gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; nkhopngaHg;Gj; Jiwapy; tpupthd Kiwapy;
Ma;tpid Nkw;nfhs;Sk; tifapy; jdpj;Jiwfis Vw;gLj;jpd. fUj;juq;FfSk;
elj;jg;gl;ld.

,e;jpahtpy; nkhopngaHg;gpd; tuyhW

Nkiyehl;Lf; fy;tpapd; jhf;fj;jhy; gjpndl;lhk; E}w;whz;by; xU tpopg;GzHr;rp

cz;lhapw;W. Gjpa fy;tp Kiwahy; ,e;jpaHfs; cyf ,yf;fpaq;fis KOtJkhf
gbf;fj; njhlq;fpdH. mtHfsJ ,yf;fpag; ghHit tprhykhapw;W. INuhg;gpaupd;
tUifahy; epyg;gpuGj;Jt muRfs; ek; ehl;by; rpije;J rPuope;jd. ntsp ehl;lhupd;
thzpfg; nghUshjhu mikg;Gfs; ,e;jpahtpd; murpaypYk;> r%f ,aypYk; ngupa
khw;wq;fis cUthf;fpd. ,j;jifa #o;epiyapy;> GJikf;fhyk; vd;gJ ,e;jpahtpy;
Njhd;wpaJ.

INuhg;gpa fy;tpapd; jhf;fj;jhy;> Gjpa ,yf;fpa tiffs;> ,e;jpa nkhopfspy;

Njhd;wpd. Gjpa fUj;JfisAk;> nra;jpfisAk;> may;ehl;L ,yf;fpaq;fisAk; mwpe;J
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk; vd;w vz;zk; fy;tp fw;wtHfsplj;jpy; Vw;gl;lJ. vdNt rpy
mwpQHfs; gpwnkhop E}w;fis ,e;jpa nkhopfspy; nkhopngaHf;fj; njhlq;fpdH.
,JNghd;W ,e;jpa nkhopfspy; cs;s ,yf;fpaq;fisg; gpw nkhopfspy; nkhopngaHf;fj;
njhlq;fpdH.

gpwnkhopapduhd Mq;fpNyaHfSf;F ,e;jpahtpy; jq;fs; Ml;rpia epiyehl;lj;

njhlq;fpa gpwF ,e;jpa nkhopfSk;> Mq;fpyKk; mwpe;j nkhopngaHg;ghsHfs; gyH
Njitg;gl;ldH. fpof;F ,e;jpa thzpff; fk;ngdpf;F ,Unkhop ty;YeHfshf cjtpa
,e;jpa ehl;L kf;fis „Jtpgh\p‟ (,Unkhop mwpQH) vd;Dk; ngauhy; Rl;bdH. xU
E}w;whz;bw;Fs; ,e;j ~Jtpgh\p‟ vdg;gl;NlhH ~Jgh\;‟ vDk; nry;thf;Fkpf;f> ngupa

109
mjpfhupfshf tho;T ngw;wdH. ,q;fpyhe;jpy; ,Ue;J te;J ,e;jpahtpd; Ml;rpg;
nghWg;igAk;> ePjpj;Jiw epHthfj;ijAk; Vw;Wf;nfhz;l Mq;fpNyaHfSf;F me;je;j
tl;lhu nkhopfisg; gapw;Wtpf;Fk; nghWg;gpid muR Vw;wJ. ,jd;%yk; tl;lhu nkhop
E}y;fs; Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHg;gjw;F cupa tha;g;Gk;> ce;Jjy; rf;jpAk; Njhd;wpd.
,e;jg; gpd;dzpapy; gj;njhd;gjhk; E}w;whz;bd; njhlf;fj;jpy;> jkpopy; nkhopngaHg;Gf;
fiy ed;F tsuyhapw;W

INuhg;gpa ,yf;fpaq;fspd; jhf;fj;jhy; nra;Aspy; ,yf;fpaq;fisg; gilj;j

,e;jpaHfs; trd eilapy; ,yf;fpaq;fisg; gilf;fj; njhlq;fpdH. ,f;fhyfl;lj;jpy;
nkhopngaHg;G E}y;fSk; jkpopy; ntsptuj; njhlq;fpd. ,t;thW nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;l
E}w;fis

1. Nkiyehl;L nkhopfspypUe;J nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;lit

2. rPd> [g;ghdpa nkhopfspypUe;J nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;lit

3. gpw ,e;jpa nkhopfspypUe;J nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;lit vd tifg;gLj;jpdH.

1. Nkiy ehl;L nkhopfspypUe;J nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;lit

gz;ilf;fhyj;jpy; ehfupfj;jpy; rpwg;Gw;W tpsq;fpa gz;il fpNuf;f> Nuhkhdpa

kf;fs; rpwe;j ,yf;fpaq;fisAk; gilj;Js;sdH. ,t; ,yf;fpaq;fisj; jkpo; mwpQHfs;
jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;jdH.

gpNsl;Nlhtpd; ~khngUk; ciuahly;fs;‟ vDk; E}y; njhFjp> cyfg; Gfo;

tha;e;jJ. mjpy; ,uz;L FW ciuahly;fs; (Phaebo Apology) rhf;uBrpd; filrp ehl;fs;
rpytw;iwr; rpj;jupf;fpd;wd. mtw;iw Kjd; Kjypy; jkpohf;fk; nra;J ~Nrhf;ujH‟ vDk;
ngauhy; jkpOyfpw;F rp. ,uhrNfhghyr;rhupahH ntspapl;Ls;shH. NkYk; ,tH NuhkGupg;
Nguuruhd ~khHf;f]; mNuypa];‟ vOjpa ehl;Fwpg;gpid> „Mj;k rpe;jid‟ vDk; ngauhy;
jkpohf;fk; nra;Js;shH. jkpopy; nkhopngaHg;Gf; fiyapd; Kd;Ndhbahf tpsq;fpa
Nt.rhkpehjrHkh mtHfs;> „gpNsl;Nlhtpd; FbauR‟ (Plato's Republic) E}ypidr; rpwe;j
Kiwapy; jkpopy; ntspapl;Ls;shH. ,Nj E}ypid> NguhrpupaH ,uhkhD[hr;rhupahH %yk;
~gpNsl;Nlhtpd; murpay;‟ vDk; E}yhfj; jkpohf;fk; nra;J rhfpj;a mfhlkp
ntspapl;Ls;sJ.

110
 N`hkupd; ,ypaj; kw;Wk; xbrp Nghd;w fhg;gpaq;fs; jkpopy;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. N`hkupd; „vbg]; Nte;jd;‟ vDk; ehlfk; „kd;dd; <bgR‟
vd;Dk; ngaupYk; jkpohf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd.

rPd nkhop E}w;fspd; jkpohf;fk;

`Pthq;-F-gpl;r; vdg;gLk; fd;g+rparpd; ~,sNtdpYk; ,iyAjpH fhyKk;‟ vDk;

ftpijj; njhFg;gpy; rpy gFjpfis fh.mg;ghj;JiuahH nkhopngaHj;Js;shH.
kh.Nr.Jq;fpd; ftpijfs; jkpohf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. rPdhtpy; toq;fptUk; kfspiug;
gw;wpa fijfisj; njhFj;J ~gdpg;glyj;Jg; ghit‟ vDk; rpWfijj; njhFg;ghf
e. gpr;r%Hj;jp nkhopngaHj;Js;shH.

„Fq;Nghjq;‟ vDk; rPdH vOjpa ehtiyj; jOtp fpof;NfhLk; ejp vd

j.eh. Fkhurhkp nkhopngaHj;Js;shH. rp.a+.nrd; vd;Dk; rPdehl;Lg; ngz; vOj;jhsUila
gilg;Gfs; rpytw;iw> ghujpahH jkpopy; je;Js;shH. ~ngz; tpLjiy‟ vDk; jiyg;gpy;
mike;j fl;Liuapy; me;j mk;ikahupd; ftpijia mtH gad;gLj;jpAs;shH.

'rpA a+rp a+njq;

rtp\h n[d;”
vd;W Kjypy; vOj;Jg; ngaHg;G nra;J gpwF mjd; jkpohf;fj;ijg; ghujpahH
je;Js;shH.

“khupf;fhy fhw;Wk;
khup ehs; kioAk;
khH Gz;zhf tUj;Jfpd;wdNt”
vd;W mtH nkhopngaHj;Js;shH.

[g;ghdpa nkhop E}w;fspd; jkpohf;fk;

[g;ghdpa rpWfijfs; ~kzpNahir‟ vDk; njhFg;ghfg; GJikg;gpj;jdhy;

ntspaplg;gl;Ls;sd. ~Kurhf;fp‟ vDk; Gfo;kpF [g;ghdpa vOj;jhsupd; nfhQ;rp
Nkhidfj;up vDk; Gjpdj;ijf; nfhQ;rpf;fij vDk; ngaupy; fh. mg;ghj;JiuahH
nkhopngaHj;Js;shH. ehj;RNk N]h]hfp vd;gtupd; „NfhNfhNuh‟ vDk; fij jkpopy;
~nfhNfhNuh‟ vDk; Gjpdkhff; fiyf;fjpH mikg;gpdhy; ntspaplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
„ahkjhfh\p‟ vDk; [g;ghdpa ehtyhrpupaupd; cyfg; Gfo;tha;e;j fijapidj;

111
„Jd;gf;Nfzp‟ vDk; ngauhy; fh.mg;ghj;JiuahH jkpohf;fk; nra;Js;shH. kw;Wk;
gfw;fdT> Kj;Jkhiy vDk; [g;ghdpa ehlfq;fSk; jkpopy; nkhop ngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

ghujpahupd; fl;Liufspy; NehFr;rp vd;Dk; [g;ghdpaf; ftpQupd; i`$ ftpij

jkpohf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.

“jPg;gw;wp vupe;jJ
tpOkyupd;
mikjp vd;Nd".
vd;w ftpij gyupd; ghuhl;Ljiyg; ngw;Ws;sJ.

gpw ,e;jpa nkhopfspypUe;J nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;lit

gpw ,e;jpa nkhopfshd ,e;jp> F[uhj;jp> kuhj;jp> gpuhfpUjk; Nghd;w

nkhopapYs;s gy E}w;fs; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. tl ,e;jpa
nkhopfspypUe;Jk;> njd;dpe;jpa nkhopfspypUe;Jk; gy E}w;fs; jkpopy;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

tl ,e;jpankhop E}y;fspd; jkpohf;fk;

kfhftp fhspjhrUila gilg;Gfs; gy jkpopy; nkhop ngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

mtw;Ws; „rhFe;jy ehlfk;‟> Nkfre;Njrk;> UJrk;`huk; ,uFtk;rk; Nghd;w E}w;fs;
Fwpg;gplj;jFe;jd. rhFe;jy ehlfj;ij kl;Lk; jkpopy; %d;W mwpQHfs;
nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH. kiwkiy mbfs;> „fhspjhrH ,aw;wpa rhFe;jy ehlfk;‟ vdTk;>
Nf.re;jhdk; „rhFe;jyk; + NkfJ}jk;‟ vdTk;> MH. ,uhfta;aq;fhH „mgpQ;Qhj
rhFe;jyk;‟ vdTk; nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH.

,e;jp nkhop E}w;fspd; jkpohf;fk;

,e;jpapy; ntsp te;j gy E}w;fs; jkpohf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. JsrpjhrUila

„,uhk rupj;jpukhd];‟ vDk; gf;jp ,yf;fpak; jkpohf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. n[arq;fu
gpurhj; gilj;Js;s „fhkhahdp‟ vDk; fhg;gpak; „fhkhd; kfs;‟ vDk; E}yhf [kjf;dp
vDk; mwpQuhy; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. gpNuk;re;jpDila ehtyhd ~fHk g+kp
vd;gjid „mwf; Nfhl;lk;‟ vdj; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH. fkyh fhe;jtHkhtpd;
ehlfk; „mb thdj;jpw;F mg;ghy;‟ vDk; ngaupYk; Nkhfd; uhNf\pd; vd;w mwpQupd;
ehlfk; „miuAk; FiwAk;‟ vDk; ngauhYk; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

112
 uhFy; rhq;fpUj;jpahad; vd;w mwpQupd; gilg;ghd „rpk;` Nrdhgjp‟ vDk; E}iy
fzKj;ijah mtHfs; ~thy;fhtpypUe;J fq;if tiu‟ vd;Dk; ngaupYk;> kh[pdp
vd;gtH „rpe;J Kjy; fq;if tiu‟ vd;w ngaupYk; jkpohf;fk; nra;Js;sdH. ru];tjp
uhk;ehj; gy ,e;jp ehty;fisj; jkpopy; nkhop ngaHj;Js;shH. gy ,e;jp nkhop
ehlfq;fis nkhopngaHj;Js;shH.

rHtNjr ngz;fs; Mz;ilnahl;b (1990) ,e;jpa ngz; vOj;jhsHfspd;

rpWfijfs; vDk; jiyg;gpy; 19 vOj;jhsHfspd; gilg;Gfisj; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;J
xU njhFg;ghf ntspapl;Ls;shH. nkhopngaHg;gpd; %yk; jkpOf;Fk; ,e;jpf;Fk; ghyk;
mikj;j ngUik ru];tjp uhk;ehj;ijNa NrUk;.

F[uhj;jp nkhop E}w;fspd; jkpohf;fk;

F[uhj;jp nkhop gf;jpg;ghly;fs; gy jkpopy; nkhop ngaHf;f g;gl;Ls;sd. „=kj;

ghftj u`];ak;‟ vd;w uhkr;re;jpu Nlhq;f;Nutpd; E}iy `up`u rHkh vd;gtH
jkpohf;fk; nra;Js;shH. F[uhj;jp nkhopapYs;s rpwe;j Gjpdkhd „,uh[ eHj;jfp‟
jkpohf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. ,Ukpdhshtjp vDk; fijAk;> kPdhl;rp vDk; fijAk;
jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;J ntspaplg;gl;Ls;sd. ru];tjp uhk;ehj; F[uhj;jp ehty; xd;iw
tPuRje;jpuk; vDk; ngaupy; nkhopngaHj;jhH. ,k;nkhopngaHg;G „fhNtup‟ vDk; ,jopy;
ntspte;jJ.

kuhl;ba nkhop E}w;fspd; jkpohf;fk;

„gftj; tp[ak;‟ vDk; kuhl;ba nkhop Guhzk; jkpopy; nkhop ngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

fhz;NlfUila rpWfijfs; jkpopy; nkhop ngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. „mUk;G‟> „M];jpfd;‟>
„XLk; ,uapypNy‟> „fz;zhb muz;kid‟> „ftpAk; fdpAk;‟> „fUg;G Nuh[h‟> „Nfhil kio‟>
„jhio Ks;‟> „kp]; yPyh‟> „[kPd;jhH khg;gps;is‟ Kjypa rpWfijj; njhFg;Gfs; kuhl;ba
nkhopapypUe;J jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

tpNdhghtpd; Fl;bf; fijfs; jkpohf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. „,UJUtq;fs;‟> „vup

el;rj;jpuk;‟> „fpnusQ;rtjk;|> GaYk; glFk;> „aahjp‟> „Rfk; vq;Nf‟> „ntWk; Nfhtpy;‟>
„ntz; KfpNy‟ Kjypa fhz;Nlrupd; Gjpdq;fs; fh.=.= vd;gtuhy; jkpopy;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. tpehaf rthHf;fH vd;gtupd; ~Kjy; ,e;jpa Rje;jpug;NghH‟
khuhl;ba nkhopapypUe;J jkpohf;fk; nra;ag;gl;l rpwe;j tuyhw;W E}yhFk;.

113
tq;fhs nkhop E}w;fspd; jkpohf;fk;

=jHehaf;fH nkhopngaHj;j ghG NjNte;jpu ehj jh$upd; ~gpUk;k jUkk;‟ vd;w

rka E}Ny tq;fhs nkhopapd; Kjy; jkpo;g;ngaHg;ghFk;. ,utPe;jpuehj; jh$upd;
fPjhQ;ryp vd;Dk; cyfg; Gfo; tha;e;j jj;Jt E}ypidj; jkpopy; tp.MH.vk;. nrl;bahH>
m. rPdpthr uhftd;> gh. tujuhrd; MfpNahH jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH. ,utPe;jpu
fijj;jpul;L vd;w ftpijj; njhFjpfs; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. fhjw;gupR>
gl;bg; gwitfs;> fdp nfha;jy;> tsHgpiw Nghd;w jh$upd; ghly;fs; jkpopy;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

j.eh. Fkhurhkp mtHfs; ruj;re;jpuUila „murpay; ifjp‟> „,U rNfhjupfs;‟

Nghd;w rpWfijfisj; jkpohf;fk; nra;Js;shH. ,uhkfpU\;z guk`k;rupd; ~guk`k;rH
nrhd;d fijfs;‟ jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. gq;fpk; re;jpuUila „Mde;j klk;‟
vd;Dk; Gjpdk; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

njYq;F nkhop E}w;fspd; jkpohf;fk;

njYq;F nkhopapYs;s Ntkd;d gj;jpak;> Rkjp rjfk;> „eurpk;k rjfk;‟> „=thrtp

fd;dpfh Guhzk;‟ Nghd;w E}w;fs; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. njYq;F nkhop
rpWfijfs; „fjhghujp‟ kw;Wk; „fjhuj;dhtsp‟ vd;Dk; ngaHfspy; jkpopy;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. njYq;fpy; toq;fg;gl;l „njdhypuhkd; fijfs;‟ jkpopy;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

njYq;F nkhopapy; ntsp te;j ehty;fshd „Mapuk; jiy ehfk;‟ „cUj;jpu

khNjtp‟ „filrpapy; ,Jjhd; kpr;rk;‟ vd;Dk; ehty;fs; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
njYq;F nkhopapy; ntsp te;j ehlfq;fshd „fd;ah Ry;fk;‟> „rptfhk Re;jup‟> „gupza
ehlfk;‟> tho;tpy; ,d;gk; Nghd;wit jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

fd;dl nkhop E}w;fspd; jkpohf;fk;

trNtRtuupd; trdq;fs; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ~tpNtf rpe;jhkzp‟>

„mf;fkhNjtpapd; mUSiu| vd;Dk; E}w;fs; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
rptNfhl;lhr;rhupahupd; ey;ywf; fijfs;> FUjl;rpiz> fd;dlr; rpWfijfs; Nghd;wit
jkpohf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. ~mope;j gpwF‟> „rpf;ftPu uhN[e;jpud;‟ nrhg;gd khspif>

114
„g+idf;fz;‟ Kjypa Gjpdq;fSk; Mz;L tpoh vd;Dk; ehlfj; njhFg;Gk; jkpopy;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

kiyahs nkhop E}w;fspd; jkpohf;fk;

Fkhud; Mrhd;> „ts;sj;Njhs;‟ Kjypa kfhftpfspd; ftpijfSk; ~kuf;Fjpiu‟

vDk; kiyahsr; rpWfijfSk; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. kiyahsj;jpy;
,uh[d; rpd;dq;fj; vOjpa „mf;fiu ,f;fiu‟ vDk; ehtiy 1988-Mk; Mz;L jk;gp nrd;
vDk; Gidngaiuf; nfhz;ltH jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;Js;shH. ,e;JNyfh> Vzpg;gbfs;
nrk;kPd;> gdpNkfk;> igj;jpaf;fhu cyfk;> ntWk; kdpjd;> Kjypa Gjpdq;fs; jkpopy;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. „$l;Lg;gz;iz mbik| ehlfj; njhFg;Gk; jkpopy; nkhop
ngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

kiyahs kfhftp Fkhudhrhdpd; ~rz;lhy gpf;Fzp‟ vd;w FWq;fhtpaj;ij>

,uhk. NfhgpehjDk;> ney;iy R. Kj;JTk; nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH.

jkpo; nkhopngaHg;gpd; tuyhW

nkhopngaHg;igg; gw;wpa mwpT gz;ilaj; jkpoUf;F ,Ue;jijj; njhy;fhg;gpak;

njuptpf;fpd;wJ. njhy;fhg;gpaH E}y;fis tifg;gLj;Jk; NghJ Kjy; E}y;> topE}y; vdg;
ghFghL nra;jhH. topE}iy tpsf;Fk; NghJ njhifE}y;> tpupE}y;> njhif tpupE}y;>
nkhopngaHg;G E}y; vd ehd;F tifahfg; gFj;Jf; fhl;LfpwhH.

“njhFj;jy; tpupj;jy; njhiftpup nkhopngaHj;J

mjHg;gl ahj;jNyhL mitku gpdNt" (njhy;.> 1597)

NkYk;> tlnkhopr; nrhw;fisj; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ gpd;gw;wg;gl Ntz;ba

tpjpapidj; njhy;fhg;gpaH

“tlnrhw; fpstp tlntOj;njhuP,

vOj;njhL GzHe;j nrhy;yhFk;Nk" (njhy;.> 884)

vd;W Fwpg;gpLfpd;whH.

115
 tlnkhopr; nrhw;fisj; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;J vOJk; NghJ ,U nkhopf;Fk;
nghJthf ,y;yhj tlnkhop vOj;Jfisf; nfhz;l nrhw;fisj; jkpopy; vOJfpw
nghOJ> tlnkhopapd; rpwg;ngOj;ij ePf;fptpl;L vOj Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) gq;f[ - gq;fak;> e\;lk; - el;lk;

1. rq;f ,yf;fpaj;jpy; nkhopngaHg;G

,uz;lhapukhz;L tuyhw;Wg; goikahd rq;f ,yf;fpaj;jpy; jkpoHfSf;Fk; gpw

nkhop NgRk; kf;fSf;Fkpilapy; epytpa njhlHG gw;wpa Fwpg;Gfs; mjpf mstpy;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

“nkhop ngaH Njvj;j uhapDk;" (mfehD}W gh.v.127)

“nkhop gy ngUfpa gopjPH Njvj;Jg;

Gyk; ngaH khf;fs; fye;jpdpJiwAk;

Kl;lhr; rpwg;gpw; gl;bdk;" (gl;bdg;ghiy gh.ts;.216-18)

Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;Ls;s ftpij tupfs;> gpw nkhopNgRk; kf;fs;> ehLfisg; gw;wpa

jfty;fisj; jUfpd;wd. ntspehl;bypUe;J jkpofj;jpy; FbNawp thOk; gpwnkhopapdH
gw;wpr; rq;f ,yf;fpaj;jpy; Fwpg;Gfs; cs;sd gupghlypy; eurpk;k mtjhuk;> euklq;fy;
vdTk; gpufyhjd; vd;Dk; ngaupidg; gpUq;fyhjd; vdTk; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;sd.

GwehD}W> fypj;njhif Nghd;w ,yf;fpaq;fspy; ~jUkGj;jpu| vd;w tlnrhy;iy>

„mwtd;kfd;‟ vdTk; = vDk; rpwg;G milapidj; „jpU‟ vdTk; jkpohf;fk; nra;Js;sdH.
ghyp nkhopapYs;s jk;k gjj;jpy; mUfjH rUf;fj;jpy; (mjp. 7)> 98-tJ ghliyg;
NguhrpupaH nj.ngh.kPdhl;rp Re;judhH vLj;Jf;fhl;LfpwhH.

“fhNk th ajp tuhq;Nf epd;Nd th ajpth jNy

aj;jh mu`e;Njh \`ue;jp jk; g+kpk; ukfNza fk;"

vd;gJ ghypnkhopapYs;s jk;kgjj;jpd; tbtk; MFk;. ,jidj; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;j

nt. ,uhkrhkp vd;gtH>

116
 “ehlhf ,Ue;jhYk;

fhlhf ,Ue;jhYk;

Nklhf ,Ue;jhYk;

gs;skhf ,Ue;jhYk;

mUfjH vd;Dk; ey;ytH thOk; epyNk

ed;dpykhFk;"

vd;W jkpohf;fk; nra;Js;shH. jk;kgjk;> rq;ffhy mt;itahupd; fUj;ijf;

ftHe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ nj.ngh.kP mtHfspd; fUj;jhFk;.

“ehlhnfhd;Nwh fhlhnfhd;Nwh

mtyh nfhd;Nwh kpirah nfhd;Nwh

vt;top ey;ytH MltH

mt;top ey;iy thopa epyNd" (Gwk;. 188)

fhlhfNth> NklhfNth> CuhfNth ,Ue;jhYk; ftiyapy;iy. Mdhy;> mq;F

~`ufj;‟ vdg;gLk; ngsj;j Qhdpfs; tho;thHfshdhy; rpwe;j ,lkhf mJ fUjg;gLk;
vd;gJ jk;kgjj;jpd; rhukhFk;.

2. rq;fk; kUtpa fhy nkhopngaHg;G

rq;fk; kUtpa fhyj;jpy; Njhd;wpa mwj;jpid typAWj;Jk; gjpnzd;fPo;f;fzf;F

E}w;fspy; i[d> Gj;j rkar; nry;thf;Ff; fhuzkhfg; ghyp> gpuhfpUjk;> rk];fpUj
nkhopr; nrhw;fs; mjpfk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo; mwE}y;fspy; typAWj;jg;gLk; gy
fUj;Jfs;> ghyp> gpuhfpUjk; Nghd;w nkhopfspy; ntspahd E}y;fspypUe;J
ngwg;gl;ljhFk;.

ePjp ,yf;fpak;

ngUthapd; Ks;spahH vOjpa Mrhuf;Nfhit> tlnkhop E}yhd „Muplk;‟ vd;gjd;

nkhopngaHg;ghFk;. gjpndz;fPo;f;fzf;fpy; cs;s gy fUj;Jfs; tlnkhopf; fUj;Jfis

117
xl;bNa jkpopy; ngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. nfsby;aupd; mHj;jrh];jpuj;jpy; cs;s gy
fUj;Jfs; Mrhuf;Nfhit cs;spl;l ePjp ,yf;fpaq;fspy; fhzg;ngWfpd;wd.

3. fhg;gpaKk; nkhopngaHg;Gk;

jkpopd; Kjy; fhg;gpakhd rpyg;gjpfhuj;jpy; ,lk; ngw;Ws;s

“mUe;jpwy; gpupe;j mNahj;jp Nghy"

(rpyg;gjpfhuk;> GwQ;Nrup ,Wj;j fhij : 65)

“nkhopngaH Njvj;NjhH Xopah tpsf;fKk;"

(rpyg;gjpfhuk;> flyhL fhij : 143)

vd;w ghly; tupfs; %yk; ,uhkhazf; fijf; Fwpg;gpidAk;> gpwnkhopapdH gw;wpa

jftypidAk; mwpa Kbfpd;wJ. kzpNkfiy fhg;gpaj;jpYs;s rkaf; fzf;fHjk; jpwk;
Nfl;l fhijapy; ,lk; ngw;Ws;s>

““Ngijik rhHthr; nra;if ahFk;

………….
jtypy; Jd;ge; jiytUk; vd;g"
vd;w gjpdhd;F tupfs;> ghyp nkhopapYs;s gplf E}ypy; ,lk; ngw;Ws;s fUj;Jfspd;
nkhopngaHg;G vd;W kapiy rPdp Ntq;flrhkp Fwpg;gpLfpd;whH.

fhg;gpaq;fSs; rpyg;gjpfhuk;> kzpNkfiy vd;gd jkpo;ehl;Lf; fijfisf;

fUthff; nfhz;lit. Vidad gpuhfpUj> rk];fpUj jOty; my;yJ jkpohf;fkhf
mike;jit.

gy;Jiw E}w;fspd; nkhopngaHg;Gfs;

1. kUj;Jtk;

19-Mk; E}w;whz;by; Guhzq;fs;> rpw;wpyf;fpak;> irt rpj;jhe;jk; Nghd;wdtw;iwf;

fw;gJk; vOJtJk; jhd; fy;tp vd;w vz;zKila jkpoupilNa Mq;fpyf;fy;tp
KiwahdJ khw;wj;jpidj; Njhw;Wtpj;jJ. kuG topg;gl;l FUFyf;fy;tp Kiwapy;
Vw;gl;l khw;wkhdJ> gy;NtW JiwfspYk; nkhopngaHg;G E}y;fs; jkpopy;
ntsptUtjw;fhd #oiy Vw;gLj;jpaJ.

118
 Anatomy, Physiology & Hygiene vd;w Mq;fpy E}yhdJ ,yq;iff;F kUj;Jtj;
njhopy; nra;a te;j /gp\; fpwPdhy; nkhopngaHg;Gr; nra;ag;gl;L „mq;fhjpghj Rfuz
thj cw;ghtd E}y;‟ vd;w ngaupy; 1852-,y; ntspaplg;gl;lJ. 1857-,y; kfspH Nehia
tptupf;Fk; ~kUj;Jt itj;jpak;‟ vd;w nkhopngaHg;G E}y; fpwPdpd; Nkw;ghHitapy;
ntspahdJ. itj;jpahfuk; (The Principles and Practice of Medicine) kD\ mfuzk;
(Human Physiology), kD\ mq;fhjpghjk; (Human Anatomy), nfkp];jk; (Chemistry)>
,e;J gjhHj;jrhuk; (Pharmacopeia of India), itj;jpak; (Practice of Medicine) Mfpa
E}y;fs; kUj;Jtj; Jiwapy; gpwupd; cjtpAld; fpwPdpd; Kaw;rpahy; ntspahapd.
,e;E}y;fspy; rk];fpUjr; nrhw;fs; nkhopngaHg;gpy; ngupJk; gad;gl; bUe;jd vdpDk;
etPd mwptpaiyj; jkpOf;F mwpKfg;gLj;jplTk;> jkpopy; kUj;Jtj;ijg; Nghjpj;jplTk;
Kad;w kUj;JtH fpwPdpd; Nrit ghuhl;LjYf;FupaJ

2. fzpjk;

1855-,y; fNuhypd; vd;gtH „,aw;fzpjk;‟ (Algebra) vd;w fzpj E}iyAk;>

tpRtehjd;> ~tPr fzpjk;| (Algebra) vd;w fzpj E}iyAk; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH.

3. thdrh];jpuk;

1861-,y; N[h. MHdhy;L vd;gtH Astronomy vd;w E}iy „thdrh];jpuk;‟ vDk;

ngaupy; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;J ntspapl;lhH. 1865-,y; nluhd; Ykp]; vd;gtH The
Steam and Steam Engine vd;w E}iy „ePuhtp kw;Wk; ePuhtp‟ ve;jpuk; vDk; ngaupy; jkpopy;
nkhopngaHj;J ntspapl;lhH.

4. jj;Jt rh];jpuk;

1871-,y; MH. rhHn[z;lh vd;gtH The Elements of Natural Philosophy vDk; E}iy
jj;Jt rh];jpuk; vDk; ngaupy; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;J ntspapl;lhH.

5. fhy;eilapay;

1885-,y; nt.g. Rg;gpukzpa KjypahH Veterniary Science vDk; E}iy

fhy;eilapay; vDk; ngaupy; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;J ntspapl;lhH>

119
nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

xU nray; Kiw (Process) my;yJ epfo;tpy; (Phenomenon) Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;

my;yJ cs;sikthf ,aq;Fk; nghJthd tpjpKiwfs; vd;W Kiwahf vLj;Jr;
nrhy;yg;gLtdw;iw me;j nray;Kiw my;yJ epfo;T njhlHghd Nfhl;ghLfs; (Theory)
vd;gH. XH mwpTj;Jiw nray;gLk; tpjj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; my;yJ nray;gLtjhf
tFf;fg;gLk; nghJtpjpfis mj;Jiw rhHe;j Nfhl;ghLfs; vd;gH. nkhopngaHg;Gg;
gzpapy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpw> Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl Ntz;ba nghJtpjpfs; nkhopngaHg;gpay;
Nfhl;ghLfshfpd;wd. nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfis mit Njhd;wpa fhyfl;lj;ijf;
fUj;jpw;nfhz;L> njhlf;ffhyk;> ,ilf;fhyk;> jw;fhyk; vd %d;whfg; gpupj;Jzuyhk;.

I. njhlf;ffhyf;Nfhl;ghLfs;

fp.gp 16 Mk; E}w;whz;il nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfspd; njhlf;ffhyk; vdf;

nfhs;syhk;. ,f;fhyf;fl;lj;jpy; jhd; gpnuQ;R ehl;ilr; rhHe;j Nlhyl;Lk; (Dolet)
Mq;fpNyauhd [hH[; rhg;NkDk; (George Chapman) nkhopngaHg;Gg; gzpapid Mw;wpf;
nfhz;L rpy nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfis cUthf;fpj; je;jdH.

i. Nlhlyl;bd; (Dolet) Nfhl;ghLfs;

fp.gp 1540-,y; Nlhyl; gpnuQ;R nkhopapy; nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wpa rpy

Nfhl;ghLfis ntspapl;lhH. mit

1. nkhopngaHg;ghsH %ynkhopapd; czHTf;$WfisAk; nghUisAk; czHe;J nfhz;L

Rje;jpuj; jd;ikAld; njspTgLj;j Ntz;Lk;.

2. nkhopngaHg;ghsH %ynkhop (Source Language), ngWk;nkhop (Target Language or

Receptor Language) ,uz;bYk; Gyik ngw;wtuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

3. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHj;jiyj; jtpHf;f Ntz;Lk;.

4. nghJthd nkhop tbtj;ij nkhopngaHg;gpy; filg;gpbf;f Ntz;Lk;.

5. %yE}ypd; nrhy; tupirapy; Njitahdtw;iw vLj;Jf;nfhz;L nghUj;jkhd Kiwapy;

nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gdthFk;.

120
ii. [hH[; rhg;Nkdpd; Nfhl;ghLfs;

Nlhyl;bw;Fg; gpd;dH N`hkUila gilg;Gf;fis Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHj;j

[hH[; rhg;Nkd; (George Chapman) fp.gp 1598-,y; nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfis
cUthf;fpdhH. mit>

1. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHj;jiyj; jtpHj;jy;

2. nkhopngaHg;igg; gbf;Fk; nghOJ %yE}ypd; czHr;rpiag; ngWjy;

3. %ynkhopf; fUj;Jfisg; ngWk; nkhopapy; KOikahff; nfhz;L tu Ntz;Lk;.

ve;jf; fUj;JfisAk; tpl;Ltplf; $lhJ.

Nkw;fz;l ,Utupd; Nfhl;ghLfspypUe;J> njhlf;ffhy nkhopngaHg;Gf;

Nfhl;ghl;lhsHfspd; xUkpj;jf; fUj;jhf „nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHj;jiyj;
jtpHj;jy;‟ vd;gijf; fUjyhk;.

II. ,ilf;fhyf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

fp.gp 17Mk; E}w;whz;bYk;> 18Mk; E}w;whz;bYk; vOe;Js;s nkhopngaHg;Gf;

Nfhl;ghLfis ,ilf;fhyf; Nfhl;ghLfs; vdyhk;. Fwpg;ghf 17Mk; E}w;whz;by; gpnuQ;R
ehl;by; mjpf vz;zpf;ifapy; nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs; tsHr;rp ngw;Ws;sikiaf;
fhzKbfpwJ. fp.gp 1625 Mk; Mz;L Kjy; fp.gp 1660Mk; Mz;L tiu gpnuQ;rpy; mjpf
mstpy; nkhopngaHg;G ,yf;fpaq;fs; Njhd;wpAs;sd vdf; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH #rd; gh];ndl;.

i) yptp (Livy) apd; Nfhl;ghLfs;

fpgp 1616-Mk; Mz;L yptp (Livy) vd;Dk; gpnuQ;R ehl;lwpQH epfo;j;jpAs;s

nkhopngaHg;gpy; nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs; fhzg;gl;ld. ky;fHgP]; vd;gtupd;
fijfisg; gpnuQ;R nkhopapy; nkhopngaHj;j yptp> rpy nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfis
tFj;Jr; nray;gl;Ls;shH.

1. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;gij Kw;wpYkhfg; Gwk; js;Sjy;.

2. fUj;jpw;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;J nkhopngaHj;jy; .

MfpaitNa yptpapd; nkhopngaHg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; Nfhl;ghLfs;. gy Gjpa Kaw;rpapy;

<Lgl;l gpnuQ;R ehl;bdH gy;NtW gilg;Gfis Mq;fpy nkhopapy; nkhopngaHf;fj;

121
njhlq;fpdH. ~nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ KOf;f KOf;f> Nghyr; nra;jy; jpwd; (Imitative
skill) vd;W mtHfshy; fUjg;gl;lJ.

ii) rH.[hd; nld;`hkpd; Nfhl;ghLfs;

rH[hd; nld;`hk; (1615-1669) vd;gtH nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wpa tpupthd

tpsf;fq;fisf; nfhLj;jhH. nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ xU fiyahfTk; (art) mNj rkak;
tpWtpWg;G (Spirit) nfhz;ljhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. %yE}yhrpupaUk;> nkhop
ngaHg;ghsUk; jFjpapy; NtWgl;ltHfs; my;yH. ,UtUk; rkkhdtHfs; vd;w
nfhs;ifAilatH rH.[hd;nld;`hk;. fhyKk;> #oYNk ,UtiuAk; gpupf;fpd;wd.
%yE}yhrpupaH vij czHj;jpr; nrd;whNuh mijr; rpwpjsTk; khWglhky;
ngWk;nkhopapy; gilf;f ty;ytNu nkhopngaHg;ghsH vd;W tpsf;FfpwhH.

iii) [hd; biuldpd; Nfhl;ghLfs;

Kjd; Kjypy; nkhopngaHg;Gf; nfhs;iffis xUq;fikf;f Kaw;rp nra;jtHfs;

[hd; biuld; (John Dryden), Nlhyl; (Dolet), ill;yH (Tytler) Mfpa %tUkhtH.
tpH[pYila (Virgil) „<dpl;‟ vd;Dk; fhg;gpaj;ijAk;> XtpbDila (Ovid) „vgp];l;y];‟
vd;Dk; E}iyAk; Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHj;jtH biuld;. mtH Xtpl;];vgp];l;y];
(Ovid's Epistles) vDk; E}ypd; KfTiuapy; fPo;tUk; Nfhl;ghLfisj; njuptpj;Js;shH.
mit>

1) nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; my;yJ thf;fpaj;jpw;F thf;fpak; xU nkhopapypUe;J

gpwpnjhU nkhopf;F khw;wp mikg;gJ (Metapharse).
2) RUf;fkhf my;yJ tpupthf nkhopngaHj;jy;> mjhtJ %ynkhopapd; czHTf;
$Wfs; ,Uf;f> mikg;gpid khw;wp nkhopngaHj;jy; (Paraphrase).
3) Nghyr; nra;jy; (Imitation) mjhtJ %ynkhopapy; gbj;jtw;iw mg;gbNa
ngWk;nkhopapy; nfhLj;jy;.

,f;Nfhl;ghLfspy; ,uz;lhtJ Nfhl;ghl;il Vw;Gilajhff; fUJfpwhH

[hd;biuld;. NkYk; ftpijia nkhopngaHf;Fk; nkhopngaHg;ghsUk;> ftpQuhf ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;. nkhopngaHg;ghsUf;F ,Unkhopg; Gyik ,Uj;jy; mtrpak;. NkYk;
%ynkhopapd; ,ay;Gj; jd;ikiaAk;> %yE}yhrpupaupd; czHr;rpg; ngUf;ifAk;
mwpe;jtuhf nkhopngaHg;ghsH jpfo Ntz;Lk; vd;fpwhH biuld;.

122
 biuld; nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wpj; njuptpj;j Nfhl;ghLfspy; xU nkhopngaHg;ghsd;
rkfhy thrfDf;F Mw;w Ntz;ba xOf;ftpay; flik gw;wpa fUj;J
cs;slq;fpapUf;fpwJ.

iv) [hH[; Nfk;ngypd; Nfhl;ghLfs;

[hH[; Nfk;ngy; (George Campbell) vd;gtH 1789-,y; nkhopngaHg;gpd; tuyhWk;

nfhs;ifAk;> vd;w E}iy ntspapl;lhH. ,tH iggps; nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wpa Ma;tpy;
,wq;fp> N[k;]; murH gjpg;gpypUe;J (King James Version) jhd; fz;lwpe;j nkhopngaHg;Gg;
Nfhl;ghLfis tpsf;fpdhH. mit>

1. xU nkhopngaHg;G> %yj;jpd; rupahd kPshf;fkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

2. %y Mrpupaupd; [PtidAk; ghzpiaAk; ve;j msT KbANkh me;j msT
nfhz;L tu Ntz;Lk;.
3. nkhopngaHg;ghsH vspikahfTk;> ,ay;ghfTk; ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;
vd;gdthFk;.

v) ill;yhpd; Nfhl;ghLfs; (Alexander Fraser Tytler)

fp.gp. 18 Mk; E}w;whz;by; nkhopngaHg;gpay; rpe;jidapy; <Lgl;l myf;]hz;lH

/gpNu]H ill;yH vd;gtH biuldpd; Nfhl;ghLfspypUe;J rw;W khWgLfpwhH. „RUf;fkhf
my;yJ tpupthf nkhopngaHj;jy;‟ vDk; biuldpd; Nfhl;ghLfis ill;yH
Vw;Wf;nfhs;stpy;iy. mg;gbg;gl;l nkhopngaHg;G jsHr;rpAila nkhopngaHg;ghfNt
(Loose Translation) mikAk; vdf; $WfpwhH.

fp.gp 1791Mk; Mz;L jkJ nkhopngaHg;Gf; nfhs;iffis Mq;fpyj;jpy;

ntspapl;l ill;yH> %d;W mbg;gilf; Nfhl;ghLfis tpsf;FfpwhH. mit.

1. nkhopngaHg;G> %yE}ypd; fUj;Jfis KOikahf efnyLj;Jj; ju Ntz;Lk;.

2. nkhopeil> vOjpr; nrd;Ws;s xOq;FKiw Mfpait %ynkhopapy; cs;sijg;
Nghd;Nw ngWk;nkhopapYk; mika Ntz;Lk;.
3. nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ %ynkhopapy; mike;Js;s midj;J vspikj;
jd;ikfisAk; jd;dfj;Nj nfhz;L tpsq;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gdthFk;.

NkYk; ill;yH> xU ey;y nkhopngaHg;G> ,yf;Fnkhop thrfidj; fUj;jpy;

nfhs;s Ntz;Lk; vd;fpwhH. %yg;gilg;gpd; nkhopiag; NgRk; thrfd; me;j

123
%yg;gilg;gpid vg;gb czHfpd;whNdh> mNj Nghd;w tpjj;jpy; ,yf;Fnkhop thrfd;>
jdJ nkhopapy;> khw;wg;gl;l gilg;gpid czu Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ mtUila fUj;J.
iggps; nkhopngaHg;ig kl;LNk fUj;jpy; nfhz;l Nfk;ngiyg; Nghyd;W> ill;yH
ngUthupahd gpwnkhopngaHg;GfisAk; fUj;jpw; nfhz;ltH. Mjypd; mtuJ
fUj;JfSf;Fr; nry;thf;F kpFjpahf ,Ue;jJ.

fUj;jpw;F Kjyplk; je;J %yE}ypd; czHTf; $Wfis nkhopngaHg;gpYk;

gpujpgypf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;w nfhs;if mOj;jkhfr; nrhy;yg;gl;bUg;gNj ,ilf;fhyf;
Nfhl;ghl;lhsHfspd; fUj;jhFk;.

vi) b. MH. ];ildhpd; (T.R. Steiner) Nfhl;ghLfs;

biuld;> ill;yH MfpNahUf;Fg; gpd;dhy; te;j b.MH. ];ildH fp.gp. 1650 Kjy;
fp.gp 1800 tiu Njhd;wpa nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfis ed;F Muha;e;j gpd;dH
jd;Dila nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfis ntspapl;Ls;shH. mit

1. ftpijia nkhopngaHg;gtd; xU ftpQdhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

2. nkhopngaHg;ghsUf;F ,Unkhopg; Gyik Njit.
3. %yE}yhrpupaupd; jdpj;jd;ikia nkhopngaHg;ghsH mwpe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4. %yE}yhrpupaupd; jpwNdhL nkhopngaHg;ghsupd; jpwd; xj;Jg;Nghf Ntz;Lk;.
5. %yE}yhrpupaupd; fUj;Jfis khw;wNt $lhJ vd;fpw Kidg;NghL
Mw;nwhOf;fhf nkhopngaHg;igf; nfhz;L nry;y Ntz;Lk;.
6. %ynkhopapd; moF FiwahjthW %yE}yhrpupaupd; jdpj;jd;ikAk; nflhjthW
nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.
7. %yE}ypd; ftpj;Jtj;jpw;F mjpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.
8. %yE}yhrpupaupd; fhyj;J nkhop eilapy; nkhopngaHg;ig mikf;f Ntz;Lk;
vd;gdthFk;.

III) jw;fhyf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

gj;njhd;gJ> ,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;Lfspy; Gjpa nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

Njhd;wpd. gj;njhd;gjhk; E}w;whz;bd; gpw;gFjpapy; nkhopngaHg;G tpkHrfHfs; %d;W
tifahd nkhopngaHg;G Kiwfis Mjupj;Js;sdH.

,f;fUj;Jfs; Kjyhk; cyfg;NghH tiu ,yf;fpa cyfj;jpy; jhf;fj;ij

Vw;gLj;jpAs;sd. mit

124
 1. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhop ngaHj;jy;
2. fUj;ij cs;thq;fpf; nfhz;L Rje;jpukhf nkhopngaHj;jy;
3. njhd;ikahd nkhopiaAk;> eil mikg;igAk; nkhopngaHg;gpy; nfhz;L
tUtjd; %yk; gioa fhyj;ij kPl;LUthf;fk; nra;jy; vd;gdthFk;.

i. upr;rHbd; (Richard) Nfhl;ghLfs;

,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;by; fpgp. 1953,y; upr;rHL vd;gtH Toward a Theory of Translating

vd;w E}ypy; moFzHr;rpf;F (Aesthetic) Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;J nkhopngaHg;Gf;
Nfhl;ghl;bid tpsf;fpAs;shH mit

1. Ma;e;jwpe;J njupaf;$ba xl;Lnkhj;jg; nghUs; xd;W %yE}ypw;Fs;NsNa

,Uf;fpwJ.
2. mjw;fhd kjpg;gPl;L KiwAk; xl;Lnkhj;jkhf ,yf;fpaj;jpw;Fs;NsNa
mike;jpUf;fpd;wikahy;> mij itj;Jg; nghUisj; jPHkhdpf;f KbAk;
vd;gdthFk;.

gj;njhd;gjhk; E}w;whz;by; vOe;j %d;whtJ Nfhl;ghLk;> ,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;ilr; rhHe;j

upr;rHbd; moFzHr;rpf; Nfhl;ghLk; nkhopngaHg;igg; Gjpa Kiwapy; mZFtjw;Fj;
Jiz epd;wd.

ii. jpNahlH rNthpapd; Nfhl;ghLfs; (vjpnujpHf; Nfhl;ghLfs;)

,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;bd; gpw;gFjpapy; nkhopngaHg;Gf; fiy (The Art of Translation)

vd;w E}ypy; jpNahlH rNtup nkhopngaHg;gpay; Nfhl;ghLfs; gw;wp nkhopngaHg;ghsH-
fspilNa vjpnujpHf; fUj;Jfs; epytp tUtij MW vjpnujpH ,izfshff; $WfpwhH.
mit>

1. xU nkhopngaHg;G %yE}ypd; nrhw;fis mg;gbNa ju Ntz;Lk;. xU

nkhopngaHg;G %yE}ypd; fUj;Jfis mg;gbNa ju Ntz;Lk;.
2. xU nkhopngaHg;G gbg;gjw;F %yE}iyg; NghyNt ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. xU
nkhopngaHg;G gbg;gjw;F xU nkhopngaHg;Gg; NghyNt ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3. xU nkhopngaHg;G %yE}ypd; nkhop eiliag; gpujpgypf;f Ntz;Lk;. xU
nkhopngaHg;G nkhopngaHg;ghsupd; nkhopeiliag; ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk; .

125
 4. xU nkhopngaHg;G gbg;gjw;F %yE}ypd; fhyj;ijr; NrHe;jijg; Nghy
,Uf;fNtz;Lk;. xU nkhopngaHg;G gbg;gjw;F nkhopngaHg;ghsupd;
fhyj;ijr; NrHe;jijg; Nghy ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
5. xU nkhopngaHg;G %yE}iyf; $l;lNth Fiwf;fNth nra;ayhk;. xU
nkhopngaHg;G vd;WNk %yE}iyf; $l;lNth Fiwf;fNth $lhJ.
6. xU nra;As; nkhopngaHg;G ciueilapy; jhd; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. xU
nra;As; nkhopngaHg;G nra;Aspy; jhd; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gdthFk;.

,j;jifa vjpnujpH ,izfs; nghJikahd xU nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghL

cUthtjw;Fj; jilahf ,Ug;gJ kl;Lky;yhky;> nkhopngaHg;Gr; nray; Kiw gw;wpa
xU epr;rakpd;ikf;F toptFj;J> nkhopngaHg;ghsHfis ,Jth> mJth vd;W Cryhl
itf;fpwJ. vdNt nkhopngaHg;Gr; nray; Kiwapd; jd;ikapid EZfpf;fz;L> mjd;
mbg;gilapy; Nkw;fz;l vjpnujpHf; Nfhl;ghLfis Muha;e;J xU nghJikahd ,d;Dk;
jpl;gkhd Nfhl;ghl;bid cUthf;FtJ mtrpakhfpwJ.

iii. A+[pd; ielhtpd; (Eugene Nida) Nfhl;ghLfs;

a+[pd; ielh „Aidnll; iggps; rq;fj;jpd;‟ nrayuhf ,Ue;J nkhopngaHg;Gf;

Fwpj;j gy Gj;jfq;fisAk;> fl;LiufisAk; ntspapl;Ls;shH. mtuJ Kf;fpa
Gj;jfq;fs; gpd;tUkhW.

1.Bible Translating

2.Towards A Science of Translating

3. Theory and Practice of Translating

4. Exploring Semantic Structure

5. Language Structure and Translation

,tH jkJ E}w;fspy; nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfis tpsf;fpAs;shH. ,tuJ

nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wpa Nfhl;ghLfspy; r%f nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghL (Socio linguistics
Theory) rpwg;gplk; ngWfpd;wJ.

126
nkhopngaHg;gpd; mbg;gilj; Njitfs; (Basic Requirements in any Translation)

nkhopngaHg;Gr; nra;Ak; NghJ %d;W mbg;gilj; Njitfisg; gpd;gw;w Ntz;Lk;

vd ielh $WfpwhH. mit

1. nkhopngaHg;gpy; fUj;Jf;F Kjyplk; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

2. nkhopngaHg;G czHTg;g+Htkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3. nkhopngaHg;G ,ay;ghfTk; mNj Neuk; vspikahfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;
vd;gdthFk;.

iv. gPl;lH epa+khHf;fpd; (Peter New Mark) Nfhl;ghLfs;

epa+khHf; nkhopngaHg;G / mZFKiwfs; (1983)> nkhopngaHg;Gg; ghlg;Gj;jfk;

(1988) vDk; ,U Kf;fpa E}y;fisg; gilj;Js;shH. ,tw;wpy; ielh NghyNt
khw;wpyf;fz nkhopapaiyg; gad;gLj;jpAs;shH.

%ynkhop my;yJ ,yf;Fnkhop (ngWk; nkhop) ,uz;by; vJ tpRthrkhf ,Ug;gJ

vd;Dk; tpRthr Nkhjy; vg;NghJNk nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfspy; ,Ue;J nfhz;Nl
,Uf;Fk; vd;gJ mtHfUj;J. tpRthrq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd ,e;j ,ilntspia
mHj;jtpay; my;yJ nghUs; rhHe;j nkhopngaHg;G (Semantic Translation), njhlHgpay;
nkhopngaHg;G (Commnicative Translation) Mfpatw;iwr; ruptuf; ifahStjd; %yk;
Fiwf;fyhk; vd;fpwhH. vdpDk; ,t;tpU nkhopngaHg;GfSk; jq;fSf;Fs; Kuz;gLfpd;wd.
nghUs; rhHe;j nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ nra;jpapd; nghUs; uPjpahd nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wp
kl;Lk; ftdk; nrYj;JtJ. njhlHgpay; nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ Vw;ghsdpd; Gupe;J
nfhs;sy; gw;wpAk;> vjpHtpid gw;wpAk; ftdk; nrYj;JtJ.

nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghL> VNjh xUtpjkhd gpujpgw;wp kl;LNk rpe;jpg;gjhf

,Uf;ff;$lhJ. vy;yhtpjg; gpujpfisAk; mJ fzf;fpnyLj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. NkYk;
nkhopngaHg;Gf;fhd fhuzpfisAk; vy;yhtpjkhd khwpfisAk; mJ fzf;fpnyLf;f
Ntz;Lk;.

nkhopngaHg;ghsdpd; NjHTfs; (Choices) KbTfs; (Decisions) gw;wp mJ

ftiyg;gl Ntz;LNk xopa> %ynkhopapd; my;yJ ,yf;Fnkhopapd; ,af;fk; gw;wpf;
ftiyg;glyhfhJ. gpujpfis nkhopngaHg;gjw;Fk;> nkhopngaHg;Gfis tpkHrdk;
nra;tjw;Fk; cupa Nfhl;ghLfspd; rl;lj;ijAk;> fl;Lg;ghl;L tpjpfisAk;> Fwpg;GfisAk;

127
mJ mspg;gNjhL nkhopngaHg;gpy; Vw;gLk; gpur;rpidfisj; jPHg;gjw;fhd gpd;dzpiaAk;
mJ mspf;f Ntz;Lk;.

nkhopngaHg;G XH mwptpay; vd;Dk; fUj;ij epa+khHf; Gwf;fzpf;fpwhH.

njhlHgpay; nfhs;ifapd; xU gFjpahfNt nkhopngaHg;gpidf; fhz Ntz;Lk;.

gpaH]pd; (Peirce) mHj;jf; Nfhl;ghl;bd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij epa+khHf; tpsf;FfpwhH.

“xU nghUspd; mHj;jk; vd;gJ xU tpsf;ff;$wpd; (Interpretant) gy;NtW rhHGfs;
tpistpf;Fk; vy;yh tpisTfisAk; nfhz;lNj MFk;. tpsf;ff; $Wf;Fj; jFe;jthW
mHj;jk; khWgLk;" vd;gJ gpaH]pd; tpsf;fk;.

MfNt xU nghUSf;nfd jpl;ltl;lkhd tiuaWf;fg;gl;l mHj;jk; VJkpy;iy.

cjhuzkhf> xU ,dpg;Gg;ghdk; vd;gJ xU rpWtDf;F xU gpupakhd xU jputj;ijf;
Fwpf;fyhk;. mtdJ jha;f;F xU njhy;iy jUk; nghUshf ,Uf;fyhk;. ,g;gb xNu
nghUs; gyNgUf;Fg; gytpjkhf mHj;jq;fis czHj;JfpwJ. vdNt mHj;jj;jpd;
gad;ghl;L Nehf;fpid nkhopngaHg;gpy; nfhs;tJ ,d;wpaikahjJ.

epa+khHf;fpd; mHj;jtpay; nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wpa Nfhl;ghL

epa+khHf;fpd; mHj;jtpay; nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wpa Nfhl;ghLfisg; gpd;tUkhW

$wyhk;.

1. %ynkhop my;yJ %yE}y; Mrpupaiu mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L

mHj;jtpay; nkhopngaHg;G mikAk; (Transmitter Oriented).
2. %ynkhopf; fyhr;rhuj;NjhL xl;baJ.
3. xt;nthU jiyKiwapYk; nkhopngaHg;G Gjpjhfr; nra;ag;gl;ljhf
Ntz;Lk;.
4. %yg;gpujpapy; fhzg;gLtJ NghyNt nkhopngaHg;Gr; nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
5. nkhopngaHg;G rpf;fyhdJ> nrwpthdJ> tpupthdJ> thrfHf;F me;epaj;
jd;ikia cz;lhf;FtJ.
6. ,yf;fpaq;fis nkhopngaHf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
7. %yg;gpujpapd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijf; nfhz;L tUfpwJ.
8. kpif nkhopngaHg;ghf mikAk;.

128
epa+khHf;fpd; njhlHgpay; nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wpa Nfhl;ghL

1. ,yf;F nkhop (ngWk;nkhop) thrfiu mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L njhlHgpay;

nkhopngaHg;G mikAk; (Receiver Oriented).
2. ,yf;Fnkhopf; fyhr;rhuj;NjhL xl;baJ. .
3. rkfhyr; #oypy; nkhopngaHg;G mikAk;
4. ,yf;Fnkhopapd; tpjpfSf;Fj; jFe;jthW nkhopngaHg;G mikAk;.
5. nkhopngaHg;G vspikahdJ> njspthdJ> NeubahdJ> kuG rhHe;jJ.
6. vy;yh tif gilg;GfisAk; nkhopngaHf;fg; gad;glf; $baJ.
7. ,yf;Fnkhopapd; Jy;ypaj;ijf; filg;gpbf;fpwJ.
8. Fiw nkhopngaHg;ghf mikAk;.

v) N[. rp. fhl;/NghHbd; Nfhl;ghLfs;

fhl;/NghHL> `hypNlapd; (Halliday) nkhopapay; khjpupiag; gpd;gw;wp> 1965,y;

nkhopngaHg;Gg; gw;wpa nkhopapay; ntspapl;lhH. Nfhl;ghL (Linguistic Theory of
Translation) vd;Dk; E}iy nkhopngaHg;Gr; nray;Kiwapd; gFg;gha;tpidAk;> tpsf;fj;
jpidAk; ,e;E}y; tptupf;fpwJ. ,uz;L nkhopfSf;fpilapyhd Fwpg;gpl;l cwtpidf;
nfhz;bUg;gjhy; nkhopngaHg;G> xg;G nkhopapaypd; xU gFjp vd;Wk;> gad;Kiw
nkhopapaypd; nray;ghL vd;Wk; fUjpdhH mtH.

nkhopngaHg;gpd; ikakhd gpur;rpid epfud;fs; gw;wpaJ jhd;. “xU

nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghl;bd; ikakhd gzp> nkhopg; ngaHg;G epfud;fspd; ,aw;if
kw;Wk; epge;jidfs; gw;wp Muha;tNj" vd;W $wpdhH fhl;/NghHL.

nkhopngaHg;gpid vy;iy (tpupT) (Extent), jsk; (levels), juk; (Rank)

Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; mtH tifg;gLj;jpdhH>

vi) Myd; ^/g;gpd; Nfhl;ghLfs;

Myd; ^/g; vd;gtu; fp.gp. 1991,y; nkhopngau;g;G vDk; jdJ E}ypy;

nkhopngau;g;gpd; cl;$Wfs; rpytw;wpw;Ff; Nfhl;ghLfisj; njuptpj;Js;shu;.
cl;$Wfshtd nghUs;> tbtk;> #oy; nkhopg;gjpT> %ynkhopj;jhf;fk;> eilAk;
njspTk;> rpwg;G tof;Ffs; vd;gdthFk;.

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1. nghUs; (Meaning)

%yE}ypd; nghUisr; rupahf nkhopngau;g;G gpujpgypf;f Ntz;Lk;. nghUisr;

Nru;f;fNth> ePf;fNth $lhJ. fUj;J nkhopngau;g;Gf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

2. tbtk; (Form)

nrhw;fspd; tupir KiwAk;> fUj;Jfspd; tupir KiwAk;> Kbe;jtiu %yE}ypd;

tupir Kiwianahl;b mika Ntz;Lk;. nkhopf;F nkhop mikg;GKiw khWgLtjhy;
%ynkhopapd; tbtj;jpypUe;J ngWk; nkhopapd; tbtk; khWglNt nra;Ak; mg;gbg;gl;l
rkaj;jpy; %yE}y; mjw;F mOj;jk; nfhLj;Js;sNjh me;jr; nrhw;fis
nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs; Nfhbl;Lf; fhl;l Ntz;Lk;.

3. #oy; nkhopg;gjpT (Register)

nkhop> eilKiw tof;fj;jpw;Fj; jFe;jthW khWgLk; jd;ik cilaJ. vdNt

%yE}ypd; tof;Fr; nrhw;fisAk; epiyahd nrhw;fisAk;> %yE}yhrpupaupd; MSikr;
nrhw;fisAk; NtWgLj;jpf; fhl;Lk; jpwd; cilatuhf nkhopngau;g;ghsu; jpfo Ntz;Lk;.

4. %y nkhopj;jhf;fk; (Soruce Language Influence)

%yE}ypd; jhf;fj;jhy;> %yE}ypd; nrhw;fis mg;gbNa nkhopngau;g;G E}ypy;

nfhz;L tu Ntz;Lk; vd;w Kidg;G nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fSf;Fj; Njhd;wp tpLfpwJ.
%ynkhopr; nrhw;fis nkhopngau;g;gpy; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ nkhopngau;g;G E}y;
jdpj;Jtj;ij ,oe;J tpLfpwJ. gbf;Fk; thrfu;fSf;F nkhopngau;g;G E}yh my;yJ
%yE}yh vdj; jLkhw;wk; Vw;gLk;. ,jidj; jtpu;ff
; nkhopngau;g;ghsu;fs;
nkhopngau;g;gpy; %yE}ypd; nrhw;fisg; gad;gLj;jhky; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

5. eilAk; njspTk; (Style and Clarity)

nkhopngau;g;ghsu; %ynkhopapd; eilia khw;wf;$lhJ.

6. rpwg;G tof;Ffs; (Idioms)

rpwg;G tof;Fr; nrhw;fis vspjhf nkhopngau;f;f KbahJ. %ynkhopapd;

ctik> cUtfk;> gonkhop> F*cf;Fwp> Ngr;Rnkhop> nfhr;ir nkhop Mfpatw;iwg;

130
ngWk;nkhopapy; mg;gbNa nkhop khw;wk; nra;a ,ayhjNghJ nkhopngau;g;ghsu; fPOs;s
Kiwfisg; gpd;gw;wyhk;.

1. %yr; nrhy;iy milg;Gf;Fs; jUjy;.

2. %yr;nrhy;iyj; je;J Neub nkhopngau;g;ig milg;Gf;Fs; jUjy;.
3. neUq;fpaikAk; epfuidg; gad;gLj;Jjy;.
4. tof;fpypy;yhj nrhw;fisg; gad;gLj;jptpl;L mjw;Fupa nghUis
milg;Gf;Fs; toq;Fjy;

vd;gdthFk;. nkhopngau;g;gpy; cs;s rpf;fy;fisj; jPu;f;Fk; tifapy;

Myd;/^g;gpd; nkhopngau;g;gpd; cl;$Wfs; gw;wpa Nfhl;ghLfs; mike;jpUe;jd vd;gij
mwpa KbfpwJ.

IV. epfHikf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

nkhopngaHg;Gj; Jiwapy; rpwg;ghd rpyf; Nfhl;ghLfs; cs;sd. mtw;wpy;

Kf;fpakhdJ epfHik (Equivalence) vd;Dk; Nfhl;ghlhFk;. %ynkhopapYs;s nghUisg;
ngWk;nkhopapy; jUk;NghJ mjd; cUgd;fs;> nrhw;fs;> nrhw;nwhlHfs;> gj;jpfs;
Nghd;wtw;iwg; gjpyPL nra;af; $ba ngWk;nkhopf; $Wfs; nkhopngaHg;gpy; epfud;fs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd.

epfud; (Equivalent) vd;gJ xU %ynkhopr; nrhy;Yf;F my;yJ njhlUf;F epfuhd

mHj;jk; nfhz;l ngWk;nkhopr; nrhy;iyf; Fwpf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf Professor vd;Dk;
Mq;fpyr; nrhy;Yf;Fg; nghUj;jkhd jkpo;r; nrhy; NguhrpupaH vd;gjhFk;. ,t;thW
epfuhd nghUs; nfhz;bUf;Fk; nrhw;fspd; my;yJ njhlHfspd; jd;ikia „epfHik‟
vdyhk;.

%ynkhopr; nrhy;Yf;F ,izahf ngWk;nkhopr; nrhy;iyj; NjHe;njLg;gJ kpfTk;

fbdk;. epfuidj; NjHe;njLj;jy; nkhopngaHg;gpy; Kf;fpag; gq;F tfpf;fpd;wJ. ,e;epfud;
gw;wpa fUj;Jfisj; njuptpj;jtHfSs; Fwpg;gplj;jf;ftHfs; jpNahlH rNtup> N[.rp.
fhl;/NghHL> a+[pd; ielh> #rd; gh];ndl; nkf;ifH> Nyhj; / gpngsH irapjp MfpNahH
MthH.

i) jpNahlH rNtupapd; epfHikf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

jpNahlH rNtup nkhopngaHg;gpy; epfuidj;NjHT nra;jy; vd;gJ khaj;Njhw;wk;

131
vd;W $WfpwhH. ,jdhy; epfuid ,tH khaepfud; (Illusory Equivalent) vd;W
miof;fpwhH. nkhopngaHg;ghsH xU nrhy;iyj; NjHe;njLj;J mr;nrhy; jhk;
nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;ba fUj;ijj;jhd; czHj;JfpwJ vd;W jkf;Fs; xU khiaia
Vw;gLj;jpf; nfhs;fpwhH vd;gJ rNtupd; fUj;jhFk;.

ii) N[. rp. fhl;/NghHbd; epfHikf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

xU nkhopngaHg;Gf; nfhs;ifapd; ikakhd gzp> nkhopngaHg;G epfud;fspd;

,aw;if kw;Wk; epge;jidfs; gw;wp Muha;tNj vd;W $wpdhH fhl;/NghHL. NkYk;
nkhopngaHg;G epfud; vd;gJ mDgt ntspg;ghl;bd; %ykhfg; ngwg;gLtJ vd;fpwhH.
,jid ghlepfud; (Textual Equivalent) vd;Wk;> KiwrhH epfud; (Formal Correspondence)
vd;Wk; ,uz;lhfg; gFj;Jf;$WfpwhH.

ghl epfudpy; (Textual Equivalent) nkhopngaHg;ghrpupaH nrhy;ypd; nghUSf;F

epfud; NjLtjpy;iy. khwhf> %yE}ypy; fhzg;gLk; #oiy ,tH ,yf;Fnkhopapy;
(ngWk;nkhopapy;) cUthf;fpj; jUfpwhH vd;gH. ghlepfud; ,Utifg;gLk; . mit

1. #oy; rhHe;j jd;ik (Context)

2. ghlk; rhHe;j jd;ik (Co-textual)

#oy;rhHe;j epfud;> xU nrhy; my;yJ njhlH ,lk; ngWk; #oypy; czHj;Jk;

fUj;jpidg; Gyg;gLj;Jk; jpwk; ngw;wjhFk;.

rhd;whf „gr;ir‟ vd;w nrhy; epwj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk;. Mdhy; #oYf;Fj; jFe;jthW

gr;ir vd;gjd; nghUs; khWgLk;. vdNt khWgLk; nghUSf;F Vw;wthW ngWk;nkhopapy;
epfuidj; NjHe;njLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

gr;irf; Foe;ij - Very young Child

gr;irg;ghy; - Fresh milk

gr;irg;Glit - Green saree

gr;irj; jz;zPH - Cold water

,ijg;Nghd;W Mq;fpyj;jpy; Work vd;gjw;F mYty; vd;w epfuidf;

nfhLf;fyhk;. Mdhy; #oYf;Fj; jFe;jthW Work vd;gjd; epfud;fs; khWgLk;.

132
 Working comittee - nraw;FO

Working expenses - eilKiwr;nryTfs;

Working day - mYty; ehs;

„Play‟ vd;gjw;F „tpisahL‟ vDk; epfuidf; nfhLf;fyhk;> Mdhy; #oYf;Fj;

jFe;jthW Play vd;gjd; epfud;fs; khWgLk;.

Play tennis - nld;dp]; ML

Play piano - gpaNdh thrp

ghlk; rhHe;j epfud; vd;gJ Fwpg;gpl;l E}y; my;yJ me;E}Yld; njhlHGila Jiwiar;
(Discipline) rhHe;jjhFk;.

%ynkhopapy; fhzg;gLk; myF> (Unit) njhlHG> (Clause) fl;likg;G> (Structure)

Nghd;wtw;iwg; ngWk; nkhopapYk; Kbe;j msT nfhz;LtUtJ KiwrhH epfud;
vdg;gLk;.

iii) A+[pd; ielhtpd; epfHikf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

a+[pd; ielhTk;> rhHy]; NlgUk; epfuid mjd; jd;ikf;Nfw;g ,uz;lhfg;

gFf;fpd;wdH mit.

1. ,ay;ghd epfud; (Natural Equivalent)

2. neUf;fkhd epfud; (Closet Equivalent)

vd;gitahFk;. ,ay;ghd epfud; vd;gJ nkhopngaHg;Gj; jd;ik cilajhf

,y;yhky; ngWk; nkhop E}ypd; jd;ikAilajhf nkhopngaHg;ghrpupauhy; mikf;fg;
gLtjhFk;.

neUf;fkhd epfud; vd;gJ xj;j fUj;Jila nkhopngaHg;ghsHfshy;

Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;ljhFk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf „fpWf;fd;‟ (Mad Man) vd;Dk; nrhy;
jw;fhyj;jpy; kdNeha; (Mentally Distressed) vd khw;wk; ngw;wpUg;gJ fhyj;jpw;Nfw;w
nkhopngaHg;ghFk;. NkYk; ielh epfuid KiwrhH epfud; (Formal Correspondence)
Mw;wy; kpF epfud; (Dynamic Equivalence) vd tifg;gLj;JfpwhH.

133
iv) #rd;gh];ndl; nkf;ifupd; epfHikf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;igj; jk; Ma;Tf;fskhff; nfhz;ltH #rd;gh];ndl;

nkf;ifH. xNu E}Yf;F ,yf;F> ngWk;nkhopapy; (xNu nkhopapy; Kjypy; Njhd;wpaij
,yf;F vd;Wk; ,uz;lhtJ Njhd;wpaij ngWk; nkhop vd;Wk; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH) fhzg;gLk;
,uz;L nkhopngaHg;GfSf;Fs; $l xw;Wikiaf; (Sameness) fhzNt KbahJ. vdNt
nkhopngaHg;gpy; epfud; vd;gjid xw;Wikiaj; NjLtjhf mZFjy; $lhJ vd;fpwhH.
NkYk; Nghg;Nghtpf; (Popovic) vDk; nkhopngaHg;gpay; mwpQH $Wk; ehd;F tifahd
epfud;fis tptupf;fpwhH #rd;gh];ndl;. mitahtd>

1. nkhopapay; epfud; (Linguistic Equivalence)

2. nrhy; / ,yf;fzk; xOq;FKiw epfud; (Paradigmatic Equivalence)

3. eilepfud; / nraw;ghl;L epfud; (Stylistic/ Functional Equivalence)

4. ghlepfud; (Textual (Syntagmatic) Equivalence) vd;gdthFk;.

1. nkhopapay; epfud; (Linguistic Equivalance)

nkhopapay; jsj;jpy; %ynkhop> ngWk;nkhop Mfpa ,uz;Lk; xNu epiyapy;

tpsq;Fjy;> mjhtJ nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;gpidf; Fwpf; Fk; (Word for Word
Translation).

2. nrhy;> ,yf;fzk; xOq;FKiw epfud; (Paradigmatic Equivalance)

nrhy; my;yJ ,yf;fzj;ij %y E}ypd; xOq;FKiwapy; ngWk;nkhopapy;

epfudhfj; jUjy;.

3. eilepfud;> nraw;ghl;L epfud; (Stylistic/ Functional Equivalence)

%ynkhopapd; eiliaAk;> nraw;ghl;Lj; jpwidAk; ngWk; nkhopapy; jUjy;.

4. ghl epfud; (Textual (Syntagmatic) Equivalence)

%yghlj;jpd; nrhw;nwhlH mikg;ig (form and shape) nkhopngaHg;gpy; jUjy;.

Nghg;Nghtpf;fpd; Nfhl;ghLfis tpkHrpf;Fk; nghOJ #rd;gh];ndl; fPo;tUkhW $WfpwhH.
“Nghg;Nghtpf;fpd; ,yf;fhf eil epfud; mikAkhdhy; rpy mbg;gilahd nkhopapay;
134
$Wfis mtH tpyf;f Ntz;bajpUf;Fk; vd;W $wpAs;shH. ,jd; gaidAk; mtH
gpd;tUkhW tpsf;FfpwhH. neUq;fpa nkhopapay; epfud;fis tpl;LtpyFk; NghJ jhd;
epfudpd; cz;ikahd jd;ik vJntd mwpe;J nfhs;s KbAk;" vd;fpwhH.

v) Nyhj;/gpngsH irapjpapd; (Lotifipour Saedi) epfHikf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

Nyhj;/gpngsH irapjp „epfud;‟ vd;gij tpsf;Fk; NghJ xd;gJ tifahd

epiyfs; my;yJ fhuzpfisf; (Coditions or Parameters) $wp> mit
midj;jpw;FkpilNa %ynkhopg; ghlj;jpw;Fk;> ngWk;nkhopg; ghlj;jpw;Fk; njhlHgpay;
jFjp (Communicative value) ,Uf;Fkhdhy; mJNt epfud; vdf; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH. ,tH
$Wk; xd;gJ epiyfs; gpd;tUkhW.

1. nrhw;nghUs; (Lexical Meaning)

2. ghl ,ay;G (Texture)

3. thf;fpag; nghUs; (Sentence Meaning)

4. $w;Wg;nghUs; (Utterance Meaning)

5. Kd; fUj;J (Presupposition)

6. eil (Style)

7. mwpAk; Mw;wy; (Cognition)

8. fl;likg;G (Structure)

9. ,yf;fpa tpisT (Literary Effect)

,t;epiyfs; nghUe;jp tUfpd;wikf;Fr; rhd;whf uhgHl; /g;uh];bDila Stopping

by Woods on a Snowy Evening' vd;w ghlypd; ,Wjp ehd;F tupfisr; Rl;lyhk;.

“The woods are lovely, dark and deep

But I have promises to keep
And miles to go before I sleep
And miles to go before I sleep"

135
,g;ghlypd; jkpohf;fk;

“,f;fhdfNkh moFk; ,USk; MoKk; epiwe;jJ

ehd; epiwNtw;w ,Uf;Fk; thf;FWjpfNsh Vuhsk;

gyfhjg; gazj;Jf;Fg; gpd;jhd; Xa;T

gyfhjg; gazj;Jf;Fg; gpd;jhd; Xa;T"

,g;ghlypd; epiyfs; gpd;tUkhW

1. nrhw;nghUs; (Lexical Meaning)

Xa;T vd;Dk; nrhy; ,U nghUisj; jUfpwJ. NkNyhl;lkhd nghUs;

cwf;fj;ijf; Fwpg;gpLk;. Mdhy; mjd; Gij nghUs; ,wg;G vd;gijf; Fwpf;Fk;.

2. ghl ,ay;G (Texture)

,g;ghly; jj;Jtk; rhHe;jJ. ftpQH gdp epiwe;j khiy Ntisapy; fhdfj;jpy;

jd;de;jdpahf epd;W nfhz;L ,aw;ifapd; moiff; Fwpj;Jr; rpe;jpf;fpwhH.

3. thf;fpag; nghUs; (Sentence Meaning)

,aw;ifapd; flik moif epHkhzpj;jyhFk;. mJ Nghd;W ftpQH jhd;

,wg;gjw;F Kd;G jd;Dila flikfisr; nra;a Ntz;Lk; vd;fpwhH. gy fhjg; gazk;
vd;gJ thOk; fhyj;ijAk;> flikiaAk; czHj;JfpwJ.

4. $w;Wg;nghUs; (Utterance Meaning)

,wg;gjw;F Kd;G gy fhjq;fs; gazk; nra;a Ntz;Lk;.

5. Kd; fUj;J (Presupposition)

Xa;T vd;gjd; epfud; ,wg;G vd;gjhFk;.

6. eil (Style)

vspikahd eil MapDk; rpe;jidiaj; J}z;LfpwJ.

7. mwpAk; Mw;wy; (Cognition)

136
 Xa;T vd;Dk; nrhy;iyg; gpw nrhw;fSld; ,izj;Jg; ghHj;J ,g;ghlypd;
KOg;nghUshd jj;Jtf;fUj;Jf;fis mwpe;J nfhs;s KbAk;.

8. fl;likg;G (Structure)

Xir eaj;Jld; ftpij mike;Js;sJ.

9. ,yf;fpa tpisT (Literary Effect)

ghlypd; ,Wjp ,U tupfSk; xd;W Nghy; ,Ug;gjhy; ,yf;fpa tpistpid

Vw;gLj;jpAs;sJ. Fwpg;ghf Xa;T vDk; nrhy; ,UKiw te;J ,wg;Gf; Fwpj;j nrwpthd
jj;Jtf; fUj;Jfis ntspg;gLj;JfpwJ. ,t;thW Mq;fpyg; ghlYf;F ,izahf jkpo;f;
ftpijapy; epfud;fs; xd;gJ epiyfspy; ,lk; ngw;Ws;sd.

epfuidg; gw;wpa Ma;T nra;j Nfhl;ghl;lhsHfs; ,ay;ghd epfud;> neUf;fkhd

epfud; vd ,uz;L tif epfud; ,Ug;gij Vw;Wf; nfhs;fpd;wdH. mtw;wpy; neUf;fkhd
epfuNd nkhopngaHg;ig ntw;wp ngwr; nra;Ak; vd;gjpy; mtHfSf;Fs; fUj;J
NtWghby;iy. ,Ug;gpDk; irapjpapd; $w;wpw;fpzq;f xd;gJ tif epiyfspYk;
njhlHgpay; jFjp ngw;W epfud; mikfpw nghOJ nkhopngaHg;G %yj;jpd; midj;J
mk;rq;fisAk; ngw;Wr; rpwe;J tpsq;Fk; vd;gjpy; re;Njfkpy;iy.

vi) <td; N[hfupd; (Even Zohar) epfHikf; Nfhl;LghLfs; gw;wpa rpe;jid

,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;bd; gpw;gFjpapy; nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs; gw;wp Muha;e;j

<td; N[h`H Nghd;w nkhopngaHg;G Nfhl;ghl;lhsHfs;> KOtJk; epfud; fhZk;
Kaw;rpapNyNa nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghl;il tFg;gijj; jtpHj;JtpLkhW typAWj;jpdH.
mjw;fhf epHzapf;fg;gl;l nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfistpl;Lk; Gwj;Nj epd;W
nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghL gw;wpr; rpe;jpf;fj; njhlq;fpdH. ,r;rpe;jidapd; tpisthf>
epfud;fis itj;J nkhopngaHg;igf; fzf;fpLtij tpl ngWk;nkhopapd; tsHr;r p>
,yf;fpa tbtk;> nkhopapay; tsHr;rp Mfpait nkhopngaHg;Gfspd; tpisthy;
ngWk;nkhopapd; gy;tifr; #oypy; vj;jifa khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;jpapUf;fpd;wd
vd;gijAk; fzf;fpnyLj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy; GJtifahd moFzHr;rpia
mstpl KbAk; vdf; $WfpwhH <td; N[hfH. ,tuJ Nfhl;ghL GJikahdjhf
,Uf;fpwJ.

137
vii) Nkhdh Ngf;fupd; epfHikf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

Nkhdh Ngf;fupd; „nkhopngaHg;gpw;F xU gapw;rpf; ifNaL‟ vd;w E}y; 1992-,y;

ntsp te;jJ. Ngf;fH> epfHikiag; gy jsq;fspy; - nrhy;> njhlH> ,yf;fzk;>
mbf;fUj;jikg;G> ,Wf;fk;> gad;ghL Mfpa gy jsq;fspy; itj;J Nehf;FfpwhH.

1. gad;topf; Nfhl;ghL

Ngf;fH> gad;top epfHik vd;Dk; fUj;ij nkhopngaHj;J gad;gLj;JfpwhH. gad;

topapay; (Pragmatics) vd;gJ nkhop gad;gLk; epiyapy; mij Muha;tJ.
nkhopaikg;gpy; Vw;gLk; mHj;jk; gw;wpa Muha;r;rpay;y. khwhf> njspTr; nraypy;
<LgLNthH vt;tpjk; mHj;jj;ij Mf;FfpwhHfs;> khw;WfpwhHfs; vd;gJ gw;wpaJ. Ngf;fH
%d;W gad;topf; fUj;Jfis tpsf;FfpwhH. mit> 1. rPHik> 2. Kd;a+fk; 3. cl;fUj;J
vd;gdthFk;.

1.1 rPHik (Coherence)

,J Nfl;gtdJ cyf mDgtj;ijAk; vjpHghHg;igAk; nghWj;jJ. MfNt %yg;

gpujpf;Fk;> nkhopngaHg;Gg; gpujpf;Fk; ,J khWgLk;.

1.2 Kd;a+fk; (Presupposition)

,J rPHikNahL neUq;fpa njhlHGilaJ. „gad; topapyhd a+fk;‟ vd Ngf;fH

,jid tUzpf;fpwhH. Kd;a+fk; vd;gJ jdJ gpujp Ngha;r;Nru Ntz;Lkhdhy; vjpuhspf;F
,Uf;f Ntz;ba mbg;gilawpT vd;gijg; gw;wp nra;jp mDg;GgtH nfhs;fpd;w
vjpHghHg;G. ghn]l; vd;gtH Kd;a+fj;jpw;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; jUfpwhH.

1.3 cl;fUj;J (Implicative)

,JTk; xU tifahd gad;topa+fk; jhd;. ,q;F nra;jp jUgtH ntspg;gilahfr;
nrhy;tij tpl vd;d cl;fUj;ij itj;J xd;iwr; nrhy;fpwhH vd;gJ Kf;fpak;. Ngf;fH
cl;fUj;jpw;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLf;fpwhH.

viii) Nfhyupd; (Koller) epfHikf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

„nkhopngaHg;G mwptpay; gw;wpa Ma;T‟ vDk; E}iy NfhyH (Koller)

ntspapl;Ls;shH. ,e;E}ypy; epfHik (Equivalence) ,iz my;yJ ,iaG
(Correspondence) gw;wpa Nfhl;ghLfis tptupj;Js;shH.

138
1. ,iaG ,iz (Correspondence)
1. %ynkhopahdJ> ngWk; nkhopj;jsj;jpy; xg;ghd mikg;GfisAk;>
thf;fpaq;fisAk; tptupf;Fk; epfo;Tfis cilaJ.
2. ,J nkhopaikg;G (Language) Nghd;wJ.
3. me;epa nkhopj;jpwd; kpFjpahfj; Njit.

2. epfHik (Equivalence)
1. %ynkhopapYk;> ,yf;F nkhopapYk; epfHikf; nfhs;iff;Nfw;gg; Ngr;Rfspd;
gbepiyia tpsf;Fk; epfo;Tfis cilaJ.
2. ,J jdpg;Ngr;R epfo;T (Parole) Nghd;wJ.
3. nkhopngaHg;Gj; jpwd; Njit.

,iaG> epfHik ,Utw;wpYk; epfHikNa Kf;fpakhdJ. mjidf; NfhyH Ie;J

tiffshfg; ghFgLj;JfpwhH. mit>

1. Rl;Lg;nghUs; epfHik (Denotative Equivalence)

2. czHTg; nghUs; epfHik (Connotative Equivalence)

3. gpujpnahOf;f epfHik (Text - Normative Equivalence)

4. gad;top epfHik (Pragmatic Equivalence)

5. tbttpay; epfHik (Expressive Equivalence) vd;gdthFk;.

2.1 Rl;Lg;nghUs; epfHik

xU gpujpapy; nkhopf;F mg;ghw;gl;L> mjd; > cs;slf;fj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;

epfHikNahL ,J njhlHGilaJ. ,ijr; Rl;Lg;nghUs; khwhik vd;Wk; $wyhk;.

2.2 czHTg; nghUs; epfHik

,J rkkhd thHj;ijfspypUe;J vijj; NjHe;njLf;fpNwhk; vd;Dk; NjHNthL
njhlHGilaJ.

2.3 gpujpnahOf;f epfHik

ntt;NtW tpjkhd gpujpfs; ntt;NtW tpjkhf elf;fpd;wd. ,k;khjpupahd

ntt;NtW gpujp elj;ijfNshL njhlHGilaJ ,J.

139
2.4 gad;top epfHik

xU gpujp my;yJ nra;jpia Vw;gtNdhL njhlHGilaJ ,J. ,ijj; njhlHgpay;

epfHik (Communicative Equivalence) vdTk; $wyhk;. ,ijj;jhd; ielh „,af;ftpay;
epfHik‟ vd;whH.

2.5 tbttpay; epfHik

,J gpujpapd; tbtKk;> moFk; rk;ge;jg;gl;l xd;W. ,ij ntspg;ghl;L epfHik

(Expressive Equivalence) vd;Wk; $wyhk

V. jkpofj;jpy; nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

i. ,Nudpa]; ghjpupahupd; nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

18-Mk; E}w;whz;by; jkpofj;jpy; fpwpj;Jt kjk; gug;g may;ehl;L ghjpupkhHfs;

te;jdH. mtHfspy; Fwpg;gplj;jFe;jtH ,Nudpa]; ghjpupahH MthH. fp.gp. 1820-Mk;
Mz;by; ghisaq;Nfhl;ilf;F te;j ,Nudpa];> ney;iyapy; njhlf;ff; fy;tp fw;w
fpwpj;jtHfspd; Njitf;Nfw;g Ntjhfk E}y;fisj; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;jhH. mg;nghOJ
Ntjhfk nkhopngaHg;Gf; nfhs;iffis tFj;Jf; nfhz;lhH. mtH tFj;j
Nfhl;ghLfis fp.gp. 1827-Mk; Mz;by; 58 gf;fq;fs; nfhz;l E}yhfTk; cUthf;fpj;
je;Js;shH. me;E}ypd; jiyg;G “An Essay on the principles of Translating the Holy Scriptures
with Critical remarks on various passages particularly in reference to the Tamil Language (1327)
vd;gjhFk;"

1. ,Nudpa]; jkJ E}ypy; vOjpa Kf;fpakhd nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

1. %ynkhopapdpd;Nw ,yf;F nkhopf;F (ngWk;nkhop) nkhopngaHg;G epfo Ntz;Lk;.

2. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; my;yJ thHj;ijf;F thHj;ij nkhopngaHf;ff; $lhJ.
3. %ynkhop> ,yf;F nkhopapidf; fUj;jpw; nfhz;Nl nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4. fw;NwhH fy;yhNjhH vd;w ,Urhuupd; nkhop eiliag; gpd;gw;whky; ,U rhuUf;Fk;
,ilg;gl;l nkhopeilapy; Ntj nkhopngaHg;G mika Ntz;Lk;.

,Nudpa]hy;> ,t;nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs; NtjE}Yf;F kl;Lk; cUthf;fg;

gl;bUg;gpDk; midj;J nkhopngaHg;GfSf;Fk; ,f;Nfhl;ghLfs; nghUe;Jtdthf cs;sd.

140
ii. eP.fe;jrhkpg;gps;isapd; nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

jhk];fpNuapd; „vyp[p‟ (Elegy)-iaj; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;jtH

eP. fe;jrhkpg;gps;is. ,t; nkhopngaHg;gpd; gpw;gFjpapy; xU fl;Liuia ntspapl;Ls;shH.
mf;fl;Liuapy; mtH rpy nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfisAk; $wpAs;shH.
mf;Nfhl;ghLfis ntz;ghf;fshff; nfhLj;Js;shH.

xUtH xU E}iy nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lnkd;W fUjpdhy;> me;j E}y; ve;j

ehspy;> ve;jf; $l;lj;jpw;F> ve;jg; gaidf; fUjpr; nra;ag;gl;lJ vd;gij ed;F
Muha;e;J njspe;J> mj;jifa $l;lk; ,e;j ehspy; ,Uf;fpd;wjh? kf;fs; mj;jifa
gaid tpUk;Gfpd;whHfsh? vd;gijAk; vz;z Ntz;Lk;. gpd;dH me;E}yhrpupaH (%y
E}yhrpupaH) jk; fUj;ij kf;fs; cs;sj;jpy; gjpa itg;gjw;F Nkw;nfhz;l
KiwfisAk;> mtH fUJk; $l;lj;jpd; mwpT epiyiaAk;> %ynkhopapd; jd;ikiaAk;>
td;ikiaAk; nrt;itahf cs;sj;jpNy njspe;J nfhz;L %ynkhopapd; cz;ikf;F
khWglhkYk;> ve;j capHj;jd;ikNahL %ynkhopapy; fUj;Jf;fs; tpsq;Ffpd;wdNth
me;j capHj; jd;ikapNyNa nkhopngaHf;Fk; nkhopapYk; (ngWk;nkhop) fUj;Jfs; capH
ngw;Wj; jpfOk; vz;zk; nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.

“vg;gaDf; fhNu vtHf;nfe;ehs; ,e;E}iyr;

nrg;gpdnud; Ds;Ns rpe;jpj;Jj; Jg;GuNt
cz;ik tpsf;fp capHGFj;jpg; NgHj;jpLE}y;
tz;ikngW NkAyfp Ny"
NkYk;>

“vk;nkhopap NyD kpad;wnjhU ed;D}iyj;

jk;nkhopap yhf;fpj; juNtz;bd; nka;k;ikNrH
nrhy;Ny nghUNs czHr;rpnaDk; Kk;ikj;Nj
ty;NyhH tFj;j top”
vdf; $WfpwhH. mjhtJ %ynkhopapYs;s nrhw;fisr; nrhw;fshfNt nkhopngaHj;J>
mr;nrhw;fisf; nfhz;Nl %yE}ypd; nghUis mwpTWj; jp> nghUshNyNa %yE}y;
vOg;Gk; czHr;rpia cs;sj;jpy; vOg;Gfpd;w nkhopngaHg;Ng caHe;j nkhopngaHg;G
vdf; $WfpwhH. nkhopngaHg;ghsupd; jFjpfs; gw;wpf; Fwpg;gpLk; nghOJ>

“%y nkhopapy; KJgapw;rp As;shHjk;

ghYkpyh ypd;gg; gad;tUNk Nfhypa E}y;

141
 gy;y gapd;w gFj;jwptpd; nka;AzHNthH
ey;y nkhopngaHg;gpdhy;"
vdf; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH. nkhopngaHg;ghsH %ynkhopapYk;> ngWk;nkhopapYk; rpwe;j Mw;wy;
ngw;wtuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ ,t;ntz;gh $Wk; fUj;jhFk;.

Nkw;fhZk; ,Utupd; Nfhl;ghLfspypUe;J> ,Nudpa];> nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy;

nkhopngaHg;gijtpl fUj;J nkhopngaHg;Ng rpwe;jJ vd;W fUJtijAk;>
fe;jrhkpg;gps;is nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;gNj rpwe;jJ vdf; fUJtijAk;
mwpe;J nfhs;s KbfpwJ.

nkhopngaHg;G cj;jpfs;

,d;W tsHe;J tUfpd;w Jiwfspy; Kjy; epiyapy; ,Uf;fpd;w Jiw

nkhopngaHg;Gj; JiwahFk;. midj;J mYtyfq;fspYk; nkhopngaHg;gpd; Njit
czug;gl;Ls;sJ. rpwg;ghd nkhopngaHg;G> vy;NyhuhYk; tuNtw;fg;gLfpd;wJ. jkpo;
nrk;nkhop me;j];ijg; ngw;w epiyapy; jkpo; ,yf;fpaq;fs; gpw nkhopfspy;
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. nkhopngaHg;Gr; rpwg;ghf Ntz;Lnkdpy;> nkhopngaHg;gpd;
cj;jpfis nkhopngaHg;ghsH mwpe;J itj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

1. %ynkhop> ,yf;F nkhop

ve;j nkhopapd; nrhy; ngaHf;fg;gLfpwNjh mij %yr;nrhy; my;yJ %ynkhopr;

nrhy; (Source Language) vd;Wk;> ve;j nkhopr; nrhy;yhf mJ ngaHf;fg;gLfpwNjh mij
,yf;Fnkhop my;yJ ngaHg;G nkhop (Target Language) vd;Wk; Fwpg;gpLtH.

(v.fh.) %.nkh. - ng. nkh

College - fy;Y}up

University - gy;fiyf;fofk;

2. fUj;J khwhik

%yr;nrhy;iyg; ngaHf;Fk; nghOJ> fUj;J khw;wk; Vw;glhky; fUj;JfSf;F

Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) I tell the truth - %ynkhop

142
 ehd; cz;ikiar; nrhy;fpNwd; - ngWk;nkhop

He is helping the friends - %ynkhop

mtd; ez;gHfSf;F cjtpf; nfhz;bUf;fpwhd; - ngWk;nkhop

3. czHr;rpfis ntspg;gLj;Jjy;

czHr;rpfis ntspg;gLj;Jk; NghJ nrhy; khWglhky; Fwpg;Gg; nghUisj;

juyhk;. ngaHg;G nkhopapYk; mg;nghUs; ju Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) kpf ey;yJ! - Very good!

khkpahH tPlh? - Mother-in-law's house? (Jail)

4. r%f Nehf;F

r%f Nehf;F (Social Aspect) r%fg; gpur;rid> nkhopg; gpur;rid Mfpatw;iw

nkhopngaHg;ghsH czHe;J nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) 1. Blind - „FUL‟ vd nkhopngaHf;fhky; „ghHit,oe;NjhH‟ vd

nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2. Bribe - „yQ;rk;‟ vd nkhopngaHf;fhky; ifa+l;L nkhopngaHf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
3. Deaf - „nrtpL‟ vd nkhopngaHf;fhky; fhJ NfshjtH vd
nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4. Dumb - „Cik‟ vd nkhopngaHf;fhky; „Ngr ,ayhjtH‟ vd

nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.

5. gonkhopfs;

gonkhopfis nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ mtw;wpw;F ,izahd gonkhopfisg;

ngaHg;G nkhopfspy; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) The face is the index of the mind' vd;w gonkhopapd; Neubahd nkhopngaHg;G
„mfj;jpd; ntspg;ghL Kfk; MFk;‟ vd;gjhFk;. ,jw;F khwhf „mfj;jpd; moF Kfj;jpy;
njupAk;‟ vd;W ,izahd gonkhopiaf; $wyhk;.

143
 There's no smoke without fire - neUg;gpy;yhky; GifahJ
Prevention is better then cure - nts;sk; tUKd;Nd miz Nghl
Ntz;Lk;
A little knowledge is a dangerous - miuFiw mwpT Mgj;jhdJ
Little drops of water make the mighty ocean - rpW Jsp ngU nts;sk;

6. kuGj; njhlH

kuGj; njhlhfspy; ,lk;ngWk; nghUs; Neubg; nghUshf ,Uf;fhJ. kiwKfkhf>

NtW xU nghUisr; Rl;Ltjhf mikAk;. vdNt nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ cz;ikahd
kuGg; nghUisg; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) 'He kicked the bucket'

,jd; Neubahd nghUs; „mtd; thspia vl;b cijj;jhd;‟ vd;gjhFk;. Mdhy;

cz;ikahd kuGg; nghUs; ~mtd; ,we;J Nghdhd;‟ vd;gNj MFk;.

7. kpf neUf;fkhd nrhy;/epfud; (Equivalencc)

%ynkhopf;NfAupa jdpg;gl;l nkhopapaw; $Wfs;> ciuahly; mikg;Gfs;

Mfpatw;iw nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ rupahd kpfTk; neUf;fkhd nrhy; my;yJ epfud;
fpilf;fhky; Nghfyhk;. mJ Nghd;w ,lq;fspy; %yj;jpd; nghUSf;F Kjd;ikaplk;
je;J> mg;nghUis Mw;wYld; ngWk;nkhop thrfupd; kdjpy; gjpa itf;ff; $ba
epfud;fis nkhopngaHg;gpy; ifahs Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) Her name often appearedin press - gj;jpupiffspy; mts; ngaH mbf;fb
Njhd;wpaJ. (nkh.ng.1)
- gj;jpupiffspy; mts; ngaH mbf;fb
mbgl;lJ. (nkh.ng. 2)

Kjy; nkhopngaHg;ig tplTk; ,uz;lhtJ nkhopngaHg;Ng rpwe;jJ.

8. gynghUs; xU nrhy; (Polysemy)

xU nrhy;ypw;Fg; gy nghUs;fs; fhzg;gLk;. mr;nrhw;fSf;fpilNa nghUs;

njhlHG fhzg;gLk;. vdNt #oiyf; nfhz;L nghUis NtWgLj;jyhk;.

144
 fhy; - Leg
- kdpjdpd; / tpyq;fpd; fhy;
- ge;jy; fhy;
- ehw;fhypf; fhy;

The boy runs - igad; XLfpwhd;

The blood runs - ,uj;jk; nfhl;LfpwJ
The creeper runs - nfhb glHfpwJ
,g;gbg;gl;l gy nghUs; cs;s xU nrhy;iy nghUz;ik #oyhy; vg;nghUs; jUfpwNjh
mjidNa ngaHg;gpy; ju Ntz;Lk;. mt;thW %ynkhopr; nrhy;Yf;F ,izahd ngaHg;G
nkhopr; nrhy; ,y;iy vd;why; mbf;Fwpg;Gld; mjd; fhuzkhf ngaHg;Gr; nrhy;
nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ vd;gijf; Fwpg;gpl Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) njhO - Worship Pay homage

khl;Lj; njhO - Cattle shed
Ml;Lf;fpil - Cattle shed
Nkw;$wpatw;wpy; njhO> fpil vd;gd Fwpg;gpl;l epiyapy; ML> khLfs; fl;Lk;
,lj;jpidj; jdpj;j ngauhNyNa miof;Fk; kuG cs;sJ. vdNt ,jidr; Rl;bf;
fhl;Ljy; ,d;wpaikahjJ.

9. xU nghUl; gd;nkhop (Synonymy)

xU nghUis czHj;j gy;NtW nrhw;fs; xU nkhopapy; ,Uf;ff; $Lk;.

nghJthf mr;nrhw;fs; xNu nghUis czHj;jpdhYk; mr;nrhw;fSf;fpilNa rpw;rpy
NtWghLfSk; cs;sd. ,t;thW xU nghUis czHj;j gy;NtW nrhw;fs; ,lk;
ngWtij ~xU nghUl; gd;nkhop‟ vd;gH. rhd;whf jkpopy; „fps;is‟> „jj;ij‟ vd;gd
fpspiaf; Fwpf;Fk; xU nrhy; MFk;. ,ijg; Nghy; Mq;fpyj;jpy; Dew, Mist, Frost
Kjypa nrhw;fs; gdpiaf; Fwpf;fpd;wdthFk;. ,r; nrhw;fis %ynkhopapypUe;J
ngaHf;Fk; NghJ ftdkhf nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.

rhd;whf Mq;fpyj;jpy; Wrath,Anger, Fury, Indignation, Rage Nghd;w nrhw;fs;

Nfhgj;ijf; Fwpg;git vdpDk; „Wrath of God' vd;W $wyhNk jtpu „Wrath of a man'
vd;W $wf;$lhJ. jkpopYk; rpdj;ijf; Fwpf;f gy nrhw;fs; cs;sd. Nfhgk;> rpdk;>
ntFsp> nrw;wk;> rPw;wk; Kjypad Nfhgj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk; gy;NtW nrhw;fshFk;.

145
,r;nrhw;fSf;fpilNa El;gkhd NtWghl;il czHe;J nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,it
Nghd;W xU nghUs; czHj;j NkYk; gy nrhw;fs; jkpopy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

(v.fh.) rhg;gpL> jpd;D> nfhl;bf;Nfh> KOq;F> mKJ gz;Z>md;G> ghrk;> fhjy;>

kio> J}thdk;> J}wy;. Mdhy; mtw;wpw;fpilNa rpw;rpy NtWghLfs; cs;sd.

caHe;j kiy> neba kiy - Tall/High Mountain

,d;gk;> kfpo;r;rp> Mde;jk;> re;Njh\k; ,yf;fpar; nrhw;nghopitf; Nfl;gjw;F ,d;gk; /

kfpo;r;rp / Mde;jk; / re;Njh\j;ijf; nfhLf;fpwJ.

10. xU nrhy; gy nghUs; (Homonymy)

xU nrhy; gy nghUs;fisf; nfhLf;Fk;. Mdhy; mr;nrhw;fSf;fpilNa nghUs;

njhlHG ,Uf;fhJ.

(v.fh.) ehty; - kuk; (Tree)

- gok; (Fruit)
- Gjpdk; (Novel)

,ijg;Nghy; Mq;fpyj;jpy; nrhw;fs; cs;sd. cr;rupg;G xd;W Nghy; ,Uf;Fk;. Mdhy;

mr;nrhw;fSf;fpilNa nghUs; NtWghL fhzg;gLk;.

(v.fh) 1. Fair - mofhd

Fare - fl;lzk;
2. Flour - khT
Flower - g+
11. nghUs; kaf;fk; (Ambiguity)

nghUs; kaf;fk; jUk; nrhy;iy nkhopngaHg;Gr; nra;tJ fbdk;. mjidj;

jtpHf;f nghUs; kaf;fk; jUk; nrhy;ypw;Fg; gjpyhf NtW nrhy; ,Ug;gpd; mjid
milg;Gf;Fwpf;Fs; nfhLf;fyhk;.

(v.fh.) fpil - Cattle-shed (Flock of sheep)

146
,t; vLj;Jf;fhl;by; 'Cattle' vd;gJ khLfisr; Rl;lTk; Fwpg;gplyhk;. vdNtjhd; 'Cattle-
Shed' vd;gjd; milg;Gf; Fwpf;Fs; „ML‟ vd;gijf; Fwpf;f „Flock of sheep' vd
Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.

12. fyhr;rhu tof;Ffs;

xU nkhopapd; tof;FfSf;Fk;> mk;nkhop toq;Fkplj;jpd; Gtpapay; mikg;gpw;Fk;>

jl;gntg;gr; #oYf;Fk;> mtHfspd; nghUshjhu fyhr;rhug; gpd;Gyj;Jf;Fk; kpFe;j
njhlHG cz;L.

mNugpaH kziyg; gy;NtW nrhw;fshy; $Wfpd;wdH. v];fpNkhf;fs; ];Neh

(Snow) vd;w nrhy;ypw;Fg; gy ngaHfs; toq;FfpwhHfs;. nkhop toq;Fk; ,lkhdJ
nkhopapd; kPJ nrYj;Jk; Ml;rpiaNa ,it czHj;Jfpd;wd.

jkpopy;> „mfq;Fspu tuNtw;wdH‟ vd;W $Wtij Mq;fpyj;jpy; „They extended a

warm welcome' vd;W $WfpwhHfs;. ,t; vLj;Jf;fhl;L fyhr;rhu mbg;gilapy; nkhopapd;
jd;ik ,lk; ngWtij czHj;JfpwJ. vdNt fyhr;rhuKk; nkhopngaHg;gpy; Kf;fpa
,lj;ijg; ngWfpwJ.

13. cwTKiwg; ngaHfs; (Kinship terms)

jkpopy; gy;NtW cwTKiwg; ngaHfs; toq;fg;gLfpd;wd. rhd;whf> khkh>

rpj;jg;gh> ngupag;gh Nghd;w nrhw;fisf; $wyhk;. ,tw;iw Mq;fpyj;jpy;
nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ 'Uncle' vd;w xNu nrhy;iyg; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) mj;ij> khkp> rpj;jp> ngupak;kh> Nghd;w cwTKiwg; ngaHfis

Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ „Aunt‟ vd;w nrhy;iyg; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.

14. fiyr; nrhw;fs;

gpw nkhopfspYs;s fiyr; nrhw;fis mjd; nghUz;ik khwhky; ngaHj;jy;

Ntz;Lk;. ngaHf;fg; ngw;w nrhy; Vw;Fk; nkhopapd; xypaikg;Gf;F Vw;g ,Uj;jy;
Ntz;Lk;. %ynkhopr; nrhy;ypd; nghUz;ikf;Fr; rpijT NeupLjy; $lhJ.

„Radio‟ vd;w nrhy; ,e;jp> njYq;F> kiyahsk; Nghd;w nkhopfspy; „Mfh\;

thzp‟ vd;W nkhopngaHf;fg; ngw;wJ. jkpopYk; mt;thNw MdJ. Mdhy; ehsiltpy;
mjid thndhyp vd;W ngaHj;jdH. Mfh\;thzp vd;gjpYs;s \fuk; jkpo; xypf;F

147
khwhdJ. vdNt ,r;nrhy; nraw;if ifj;jdk; epiwe;J fhzg;gLfpwJ. thndhyp
mt;thwpy;iy. ,jpYs;s vOj;Jf;fs; ahTk; jkpo; xypfs;. Mjyhy; ,aw;ifahdjhf>
jkpopd; nrhe;jr; nrhy;yhff; fhzg;gLfpwJ. vdNt ngaHf;fg;gLk; nrhy; ,aw;ifj;jdk;
epiwe;jjhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) Radio - thndhyp

15. fpisnkhop (Dialect)

fpisnkhop (Dialect) vd;gJ xU nkhopapd; gy;NtW Ngr;R tof;Ffisf;

Fwpg;gjhFk;. xU nkhopapNyNa gy fpisnkhopfs; fhzg;glyhk;. ,f;fpisnkhopfs;
,e;jpa ehl;Lr; rKjhar; #oypy; ,lk; (Region) rhjp (Caste), kjk; (Religion), fy;tp
(Education)> taJ (Age)> njhopy; (Occupation), nghUshjhu epiy (Economic Status)
Nghd;w gy $Wfs; fpisnkhop ghFghl;bw;Fj; Jiz epw;gdthFk;. vdNt fpisnkhop
gw;wpa mwpT nkhopngaHg;ghsDf;Fj; Njit.

(v.fh) : fd;dpahFkup khtl;lj;J kf;fs; „nts;sk;‟ vDk; nrhy;ypw;F „jz;zPH‟ vd;W

nghUs; nfhs;fpd;wdH. gpw khtl;lj;J kf;fs; „ngUnts;sk;‟ vd;W nghUs;
nfhs;fpd;wdH.

16. xU nrhy;ypd; nghUs; khWjy;

Fwpg;gpl;l xU nrhy;ypd; nghUs; fhyg;Nghf;fpy; khwp ,Ue;jhy; mjidg; gw;wpa

mwpTk; nkhopngaHg;ghsDf;Fj; njupe;jpUe;jhy; nkhopngaHg;gJ vspikahf ,Uf;Fk;.

(v.fh.) ehw;wk; - Kd;G ~eWkzk;‟ vd;w nghUisf; nfhLj;jJ. Mdhy; jw;nghOJ

„JHehw;wk;‟ vDk; nghUisf; nfhLf;fpwJ.

17. xyp ngaHg;G (Transliteration)

%ynkhopapYs;s rpy fiyr;nrhw;fis nkhopngaHj;J ngWk; nkhopapy;

fiyr;nrhw;fis cUthf;Fk; NghJ vjpHghHf;fpd;w cz;ikahd nghUs; fpilf;fhky;
Nghfyhk;. mj;jifa #oypy; jw;fhypf Vw;ghlhf xypngaHj;jy; vd;w Kiwia
Nkw;nfhs;syhk;.

Oxygen - Mf;rprd;

148
„Mf;]p[d;‟ vd;w Mq;fpyr; nrhy; gpd;dHg; nghUs; mbg;gilapy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;L
„gpuhzthA‟ vd;W vOjg;gl;lJ. ,r;nrhy; tlnkhopf;Fr; nrhe;jkhdJ vd;w vjpHg;Gf;Fg;
gpd;dH> „capHtsp‟ vd;W toq;Fk; Kaw;rp njhlq;fpAs;sJ.

18. FwpaPLfs; (Symbols)

fzpjtpay; FwpaPLfisAk;> Ntjpapaypy; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;w FwpaPLfisAk; ngWk;

nkhopapy; nkhopngaHf;f KbahJ. ,f; FwpaPLfis %ynkhopapy; cs;sthNw ngWk;
nkhopapYk; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ ,t; cj;jpapidAk;
nkhopngaHg;ghsH gpd;gw;w Ntz;Lk;. rhd;whf fzpjtpay; FwpaPLfshd +, -, >, <, %
Nghd;wtw;iwAk;> Ntjpapaypy; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;w H2O, H2SO4, HNO3, C2H5OH kw;Wk;
,it Nghd;w FwpaPLfisAk; nkhopngaHf;fhky; mt;thNw ngWk; nkhopapy; Fwpg;gpl
Ntz;Lk;.

19. Fwpg;Gg; nghUs;

rpy thf;fpaq;fs; Gw mikg;gpy; xU nghUisAk;> Gij mikg;gpy; NtW

nghUisAk; czHj;Jfpd;wd. ,t;thW mikAk; nghUs; NtWghl;bidj; njupe;J
nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.

rhd;whf „mtd; khkpahH tPl;bw;F Nghdhd;‟ vd;w thf;fpak; Gw mikg;gpy; xU

nghUisr; Rl;bdhYk;> Gij mikg;gpy; „mtd; n[apYf;Fg; Nghdhd;‟ vd;w Fwpg;Gg;
nghUisAk; czHj;JfpwJ. vdNt ngWk; nkhopapy; nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ>'He went to
jail' vd;Nw nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.

ielhtpd; %d;W nkhopngaHg;Gg; gbepiyfs;

nkhopngaHg;gpy; ,uz;L tpj mZFKiwfs; cz;L vd ielh $wpAs;shH. rpy

tpjpKiwfisg; gad;gLj;jp %yj;jpd; Gw mikg;Gj; (Surface Structure) njhlHfSf;F
,izahd ngWk;nkhopj; njhlHfis cUthf;FtJ xUKiw> %ynkhopapd; Gij
mikg;Gfis (Deep Structure) fz;lwpe;J ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;WtJ ,uz;lhtJ Kiw.
,uz;lhtJ Kiw rw;W caHthdJ> rpwg;ghdJ vd;Wk; fUjg;gLfpwJ. ,k;Kiw %d;W
gbepiyfisf; (Stages) nfhz;lJ. mit tUkhW

1. gFg;gha;T (Analysis)

149
 2. khw;Wjy; (Transfer)

3. nrk;ikahf;fk; (Restructuring)

,k;%d;W gbepiyfisAk; fPo;f;fhZk; glj;jpd; %yk; ielh tpsf;fpAs;shH.

%ynkhop ngWk; nkhop

ghFg;gha;T nrk;ikahf;fk;

khw;Wjy;

gFg;gha;T epiyapy; xU nkhopngaHg;ghsd; %ynkhopapd; Gw mikg;G

thf;fpaq;fspy; ,lk;ngWk; nrhw;fSf;fpilapy; epyTk; ,yf;fz cwTfisAk;
(Grammatical Relationships), nrhw;NrHf;iffSf;F (Combination of Words) ,ilapy;
epyTk; ,yf;fz cwTfisAk;> nrhw;fspd; nghUisAk;> nrhw;NrHf;iffspd;
nghUisAk; gFg;gha;T nra;fpwhd;.

(v.fh) 1. FkhH kpjptz;b Xl;bdhd;

2. FkhH n`HFyp]; kpjptz;bia Ntfkhf Xl;bdhd;.

Kjy; thf;fpaj;jpy; kpjptz;b vd;w nrhy;Yf;Fk; Xl;bdhd; vd;w nrhy;Yf;Fk;

,ilapYs;s ,yf;fz cwT nrag;gLnghUs; - gadpiy vd;gJ. ,uz;lhtJ
thf;fpaj;jpy; n`HFyp]; kpjptz;b vd;gJ ,uz;L nrhw;fspd; NrHf;if@ Ntfkhf
Xl;bdhd; vd;gJ ,uz;L nrhw;fspd; NrHf;if. ,r;nrhw;NrHf;iffSf;F ,ilapy; epyTk;
,yf;fz cwTk; nrag;gLnghUs; gadpiy - vd;gNj.

(v.fh) : 1. rd;dy; fk;gpfSf;F tz;zk; jPl;bdhHfs;.

2. fhR thq;fpatd; fk;gp ePl;bdhd;.

Kjy; thf;fpaj;jpy; fk;gp vd;Dk; nrhy;Yf;F xU nghUs;. ,uz;lhk; thf;fpaj;jpy; fk;gp

ePl;bdhd; vd;gJ njhlHgpy;yhj NtnwhU nghUisj; jUfpwJ. khw;Wjy; (Transfer)
epiyapy; xU nkhopngaHg;ghsd; gFg;gha;T nra;ag;gl;l %ynkhopr; nra;jpiaj; jd;
kdj;Js; %ynkhopapypUe;J ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;w Kidfpwhd;. %ynkhopapd;
nra;jpiag; nghUl; gpioapd;wpj; njspthfg; ngWk; nkhopf;F khw;WtjpNyNa ftdk;
nrYj;Jfpwhd;. ngWk; nkhopf;F ,ay;ghd Kiwapy; gpd;dH nrk;ikg;gLj;Jfpwhd;.
,JNt nrk;ikahf;fk;.

150
gbepiyfs;

1. gFg;gha;T

%ynkhopapidg; gFg;gha;T nra;tjpy; %d;W gbfs; cs;sd.

1. nrhw;fSf;fpilapYk;> nrhw;NrHf;iff;fSf;fpilapYk; cs;s nghUSs;s

cwTfisf; (Meaningful Relationships) fz;lwpjy;.
2. nrhw;fSk;> jdptifahd nrhw;NrHf;iffSk;> (Words and Special Combination of
words) Rl;Lfpd;w nghUis (Referential Meaning) mwpjy;
3. nrhw;fSk;> nrhw;NrHf;iffSk; %ynkhopahsUf;F czHj;Jfpd;w czHTg;
nghUis (Connotative Meaning) mwpjy;

1.1 ,yf;fzj;jpw;Fg; nghUs; cz;L

%ynkhop thf;fpaq;fspy; nrhw;fSf;Fk; nrhw;NrHf;if-fSf;Fk; ,ilapYs;s

nghUs;fspd; cwtpidf; fz;lwpjy; vd;gJ ,yf;fzg; gFg;gha;thf (Grammatical
Analysis) mikAk;. xt;nthU nkhopapYk; me;je;j nkhopapd; ,yf;fzj;jpw;Fg; nghUs;
cz;L

1. Shanthi told Kamala

2. Kamala told Shanthi

,t;tpU Mq;fpy thf;fpaq;fSk; xNu nrhw;fshyhdit. Mdhy; nghUs; Kw;wpYk; NtW.

,t;thf;fpaq;fspy; thHj;ijfspd; tupirKiw khWk; NghJ nghUSk; khwpg;NghfpwJ.
Mq;fpy thf;fpaj;jpy; KjyhtJ ,lj;jpw;F xU nghUs;> %d;whtJ ,lj;jpw;F xU
nghUs;> %d;whtjhf ,lk; ngWk; nrhy;iy Kjy; ,lj;jpw;F khw;wpdhy;> nghUs;
Kw;wpYk; khwptpLfpwJ.

1. nghd; tisay; thq;fpdhs;

2. nghd; tpiy Vwpw;W

,t;tpU jkpo; thf;fpaq;fspYk; ,lk;ngWk; nghd; vd;Dk; nrhy; mLj;J tUk;

nrhy;iyg; nghWj;J (1) thf;fpaj;jpy; fUtpg; nghUisAk; (2) thf;fpaj;jpy; tpid
Kjy; nghUisAk; jUfpwJ. vdNt xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzk; vd;gJ mk;nkhop

151
,aq;Fk; tpjk; gw;wpa tpjpfs; vd;w mstpy; epy;yhJ> jdf;nfd;W xU nghUis
cilajhfTk; tpsq;FfpwJ vd;gij czuyhk;.

2. khw;Wjy; (Transfer)

gFg;gha;Tf;Fl;gl;l %ynkhopapd; nra;jpfs; khw;Wjy; epiyapy;

%ynkhopapypUe;J ngWk; nkhopf;F khw;wg;gLfpd;wd. ,J nkhopngaHg;ghsdpd;
kdj;jstpy; epfo;tjhFk;. gFg;gha;T epiyapy; %ynkhop mwpQHfspd; cjtpiaAk;>
nrk;ikahf;fj;jpd; NghJ ngWk; nkhop mwpQHfspd; cjtpiaAk; nkhopngaHg;ghsd;
ehlyhk;. Mdhy; %ynkhopapd; nra;jpfis ,d;ndhU nkhopf;F khw;WtJ vd;gJ
nkhopngaHg;ghsd; jhNd nra;a Ntz;ba gzp. ,JNt nkhopngaHg;gpy; ,d;wpaikahj
gzpahFk;. mtd; %ynkhopr; nra;jpiag; ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;Wk; gzpapy; <LgLk; mNj
rkak;> gFg;gha;Tf;Fk;> nrk;ikahf;fj;Jf;Fkhf Kd;Dk; gpd;Dk; jd; kdj;jpy; kpf
tpiuthf ,aq;fp nkhopngaHg;igr; nrk;ikg;gLj;Jfpwhd;.

khw;Wjypd; nray; Kiwfs;

%ynkhopapYs;s jha; thf;fpaq;fisg; ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;Wk; NghJ

xd;Wf;nfhd;W njhlHgpy;yhj jha;thf;fpaq;fshf khw;Wjy; $lhJ. mg;gb khw;wpdhy;>
mit juNtz;ba nghUisj; juh. ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;wg;gLk; %ynkhopapd; ,uz;L
jha;thf;fpaq;fSf;fpilNa fhyj;njhlHG> ,lj;njhlHG (Spatial Relationship)> ,iaGj;
njhlHG (Logical Relationship) Nghd;w njhlHGfspy; VNjDk; xd;W mike;jpUf;Fk;. xU
nra;jpia %ynkhopapypUe;J ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;Wk; NghJ> ,j;njhlHG Gyg;gLk;gb
khw;w Ntz;Lk;. fPo;f;fhZk; jkpo; Mq;fpy nkhopngaHg;Gfs; ,jidj; njspthf;Fk;.

fhyj;njhlHG

„ehd; kJiuapypUe;J te;jjpypUe;J vdf;F cly;eykpy;iy‟ - ,t;thf;fpaj;ijf;

fPo;f;fhZk; njhlH thf;fpaq;fshf gFf;fyhk;.

1. ehd; kJiuapypUe;J te;Njd;

2. ehd; cly;eykpy;yhky; ,Uf;fpNwd;

„,tw;Ws; ehd; kJiuapypUe;J te;Njd;‟ vd;gJ fhyj;jhy; Ke;jpa epfo;r;rp. ~ehd;

cly;eykpy;yhky; ,Uf;fpNwd;‟ vd;gJ gpe;jpa epfo;r;rp. ,tw;iw Mq;fpyj;jpy; khw;Wk;
NghJ> ,f;fhyj;njhlHG Njhd;w

152
 'I have not been well since I returned from Madurai' vd;W khw;w Ntz;Lk;.

,lj;njhlHG

mts; gbj;j gs;spf;$lj;ijf; fhl;bdhs;' ,t;thf;fpaj;ijf; fPo;f;fhZk; jha;

thf;fpaq;fshfg; gFf;fyhk;.

1. mts; gs;spf;$lj;jpy; gbj;jhs;

2. mts; gs;sp$lj;ijf; fhl;bdhs;

,t;tpU jha; thf;fpaq;fSf;FKs;s njhlHG ,lj;njhlHG. ,tw;iw Mq;fpyj;jpy;

khw;Wk;NghJ ,t;tplj;njhlHG Njhd;w>

„She showed her school where she studied' vd;W khw;WfpNwhk;.

,iaGj; njhlHG

fhuzk; - fhupak;> nray;> gz;G> tpisT> epge;jid> epfo;r;rp Mfpait ,lk;

ngWk; thf;fpaq;fspy; ,it xd;Wf;nfhd;W ,iaGld; nghUe;Jk; tz;zk; thf;fpak;
miktJ ,d;wpaikahjJ. ,jid ,iaGj;njhlHG vd;fpNwhk;. mwpTf;Fg; nghUj;jkhf
mikAk; ,t;tpj ,iagpidj; jUf;fj;njhlHG vd;Wk; $WtH.

(v.fh) : mtdplk; gzkpUg;gjhy;> mtdhy; ePjpia tpiyf;F thq;f KbAk;.

,t;thf;fpaj;ijf; fPo;f;fhZk; jha;thf;fpaq;fshfg; gFf;fyhk;. 1. mtdplk; gzk;

,Uf;fpwJ> 2. mtdhy; ePjpia tpiyf;F thq;f KbAk;. ,tw;Ws; (1) fhuzk; (2)
fhupak; ,it ,iaGwg; nghUe;Jk; tz;zk; Mq;fpyj;jpy;>

'Because he has money, he can buy justice' vd;W ngaHj;njOJfpNwhk;. „fLk; Kaw;rp
nra;jhy;> epr;rak; eP ntw;wp ngWtha;‟ ,jidf; fPo;f;fhZk; jha;thf;fpaq;fshfg;
gFf;fyhk;.

1. eP fLikahf Kaw;rp nra;

2. epr;rak; eP ntw;wp ngWtha;

153
,tw;Ws; (1) epge;jid (2) epfo;r;rp. ,it ,uz;Lf;FKs;s ,iaG Njhd;w
,j;jha;thf;fpaq;fs; Mq;fpyj;jpy;> „If you take great efforts, you will surely succeed‟ vd;W
mikAk;.

3. nrk;ikahf;fk;

%ynkhopiag; gFg;gha;T nra;J ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;wpa thf;fpaq;fspy; nghUs;

njspT ,Uf;Fk;. Mdhy; %ynkhopapd; Gwthf;fpaq;fspypUe;j eil moNfh>
czHr;rpNah> Mw;wNyh> mzp eyNkh> tbtj;jpd; rpwg;Gf;$WfNsh mtw;wpy; ,Uf;f
,ayhJ. nghUSld; ,itAk; nkhopg;ngaHg;gpy; ,iaGw mike;jhy;> nkhopngaHg;G
Mw;wYk;> epiwTk; ngw;W tpsq;Fk;. Nkw;Rl;ba $Wfisnay;yhk; ngWk; nkhopapy;
mg;gbNa ngaHj;Jj; jUtJ vspjd;W. Mdhy; ,g;gzpia Kbe;jtiu ntw;wpfukhfr;
nra;tJjhd; nrk;ikahf;fk; MFk;. khw;Wjy; epiyapy; %ynkhopapd; ftpij jd;
ftpij moFfs; ,y;yhky; tbtk;> nghUs; vd;w rhuj;ij kl;Lk; ngw;wpUf;Fk;>
,t;tbtj;ijAk;> nghUisAk; re;jk;> czHr;rp> mzpeyk; Mfpatw;why; nkUNfw;wp
%ynkhopf;F ,izahd ngWk;nkhopf; ftpij xd;iw nkhopngaHg;ghsd; gilj;Jj;
jUfpwhd;. ,t;tpjk; khw;Wjy; %yk; ngw;w %ynkhopapd; rhuj;ij %ynkhopapd;
,yf;fpa eaj;Jf;fpizahd ngWk;nkhopapd; ,yf;fpa eaq;fSld; jpUj;jp mikg;gNj
nrk;ikahf;fk; MFk;. ,yf;fpaky;yhj nra;jpfis nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJk;>
nrk;ikahf;fj;jpd;NghJ nkhopapd; jpl;g El;gq;fs; NrHf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

nrhy;yhf;f cj;jpfs;

nrhy;yhf;fk; vd;gJ Gjpa nrhy;iy cUthf;FtjhFk;. xU nrhy;ypypUe;J Gjpa

nrhw;fis cUthf;FtJ nrhy;yhf;fk; vdg;gLk;. %ynkhopapy; nrhy;yg;gLk;
GJf;fUj;J> nghUs; Mfpatw;wpw;F ,izahd nrhy; ngaHg;Gnkhopapy; mg;gbNa
gad;gLj;Jtijtplg; Gjpa nrhw;fis cUthf;Ftjhy; ngaHg;Gnkhop tsk; ngw tha;g;G
Vw;gLfpwJ. ,t;thW cUthf;fg;gLk; nrhw;fs; ,yf;fz kuG> kf;fspd; gz;ghl;L kuG
Mfpatw;wpw;Ff; fl;Lg;gl;Nl cUthf;f Ntz;Lk;. Gjpa nrhy;yhf;fj;jpy; NjHe;j nghUs;
tpsf;fk; ngWfpd;w nrhy;iyNa cUthf;f Ntz;Lk;. vy;NyhUk; Gupe;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;
vd vspa nrhy;iy cUthf;fpg; nghUs; kaf;fj;jpw;F ,lk; nfhLj;J tpLjy; MfhJ.
mr;nrhy;iyg; gof;fj;jpy; gad;gLj;jp te;J tpl;lhy; mJ vspikahf khwptpLk;.

mwptpay;> ,yf;fpak;> rl;lk; Nghd;w Jiwfspy; Fwpg;gpl;l nghUSf;Fg; gy

nrhw;fis cUthf;Fjy; $lhJ. Fog;gj;ijNa mJ cUthf;Fk;.

154
I. nrhy;yhf;f Kiwfs;

Gjpa nrhw;fis cUthf;Ftjpy; gy Kiwfs; cs;sd.

mit

1. nrhy; jpupG (Inflection)

2. Mf;fk; (Derivation)

3. RUf;ff; FwpaPl;lhf;fk; (Abridged Translation)

4. vOj;Jg; ngaHg;G / xypngaHg;G (Transliteration)

5. fld; ngaHg;G (Loan Translation)

6. fyg;ghf;fk; (Hybridization)
7. vspikahf;fk; (Simplification)

8. Gj;jhf;fk; (Neologism)
9. gjpyPl;lhf;fk; (Substitution)

10. vjpnuhypahf;fk; (Echoword)

11. xg;Gikahf;fk; (Analogy)

12. gFjpahf;fk; (Clipping)

13.nghUj;jKilik(Appropriateness)

14. gy;JiwNehf;F (Interdisciplinary)

15. Vw;Gilik (Adaptability)

16. nkhopj;J}a;ik (Language Purity) vd;gdthFk;.

1. nrhy; jpupG (Inflection)

xU nrhy;ypUe;J gy nrhw;fis cUthf;FtJ nrhy; jpupG vdg;gLk;. mt;thW

cUthf;Fk;NghJ nrhy;ypDila mbg;gilg; nghUs; khwhJ. Mdhy; Gjpa nrhw;fspy;
fhyk; khWk;. nrhy; jpupG nkhopf;F nkhop khWgLk;.

(v.fh) : XL – Xbdhd;> XLfpwhd;> XLthd;

gb - gbj;jhd;> gbf;fpwhd;> gbg;ghd;

155
2. Mf;fk; (Derivation)

xU nrhy;ypypUe;J Gjpa nrhw;fis cUthf;Fk; NghJ nrhy;ypd; mbg;gilg;

nghUSk;> ,yf;fzKk; khWk;.

(v.fh) : gb - gbg;G> gbj;jhd;> gbg;gtd;> gbj;jy;.

Child - Childish

3. RUf;ff; FwpaPl;lhf;fk; (Abridged Translation)

RUf;ff; FwpaPl;lhf;fj;jpy; ,Utif cz;L. mit 1. nrhw; RUf;fk; 2. nrhw;

FWf;fk; vd;gdthFk;.

3.1 nrhw; RUf;fk; (Abbreviation)

kpf ePz;l nrhw;fspd; Kjy; vOj;J my;yJ Kjy; miria nrhw;fshfg;

gad;gLj;Jjy;> mjhtJ nrhw;fspd; tbtj;ijr; RUf;Fjy;

(v.fh) : Doctor of Philosophy - Ph.D

Master of Arts - MA
Member of Parliament - MP

3.2 nrhw; FWf;fk; (Acronym)

nrhw;fisg; nghUs; jUfpd;w tpjj;jpy; RUf;fpf;$Wjy; nrhw; FWf;fk; vdg;gLk;

(v.fh) Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome - AIDS

Radio Detecting and Ranging - RADAR

4. vOj;Jg; ngaHg;G / xypngaHg;G (Transliteration)

nkhopapYs;s vOj;Jf;fis kw;nwhU nkhopapYs;s vOj;Jf;fshy;

vOj;Jf;nfOj;J ngaHj;J vOJjy; vOj;Jg;ngaHg;G vdg;gLk;. ,t; vOj;Jg; ngaHg;G

1. NeHepiy vOj;Jg; ngaHg;G

2. khw;W epiy vOj;Jg; ngaHg;G ,Utifg;gLk;.

156
4.1 NeHepiy vOj;Jg;ngaHg;G (Direct Transliteration)

%ynkhopapYs;s vOj;Jf;fisg; ngWk;nkhopf;Fj; jFe;jthW ngaHj;J vOJtJ

(v.fh) OXYGEN - Mf;rp[d;

CAR - fhH

4.2 khw;Wepiy vOj;Jg; ngaHg;G (Indirect/ Alternate Transliteration)

%ynkhopapYs;s nrhw;fisg; Gupe;J nfhz;L ngWk; nkhopf;Fj; jFe;jthW rpwpJ

khw;wp vOJtJ: Mdhy; mNj Neuj;jpy; nghUs; khwhky; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh) OXYGEN - Mf;rprd;

HYDROGEN - i`l;urd;

5. fld; ngaHg;G (Loan Translation)

%ynkhopapYs;s nrhw;fisg; ngWk; nkhopf;Fj; jFe;jthW nkhopngaHj;jy;

„fld; ngaHg;G‟ vdg;gLk;. ,J „NeHnkhopngaHg;G‟> „fUj;J nkhopngaHg;G‟ vd
,Utifg;gLk;.

5.1 NeH nkhopngaHg;G (Direct Translation)

%ynkhopr; nrhy;iy Neubahf nkhopngaHj;J vOJtJ NeH nkhopngaHg;G

vdg;gLk;.

(v.fh) Television - njhiyf;fhl;rp

Teleprinter - njhiy mr;R

Telephone - njhiyNgrp

5.2 fUj;J nkhopngaHg;G (Concept Translation)

%ynkhopapYs;s fUj;jpidg; ngWk; nkhopf;Fj; jFe;jthW nkhopngaHj;jy;

(v.fh) Theatre - jpiu muq;F

Television - rpd;dj;jpiu

157
6. fyg;ghf;fk; (Hybridization)

jha;nkhopr; nrhy;Yld; gpw nkhopr; nrhw;fs; fyg;gJ fyg;ghf;fk; vdg;gLk;. ,J

1. ,U nrhy; fyg;ghf;fk;
2. gy nrhy; fyg;ghf;fk; vd ,U tifg;gLk;

6.1 ,Unrhy; fyg;ghf;fk; (Di - Hybrid)

jha;nkhopr; nrhy;Yld; gpwnkhopr; nrhy; xd;iw kl;Lk; fyg;gJ ,U nrhy;

fyg;ghf;fk; vdg;gLk;.

(v.fh) kspifr; rhkhd; - (Urudu) (Ta),

tz;z nlyptp\d; - (Ta) (Eng)

6.2 gy nrhy; fyg;ghf;fk; (Multi - Hybrid)

jha;nkhopr; nrhy;Yld; xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l gpwnkhopr; nrhw;fs; fyg;gJ gynrhy;

fyg;ghf;fk; vdg;gLk;.

(v.fh) uapy;Nt Jiw mjpfhup - (Eng) (Ta) (Sans)

khtl;l NghyP]; mjpfhup - (Ta) (Eng) (Sans)

6.3 tpFjp ,izg;G (Addition of Suffix)

gpwnkhopr; nrhy;Yld; jkpo; nkhop tpFjpia ,izj;Njh my;yJ jkpo;

nkhopAld; gpwnkhop tpFjpia ,izj;Njh Gjpa nrhw;fis cUthf;FtJ.

(v.fh) rpdpkhf;fhuH> NghyP]f

; huH> Fl;B];

7. vspikahf;fk; (Simplification)
vOj;Jf;fisNah> tbtq;fisNah> jpupGfisNah vspikg;gLj;jp Gjpa nrhw;fis
cUthf;fyhk;. nrhw;fs; cr;rupf;f vspikahditahfTk; Nfl;gjw;F ,dpa
XirAiladthfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

7.1 vOj;njspik

vOj;Jf;fis vspikg;gLj;jp vOJjy; vOj;njspik vdg;gLk;.

158
 (v.fh) xsit - mt;it

ngsj;jk; - gTj;jk;> Gj;jk;

7.2 tbt vspik

xU nrhy;ypd; tbtj;ij vspikg;gLj;jp vOJtJ tbt vspik vdg;gLk;.

(v.fh) khtl;l Ml;rpj;jiytH> khtl;l Ml;rpahsH> khtl;l Ml;rpaH> Ml;rpaH

7.3 jpupG vspik

,U nrhw;fs; ,ize;J> gpd;dH jpupe;J vspikahd Gjpa nrhy; cUthFk;.

(v.fh) fhNzd; MNtd; - fhz;Ngd;

8. Gj;jhf;fk; (Neologism)

Gjpa nrhw;fis cUthf;Fjy; Gj;jhf;fk; vdg;gLk;.

8.1 xl;L epiyahf;fk; (Suffixation)

xl;Lf;fis nrhy;ypd; Kd;dH NrHf;fpd;w nghOJ Gjpa nrhw;fs; cUthfpd;wd.

(v.fh) mehfupfk;> mRj;jk;> mtkupahij> mepahak;> Unhappy, Disqualification

3. gjpyPl;lhf;fk; (Substitution)

ePskhd ngauhf ,Ue;jhy; mjidr; RUf;fp vOJtJ gjpyPl;lhf;fk; vdg;gLk;.

(v.fh) nrd;idg; gl;lzk; - nrd;id

fd;dpahFkup - Fkup
Nfhak;Gj;J}H - Nfhit

10. vjpnuhypahf;fk; (Echoword)

Ngr;Rtof;fpy; mjpf mstpy; vjpnuhypr; nrhw;fs; toq;fg;gl;L Gjpa nrhw;fs;

cUthfpd;wd.

(v.fh) rhg;ghL - fPg;ghL> kzp - fpzp

159
11. xg;Gikahf;fk; (Analogy)

xU nrhy;ypw;F epfuhf> xg;Gikahf;fkhf GJ nrhy;iy cUthf;Fjy;.

(v.fh) ez;gd; - ez;gp

,iwtd; - ,iwtp
Njhod; - Njhop

12. gFjpahf;fk; (Clipping)

xU nrhy;ypypUe;J xU gFjpiag; gpupj;J Gjpa nrhy;iy cUthf;Fjy;.

(v.fh) Advertisement - Advert

Gd;difj;jhd; - Gd;dif

13. nghUj;jKilik (Appropriateness/Efficiency)

xU fUj;jikTf;Fg; gy nrhw;fspy; nghUj;jkhd xd;iwj; NjHe;njLj;jy;.

(v.fh) Engine`` - nghwp>

Machine - ve;jpuk;

Mw;wiy cUthf;Fk; fUtpiag; nghwp (Engine) vd;Wk;> Mw;wiyg; gad;gLj;jp Ntiy

nra;Ak; fUtpia ve;jpuk; (Machine) vd;Wk; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.

14. gy;JiwNehf;F (Interdisciplinary)

Jiwf;Nfw;gr; nrhy;ypd; nkhopahf;fk; khWtJz;L. ~Workshop‟ vd;gijg; gl;liw>

gzpkid vdg; ngaHf;fyhk;. ,it njhopw;$lq;fshf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. „Workshop'
Ma;T> fy;tp njhlHghf epfOk; NghJ gapyuq;F> mwptuq;F vd;gJ rhyg;nghUe;Jk;.
(v.fh.) Powercut - kpd;ntl;L> Horse Power - gupj;jpwd;

15. Vw;Gilik (Adaptability)

gad;ghl;by; gad;gLfpd;w nrhw;fis Vw;Wf; nfhs;syhk;.

(v.fh) Joint Action - $l;L eltbf;if> Joint Statement - $l;L mwpf;if

160
16. nkhopj;J}a;ik (Language Purity)

nrhy;yhf;fj;jpy; nkhopj;J}a;ikf;F ,lkpy;iy vd;ghUKsH. rk];fpUjr;

nrhy;iy ePf;fy; nkhopj;J}a;ikahff; fUjg;gLfpwJ.

v.fh) ngsjPfk; - ,aw;gpay;

urhadk; - Ntjpapay;
gpuhzthA - capHtsp

jw;NghJ Mq;fpyr; nrhy;iy ePf;fpj; jkpo;r; nrhy; ,lk; ngWtJk; cz;L.

(v.fh) : ftHdH - MSeH

fnyf;lH - khtl;l Ml;rpaH

2. Gjpa nrhw;fisg; gilj;jy;

Nkw;fhZk; Kiwfisj; jtpu fPo;tUk; rpy nrhy;yhf;f newpKiwfspYk; Gjpa

nrhw;fisg; gilf;fyhk; mitahtd :

1. xNu NtHr; nrhy;ypypUe;J gy Gjpa nrhw;fis cUthf;Fjy;.

2. Ntw;Wnkhopapd; nrhw;nghUis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L
jha;nkhopapd; kuigg; gpd;gw;wp Gjpa nrhw;fisg; gilj;jy;.
3. nghUspd; tbt mikg;gpidf; nfhz;L Gjpa nrhw;fisg; gilj;jy;.
4. nrhy;ypd; fUj;J Nehf;fpg; Gjpa nrhw;fisg; gilj;jy;
5. ve;j xg;GikAk; fUjhJ ,LFwpr;nrhy; gilj;jy;.
6. nrhy;ypd; jd;ik mwpe;J Gjpa nrhw;fisg; gilj;jy;.
7. Mf;fg;ngWk; nrhy;iyr; RUf;fkhf mikj;jy;.

1. xNu NtHr;nrhy;ypypUe;J gy Gjpa nrhw;fis cUthf;Fjy;

xNu NtHr;nrhy;Yld; NtWgl;l nrhw;fisr; NrHf;Fk; NghJ Gjpa nrhw;fs;

cUthfpd;wd. rhd;whf nlyp (Tele) vd;w NtHr;nrhy;iy ~njhiyT‟ vd;W nkhopahf;fk;
nra;Js;sdH. ,jid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L gy;NtW Gjpa nrhw;fs;
cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

(v.fh) Telephone – njhiyNgrp> Telescope - njhiyNehf;fp> Telegram - njhiytup

161
Nghl;Nlh (Photo) vd;w nrhy;ypw;F ~xsp‟ vd;w nghUisf; nfhz;L> mjd; njhlHghf
cs;stw;wpw;F mg;nghUs; czHj;JkhW gy nrhw;fs; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

(v.fh) Photo - xsp

Photo Electric cell - xsp kpd;fyk;

Photo Synthesis - xspr;NrHf;if

2. Ntw;W nkhopapd; nrhw;nghUis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L jha;nkhopapd;

kuigg; gpd;gw;wp Gjpa nrhw;fisg; gilj;jy;

„ghHypnkz;l;‟ (Parliament) vDk; Mq;fpyr; nrhy;Yf;F „$bg;NgRk; ,lk;‟ vd;gJ

njhlf;ffhyg; nghUs;. fhyg;Nghf;fpy; ,q;fpyhe;J ehl;L kf;fs; jiytHfs; $bg; Ngrpa
me;j ,lj;jpNyNa cyfj;jpd; gy;NtW gFjpfspy; ,Ue;j FbNaw;w ehLfis (Colonies)
MStjw;F cupa newpKiw vd tFj;jdH. mt;thW tFf;fg;gl;l ,lk; gpupl;b \hupd;
~ghHypnkz;l;|. ,jdhy; gpupl;b\hupd; ghHypnkz;ilj; jkpopy; ~ghuhSkd;wk;‟ vd;W
Fwpg;gpl;ldH. gpd;dH ~ehlhSkd;wk;‟ vdj; jkpohf;fk; nra;ag;gl;lJ.

(v.fh) ghHypnkz;l; - ghuhSkd;wk; - ehlhSkd;wk;

3. nghUspd; tbt mikg;gpidf; nfhz;L Gjpa nrhw;fisg; gilj;jy;

3.1 nghUspd; tbt mikg;G

Gjpjhf xU nkhopapduhy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; GJikahd nghUs;fSf;F mg;

nghUs;fspd; tbtj;ij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L Gjpa nrhy;yhf;fk; nra;ayhk;.

(v.fh) cUisf;fpoq;F

4. nrhy;ypd; fUj;J Nehf;fpg;Gjpa nrhw;fisg; gilj;jy;

gpwnkhopr; nrhw;fs; czHj;Jk; fUj;jpidf; nfhz;L Gjpa nrhw;fs;

gilf;fg;gLfpd;wd. rhd;whf „itl;lkpd;‟ (Vitamin) vDk; Mq;fpy nkhopr; nrhy;iy
~capHr;rj;J‟ vdTk;> gpsh];bf; (Plastic) vDk; nrhy;iyf; ~Fiokk;‟ vdTk; nrhy;ypd;
fUj;J Nehf;fp jkpohf;fk; nra;Js;sdH.

162
5. ve;j xg;GikAk; fUjhJ ,LFwpr;nrhy; gilj;jy;

Mq;fpyj;jpy;> tq;fpapy; gzj;ijg; ngWtjw;F „nrf;‟ (Cheque) vd;w nrhy;iyf;

Fwpg;gpLfpd;wdH. ,e;j Mq;fpyr; nrhy;ypd; nghUNshL vj;jifa njhlHGk; ,y;yhj
~fhNrhiy‟ vDk; jkpo;r; nrhy;iyg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wdH.

6. nrhy;ypd; jd;ik mwpe;J Gjpa nrhw;fisg; gilj;jy;

%ynkhopr; nrhy;ypdJ jd;ikapd; mbg;gilapy; Gjpa nrhw;fs;

cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

(v.fh) 1. Test - rpW NjHT

2. Examination - ngUe;NjHT

3. Experiment - Ma;TKiwj; NjHT.

7. Mf;fg;ngWk; nrhy;iyr; RUf;fkhf mikj;jy;

Gjpjhf gilf;fg;gLk; nrhw;fisr; RUf;fkhf mikj;jy; rpwg;igj; jUk;.

(v.fh) : Mf;]p[d; - gpuhzthA> capHtsp> capufk;>

fhHgd;il Mf;i]L - fupakpy thA> fuptsp> fupafk;>

fiyr; nrhw;fs; fUj;Jr; nrwpTld; fhyj;jpw;Ff; fhyk; RUf;fkhf khWgl;L tUfpwJ.

'Logos' vd;w fpNuf;f nrhy; jpupe;J 'Logy' vd toq;fg;gl;lJ. ,r;nrhy; rpwg;Gkpf;f
mwpTj; Jiw> vd;w nghUis czHj;JtjhFk;. ,e;j Nehf;fj;ijf; fUj;jpy; nfhz;L
„Logy' vd KbAk; INuhg;gpa nkhopr; nrhw;fisj; jkpopy; „,ay;‟ vDk; tpFjpNahL
,izj;J toq;Ffpd;wdH.

(v.fh) Anthropology - kdpj ,ay; (m) khDltpay;

Biology - capupay;

Criminology - Fw;wtpay;

,ijg;Nghd;Nw „ism‟ vd KbAk; INuhg;gpa nkhopr; jkpohf;fk; nra;fpw nghOJ ~mk;|

vDk; tpFjpiaNah my;yJ ~,ak;‟ vDk; tpFjpiaNah ,izj;J toq;Ffpd;wdH.

163
Capitalism - Kjyhspj;Jtk;> Feudalism - gpuGj;Jtk;> Gandhism - fhe;jpak;

,it Nghd;W gy;NtW gpd;ndhl;Lfs; NrHe;J Gjpa nrhw;fs; cUthfpd;wd.

(v.fh) xsp khdp - Photometer

ghy; khdp - Lactometer

3. Jiw rhHe;j nrhw;fisg; gilj;jy;

nrhy;yhf;f cj;jpfs;> nkhopeil Mfpatw;iw tFj;Jf; nfhz;l gpd;dNu> Jiw

E}y;fisr; nrk;ikahf nkhopngaHf;fNth nrhy;yhf;fNth KbAk;.

1. ed;wp fUjpa rpwg;Gr; nrhw;fs;

xt;nthU JiwapYk; nraw;fupa nray;fs; nra;j mwpQHfspd; epidthf

mf;fz;Lgpbg;GfSf;Fk;> fUj;JfSf;Fk; Nfhl;ghLfSf;Fk; mtutH ngaiuNa
toq;Fjy;> nra;ed;wpia kwthjtw;iwf; Fwpg;gd. mj;jifa Jiwr; nrhw;fisj;
jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;fhky; mg;gbNa vOJfpd;wdH.

(v.fh) Ampere - Mk;gpaH> Henry - n`d;wp> Ohm - Xk;

2. nghJthd cyf tof;Fr; nrhw;fs;

xU ehl;by; toq;fg;gLk; nrhw;fs;> kw;w nkhopfspYk; toq;fg;gLtijf; fhzyhk;.

(v.fh) Cosine – nfhird;> Logarithm - ,yhf;fpUjk;

3. ehl;Lg;Gw tof;Fr; nrhw;fs;

gy gioa nrhw;fs; ehl;Lg;Gw kf;fspilNa ,d;W gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. 'Break'

vd;gijf; ~fl;ilNghL‟ vdTk; toq;FfpwhHfs;.

4. ,yf;fpa tof;Fr; nrhw;fs;

thD}Hjp> mq;fhb> Gweil> nrtpypaH Mfpa nrhw;fs; ,yf;fpak; toq;fpa

nrhw;fNs MFk;. ,r;nrhw;fs; KiwNa Aeroplane, Market, Exception, Nurse vd
Mq;fpyj;jpy; toq;fg;gLfpd;wd.

164
5. GJ tof;Fr; nrhw;fs;

vLj;Jf;nfhz;l Jiwr; nrhy;ypy;> NtW nrhy;iyf; fz;L mjd; mbg;gilapy;

GjpaNjhH Jiwr; nrhy;iy tof;fj;jpw;Ff; nfhz;L tuyhk;.

(v.fh) 'Current' vDk; nrhy; Curro vDk; ,yj;jPd; nkhopr; nrhy;ypypUe;J gpwe;jJ.

Curro vd;why; xL vd;W nghUs;. vdNt Current vd;gij ~Xl;lk;| vdr;

nrhy;yhf;fk; nra;jdH.

6. $l;Lr; nrhw;fs;

„Resonance' vd;gij xj;jpirT vd;gH. xj;j ,irT vd;Dk; ,U gioa

$l;Lr;nrhw;fs; NrHe;J nrhy;yhf;fk; nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,ijg;Nghy; Circuit vd;gijr;
~Rw;Wtop‟ vd nkhopahf;fk; nra;fpd;wdH.

7. Vyhr; nrhw;fs;

rpy nrhw;fisj; jkpopy; gilf;f KbAk; vdj; Njhd;WfpwJ. Mdhy; clNd

jf;f jkpo;r;nrhw;fs; Jizf;F tUtjpy;iy. mj;jifa nrhw;fs; rpwpJ fhyj;Jf;F
mt;thNw xyp mikthf mikAk;.

(v.fh) Petrol - ngl;Nuhy;

Diesel - B]y;

Cement – rpnkz;l;

Nghd;w nrhw;fSf;Fr; rupahd jkpohf;fk; nra;ahky; xypngaHj;J mt;thNw toq;fp

tUfpd;wdH. ,J Nghd;w JiwNjhWk; fhzg;gLfpd;w rpwg;Gg; ngaHfis ,ad;w
tiuapy; nrhy;yhf;fKk;> jkpohf;fKk; nra;jy; ey;yjhFk;.

nkhopngaHg;gpd; tiffs;

nkhopngaHg;gpidg; gy;NtW mwpQHfs; gythW tifg;gLj;jpAs;sdH. mtHfspy;

i. [hd; biuld; (John Dryden) -1700.

ii. Nfrfpuz;Nl (Casagrande) -1957.
iii. jpNahlH rNtup (Theodore Savory) -1959.
165
 iv. tpnd kw;Wk; lhHgy;nel; (J.P. Vinay and J.K. Darbelnet) -1958.
v. N[.rp. fhl;/NghHL (J:C.Catford) -1965.
vi. N[f;fg;rd; (Eric Jacobsen) -1974.
vii. a+[pd; A. ielh (Eugene A. Nida) -1974.
viii. Mz;l;Nu ny/gntNu (Andre Lefevere) -1975.
ix. `T]; (House) -1979.
x. gPl;lHepa+khHf; (Peter New Mark) -1979.
xi. NfhNj (Goethe) Nghd;NwhHfs; Fwpg;gplj;jFe;jtHfs;.
i. [hd;biuldpd; (John Dryden) tifg;ghL (1700)

biuld; nkhopngaHg;ig %d;W tiffshfg; ghFgLj;JfpwhH. mit

1. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G (Metaphrase)

2. RUf;f nkhopngaHg;G (Paraphrase / Abridged)

3. Nghyr; nra;jy; (Imitation) vd;gdthFk;.

1. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G (Metaphrase)

%ynkhopr; nrhy;Yf;F ,izahfg; ngWk;nkhopapy; nrhw;fis nkhopngaHj;jy;

,t;tifiar; rhUk;. ,k;nkhopngaHg;gpy; %ynkhopapYs;s midj;Jr; nrhw;fSk;
ngWk;nkhopapy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gLk;.

(v.fh) [p.A. Nghg; nkhopngaHj;j jpUf;Fws;> ehybahH> jpUthrfk; Mfpa E}y;fs;.

2. RUf;f nkhopngaHg;G (Paraphrase/Abridged)

%ynkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfs; midj;ijAk; ed;F Gupe;J nfhz;L ngWk;nkhopapy;

RUf;fkhf nkhopngaHj;jy; ,t;tif nkhopngaHg;igr; rhUk;. %ynkhopapd; czHTf;
$Wfs; ,Uf;f mikg;gpid khw;wp nkhopngaHj;jyhFk;. njhlf;ffhyj;jpy; N\f;];gpaH
ehlfq;fis ,t;tif nkhopngaHg;G %yk; nkhopngaHj;jdH.

rhHy]; Nyk;g; Mq;fpyj;jpy; vOjpa E}y; ,k;Kiwf;Fg; ngupJk; gad;gl;lJ.

RUf;f nkhopngaHg;gpy; %ynkhopapy; fhzg;gLk; nrhy; tpisahl;L> cl;fij>
ehlfKiw> ciueil> ghly;fs; Mfpatw;Wf;F mjpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLg;gJ ,y;iy.

166
 (v.fh) My;gHl; Id;];Bdpd; mwptpay; rpe;jidfis jpU. it. rhk;grptk; ~fhyk;
kpff; FWfpaJ‟ vd;w jiyg;gpy; kpfr; RUf;fkhfj; jkpopy; nkhopngaHj;Js;shH.

3. Nghyr; nra;jy; (Imitation)

%ynkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfis ngWk; nkhopapy; mg;gbNa nkhopngaHj;jy; Nghyr;

nra;jy; vd;gjhFk;.

ii) Nfrfpuz;Nltpd; (Casagrande) tifg;ghL (1954)

Nfrfpuz;Nl (1954) nkhopngaHg;gpd; tiffis ehd;fhf tifg;gLj; JfpwhH. mit>

1. eilKiw gad;ehl;l tif nkhopngaHg;G(Pragmatic Translation)

2. mofpay;> ftpij nkhopngaHg;G (Aaesthetic & Poetic Translation)

3. ,dtpay; nkhopngaHg;G (Ethnographic Translation)

4. nkhopapay; nkhopngaHg;G (Linguistic Translation) vd;gtdthFk;.

1) eilKiw gad;ehl;l tif nkhop ngaHg;G (Pragmatic Translation)

xU fUj;ijj; Jy;ypakhfj; njuptpf;f Ntz;Lk; my;yJ ngaHf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;w

MHtj;jpy; %ynkhop mikg;gpy; vLj;Jiuf;fg;gLk; nra;jpiag; ngWk;nkhopf;Ff; nfhz;L
nry;Yk; epfo;T eilKiw gad; ehl;l tif nkhopngaHg;igr; rhUk;. ,t;thW
nray;gLk; nkhopngaHg;gpy; xU nkhopngaHg;ghsUf;F %ynkhopr; nra;jpia kl;Lk;
ngWk;nkhopf;F vLj;Jr; nry;Yk; Nehf;fk; ,Uf;FNk jtpu> mijj; jtpHj;J %ynkhop
mikg;igj; jhz;br; nry;Yk; Kaw;rpf;F ,lkpy;iy. ,t;tifahd nkhopngaHg;G
njspthdJ@ Jy;ypakhdJ. mwptpay; (Science), njhopy; El;gtpay; Kjypa eilKiw
tsHr;rpapNyNa fUj;jpidr; nrYj;JtJ tiuaiwf;Fl;gl;lJ.

(v.fh) gj;jpuq;fs;> gjpNtLfs; (Translation of Technical Documentation) Nghd;wtw;iw

nkhopngaHj;jy;.

2) mofpay;> ftpij nkhopngaHg;G (Aaesthetic & Poetic )

nkhopngaHg;ghsH %yE}iy nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ %yE}ypd; mikg;igAk;>

nghUisAk; kl;Lk; fUj;jpy; nfhs;shky; czHr;rp> ,ir eak;> ftpj;Jtk;

167
Mfpatw;iwAk; fUj;jpy; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. ,j;jifa nkhopngaHg;G thrfupilNa ey;y
tuNtw;igg; ngWk;.

(v.fh) ,yf;fpa tiffshd ftpij> ehlfk;> ghuhl;Liu> trdk;> (sonnet, heroic, couplet,
dramatic dialogue) Mfpatw;iw nkhopngaHj;jy; ,t;tifiar; rhUk;. NkYk;> midj;J
,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;Gk; ,t;tifAs; mlq;Fk;.

jw;fhyj;jpy; rq;f ,yf;fpaq;fs; vspikahd tifapy; Ntw;Wnkhopapy;

nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;L tUfpd;wd. fUj;ijr; nrhy;Yk; Kiwfspy; vspikiaf;
ifahz;lhy;> mk;nkhopngaHg;G ntw;wp ngWk;.

(v.fh) “ahAk; QhAk; ahuh fpaNuh

ve;ijAk; Ee;ijAk; vk;Kiwf; NfsPH
ahDk; ePAk; vt;top awpJk;
nrk;Gyg; ngadPH Nghy
md;Gil neQ;rk; jhq;fye; jdNt" (FWe;. gh. vz; . 40)
vDk; rq;fg;ghliy

“Your Mother and my mother

How are they related?
Your Father and my father
What are they to
One another?
You and I
How do we know each other
Like the rain
and red earth
Our loving hearts are mingled
as one"
vdg; NguhrpupaH lhf;lH. vk;. rz;Kfk; gps;is> Nltpl; vYld; (David Eludan) ,ize;J
jkpohf;fk; nra;Js;shH.

3) ,dtpay; nkhopngaHg;G (Ethnographic Translatio)

,dtpay; nkhopngaHg;G gz;ghl;Lr; #oiy ikakhff; nfhz;lJ. %ynkhopapy;

nrhy;yg;gl;l fUj;ij my;yJ nra;jpiag; gz;ghl;L Nehf;fpy; epfuidj; NjHe;njLj;J

168
ngWk;nkhopapy; ngaHg;gjhFk;. %ynkhopr; nrhy;Yf;F ,izahf ngWk;nkhopapy;
epfuidj; NjHe;njLf;Fk;NghJ gz;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; kpfTk; ftdj;JlDk;>
nghWg;GlDk; ,Ue;J nray;gLtJ ,t;tifahd nkhopngaHg;ig epiwTwr; nra;Ak;

(v.fh) n[Hkdpapy; fhiy Ntisapy; xUtiu xUtH ghHf;f NeupLk; nghOJ>

'Guten Morgen' vd;w nrhw;nwhliuAk;> u\;ahtpy; „Njhg;Nu a+j;u‟ vd;w nrhw;nwhliuAk;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;wdH. ,jidj; jkpohf;fk; nra;Ak;nghOJ „tzf;fk;‟ vd;w nrhy;iyNa
gad;gLj;JfpNwhk;. mJNghyNt Mq;fpynkhopapy; 'Good Morning' (ey;y fhiy)
vd;gijj; jkpopy; „tzf;fk;‟ vd khw;WtJk;> tlnkhopapy; „Nghw;WfpNwd;‟ vdg;
nghUs;gLk; „ek];fhH‟ vDk; nrhy;iy „tzf;fk;‟ vd khw;WtJk; ngU tof;fhf
cs;sJ.

kiyahsj;jpy; „uhT‟ vd;w nrhy; „fhiy‟ Neuj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk;. Mdhy; jkpopy;

,uT Neuj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk;. kiyahsj;jpy; xUtidg; ghHj;J „uhTy th‟ vd;W nrhd;dhy;
fhiyapy; „th| vdg; nghUs;gLk;. Mdhy; jkpopy; „,utpy; th‟ vd;w nghUisf;
nfhLf;Fk;> vdNt gz;ghl;Lr; #oy; mwpe;J rhpahdijj; NjHe;njLj;J nkhopngaHf;f
Ntz;Lk;.

4) nkhopapay; nkhopngaHg;G (Linguistic Translation)

%ynkhopapd; ,yf;fz mikg;gpy; xU cUgdpd; cWg;GfSf;F ,izahd

nghUisj; njupT nra;Ak; ngaHg;G eltbf;if nkhopapay; nkhopngaHg;ghFk;.

%ynkhopapy; $wg;gl;l fUj;Jr; rpijTwhky; ngaHf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. my;yJ

%ynkhop mikg;G Fiwahky; ngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;. %ynkhopapy; nrhy;yg;gl;l ftpj;Jtk;
nflhky; mNj uridiaAk;> fyhr;rhuj;ijAk; ngWk;nkhopf;Fg; ngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.
,t;tpj vz;zq;fs; xU Gwk; ,Ue;jhYk; ,d;iwa mwptpay; njhopy;El;g tsHr;rpAw;w
#oypy; nkhopiag; gw;wpa Ma;Tfs; gy;NtW tpjkhfg; gy;NtW ehLfspy; fzpdp cjtp
nfhz;L Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;L tUfpwJ. jw;fhyj;jpy; Ma;thsHfs;> nkhopapay; mwpQHfs;>
nkhopngaHg;ghsHfs; fzpdp nkhopngaHg;gpy; <Lgl;L tUfpd;whHfs;. ,j;jifa fzpdp
nkhopngaHg;G> nkhopapay; nkhopngaHg;gpidr; rhUk;. fzpdp nkhopngaHg;ghsHfs;
%ynkhop cUgd;fspd; cWg;GfSf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;J epfuid mikj;J
nkhopngaHg;ig Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wdH.

169
 jw;nghOJ fzpdp nkhopngaHg;G my;yJ ve;jpu nkhopngaHg;ghdJ (Machine
Translation) kpfTk; tsHr;rpaile;Js;sJ. %ynkhopr; nrhy;Yf;F ,izahd epfuidf;
fzpdp top NjHe;njLj;J nkhopngaHj;jy; vd;gJ ve;jpunkhopg; ngaHg;ghFk;. Mdhy;
vjpHfhyj;jpy; %ynkhopr; nrhy;Yf;F ,izahd epfuidj; NjHe;njLf;fhkNy
,ay;ghfNt my;yJ jhdhfNt fzpdp top nkhopngaHf;f KbAk; vd Ma;thsHfs;
Ma;T nra;J tUfpd;wdH.

kpd;dZ (Electronic) kw;Wk; ehNdh nlf;dhyh[p (Technology) tsHr;rpapd;

fhuzkhf vjpHfhyj;jpy; ek; fz;zpy; mzpAk; fz;zhb topahf gpw nkhopapy;
vOjg;gl;Ls;s thrfq;fisg; gbf;Fk;NghJ jhdhfNt nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;L (Automatic
Transaltion) ehk; epidf;Fk; nkhopapy; gbf;f KbAk;.

(iii) jpNahlH rNtupapd; tifg;ghL

jpNahlH rNtup (1959) ehd;F tifahf nkhopngaHg;igg; ghFghL nra;Js;shH.

mit

1. Jy;ypakhd nkhopngaHg;G (Perfect Translation)

2. Njitf;Fj; jFe;j nkhopngaHg;G (Adequate Translation)

3. fl;L nkhopngaHg;G (Composite Translation)

4. mwptpay; njhopy;El;g nkhopngaHg;G (Scientific and Technical Translation) vd;gdthFk;.

1. Jy;ypakhd nkhopngaHg;G (Perfect Translation)

fUj;Jr; nrwpTs;s njhlH my;yJ ciuf;Nfhitia KOtJkhfj; Jy;ypakhf

%ynkhopapypUe;J ngWk;nkhopf;F ngaHj;jy; my;yJ khw;Wjy; ~Jy;ypakhd
nkhopngaHg;G vdg;gLk;. ,t;tpj nkhopngaHg;gpy;> kpf vspikahd nrhw;fisf; nfhz;L
nghUs; kaf;fkpy;yhky; nkhopngaHf;fyhk;. mwptpay;> rl;lk;> tpsk;gu nkhopngaHg;G
,t;tifapy; mlq;Fk;.

(i) tpsk;gu nkhopngaHg;G

“The better vermicelli,

makes better payasam"

170
 “cz;ik jhd;
rpwe;j Nrkpah vd;whNy
rpwe;j ghark;"
“Vermicelli never had it!
So good before”
“,Jtiu fz;ljpy;iy

,J Nghd;w Nrkpah”

,j;jifa tpsk;guq;fs; thrfHfspilNa xU jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk;.

ii) mwptpay; nkhopg;ngaHg;G

„Cell‟ vDk; Mq;fpyr; nrhy; clypay;> capupay;> ve;jputpay; Mfpa Jiwfspy;

ntt;NtW nghUs;fis czHj;Jfpd;wd.

clypaypy; nry; (Cell) capuZ vd;Wk;

capupaypy; nry; (Cell) Ez;zpak;> rpW miw vd;Wk;

ve;jputpaypy; nry; (Cell) kpd;fyk; vd;Wk; toq;fg;gLfpwJ.

2. Njitf;Fj; jFe;j nkhopngaHg;G (Adequate Translation)

%ynkhopapypUe;J ngWk;nkhopf;F nra;jpfs; my;yJ fUj;Jfis

nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ %ynkhopr; nrhw;fisAk;> njhlHfisAk; ngWk;nkhopapy;
rupahf nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;. mt;thW nkhopngaHg;gJ ,t;tif nkhopngaHg;gpy;
mlq;Fk;.

(v.fh) ,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;G

3. fl;L nkhopngaHg;G (Composite Translation)

%ynkhopapYs;s ciueiliag; ngWk; nkhop ciueilf;Fg; ngaHg;gJk;>

%ynkhop ftpij eaj;ijg; ngWk;nkhopapy; ciueilahfg; ngaHg;gJk;> %ynkhopf;
ftpijiag; ngWk;nkhopf; ftpijf;Fg; ngaHg;gJk; fl;L nkhopngaHg;ghFk;. NkYk;
midj;J ,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;GfSk; ,t;t ifiar; rhUk;.

171
(v.fh)

1. Mq;fpyj;jpy; vOjg;gl;l ciueil E}yhfpa ehuhaz FUtpd; tho;f;ifiaj;

jkpopy; lhf;lH. kh. Rg;gpukzpagps;is nkhopngaHj;Js;shH. (%ynkhop
ciueilapypUe;J ngWk; nkhop ciueilf;Fg; ngaHj;jy;)
2. rq;f ,yf;fpag; ghly;fspy; Mq;fpynkhopngaHg;G - FWe;njhifg; ghly;fis
Mq;fpyj;jpy; A.K. uhkhD[d; nkhop ngaHj;Js;shH (%ynkhop
ftpijapypUe;J ngWk;nkhop ftpijf;F nkhopngaHj;jy;). ghujpahupd;
jkpo;f;ftpijfs; gy ghujpahuhNyNa Mq;fpy nkhopf;F
nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
4. mwptpay; njhopy;El;gnkhopngaHg;G (Scientific and Technical Translation)

nra;jpia Kjd;ikahf itj;Jr; nray;gLk; nkhopngaHg;G mwptpay; njhopy;

El;g nkhopngaHg;ghFk;. ,k; nkhopngaHg;gpy; ngaHf;fg;gl;l tpjj;ijg; (Manner) ghHg;gJ
,y;iy. %ynkhopapd; Mo; nra;jpfSf;F (Matter) Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;Jg;
ngaHg;gijNa ,t;tif nkhopngaHg;G KOtJkhf czHj;JfpwJ.

(v.fh) Computer – fzpdp> Internet - ,izak;

iv) tpnd kw;Wk; lhHgy; nel;bd; tifg;ghL (1958)

(J.P. Vinay and J.K. Darbelnet)

tpnd kw;Wk; lhH gy; nel; nkhopngaHg;gpid VO tifahfg; ghFgLj;jpAs;sdH.

mit>

1. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G (Word for word Translation)

2. gbngaHg;G / gb vLj;jy; (Copy)

3. fld; nrhw;ngaHg;G (Loan Translation)

4. nkhop ,lg;ngaHg;G (Transposition)

5. khw;wpaikj;jy; (Modulation)

6. jOty; nkhopngaHg;G (Adaptation)

7. epfHik (Equivalence) vd;gdthFk;.

172
1. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G (Word for Word Transalation)

%ynkhopapYs;s nra;jpfis my;yJ fUj;Jfis ngWk; nkhopapy;

nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ %ynkhopr;nrhy;Yf;F ,izahfg; ngWk; nkhopapy;
nrhw;fisj; njupT nra;jy; vd;gJ nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHj;jyhFk;.

,t;thW ngaHf;fg;gLk;NghJ rpy #oypy; %ynkhopg; gDtypd; Kjy; jug;nghUs;

rpijTwTk; nra;Ak;. vy;yhr; #oypYk; ,t;tifahd nkhopngaHg;Gr; rupahd Kiwapy;
mikahJ. ,J mikg;gstpy; kl;Lk; epfOk; xUtifg; ngaHg;ghFk;.

(v.fh.) „Paradise Lost' – „,oe;j nrhHf;fk;‟

„Smile of beauty' –„mofpd; rpupg;G‟

2. gbngaHg;G / gb vLj;jy; (copy)

%ynkhopapd; ,yf;fzf; fl;likg;ig mg;gbNa ngWk;nkhopapy; ,lk;ngwr;

nra;Ak; xU tifg; ngaHg;ghFk;. ,t;tifahd ngaHg;gpy; fl;likg;G (Construction)
vd;w mstpy; kl;Lk; xU nkhopngaHg;ghsupd; ftdk; nrytplg;gLk;.

3. fld; nrhw;ngaHg;G (Loan Translation)

%ynkhopr; nrhy;iy mg;gbNa ngWk; nkhopapy; vLj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gLtJ fld;

nrhw;ngaHg;G vdg;gLk;. jkpopy; ,t;thW vj;jidNah nrhw;fs; Mq;fpyk;> rk];fpUjk;>
cUJ Nghd;w nkhopfspypUe;J fld; thq;fg;gl;bUf;fpd;wd. cyfpy; fld; ngwh
nkhopNa ,y;iynad;W $wyhk;. xU nkhop kw;nwhU nkhopAld; njhlHG nfhs;tJ
jtpHf;f ,ayhj tuyhw;Wf; fl;lhakhFk;.

(v.fh.) Meter - kPl;lH

Kilometer - fpNyhkPl;lH
X Ray - vf;];Nu

Bulb - gy;g;

4. nkhop ,lg;ngaHg;G (Transposition)

%ynkhopapd; Ngr;rpy; xU gFjpiag; ngWk;nkhopapy; jpUk;gf; nfhLf;fr; nra;Ak;

xU tifahd ,lkhw;w epfo;itNa ,t;thW fUjyhk;. Mq;fpyj;jpy; Translation
173
(nkhopngaHg;G) vd;w nrhy;Yf;F „Traduction' vd;W tof;fpy; gad;gLj;Jtijf;
fhzyhk;. mjhtJ gjpypahf NtW xU tof;Fr; nrhy;iyf; nfhz;l %ynkhopr;
nrhy;ypd; epfudhf mikf;fg;gLtjhFk;.

5. khw;wpaikj;jy; (Modulation)

%ynkhopapypUe;J ngWk; nkhopf;Fg; ngaHg;Gr; nra;Ak;NghJ mjd; khw;wy;

eltbf;ifapy; epfOk; NtWghl;il ikakhff; nfhz;L ngWk; nkhop epfuidr; rPH
nra;J khw;wpaikf;Fk; Kiw ~khw;wpaikj;jy;‟ vd;gjhFk;.

6. jOty; nkhopngaHg;G (Adaptation)

%yE}ypd; fUtpid kl;Lk; vLj;Jf;nfhz;L Vida epfo;r;rpfs;> ghj;jpuq;fs;>

epfo;r;rp khw;wq;fs; Nghd;wit nkhopngaHg;ghsd; tpUg;gg;gb khw;wpf;nfhs;tJ jOty;
nkhop ngaHg;ghFk;. %yE}yhrpupaid tpl nkhopngaHg;ghsdpd; Gyikj; jpwNd
Kjd;ik ngWtjhYk;> khw;wf;$ba cupik mjpfk; ,Ug;gjhYk; nkhopngaHg;ghsNd
rpwg;gplk; ngWfpd;whd;.

(v.fh) thy;kPfp vOjpa ,uhkhazk; - %yE}y;

fk;guhkhazk; - jOty;
ftpkzp vOjpa MrpaN[hjp jOtyhFk;.

7. epfHik (Equivalence)

%ynkhopf; fUj;ijr; rpijTwhky; ngWk;nkhopf;Fg; ngaHg;gij „epfHik

nkhopngaHg;G‟ vdyhk;. ,t;tif nkhopngaHg;gpy; mikg;gpw;Nfh> nkhop eilf;Nfh
Kd;Dupik nfhLf;fg;glhky; nkhopapd; fUtpw;Nf (Concept) Kd;Dupik nfhLf;fg;gLk;.

v) N[.rp. fhl; / NghHbd; (J.C. Cat Ford) tifg;ghL -1965

n[.rp. fhl; /NghHL

1. E}ypd; cs;slf;fk; my;yJ tpupthf;fk; (Extent)

2. nkhopj;jsk; my;yJ msTfs; (Levels)

3. nrhy;juk; (rank) vd;w mbg;gilapy; nkhopngaHg;ig tifg;gLj;jpAs;shH.

174
1. E}ypd; cs;slf;fk; my;yJ tpupthf;fk; (Extent)

E}ypd; cs;slf;fk; vDk; mbg;gilapy; ,U tifahd nkhopngaHg;Gfisf;

$WfpwhH. mit

1. KOikahd nkhopngaHg;G (Full Translation)

2. gFjp nkhopngaHg;G (Partial Translation) vd;gdthFk;

1.1 KOikahd nkhopngaHg;G (Full Translation)

KO nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ %yE}ypd; midj;Jg; gFjpfisAk; ngWk; nkhopapy;

,lk; khw;wk; nra;J jUtjhFk;. %ynkhopiag; ngaHf;Fk; NghJ ve;j xU %ynkhopf;
$WfisAk; tpl;Ltplhky; (nrhy;> fUj;J> eil) midj;Jj; jd;ikfisAk; ngW
nkhopf;F vLj;Jr; nrd;W nkhopngaHg;ig epiwT nra;Ak; tifNa KOikahd
nkhopngaHg;ghFk;.

(v.fh.) 1. [p.A. Nghg; nra;j jpUthrf nkhopngaHg;G

2. jpUthrfkzp Nf.vk;. ghyRg;gpukzpaj;jpd; jpUf;Fws; nkhopngaHg;G

1.2 gFjp nkhopngaHg;G (Partial Translation)

gFjp nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ %yE}ypd; rpy gFjpfis nkhopngaHj;J tpl;L>

nkhopngaHf;f ,ayhj gFjpfis tpl;LtpLjyhFk;. %ynkhopapd; midj;Jf;
$WfspYk; VjhtJ rpy $Wfis kl;Lk; ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;wpaikj;J kw;w $Wfis
tpl;Lg; ngaHf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; nkhopngaHg;igg; gFjp nkhopngaHg;G vdyhk;. ghly;fis>
rhd;whf rpy mwpQHfs; %yE}ypy; Fwpg;gpl;l rpy gFjpfis kl;LNk NjHe;njLj;J
nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH.

2. nkhopj;jsk; my;yJ msTfs; (Levels)

nkhopj;jsk; my;yJ msTfs; vDk; mbg;gilapy; nkhopngaHg;ig ,U

tiffshfg; ghFgLj;jpAs;shH. mit>

1. epiwTg; ngaHg;G / nkhj;j nkhopngaHg;G (Total Translation)

175
 2. epge;jidg; ngaHg;G / tiuaWf;fg;gl;l nkhopngaHg;G (Restricted Transltation)
vd;gdthFk;.

2.1 epiwTg; ngaHg;G / nkhj;j nkhopngaHg;G (Total Translation)

%ynkhopapd; vy;yh nkhopf;$WfisAk; my;yJ vy;yh cWg;GfisAk;

ngWk;nkhopapy; ngaHj;jy; epiwTg; ngaHg;G vdg;gLk;. mt;thW ngaHf;Fk;NghJ
%ynkhopapd; vy;yh ,yf;fz cWg;GfisAk; tpLglhkYk;> %ynkhopapd; mikg;G
KOikAk; ngaHj;Jg; ngWk; nkhopia epiwT nra;aNtz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) Bank Bill - tq;fp urPJ> Community Certificate - rhjpr; rhd;wpjo;.

2.2 epge;jidg; ngaHg;G tiuaWf;fg;gl;l nkhopngaHg;G

(Restricted Transltation)

epge;jid my;yJ tiuaWf;fg;gl;l nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ %ynkhopapypUe;J

ngWk;nkhopf;Fg; ghlq;fis (Text) nkhopngaHf;Fk; nghOJ xypad;> FwpaPL> nrhy;>
,yf;fzk; Mfpatw;Ws; VjhtJ xd;wpid kl;Lk; nkhopngaHj;Jj; jUtJ MFk;.
xypadpay; nkhopngaHg;G (Phonological Translation) vd;gJ %ynkhopapYs;s nrhw;fs;
ngWk;nkhopapy; mg;gbNa ,ay;ghfg; ngaHg;gJ MFk;.

(v.fh.) Theatre - jpNal;lH> College - fhNy[;> School - ];$y;

fzpjtpay; my;yJ mwptpay; FwpaPLfis nkhopngaHf;f KbahJ. vdNt

FwpaPLfis %ynkhopapy; cs;sthW ngWk;nkhopapy; vOj Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh) + ($l;ly;) - (fopj;jy;) > (mjpfk;) < (FiwT

3. nrhy;ypd;juk; (rank) rhHe;j nkhopngaHg;G

nrhy;ypd; juk; mbg;gilapy; nkhopngaHg;ig ,Utiffshfg; ghFgLj;jpAs;shH.

1. juk; rhHe;j nkhopngaHg;G (Rank - Bound Translation)

2. juk; rhuhj nkhopngaHg;G (Rank (free) Unbound Translation) vd;gdthFk;.

176
3.1 juk; rhHe;j nkhopngaHg;G (Rank - Bound Translation)

juk; rhHe;j nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ %ynkhopapYs;s ghlj;jpidg; ngWk;nkhopapy;

ngaHf;Fk; nghOJ nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; mg;gbNa ngaHj;Jj; jUjy; MFk;. %ynkhopr;
nrhy;yf;F ,izahf epfuidj; NjHe;njLj;J nkhopngaHg;gJ rpwe;j nkhopngaHg;ghFk;.

(v.fh.) Exercise - gapw;rp> Regular - xOq;fhd

3.2 juk; rhuhj nkhopngaHg;G (Rank (free) Unbound Translation)

juk; rhuhj nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ %ynkhopr; nrhw;fisf; $l;bNah my;yJ

Fiwj;Njh ngWk;nkhopapy; ngaHg;gJ MFk;.

(v.fh.) Train - Giftz;b> Aeroplane - tpkhdk;

vi) N[f;fg;rdpd; (Eric Jacobsen) tifg;ghL

N[f;fg;rd; %d;W tpjkhd nkhopngaHg;Gfisf; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH. mit

1. xNu nkhopf;Fs; mikAk; nkhopngaHg;G (Intra lingual Translation)

2. ,UnkhopfSf;fpilNaAs;s nkhopngaHg;G (Interlingual Translation)
3. ,Unkhopf; FwpaPl;L nkhopngaHg;G (Inter Semiotic Translation) vd;gdthFk;.

1. xNu nkhopf;Fs; mikAk; nkhopngaHg;G (Intra lingual Translation)

xU nkhopapYs;s ,yf;fpaj;ijg; nghUs; tpsq;FkhW mNj nkhopapy;

vspikahd nrhw;fisf; nfhz;L kPz;Lk; gilj;Jj; jUjy;.

(v.fh) rq;f ,yf;fpag;ghly;fspd; fbdkhd ciuia vspikahf vOjpapUj;jy;

2. ,UnkhopfSf;fpilNaAs;s nkhopngaHg;G (Inter lingual Translation)

%y nkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfisg; ngWk;nkhopf;F ngaHj;jy; ,t;tifiar; rhUk;.

xU nkhopapd; nkhoprhH Fwpg;ig (Verbal signs) NtnwhU nkhopf;F nghUs;Nfhs;
nra;tij ,U nkhopfSf;fpilNaAs;s nkhopngaHg;ghFk;.

(v.fh.) ,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;G

177
3. ,Unkhopf; FwpaPl;L nkhopngaHg;G / gpw cUg;ngaHg;G
(Inter Semiotic Translation)

,Unkhopf; FwpaPl;L nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ nkhoprhH Fwpg;ig (Verbal Signs)

nkhoprhuhj Fwpg;gpd; (Non - Verbal Signs) %yk; tpsf;Fjy; (An interpretation of verbal
signs by means of signs of non verbal signs). mjhtJ %ynkhopapYs;s nkhoprhH Fwpg;ig
(Verbal Sign) mg;gbNa gpw tbtpy; ngaHg;gJ. mjhtJ ghlyhf ,Ug;gjidg; ghlyhfg;
ngaHf;fhJ ghlitj;jy;> ebf;f itj;jy; (Verbal sign translated into action; literary form
translated into play; verbal sign into visual sign). vdNt ,J gbf;fhkNyNa vspjpy; Gupe;J
nfhs;s KbAk;. Nfusf;fiyahd fjfspiar; rhd;whff; $wyhk;.

vii) a+[pd; A. ielhtpd; (Eugene A. Nida) tifg;ghL- 1974

ielh mtHfs; %ynkhopf;F ,izahfg; ngWk;nkhopapy; epfud;fisj;

NjHe;njLj;J nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lnkd;fpwhH. ngWk; nkhopapy; epfud;fisj;
NjHe;njLg;gjpy; jhd; nkhopngaHg;gpd; rpwg;G mlq;fpapUf;fpwJ vd;fpwhH. %ynkhopf;fhd
ngWk; nkhop epfud;fisf; fz;lwptNj nkhopngaHg;gpd; ikag;gzpahFk;. ielh ,uz;L
tifahd epfud;fis kl;Lk; mOj;jkhff; $WfpwhH. mit 1. KiwrhH epfud; (Formal
Correspondence) 2. Mw;wy;kpF epfud; (Dynamic Equivalence) vd;gdthFk;. ,t;tpuz;L
tifahd epfud;fspd; mbg;gilapy; mikAk; nkhopngaHg;igj; juKs;sJ vd;W
fUJfpwhH.

1. KiwrhH epfud; (Formal Correspondence)

%ynkhopg; gDtypd; mikg;Gf; $Wfisg; nghwp El;gkhfg; (Mechanically)

ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;wp kW cUthf;fk; nra;ag;gLtJ ,t;tifiaf; Fwpf;Fk;. ,aq;fpay;
epfuidf; nfhz;l ngWk;nkhopf;F kW cUthf;fk; nra;tJ vd;gJTk; nghUs;gLk;.

2. Mw;wy;kpF epfud; (Dynamic Equivalence)

%ynkhopapy; nrhy;yg;gl;l fUj;jpid khw;whky; mg;gbNa ngWk; nkhopapy;

ngaHg;gjhFk;. mt;thW ngaHf;fg;gl;l gDtiyg; gbf;Fk; xU ngWk;nkhop thrfH
jd;id %ynkhop thrfuhfNt epidf;f itf;Fk; jd;ik nfhz;ljhfg; ngWk; nkhopg;
gDty; mika Ntz;Lk;. ,t;tifahd khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; ngWk; nkhop
epfud;fisNa Mw;wy;kpF epfud;fshff; fUJfpwhH.

178
 Mw;wy;kpF epfud;fisj; NjHe;njLj;J nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ> ngWk;nkhopg;
gDtiyg; gbf;Fk; ngWk;nkhop thrfdpd; kdepiy (Receptor Response) %ynkhop
thrfdpd; kdepiyiag; Nghy; xj;J ,Ue;jhy; me;j nkhopngaHg;igr; rpwe;j
nkhopngaHg;G vdf;$wyhk;.

viii) Mz;l;Nu ny/gntNuapd; (Andre Lefevere) tifg;ghL -1975

Mz;l;Nu ny/gntNu ,yf;fpa tif nkhopngaHg;G vd;w epiyapy; VO

tifahd nkhopngaHg;igg; gw;wpf; Fwpg; gpLfpwhH. mit

1. xypad; nkhopngaHg;G (Phonemic Translation)

2. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G / NeHnkhopngaHg;G (Literal Translation )
3. ahg;G nkhopngaHg;G (Metrical Translation)
4. ciueil nkhopngaHg;G (Prose Translation)
5. re;j nkhopngaHg;G (Rhyming Translation)
6. tpLepiyg;gh nkhopngaHg;G ( Blank Verse Translation)
7. tpsf;f nkhopngaHg;G (Interpretation) vd;gdthFk;.

1. xypad; nkhopngaHg;G (Phonemic Translation)

%ynkhopapd; xypaidg; ngWk;nkhopapy; juKay;tJ xypad; nkhopngaHg;ghFk;.

,k; nkhopngaHg;G %ynkhopapd; nghUz;ikiar; rpijj;J tpLk;.

2. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G / NeHnkhopngaHg;G

(Literal Translation)

%ynkhopapYs;s nrhy;Yf;F ,izahdr; nrhy;iyg; ngWk; nkhopapy; NjHT

nra;jy; nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G vdg;gLk;.

3. ahg;G nkhopngaHg;G (Metrical Translation)

%yE}ypd; nra;Aspy; cs;s mb> rPH> jis Nghd;wtw;iwg; ngWk; nkhopapy;

mNj epiyapy; khw;wpaikf;Fk; Kiwia ahg;G nkhopngaHg;G vd;gH. ,t;tif
nkhopngaHg;G ahg;gpy; kl;Lk; ftdk; nrYj;Jtjhy; %yE}ypd; KOikj;
jd;ikapypUe;J tpyfp tpLfpwJ vdyhk;.

179
4. ciueil nkhopngaHg;G (Prose Translation)

%ynkhopapy; nra;As; tbtpypUg;gijg; ngWk; nkhopapy; ciueilahf;fpj;

jUjy; ciueil nkhopngaHg;ghFk;. ,k;nkhopngaHg;gpy; %yE}ypYs;s xypeak;>
czHr;rp> myq;fhu eil> nghUz;ik Mfpad Fiwe;J tpLk;. ,Ug;gpDk; nrhy;Yf;Fr;
nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G> ahg;G nkhopngaHg;G Mfpatw;iwf; fhl;bYk; fUj;ij
ntspapLtjpy; ,k;nkhopngaHg;G rpwe;J tpsq;FfpwJ.

5. re;j nkhopngaHg;G (Rhyming Translation)

%ynkhopapYs;s vJif> Nkhid Nghd;w re;jk; (Rhyming) jUk; $Wfisg;

ngWk; nkhopapy; nfhz;L tu KaYjy; re;j nkhopngaHg;ghFk;. ,k;Kiwapy; nra;Aspd;
jdpj;Jtkhd $Wfshy;> %yE}ypd; rpwg;G mk;rq;fisg; ngWk;nkhopapy; nfhz;Ltu
,ayhJ.

6. tpLepiyg;gh nkhopngaHg;G (Blank Verse Translation)

tpLepiyg;gh nkhopngaHg;gpy; thf;fpaf; fl;likg;gpy; khw;wq;fs; ,Ug;gjhy; XusT

rpf;fy; vOfpwJ. ,Ug;gpDk; mjpf mstpy; Jy;ypaj;jd;ikAk;> caHe;j ,yf;fpa
eaKk; ,k;nkhopngaHg;gpy; ngwg;gLfpd;wd.

7. tpsf;f nkhopngaHg;G (Interpretation)

%ynkhopapYs;s ftpijapd; fUj;jpid kdjpy; nfhz;L> nkhopngaHg;ghsH

ngWk; nkhopapy; jdJ Nghf;fpw;Nfw;g tbtj;ij mikj;Jg; ghLjy; tpsf;f
nkhopngaHg;ghFk;.

ix) `T]pd; (House) tifg;ghL - 1977

`T]; ,Utif nkhopngaHg;Gfis tifg;gLj;jpAs;shH. mit

1. kpif nkhopngaHg;G (Overt Translation)

2. kiwT nkhopngaHg;G (Covert Translation) vd;gdthFk;.

1. kpif nkhopngaHg;G (Overt Translation)

kpif nkhopngaHg;G vd;gJ %ynkhopapd; gz;ghl;Lf;Fl;gl;L %ynkhopf;

180
fUj;Jfisg; ngWk;nkhopapy; nkhopngaHg;gjhFk;. ,k;nkhopngaHg;G %ynkhopapd;
mq;ff
P hug; ngaHg;G vd;gJk; thrfUf;Fj; njupe;jpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

(v.fh.) ,yf;fpatif nkhopngaHg;G

2. kiwT nkhopngaHg;G (Covert Translation)

,t;tif nkhopngaHg;gpy; vy;yh tifahd njhopy;rhH> mwptpay; njhopy;El;gg;

gDty; nkhopngaHg;Gfs; mlq;Fk;. %ynkhop> vt;tpjj; jdpg;gl;l gz;ghl;L
newpfSf;Fk; fl;Lg;gl;L ,Uf;fhJ. mNjhL %ynkhopg; gDtYf;Fk; ngWk;nkhopg;
gDtYf;Fk; ,ilNa vt;tpj NtWghLk; fhz KbahJ. ,uz;L my;yJ gynkhopfs;
xNu nkhopf;Fs; mlf;fk; vd;gijg; Nghyj; Njhd;Wk; ,ay;igf; nfhz;l ngaHg;ghFk;;.

x) gPl;lH epa+khHf;fpd; (Peter New Mark) tifg;ghL - 1979

epa+khHf; gjpndhU tifahd nkhopngaHg;Gfis tptupj;Js;shH. mit>

1. Gyg;ghl;L nkhopngaHg;G (Communicative Translation)

2. nghUz;ik nkhopngaHg;G (Semantic Translation)

3. jfty; nkhopngaHg;G (Information Translation)

4. ,ay;ghd nkhopngaHg;G (Formal Translation)

5. KO ciu nkhopngaHg;G (Full Prose Translation)

6. fpiltupir nkhopngaHg;G (Interliner Translation)

7. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G (Literal Translation)

8. eil nkhopngaHg;G (Stylistic Translation)

9. gFg;gha;T nkhopngaHg;G (Analytical Translation)

10. Nghyr;nra;jy; (Imitation)

11. Nrit nkhopngaHg;G (Service Translation)

1. Gyg;ghl;L nkhopngaHg;G (Communicative Translation)

,k;nkhopngaHg;gpy; %ynkhopE}iyg; gbf;fpd;w thrfupd; kdepiyAk; ngWk;nkhop

E}iyg; gbf;fpd;w thrfupd; kdepiyAk; xd;W Nghy; ,Uf;Fk;. ,t;tif nkhopngaHg;G
%ynkhop thrfHfsplj;Jk;> ngWk;nkhop thrfHfsplj;Jk; xNu khjpupahd jhf;fj;ij

181
Vw;gLj;jty;yJ. rpy Neuq;fspy; ngWk;nkhopapy; ngaHg;G nra;ag;gLk; gDtypd; juk;
%ynkhopapd; juj;ij tpl kpFjpahff; fhzg;gLk;. ,t;tifahd nkhopngaHg;gpy;
nkhopngaHg;ghsupd; jFjp epiyiag; nghUj;J ngaHg;gpd; juk; tpsq;Fk;.

nkhopngaHg;ghsH Gyg;ghl;Lj; jaf;fk; ngwr;nra;Ak; mstpw;F ngWk;nkhopapy;

rpwe;j vspikahd> thrfHfs; vspjpy; GupAk; tz;zk;> thrfupd; kdjpy; xU jhf;fj;ij
Vw;gLj;Jk; tifapy; epfuidj; (Equivalence) njupT nra;Ak; rpwg;Gj; jd;ik ntspg;gl
tha;g;G mjpfk;.

2. nghUz;ik nkhopngaHg;G (Semantic Translation)

%ynkhop E}ypYs;s nghUisg; ngWk;nkhopapy; Jy;ypakhfg; ngaHj;jy;

nghUz;ik nkhopngaHg;ghFk;. nrhw;fisAk; (Vocabulary) njhlHfisAk; (Syntax)
ngWk;nkhopapy; ngaHf;fpd;w NghJ ngWk;nkhopapd; juk; FiwahjthW ghHj;Jf; nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk;. Mdhy; %yE}ypd; nghUisj; Jy;ypakhfg; ngaHf;f NeupLk; NghJ ngWk;
nkhopapd; juk; %ynkhopia tplf; Fiwe;Jk; fhzg;glyhk;.

3. jfty; nkhopngaHg;G (Information Translation)

jfty; nkhopngaHg;gpy; %ynkhopapd; mikg;igNah> eiliaNah fUj;jpy;

nfhs;shky; Nehf;fPl;Lg; nghUis (Referential content) kl;Lk; ngWk;nkhopapy; ngaHg;gJ
MFk;. ,k;nkhopngaHg;G tpupTiuapypUe;J (Parapharse) RUf;fTiuahf (Summary) Mf;fk;
ngw tha;g;Gz;L.

4. ,ay;ghd nkhopngaHg;G (Formal Translation)

%ynkhopapd; ,ay;ghd nkhopngaHg;gpy; nra;jpiaf; fUj;jpy; nfhs;shky; nkhop
mikg;ig (form) kl;Lk; ngWk;nkhopf;F ngaHj;jyhFk;.

5. KO ciu nkhopngaHg;G (Full Prose Translation)

%ynkhopapd; xypeaj;ij tpl;L> nkhop mikg;ig kl;Lk; ngWk;nkhopapy;
cUthf;fp %ynkhopg; gDtYld; xj;Jf; fhzg;gLk; xU tifahFk;.

6. fpiltupir nkhopngaHg;G (Interliner Translation)

%ynkhopapy; mike;j nrhy;ypd; tupiriag; ngaHg;gjw;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
nfhLj;Jr; nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy;yhf ngaHg;gJ fpil tupir nkhopngaHg;G vdg;gLk;.

182
,g;ngaHg;gpy; nkhopapd; #oy; fzf;fpy; nfhs;sg;gLtjpy;iy. Guptjw;Ff; fbdkhf
,Uf;Fk; xU gj;jpiaNah> my;yJ gDtiyNah ngaHf;f NeupLk; NghJ
nkhopngaHg;ghsHfshy; Kjypy; ifahsg;gLk; xU tifahFk;.

7. nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHg;G (Literal Translation)

%ynkhopapYs;s nrhw;fSf;F ,izahdr; nrhw;fisj; NjHe;njLj;J ngWk;

nkhopf;F ngaHj;jy; nrhy;Yf;Fr; nrhy; nkhopngaHj;jy; vdg;gLk;. ,t;tif
nkhopngaHg;gpy; nkhopapd; #oiyf; fUj;jpy; nfhs;shky;> njhlH mikg;igAk;>
nrhw;fisAk; kl;Lk; fUj;jpy; nfhz;L nkhopngaHg;gH.

8. eil nkhopngaHg;G (Stylistic Translation)

ngWk; nkhopapd; eiliaf; fUj;jpy; nfhz;L %ynkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfisg;

ngWk; nkhopapy; ngaHj;jyhFk;. ,k;nkhopngaHg;gpy; ngWk;nkhopapd; eil rpwg;ghf
mikAk;.

9. gFg;gha;T nkhopngaHg;G (Analytical Translation)

%ynkhopapd; mikg;igg; ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;WtJ gFg;gha;T nkhopngaHg;ghFk;.

mt;thW khw;Wk;NghJ ngWk; nkhopf;Fj; jFe;jthW epfud;fisj; NjHe;njLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

10. Nghyr;nra;jy; (Imitation)

%ynkhop mikg;G my;yJ fUj;ijg; Nghd;W ve;jtpj khw;wKkpy;yhky; ngWk;

nkhopapy; ngaHg;gJ> Nghyr; nra;jyhFk;.

11. Nrit nkhopngaHg;G (Service Translation)

gad;ghl;by; ,y;yhj mwpKfkhfhj nrhw;fis nkhopngaHg;gpy; ,lk;ngwr;

nra;tJ Nrit nkhopngaHg;ghFk;. ,k;nkhopngaHg;G ve;j xU ,yf;ifAk; ngupjhff;
nfhz;L nray;glhJ.

xi) NfhNjapd; (Goethe) tifg;ghL

NfhNj ehd;F tifahd nkhopngaHg;Gfisg; gw;wp tptupj;Js;shH. mit

1. RUf;f nkhopngaHg;G (Paraphrasing)

183
 2. jOty; nkhopngaHg;G (Adaptation)
3. nkhop Mf;fk; (Transcreation)
4. nkhj;j nkhopngaHg;G (Total Translation) vd;gdthFk;.

1. RUf;f nkhopngaHg;G (Paraphrasing)

%ynkhopapYs;s fUj;JfSf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;J ngWk; nkhopapy;

nkhopngaHg;gJ RUf;f nkhop ngaHg;ghFk;. ,t;tif nkhopngaHg;gpdhy; mwptpay;
Kd;Ndw;wq;fs;> mwptpay; fz;Lgpbg;Gfs;> Ma;thsHfs; gw;wpa nra;jpfs;> cyf
,jo;fs;> rQ;rpiffspy; ntsptUfpd;w nra;jpfs; Nghd;wtw;iwj; njupe;J nfhs;s
KbfpwJ.

ngUk;ghyhd ,e;jpa vOj;jhsHfs; N`hkH (Homer)> jhe;Nj (Dante) NfhNj

(Goethe)> N\f;];gpaH (Shakespeare)> kpy;ld; (Milton) Nghd;NwhHfspd; ghly;fis>
ehlfq;fisr; RUf;f nkhopngaHg;gpd; (Paraphrasing) %yk; nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH.

2. jOty; nkhopngaHg;G (Adaptation)

%ynkhopf; fUj;Jfis kl;Lk; NjHe;njLj;J ngWk;nkhopapy; ngaHj;jy; jOty;

nkhopg;ngaHg;ghFk;. ,k; nkhopngaHg;gpy; nkhopngaHg;ghsHfs; %yE}ypy; ,y;yhj
fUj;Jfisr; NrHf;fNth my;yJ %yE}ypy; cs;s fUj;Jfis ePf;fNth my;yJ
%yE}ypy; cs;s fUj;Jfis khw;wNth nra;tH. %ynkhopapd; mikg;Gk;
ngWk;nkhopapy; khwyhk;.

jOty; nkhopngaHg;gpw;F rhd;whf fk;guhkhazj;ijf; $wyhk;. vl;tpd; mHdhy;L

vOjpa „The Light of Asia' vd;gijf; ftpkzp Njrpf tpehafk; gps;is „Mrpa N[hjp‟
vd; nkhopngaHj;jhH. ,JTk; jOty; nkhopngaHg;gpw;Fr; rhd;whFk;.

3. nkhop Mf;fk; (Transcreation)

%ynkhopapYs;s fUj;Jfisg; ngWk;nkhopapy; nkhop ngaHf;fpd;w NghJ>

ngWk;nkhopf;F Vw;wthW rpw;rpy ,lq;fspy; nrhw;fisg; Nghl;Lg; ngaHj;jy; nkhop
Mf;fk; vdg;gLk;.

184
 (v.fh.) ghurPff; ftpQH ckHfa;ahkpd; ghly;fisg; gpl;[; n[uhy;L (Fitzgerald)
nkhop Mf;fk; nra;Js;shH. ckHfa;ahk; ghly;fisf; ftpkzp Njrpf tpehafk;
gps;isAk; nkhopngaHj;jpUg;gJ nkhopahf;fj;jpw;F rhd;whFk;.

4. nkhj;j nkhopngaHg;G (Total Translation)

%ynkhopapYs;s mikg;igAk;> fUj;JfisAk; khw;whky; ngWk;nkhopapy;

ngaHj;jy; nkhj;j nkhopngaHg;ghFk;. ngUk;ghYk; ftpij> ehty;> ciueil Nghd;wit
,k;nkhopngaHg;G Kiwapdhy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

N`hkH> jhe;Nj> N\f;];gpaH> kpy;ld;> bf;fd;];> ypNah lhy;];lha;> jh$H>

mfpyd;> K.t.> fy;fp> mNrhfkpj;ud;> n[afhe;jd;> uh[k;fpU\;zd; Nghd;w ngupa
vOj;jhsHfspd; gilg;GfisAk;> tptpypak;> jpUf;Fws; Nghd;witAk; nkhj;j
nkhopngaHg;G Kiwapdhy; nkhopngaHg;Gr; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd.

xii) ,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;G

,d;iwa cyfk; mwptpaiy mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L ,aq;Ffpd;wJ. mwptpaypy;

ehs;NjhWk; Gjpa rhjdq;fs; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gLfpd;wd. kf;fs; mwptpaypy; Kd;Ndw;wk;
ngw;wpUe;jhYk; mtHfsJ kdk; kfpo;r;rpia ehLfpd;wd. mj;jifa kfpo;r;rpia
mtHfSf;Ff; nfhLf;f ,yf;fpa gilg;Gfs; jhd; Jiz Gupfpd;wd. jha;nkhopapy;
,yf;fpaq;fisg; gbj;jhy; kl;Lk; NghjhJ gpw nkhopapYs;s ,yf;fpaq;fisAk; mwpe;J
nfhs;s kf;fs; MHtkhf ,Uf;fpd;whHfs;. mtHfspd; MHtj;ijg; g+Hj;jp gz;Zfpd;w
tpjj;jpy; gpw nkhop ,yf;fpaq;fs; nkhopngaHg;ghsHfshy; nkhopngaHf;fg;gl;L
tUfpd;wd. ,t;thW %ynkhopapYs;s ,yf;fpag; gilg;Gfisg; ngWk;nkhopapy;
khw;Wtij ,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;G vdyhk;.

,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;gpd; tiffshf ftpij nkhopngaHg;G> ciueil

nkhopngaHg;G> rpWfij nkhopngaHg;G> ehlf nkhopngaHg;G> ehty; nkhopngaHg;G
vd;gdtw;iwf; $wyhk;.

1. ftpij nkhopngaHg;G

%ynkhopapYs;s ftpijfisg; ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;WtJ ftpij nkhopngaHg;G

vdg;gLk;. ftpijia nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ %ynkhopapYs;s Kiwapy; mikahJ
ngWk;nkhopapd; ,ay;Gf;F Vw;wthW nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;. Vnddpy; ftpijapd; Xir

185
eak;> fw;gidj; jpwk;> me;je;j nkhopf;F Vw;wthWjhd; ,Uf;Fk;. NkYk; ftpij me;je;j
nkhopapd; fyhr;rhuk;> gz;ghL> ,yf;fzk; Mfpatw;iw mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ.
nrhw;fspd; mikg;G Kiw> nrhw;nwhlH mikg;gpy; nkhopf;F nkhop NtWgLfpwJ. vdNt
ftpijia nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ ngWk;nkhopapd; ,ay;Gf;F Vw;wthW Xireak;>
fw;gidj; jpwk;> nrhw;fisj; NjHe;njLj;jy;> ,yf;fzk; Nghd;w jd;ikapy; jhd; khw;w
Ntz;Lk;.

rhd;whf> ckHfa;ahk; ghliy vl;tHl; gpl;n[uhy;L Mq;fpyj;jpy;

nkhopngaHj;Js;shH. mNj Mq;fpyg; ghliy ftpkzp Njrpf tpehafk; gps;is
jkpo;nkhopapd; fyhr;rhu gz;ghl;bw;F Vw;wthW nkhopngaHg;Gr; nra;Js;shH.

“A Book of verse underneath the Bough

A jug of wine, a loaf of Bread and Thou

Beside me singing in the wilderness,

Oh! wilderness were paradise enow!''
(The Rubiyat of Omerkhayem Trans: Edward Fitzgerald)"

“nta;apw; Nfw;w epoYz;L

tPRk; njd;wy; fhw;Wz;L
ifapy; fk;gd; ftpAz;L
fyrk; epiwa kJTz;L
nja;t fPjk; gyTz;L
njupe;J ghl ePAKz;L
itae; jUkpt; tdkpd;wp
thOk; nrhHf;fk; NtWz;Nlh?"

186
 nkhopngaHg;Gr; rpf;fy;

nkhopngaHg;G vd;why; %ynkhopapy; cs;s nrhw;fisf; Fwpf;Nfhs; nkhopapy;

cs;s nrhw;fshy; khw;WtJ vd;w fUj;J kpfg; gutyhf epytp tUfpwJ. nkhopngaHg;G
vd;gJ xU nkhopapy; cs;s nrhw;fis kw;nwhU nkhopapy; cs;s nrhw;fshy;
khw;WtJ kl;Le;jhd; vd;why; nkhopngaHg;Gf;Fj; NjitahdJ> xU ,Unkhop mfuhjp
kl;LNk. Mdhy; eilKiwapy; ghHf;Fk; nghOJ ,J rupahd fUj;jhf mikatpy;iy.
vdNt> ,ijj; jtpu NtW rpy mk;rq;fis nkhopngaHg;gpy; ftdpf;f Ntz;bAs;sJ
rhd;whf xU gDtiy (Text) nkhopngaHg;gjw;F Kd;ghfg; gDtypd; jd;ikfis
nkhopngaHg;ghsHfs; njupe;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. ve;jnthU gDtYk; gpd;tUtdtw;iwf;
nfhz;L tpsq;Fk;. mit

1. #oy; (Context)
2. cs;slf;fk;(Content)
3. nra;jp (Message)
4. eil (Style)
5. nrhw;nghUs; (Lexicon)
6. cs;slfj;jpd; gpd;Gyk; (Background of the Content - fhyk;> ,lk; Nghd;wit)
7. gz;ghL (Cultural Heritage)
8. tpiuT (Effect)
9. Mrpupaupd; MSik (Personality of the Author)
10. tuyhw;Wr; #oikT (Historical Situation) vd;gdthFk;.

,f;fUj;Jfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Nl xU gDtiy ntw;wpfukhf

nkhopngaHj;jpl KbAk;.

nkhopngaHg;ghsH vjpHnfhs;Sk; rpf;fy;fs;

nghJthf nkhopngaHg;ghsH ,uz;L epiyfspy; gpur;ridfis vjpHnfhs;SfpwhH.

mit 1. nkhoprhHe;j rpf;fy;fs; my;yJ nkhopapay; rhHe;j rpf;fy;fs; (Linguistic
Problems) 2. nkhoprhuhr; rpf;fy;fs; (Extra Linguistic Problems) vd;gdthFk;.

187
(i) nkhop rhHe;j rpf;fy;fs; (Linguistic Problems)

nkhoprhHe;j rpf;fy;fs; vd;gJ %ynkhopf; $WfSf;Fr; rkkhd epfud;fisr;

fz;lwptjpy; Vw;gLtjhFk;. fPo;f;fhZk; epiyfspy; ,r;rpf;fy;fs; Njhd;wyhk;. mit

1. Xirea epfud;fs; (Euphonic Lquivalence)

2. ,yf;fz epfud;fs; (Grammatical Equivalence)

1. Xirea epfud;fs; (Euphonic Equivalence)

Xireak; vd;gJ ngUk;ghYk; xypfspd; NrHf;ifiag; nghWj;Jk; mit

nkhopapy; tUk; ,lq;fisg; nghWj;JNk mikfpwJ. %ynkhopapy; cs;s
,ireaq;fisg; ngWk;nkhopf;F khw;w Kaw;rpf;Fk; NghJ nghUs; rpije;J tplhky;
ghHj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. NkYk; xyp mOj;jKila nkhopfspd; eaq;fis kw;nwhU
nkhopf;F khw;wpaikj;jy; vd;gJ ,ayhj fhupakhFk;.

2. ,yf;fz epfud;fs; (Grammatical Equivalence)

nkhopngaHg;gpy; ,yf;fz epfud;fs; Kf;fpa ,lj;jpidg; ngWfpd;wd. xU

nkhopngaHg;ghsH nrhw;fSf;fpilNaAk;> nrhw;nwhFjpfSf;F ,ilNaAk; cs;s
,yf;fz cwTfisg; gw;wp ed;F mwpe;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. nghJthf> rpyH xU
nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ mjpy; cs;s nrhw;fSf;F kl;LNk nghUs; ,Ug;gjhfTk;
,yf;fzk; Nghd;w gpwtw;Wf;Fg; nghUNsJk; ,y;iy vd;Wk; KbT fl;LtH. Vndd;why;>
nghJthf ,yf;fzk; vd;whNy nrhw;fs; vt;thW njhluhf mika Ntz;Lk; vd;gij
tpjpfspd; tbtj;jpy; mikAk; XH mikg;Ng vd;gJ ngUk;ghyhNdhupd; fUj;J vdpDk;
,it kl;LNk ,yf;fzk; MfhJ.

(v.fh.) „utp Fkhiu mioj;jhd;‟

„FkhH utpia mioj;jhd;‟
vd;Dk; ,U njhlHfisAk; xg;gpl;Lg;ghHj;jhy; ,yf;fzj;jpw;Fk; nghUs; ,Ug;gJ
GydhFk;. NkYk;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l rpy ,yf;fzf; $Wfs; jdpj;jd;ik tha;e;jjhf
,Uf;ff;$Lk;. me;jj; jdpj;jd;ik tha;e;j ,yf;fzf;$Wfs; kw;nwhU nkhopapy;
,y;yhky; Nghfyhk;.

188
 vLj;Jf;fhl;lhfg; ghy; tpjpfs; (Gender Rules) ,e;jpapy; kpfTk; Fog;gkhf
,Ug;gijf; fhzyhk;. capuw;w nghUl;fs; $l ,e;jpapy; ghy; tpFjpfisg; ngw;W
tpsq;Ffpd;wd. Gj;jfk; ngz;ghyhfTk;> jz;zPH Mz;ghyhfTk;> ehw;fhyp>
ngz;ghyhfTk; ,Ug;gijf; fhzyhk;. Mdhy; jkpopy; ,j;jifa ghy;ghFghL ,y;iy.
nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ ,j;jifa ,yf;fzf; $Wfshy; rpf;fy;fs; Njhd;Wk;.

3. xg;gPL (Comparison)

nghUs;fspd; jd;ikfis xg;gplTk; epfo;r;rpfis xg;gplTk; -er, -est vd;w

fl;LUgd;fSk; as, than, much, more, most vd;w nrhw;fSk; Mq;fpyj;jpy; cs;sd.
,tw;wpd; nghUisj; jkpopy; Nghy> fhl;bYk;> kpf> ck;> V vd;git kpf Mw;wYld;
Gyg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.

(v.fh) i) My father is as good as my mother

vd; md;idiag; Nghy; vd; je;ijAk; ey;ytH.
ii) It is better to starve than beg

gpr;ir vLg;gijf; fhl;bYk; gl;bdp fplg;gJ Nky;

4. tbtk; Vw;gLj;Jk; rpf;fy;fs;

tuptbtj;ij xU nkhopapypUe;J kw;nwhU nkhopf;F xypngaHg;G tbtpy;

nkhopngaHf;Fk;NghJ> gy;NtW rpf;fy;fs; Njhd;Wfpd;wd. nghJthf ,lq;fs;> mwptpay;
fUtpfs;> ngaHfs; Nghd;wdtw;iw %ynkhopr; nrhy;ypd; xypaikg;gpy; ngWk; nkhopapy;
nfhz;LtUjy; ngU tof;fhf cs;sJ. ngWk; nkhopapd; xyp kuGfisf; fUj;jpy;
nfhz;L nkhopngaHg;gJjhd; Vw;GilaJ. njhy;fhg;gpaH tlnkhop vd;W miof;fg;gLk;
rk];fpUj nkhopr; nrhw;fisj; jkpohf;Fk;NghJ>

“tlnrhw; fpstp tlntOj; njhuP,

vOj;njhL GzHe;j nrhy;yhFNk" (njhy;.884)

vd;w tpjpapid Kd; itf;fpd;whH. Mdhy; fhyg;Nghf;fpy; njhy;fhg;gpaupd; tpjpahdJ

kPwg;gl;L tpl;lJ. ,d;W gpwnkhop xyp tbtq;fisf; Fwpf;f ]> [> `> \> = Nghd;w
fpue;j vOj;Jfisg; gad;gLj;JtJ nghJ tof;fhfp tpl;lJ. ,J Fwpj;Jj;
jkpowpQHfspilNa thjg; gpujpthjq;fs; njhlHe;J eilngw;Wf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd.

189
5. nghUs; Vw;gLj;Jk; rpf;fy;fs;

nkhopngaHg;ghsH ,Unkhopg; GyikAk;> MSikAk; kpf;ftuhf tpsq;fpdhYk;

%ynkhop> ngWk;nkhopapYs;s nrhw;fspd; nghUisr; rupahfg; Gupe;J nfhs;shtpl;lhy;
nkhopngaHg;gpy; rpf;fiy Vw;gLj;Jk;. nrhw;nghUs; Gwepiyapy; xU nghUisAk;>
Gijepiyapy; kw;nwhU nghUisAk; nfhLf;f tha;g;Gz;L. xU nrhy; nkhopapy;
nghJthf toq;Fk; tpjk;> xU nrhy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; #oy;> xU nrhy;iy mbf;fb
gad;gLj;Jfpd;w kdpjHfs; Mfpa %d;W fhuzpfs; nrhy;ypd; nghUisg; Gupe;J nfhs;s
mbg;gilahf cs;sd. rhjhuz ciuahlypd; NghJ> vspikahfg; GupAk; nrhw;fs;
nkhopngaHg;gpd; NghJ gy;NtW rpf;fy;fisj; jUfpd;wd. nrhw;fspd; nghUisr; rupahfg;
Gupe;Jnfhs;shj epiyapy; nkhopngaHg;ghsH Fog;gj;jpw;F cs;shfpwhH. nrhw;fspd;
nghUspidr; rupahfg; Gupe;J nfhs;Sk; nkhopngaHg;ghsH nra;Ak; nkhopngaHg;G
rpwg;ghdjhf mikAk;.

ii) nkhoprhuhr; rpf;fy;fs; / gz;ghl;Lr; rpf;fy;fs;

nkhopngaHg;ghsH ,UNtWgl;l nkhopfspd; gz;ghl;ilAk; mjpy; fhzg;ngWk;

xw;Wik Ntw;WikfisAk; ed;F mwpe;J nfhs;s Ntz;bajhfpwJ.

jdpkdpj MSikahdJ gz;ghl;L mbg;gilapy; cUthfpd;wJ. jdpkdpjidr;

rKjha kdpjdhf khw;WtJld;> mtidr; #oYld; nghUj;jpg; Nghfpwtdhf khw;WtJ
gz;ghl;bd; rpwg;ghFk;. xU nkhop NgRfpd;w kf;fs; tho;fpd;w Gtpapay; mikg;G>
jl;gntg;gepiy Nghd;wd mk;kf;fspd; tho;epiyiaj; jPHkhdpf;fpd;wd. flw;fiuapy;
thOk; kPdtupd; tof;fhw;wpy; jz;zPUf;Fk;> fhw;Wf;Fk; gy ngaHfs; cs;sd. Fkup
khtl;l kPdtHfs; fhw;wpd; tiffshf thilf;fhw;W> Nrhof;fhw;W> fiuf;fhw;W>
fly;fhw;W> nfhz;ly; fhw;W> #iwf;fhw;W> Gay;fhw;W vd;gtw;iwf; Fwpg;gpLfpd;wdH.
mNugpahtpy; ghiytdj;ijnahl;b tho;fpd;wtHfsplk; kzYf;Fk;> xl;lfj;jpw;Fk; gy
ngaHfs; cs;sd. ,J> nkhop toq;Ffpd;w Gtpapay; mikg;ghdJ nkhopapd; kPJ
nrYj;Jfpd;w MSikapd; tpisthFk;. gz;ghl;L epiyapy; nkhopngaHg;G rhj;jpak;
Mfhky; ,Uf;fpwJ. Vnddpy; nkhopAk; gz;ghLk; gpupf;f ,ayhjJ.
nkhopngaHg;ghsHfSf;F %ynkhop ngWk; nkhop mwpT ,Ue;jhy; kl;Lk; NghjhJ>
mk;nkhopfisg; NgRk; kf;fspd; gz;ghl;Lr; #oYk; njupe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

1. gz;ghl;Lf;$Wfs;

nkhoprhur; rpf;fy;fs; gpd;tUk; gz;ghl;Lf; $Wfspy; Vw;gl tha;g;Gz;L.

190
 1. #o;epiyapay; gz;ghL (Ecological Culture)

2. nghUs; gz;ghL (Material Culture)

3. r%fg; gz;ghL (Social Culture)

4. rkag;gz;ghL (Religious Culture)

1.1 #o;epiyapay; gz;ghL (Ecological Culture)

xU Fwpg;gpl;l Rw;Wg;Gwr; #oypy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; nghUl;fs; kw;nwhU

#o;epiyapy; NtWtpjkhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. rpy rkak; mt;thwhd nrhw;fis
tpsf;Ftjw;Fr; rupahd epfud;fs; fpilf;fhky; $lg; Nghfyhk;. vdNt> Fwpg;gpl;l
#o;epiyapy; xU nrhy; vijf; Fwpf;fpwJ> mjd; nghUis %ynkhopahsHfs; vt;thW
czHe;J nfhs;fpwhHfs; vd;gij mwpe;J nfhz;Nl ngWk;nkhopapy; nkhopngaHf;f
Ntz;Lk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhfg; ~gdp‟ vd;w nrhy;ypd; gad;ghL v];fpNkhf;fspd; tho;f;ifapy;
Kf;fpa ,lj;jpidg; ngWfpwJ. ,r;nrhy;iyg; gdpiaNa ghHj;jpuhj kf;fs; NgRk; xU
nkhopf;F nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ vq;qdk; nkhopngaHg;gJ? ,J Nghd;w #o;epiyapy;
gz;ghl;Lf;$Wfis nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ nkhopngaHg;ghsH rpf;fy;fis
vjpHNehf;FfpwhH.

1.2 nghUs; gz;ghL (Material Culture)

nghUs; gz;ghL kpfTk; rpf;fy; tha;e;jjhFk;. Vnddpy; xU r%fk; gad;gLj;Jk;

nghUs; $WfSf;F kw;nwhU nkhopapy; ,Nj gz;ghl;by; epfud;fs; fpilf;Fk; vd;W
nrhy;y ,ayhJ. NkYk; gy;NtW tifahd nghUl;fspd; gad;ghnld;gJ xU gpupT
kf;fspd; NjitiaAk;> fhyj;ijAk;> tsHr;rpiaAk; mbg;gilahf nfhz;Nl mikfpwJ.
mit jj;jkJ gz;ghl;Lr; #oYf;F Vw;gr; nrhy;tsk; ngw;wpUf;Fk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf
rq;ffhyj; jkpoHfs; tho;tpy; ,lk; ngw;w nghUl;fisg; gz;ghl;L mbg;gilapy;
ghFgLj;jpg; ghHf;f KbAk;. mit ,d;iwa rKjhaj;jpy; rpy gad;ghl;by; ,y;yhkYk;
,Uf;fyhk;.

1.3 r%fg; gz;ghL (Social Culture)

xU r%fj;jpy; tho;fpd;w kf;fspd; tho;f;if KiwahdJ kw;nwhU r%fj;jpy;

tho;fpd;w kf;fspd; tho;f;if KiwapypUe;J NtWgl;ljhf ,Uf;Fk;. Fwpg;ghf rlq;F
Kiwfs; midj;Jk; NtWgl;ljhfNt mike;Js;sd. vdNt mtHfs; gad;gLj;Jfpd;w
rlq;F rk;ge;jkhd nrhw;fSk; tpj;jpahrkhfNt fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

191
 (v.fh.)

tpN\rk;
mbae;jpuk;

xUtH ,we;J tpl;lhy; mtH ,we;j 16-tJ ehs; ,we;jtuJ tPl;by; ,we;jtupd; Md;kh
rhe;jp milAk; tpjj;jpy; gilay; NghLthHfs;. me;j ehspidf; Fkup khtl;lj;jpYs;s
rpy gpuptpdH ~tpN\rk;‟ vd;Wk;> kw;w gpuptpdH „mbae;jpuk‟; vd;Wk; $WtH. vdNt ,J
Nghd;w r%fg; gz;ghl;Lr; nrhw;fis nkhopngaHg;ghsHfs; mwpe;J itj;jpUe;jhy;
nkhopngaHg;gJ vspikahf ,Uf;Fk;.

1.4 rkag;gz;ghL (Religious Culture)

xt;nthU rkaj;jpdUk; gy topghLfisAk;> gy tpohf;fisAk;

nfhz;lhLfpd;wdH. vdNt topghl;Lr; rk;ge;jkhd nrhw;fSk;> tpohf;fs; rk;ge;jkhd
nrhw;fSk; xt;nthU rkaj;jpdUf;Fk; jdpj;jdpahf cs;sd. ,j;jifa rkag;
gz;ghl;Lr; nrhw;fis nkhopngaHg;ghsHfs; mwpe;J itj;jpUe;jhy;jhd; rupahf
nkhopngaHf;f KbAk;.

rhd;whf> ,e;J kjj;jpdH ~jPHj;jk;‟ vd;w nrhy;iyg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wdH. ~jPHj;jk;‟

vd;gij Mq;fpyj;jpy; „Sacred water' my;yJ „Holy water' vd;W $WtH. ,JNghd;w
rkak; rk;ge;jkhd nrhw;fis nkhopngaHg;ghsH mwpe;J itj;jpUe;jhy; nkhopngaHg;Gr;
rpwg;ghf mikAk;.

2. jdpegH cwTKiwr; rpf;fy;fs;

nkhopahdJ> Fwpg;gpl;l nkhop NgRk; kf;fspilNa epyTk; cwTKiw my;yJ

njhlHgpid ntspg;gLj;JfpwJ. ,UtH ciuahLk; ciuahly; %yk; mt;tpUtUk; ve;jg;
gpd;Gyj;jpypUe;J te;jtHfs; vd;gjidg; Gupe;J nfhs;stpaYk;. taJ> tUkhdk;> fy;tp>
rhjp> kjk;> cwTKiwfSk; „eP - ePq;fs;‟ vd;w Kd;dpiy ,lg;ngaH toq;Ftijj;
jPHkhdpf;fpd;wd. xU Kjyhsp njhopyhspiag; ghHj;J eP vdf; $wyhk;. Mdhy;
njhopyhsp Kjyhspiag; ghHj;J eP vd;W $w KbahJ> ePq;fs; vd;W jhd; $w KbAk;.
Mdhy; Mq;fpyj;jpy; eP> ePq;fs; vdg; nghUs; jUk; „you‟ vd;w nrhy;ypd; %yk; ahiu
Ntz;LkhdhYk; miof;fyhk;. jkpopy; „you' vd;w nrhy;iy nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ
%yE}ypd; gpd;Gyj;ijr; rupahfg; Gupe;J nfhz;L nraw;gl Ntz;baJ mtrpakhFk;.

192
3. FLk;g cwT Kiwr; rpf;fy;fs;

FLk;gk; vd;w fUj;jpay; ehLfs; NjhWk; ntt;NtW tbtq;fspy; nraw;gLfpd;wJ.

rpy nkhopfspy; FLk;g cWg;gpdHfs; xt;nthUtUf;Fk; jdpg;gl;l cwTg; ngaHfs;
,Uf;Fk;. rpy nkhopfspy; xg;gPl;lstpy; cwTg; ngaHfs; kpff; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;>
,j;jifa nkhopfSf;fpilapy; nkhopngaHg;Gr; nra;jpLk; nkhopngaHg;ghsH gz;ghl;L
epiyapy; Gjpa rpf;fy;fis vjpHnfhs;fpd;wdH.

Mq;fpyj;jpy; cs;s Sister vd;w nrhy; jkpopy; rNfhjup vd;W Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ.

vdpDk; mf;fh> jq;if vd;W taJ mbg;gilapy; jdpj;jdp cwTKiwg; ngaupy;
miog;gJ Mq;fpy kugpDf;Fg; nghUe;jptutpy;iy.

'Aunt' vd;w Mq;fpyr; nrhy; jkpopy; mj;ij> ngupak;kh> rpj;jp Mfpa %tiuAk;
Fwpf;Fk;. mJNghy „Uncle' vd;w Mq;fpyr;nrhy; jkpopy; khkh> rpj;jg;gh> ngupag;gh
Mfpa %tiuAk; Fwpf;Fk;. ,j;jifa nrhw;fisj; jkpopy; nkhopngaHf;Fk;NghJ>
#oiy mwpe;J gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. Mdhy; rpyNtis %yE}ypy; mz;zdh? jk;gpah?
vd;W NtWghl;bidf; fz;lwpa Kbahj NghJ nkhopngaHg;ghsH rpf;fYf;Fs;shfpwhH.
nghJthf cwTKiwr; nrhw;fs; nkhopngaHg;gpy; Mq;fpyk; - jkpo; nkhopngaHg;Gld;
xg;gpl> jkpo; Mq;fpyk; nkhopngaHg;G rpf;fy; ,y;yhjJ.

jkpopYk;> Mq;fpyj;jpYk; ngw;w gps;isfisf; Fwpf;Fk; kfd;> kfs; son>

daughter Nghd;w cwTKiwr; nrhw;fisg; ngw;w gps;isfs; ,y;yhjtiuAk; md;Gld;
miof;fg; gad;gLj;Jk; tof;F cs;sJ.

(v.fh.)

kfNd> kd mikjpAld; nry;

Son, go in peace

kfNs> MWjy; nfhs;

Daughter, be of comfort

Mdhy;> rpy nkhopfspy; cwTKiwr; nrhw;fisg; ngw;w gps;isfisf; Fwpf;f kl;LNk

gad;gLj;j KbAk;. ,j;jifa nkhopfis nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ nkhopngaHg;ghsH
cwTKiwg; ngaHfisf; ifahStjpy; rpf;fiy vjpHnfhs;fpd;whH.

193
4. kupahij tof;Ffs;

Mq;fpyj;jpypUe;J you, he, she Nghd;w nrhw;fisj; jkpohf;Fk; NghJ

nkhopngaHg;ghsH rpf;fy;fis vjpHnfhs;fpd;whH. Vnddpy; Mq;fpyj;jpy; ahiuAk; you,
he, she vdf; $wyhk;. Mdhy; jkpopy; xUtiu kupahijahff; $Wk; NghJ „mtH‟ vd;Nw
miof;f Ntz;LNk jtpu eP> mtd;> mts; vdf; $wf; $lhJ.

rhd;whf> Mq;fpyj;jpy; rpWtd; te;jhd; vd;gjidf; Fwpf;f ~He came' vd;gH.

mJNghy ke;jpup te;jhH vd;gijf; Fwpf;fTk; He came vd;gjidg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wdH.
,j;jifa nrhw;fis nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ mtd; te;jhd; / mtH te;jhH vd;W #oy;
mwpe;J gad;gLj;j Ntz;baJ nkhopngaHg;ghsupd; flikahFk;. rpWtd; te;jhH/ke;jpup
te;jhd; vd;W nkhopngaHg;gJ r%f kupahijia kPwpa epiyapy; jkpo;r; nrhw;nwhlH
mikg;gpy; eifg;Gf;F ,lk; jUtjhfptpLk;. vdNt nkhopngaHg;ghsH #oy; mwpe;J>
kupahij tof;fpidg; Gupe;J nfhz;L nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;.

5. gz;ghl;Lr; nrhw;fis nkhopngaHj;jy;

jkpopypUe;J goe;jkpo; E}y;fis Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHg;gJ vd;Dk; nghOJ

rpy Kf;fpakhd rpf;fy;fs; vOfpd;wd. nkhopngaHg;G vd;gNj xU fbdkhd gzp. %y
nkhopapy; cs;s fUj;ij KOikahf nkhopngaHg;gpy; nfhzHtJ vd;gJ XH ,khyag;
nghWg;ghFk;. mjpYk; jkpo;nkhopapy; ,Ue;J Mq;fpyj;Jf;F nkhopngaHg;gJ vd;gJ xU
gz;ghl;ilr; NrHe;j ,yf;fpaj;ij ,d;ndhU gz;ghl;ilr; NrHe;j nkhopapy; nfhz;L
tUtjhFk;. ,e;jg; gpd;dzpapy; gy nrhw;fSf;F Neuhd nrhw;fis> nkhopngaHf;fg;gLk;
nkhopapy; fhz;gJ ,ayhJ. mwptpay; njhopy; El;gj; Jiwapy; Technical Terms vd;gJ
Nghy> ,yf;fpak; Nghd;w Jiwapy; Cultural Terms Njitg;gLfpd;wd.

rhd;whf> jHkh (Dharma) vd;w tlnrhy; xU nghUis kl;Lk; Fwpf;Fk; nrhy;

md;W. mJ xU nrhy; - gy;nghUs; tifiar; NrHe;jJ. ,e;jpag; gz;ghl;bd; gy
$WghLfisf; Fwpg;gpLk; jd;ik nfhz;lJ. vdNt mij Mq;fpyj;jpy; 'Charity' vd;Nwh
Righteousness vd;Nwh „justice' vd;Nwh ahUk; nkhopngaHg;gjpy;iy. mJ mg;gbNa
Mq;fpyj;jpy; „Dharma' vd;Nw ,lk; ngw;wpUf;fpwJ. Ntjq;fs; (Vedas) vd;gij
Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHg;gjpy;iy. cgepljq;fs; (Upanishads) vd;gij
nkhopngaHg;gjpy;iy. mijg; NghyNt rhzf;fpaupd; „mHj;j rh];jpuk;‟ vd;w E}iyf;
$l „mHj;jrh];jpuh‟ vd;W jhd; Fwpg;gpLfpwhHfNs jtpu> „Science of Wealth' vd;W

194
ngUk;ghYk; nkhopngaHg;gjpy;iy. Vnddpy; „mHj;j‟ vd;w nrhy; xU gz;ghl;Lg;
gpd;dzpiaf; nfhz;lJ. ,lj;jpw;Nfw;gg; Gupe;J nfhs;s Ntz;ba NjitiaAilaJ.

NkNy $wg;gl;l mZFKiw> tlnkhop E}y;fis nkhopngaHf;Fk; nghOJ

Kiwahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. Mdhy; jkpo; E}y;fspd; nkhopngaHg;Gf;F tUk; nghOJ
VNdh ,e;j mZFKiw gad;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy. rhd;whfj; jpUf;Fwspd; mwj;Jg;ghy;>
nghUl;ghy;> fhkj;Jg;ghy; Mfpatw;iwg; gpd;tUkhW nkhopngaHj;Js;sdH.

iii) ,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;Gr; rpf;fy;fs;

,yf;fpaq;fis nkhopngaHg;gJ kpfTk; fbdk; vd m.rPdpthruhftd;

Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shH. Vnddpy;>

1. xt;nthU nkhopAk; jdf;nfd;W cupa jdpj;j fl;likg;igf; ftpijapYk;>

ciueilapYk; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ.
2. rpynkhopfspy; nrhw;fs; kpFjpahfTk;> rpy nkhopfspy; nrhw;fs; FiwthfTk;
cs;sd. ,e;epiyapy; fUj;ij mk;nkhopf;Fupa gz;Gld; vLj;Jr; nrhy;tJ
fbdkhdjhfTk;> KbahjjhfTk; cs;sJ.
3. xt;nthU nkhopAk;> ,yf;fpak; vd;gij xt;nthU Nehf;fpYk;> mikg;gpYk;
Vw;Wf; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ.
4. gz;ghLfisAk;> rpe;jidfisAk; czHj;JtJ vd;w epiyapy; kl;Lk;
midj;J nkhopapdupd; ,yf;fpaq;fSk; nghJthd Nehf;fj;ijf; nfhz;L
tpsq;Ffpd;wd.

Mifahy; rpwe;j gilg;gpid nkhopngaHf;Fk; MrpupaUk; rpwe;j gilg;ghw;wy;

cs;stuhf jq;fSila jdpj;jd;ikia ePf;fp tpl;L ,k;Kaw;rpapy; <Lgl Ntz;Lk;.
mj;Jld; nkhopngaHf;fg; NghFk; ,yf;fpaj;Jiwapy; Mo;e;j mDgtKk; mwpTk;
ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. %ynkhop> ngWk;nkhop Mfpa ,U nkhopfspd; kuG> rKjhar;
#o;epiy gpd;dzpfisAk; me;je;j ,yf;fpag; gilg;ghsdpd; Nehf;fpidAk;> mwpe;J
nfhs;Sjy; ,yf;fpa nkhop ngaHg;G ntw;wp ngw topNfhYk; NkYk; ,yf;fpa
nkhopngaHg;Gr; rpf;fy;fSf;Fupa fhuzq;is K. tsHkjp mtHfs; gpd;tUkhW
tpsf;fpAs;shH.

1. nrhw;nghUs; EZf;fk;> gjj;njhlHG ,irT> thf;fpa mikjp Mfpait

%ynkhop> ngWk;nkhopfspy; xNu tifahf mikahj NghJ rpf;fy;fs;
Njhd;Wfpd;wd.

195
 2. trd mikjp> fUj;Njhl;lk;> gz;ghL Mfpait %ynkhopapYk;>
ngWk;nkhopapYk; xd;WglhjnghOJ rpf;fy;fs; Njhd;Wfpd;wd.
3. rpNyil> ctik> cUtfk;> cs;Siw> Fwpg;Gg; nghUs; Mfpatw;iw
%ynkhopapypUe;J ngWk; nkhopf;F khw;Wfpd;w nghOJ rpf;fy;fs;
Njhd;Wfpd;wd.
4. %ynkhopapy; Gyikiag; ngWk;nkhopapy; gpujpgypf;fr; nra;tjpYk;>
fUj;ijr; RitNahL nrhy;Yk; nkhop eilapYk; ,yf;fpa nkhopngaHg;gpy;
kpFjpahf rpf;fy;fs; Njhd;Wfpd;wd. ,jdhy; rpy nra;As; ,yf;fpaq;fs;>
ciueil tbtpidg; ngw;WtpLfpd;wd.

nghJthff; $Wkplj;J %ynkhop ,yf;fpaj;jpy; cs;s ctik> cUtfk;>

rpNyil> kuGj;njhlH> cs;Siw> Fwpg;Gg;nghUs;> re;jk;> gz;ghL rhHe;j nra;jpfs;
Nghd;wtw;iwg; ngWk;nkhopapy; nkhopngaHg;gJ fbdk;.

rhd;whf griy Neha; vd;gJ jkpo; ,yf;fpaq;fs; kl;Lk; Rl;bf; fhl;Lfpd;w xU

njhlH. ,jid Mq;fpyj;jpy; mg;gbNa xyp ngaHj;jhy; Nkiy ehl;bduhy; Gupe;J
nfhs;tJ fbdk;. ,jidj; njspTgLj;j Pale, fade vd;w Mq;fpyr; nrhw;fisg;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;wdH. ,r;nrhy; %ynkhopapd; KOj; jd;ikiag; gpujpgypf;ftpy;iy.
,e;epiyapy; nkhopngaHg;ghsH XusT cupik vLj;Jf; nfhz;L me;je;j nkhop kuGf;F
Vw;g jOtyhf mikf;fpd;wdH.

Fkupkhtl;l ehty;fspy; kiyahs nkhopapd; jhf;fKk;> tl;lhu tof;Fr;

nrhw;fSk; mjpf mstpy; fhzg;gLk;. rhd;whf ePy gj;gdhgdpd; jiyKiwfs;>
nghd;dPydpd; kWgf;fk;> Gjpa juprdq;fs; Nghd;w ehty;fisf; $wyhk;. mit Nghd;W
Njhg;gpy; Kfk;kJ kPuhdpd; flNyhu fpuhkj;jpd; fij> rha;T ehw;fhyp Nghd;w
ehty;fspy; ,Ryhk; rhHe;jr; nrhw;fs; mjpf mstpy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,tw;iwg;
gpwnkhopfspy; nkhopngaHg;gJ kpfTk; fbdk;. Mdhy; nkhopngaHg;ghsH %y nkhop
GyikNahL> ngWk;nkhop GyikAk;> kiyahs nkhop kw;Wk; Fkup khtl;l tof;Fr;
nrhw;fisAk; mwpe;jtuhf ,Ue;jhy; Nkw;fz;l ehty;fisr; rpwg;ghf nkhopngaHf;f
KbAk;.

iv) mwptpay; nkhopngaHg;Gr; rpf;fy;fs;

nghJthd nra;jpfspd; nkhopngaHg;gpypUe;J mwptpay; nkhopngaHg;G vt;thW

NtWgLfpd;wJ vd;gij Nehf;fpdhy;> mjd; fhuzkhf tpisAk; rpf;fy;fisg; Gupe;J

196
nfhs;s cjTk;. Vnddpy; mwptpaYf;nfd;Nw fiyr;nrhw;fs; cs;sd. ,t;
fiyr;nrhw;fis nkhopngaHg;gJ kpfTk; fbdk;. mwptpay; fiyr;nrhw;fis
nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ midtUk; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf; $bajhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

1. mwptpay; gilg;Gfs;

xU nkhopapYs;s mwptpay; nra;jpfisAk;> fUj;JfisAk; kw;nwhU nkhopapy;

vOj;J thapyhf mspf;Fk; gilg;Gfspy; Ie;J tiffis vspjpy; milayhk;
fhzyhk;. mit>

1. kf;fs; mwptpay; ,af;fk;

2. mwptpay; mwpQH fUj;Jiufs;
3. ,ay; E}y;fs;> fl;Liufs;
4. mwptpay; tuyhw;W ,yf;fpak;
5. Ma;T E}y;fs; vd;gthFk;.
nrhy;yg;gLk; nghUspd; jd;ik> nrhy;yg;gLk; Kiw ,uz;bYNk ,g;gilg;G
tiff;fSf;fpilNa mjpf msT NtWghLfs; cs;sd. ,tw;Ws; ve;j tifahd
nkhopngaHg;ig Nkw;nfhs;tnjd;whYk;> %ynkhop ngWk;nkhop> nghUspd; Jiw Mfpa
%d;wpYk; ey;y NjHr;rp vd;gJ nkhopngaHg;gpw;F mbg;gilj; NjitfshFk;>

2. mwptpay; E}y;fisj; jkpo;g;gLj;Jtjpy; Vw;gLk; rpf;fy;fs;

NkNy Fwpg;gpl;l Ie;J tifahd gilg;Gfspy; vjid Nkw;nfhs;tnjd;whYk;

jkpo; nkhopapy; nkhopngaHg;gjpy; rpy rpf;fy;fs; epyTfpd;wd. Kjyhtjhf
nkhopngaHg;ghsH %y nkhopahd Mq;fpyj;jpYk; ngWk;nkhopahd jkpopypYk; mjpf
Gyikg; ngw;wtuhf ,Ue;jhYk; mwptpay; rhHe;j mwpT mtuplj;J ,y;iy vd;why;
mwptpay; nra;jpfisr; rpwg;ghf nkhopngaHg;ghH vd vjpHghHf;f KbahJ. vdNt
mwptpay; nra;jpfis nkhopngaHg;gtHfs; mwptpay; Jiwiar; rhHe;J ,Ue;J
jkpopYk;> Mq;fpyj;jpYk; Gyikg; ngw;wpUe;jhy; mtHfshy; mwptpay; nra;jpfisr;
rpwg;ghf nkhopngaHf;f KbAk;.

,uz;lhtjhf mwptpay; Jiwapy; ngUkstpy; fiyr; nrhw;fspd; gad;ghL

jtpHf;f ,ayhjJ. vdNt nkhopngaHg;ghsHfs; gyH %yE}ypypUe;J fiyr; nrhw;fisg;
ngWk;nkhopapy; nkhopngaHf;fpd;w NghJ jkf;Fj; njupe;j fiyr; nrhw;fisg;
gad;gLj;jp vOJfpd;wdH. ,jdhy; xU nghUisf; Fwpf;f ntt;NtW gilg;Gfspy;

197
ntt;NtW fiyr; nrhw;fisg; gbf;Fk; thrfHfs; ngupJk; Fog;gj;jpw;Fs;shtH. vdNt
nkhopngaHg;ghsH vy;NyhUk; Vw;Wf; nfhs;Sk; tz;zk; nghJthd fiyr; nrhw;fisg;
gilf;f Ntz;Lk;. jdpg;gl;l nkhopngaHg;ghsHfshy; %ynkhop fiyr;nrhw;fSf;F
,izahfg; ngWk;nkhopapy; fiyr; nrhw;fisg;gilf;f Kbatpy;iy vd;why;
,g;nghWg;igj; jkpo;g; gy;fiyf;fofk; Nghd;w ngupa fy;tp epWtdHfisr; rhHe;NjhHfs;
Vw;Wf; nfhz;L fiyr;nrhw;fisg; gilf;f Ntz;Lk;.

3. mwptpay; nra;jpfis nkhopngaHf;Fk; nghOJ ftdj;jpy; nfhs;s

Ntz;bait

mwptpay; nra;jpfis nkhopngaHf;Fk; nghOJ gpd;tUtdtw;iwf; fUj;jpy;

nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. mit>

1. mwptpay; nray;Kiwfspd; tpsf;fKk;> nraw;ghLfSk; kpFjpAk; ,lk; ngWtjhy;

mjw;F Vw;w nkhop eilapy; mwptpay; nkhopngaHg;G ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2. tpid KjYf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ,y;yhjjhy;> nrag;ghl;L tpidf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3. nray;Kiw $Wk; ,lq;fspy; fl;lis thf;fpaj;jpw;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLf;f
Ntz;Lk;. vd;gdthFk;.

(v.fh.) fz;zhbf; FLitia vLj;J> mjpy; jput fe;jf mkpyj;ij Cw;W.

4. mwptpay; njhopy;El;g ,yf;fpaq;fis nkhopngaHj;jy;

1. nkhopapd; mikg;gpw;Fj; jFe;jthW %ynkhopapd; fUj;Jfis nkhopngaHj;Jr;

nrhy;y Ntz;Lk;.
2. vspikahd nrhw;fisAk; Mw;wy;kpf;f nrhw;fisAk; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
3. md;whl eilKiw tof;fpYs;s nrhw;fisf; nfhz;L Gjpa nrhy;yhf;fq;fis
cUthf;fp gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
4. FwpaPLfs;> rkd;ghLfs;> tha;g;ghLfs; Nghd;wtw;wpw;F cyf mstpy;
gad;gLj;jg;gl;L tUk; nrhw;fisNa gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
5. ahUf;fhf nkhopngaHg;Gr; nra;fpNwhk; (rpWtH> khztH> nghJkf;fs;> njhopyhsH)
vd;gij mwpe;J mjw;Fj; jf;fthW nkhopngaHg;Gr; nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
6. xypngaHg;igg; (Transliteration) gbg;gtHfSf;F vspjpy; GupAk;gb vOj Ntz;Lk;.

198
 7. „Tele' vd;w nrhy;iy „njhiy‟ vd nkhopngaHj;jg; gpwF> njhlHGila gpw
nrhw;fisAk;> „njhiy‟ vd;w mbr;nrhy;Yld; vOJtJ gaDilajhFk;.

Teleprint - njhiy mr;R

Telephone - njhiyNgrp

8. rpy nrhw;fSf;F rpy ,lq;fspy; nkhopngaHg;Gr; nrhy; nghUe;jptUk;. Mdhy;

mNj nrhy; kw;w ,lq;fspy; nghUe;jp tuhJ.

(v.fh.) Budget - tuT nryTj; jpl;lk;> Time Budget Neuk; gw;whf;Fiw> Nrkpg;G>
Water budget - ePHgw;whf;Fiw> Nrkpg;G

9. vJif> Nkhid> eak; czHr;rp ntspg;ghL> fw;gidr; nrwpT Kjypa

fiyj;jd;ikf;F Kjd;ik nfhLf;ff; $lhJ.
10. fUj;Jg;Gyg;ghl;il Kjd;ikahff; fUj Ntz;Lk;.
11. Jiw rhHe;j fiyr; nrhw;fisg; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
12. nrhy;rhHe;j nkhopia tpl (Verbal language) nrhy;rhuh nkhopia (Non Verbal
language) mjpf mstpy; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
13. E}y; Mrpupaupd; Kfk; njupahj xU nghJg;gilahd nkhop eiliaf;
(Impersonal style) nfhz;bUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
14. mwptpay; nghUz;ikapd; nghJikg; gz;igg; NgZjy; Ntz;Lk; (tl;lhu kw;Wk;>
r%f tof;Ffs;> jpupnrhw;fs; Kjypatw;iwg; gad;gLj;jf; $lhJ).
15. jw;fhyj; jkpiog; gad;gLj;jp nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;

(V) jkpopYs;s nrhw;fis Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ Vw;gLk;

rpf;fy;fs;

1. jkpopYs;s rpy nrhw;fis Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkhopngaHf;Fk; NghJ rpf;fy;fs;

Vw;gLfpd;wd. xNu nghUisj; jUfpd;w gy nrhw;fs; jkpopy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd

rhd;whf : „tpsf;F‟> „Nja;‟> „fOT‟ Nghd;w nrhw;fs; Rj;jg;gLj;Jjy;> my;yJ fOTjy;

vd;w nghUisf; nfhLf;fpd;wd.

(v.fh.) tpsf;F - gy; tpsf;Fjy;> ghj;jpuk; tpsf;Fjy;

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 cliy tpsf;Fjy; vd;W $WtJ ,y;iy. Mdhy; Mq;fpyj;jpy; tpsf;F> fOT>
Nja; vd;gdtw;wpw;F epfudhf Clean / wash vd;gdtw;iwf; Fwpg;gpLtH.

2. njhlq;F> Gwg;gL vd;gdtw;wpw;F epfudhf „to start' vd;Wk;> „Muk;gp‟ vd;gjw;F „begin'
vd;Wk; nkhopngaHf;fyhk;. tpoh njhlq;fpaJ> tpoh Muk;gpj;jJ vd;gdtw;wpw;F epfuhf
„The function began' vd;W Fwpg;gplyhk;. njhlq;F> Gwg;gL vd;gdtw;iwr; #oYf;Fj;
jFe;jthW jhd; gad;gLj;j KbAk;. Vnddpy; ~tpoh Gwg;gl;lJ‟ vdf; $wKbahJ.
Mdhy; Mq;fpyj;jpy; njhlq;F> Gwg;gL vd;w ,U nrhw;fSf;Fk; epfuhf „to start' vd;Nw
Fwpg;gplyhk;. Gwg;gL vd;w nrhy; Fwpg;gpl;l #oypy; kl;Lk; jhd; tUk;.

(v.fh.) NgUe;J Gwg;gl;lJ

mtd; Gwg;gl;lhd;
jiytH Gwg;gl;lhH
3. 1. nrk;ik + Mf > nrk;ikahf nicely / beautifully'

2. nrk;(ik) + nfhb > nrq;nfhb 'red flag'

Kjy; vLj;Jf;fhl;by; nrk;ik vd;gjw;F mofhd (beautifully) vdg; nghUs;

nfhz;lJ Nghd;W ,uz;lhtJ vLj;Jf;fhl;bYk; ~nrk;ik‟ vd;gjw;F mNj nghUs;
nfhz;lhy; ~mofhd nfhb| vd;Nw Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. Mdhy; nrk; vd;gjw;F rptg;G vd;Nw
nghUs; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. vdNt 'nrq;nfhb' vd;gij 'red flag' vd;W nkhopngaHj;jNy
rupahdJ.

4. 'Closing' vd;w nrhy;Yf;F epfuhf „%L‟ vd;w nrhy;iyg; gad;gLj;jyhk;. Mdhy;

vy;yhr; #o;epiyfspYk; %L vdf; Fwpg;gplKbahJ. rhd;whf

Closing Ceremony vd;w njhliu „%L tpoh‟ vd nkhopngaHj;jhy; nkhopngaHg;G

jtwhd fUj;ijf; nfhLf;Fk;. „epiwT tpoh| vd nkhopngaHj;jhy; nkhopngaHg;Gr;
rpwg;ghff; fUjg;gLk;>

5. nfhQ;rk; - little/ some

rpwpJ - little /some

rpy – some

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vd nkhopngaHf;fyhk;. nfhQ;rk;> rpwpJ> rpy vd;gd xNu #oypy; tuyhk;.

(v.fh.) nfhQ;rk; NgH te;jhHfs;

rpwpJ NgH te;jhHfs;
rpy NgH te;jhHfs;

Mq;fpyj;jpy; Some tUfpw ,lj;jpy; little tuhJ. Some People Came vd

nkhopngaHf;fyhk;. 'Little people came' vd nkhopngaHf;f KbahJ. ,it Nghd;w
rpf;fy;fis nkhopngaHg;ghsH fUj;jpy; nfhz;L nkhopngaHf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,t; myfpy;
njhFj;Jiuf;fg;gl;l fUj;Jf;fs; midj;Jk; KidtH vd;. fpU\;zdpd;
nkhopngaHg;gpay; vd;Dk; E}ypypUe;J vLj;Jiuf;fg;gl;litahFk;.

tpdh

1. nkhopngaHg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs; Fwpj;J tpsf;Ff?

2. nkhopngaHg;Gf; cj;jpfs; Fwpj;J fl;Liu tiuf?
3. ielhtpd; %d;W nkhopngaHg;G gbepiyfis vOJf?
4. nkhopngaHg;gpd; tiffis njhFj;Jiuf;f?
5. mwptpay; nkhopngaHg;Gr; rpf;fy;fs; Fwpj;J tpsf;Ff?

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