NOT FOR SALE NOT FOR SALE

ABUBAKAR TAFAWA BALEWA UNIVERSITY BAUCHI

DIRECTORATE OF GENERAL STUDIES
FIRST SEMESTER 2020/2021 ACADEMIC SESSION
GNS III: USE OF ENGLISH 1 LECTURE MANUAL
COURSE OBJECTIVES

GNS III: Use of English I, which is a 2 credit unit core course for all ATBU fresh
students irrespective of their mode of entry is intended to, inter alia, expose students
to the basic elements of English grammar with a view to addressing both their deficit
and common core needs; be able to effectively present coherent technical reports
relevant to science and technology related disciplines; as fresh university students,
internalize the techniques of note taking during lectures; and, identify some of the
major errors to avoid in English that are common to students in Nigeria.

COURSE OUTLINE

The Sentence, Subject and Predicate, Subject – Verb Agreement, Phrases and
Clauses, Active Voice and Passive Voice, Laboratory Report Writing, Note Taking
and Note Making, Punctuation, Common Errors in English

THE SENTENCE

A Sentence is the highest unit of grammar. In its strictest sense, grammar refers to
the rules that govern the use of a particular language as every standard language
has its own grammar.

A sentence usually consists of a group of words with a complete thought and

ending with an external punctuation mark: full stop, question mark or an
exclamation mark depending on the sentence type. However, a one- word sentence
(minor/irregular) is most commonly found in speeches, written notices, adverts or
commands. In any case, a major/regular sentence consists of at least one well-
formed independent (main) clause, comprising a subject and a predicate.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

In order for us to understand general rules regarding sentence construction, it may

suffice to begin with smaller units before actually delving into the largest
grammatical unit. The two basic components of a sentence are the subject and the
predicate.

The Subject

The subject refers to what or who is being discussed in the sentence. It also refers to
the doer/performance in a sentence that expresses action. Therefore, the subject tells
us what the sentence is talking about (i.e. the theme). The subject can be located in
any position within the sentence largely depending on its syntactic function. Let us
compare these two examples, for instance: 1. He had given the girl an apple
(declarative function). 2. Had he given the girl an apple (interrogative function)? It
can also be either explicitly or implicitly stated. In some imperative (commands)
situations, the subject may be implied as in ‘stop writing’. There are also dummy
subjects, in which case there is no intrinsic meaning attached but to only maintain a
balanced grammatical structure. Examples are: (1). It is raining; (2). There is nothing
else to do. For grammatical appropriateness, the subject is always expected to agree
with the main verb in terms of both number and person.

The Predicate

Any other word(s) apart from the subject in a sentence constitutes what is known as
the predicate. The predicate then, tells us about the subject and it starts from the
finite verb which is always the most important constituent of the predicate or from
any word modifying the finite verb.

For a clearer understanding of the subject and the predicate, here are further
examples:

1. She /cried
2. My younger brother Ahmad/ once worked as a costume designer

In the first sentence, the word she is the subject hence it is the subject matter of the
sentence. While the first word she is the subject of the sentence, the word cried is
the predicate because it tells us more about the subject.

In the second sentence the first four words of the sentence make up the subject hence
they tell us what the sentence is about (my younger brother Ahmad). If the first four
words of the sentence are the subject, then the rest of the sentence is the predicate
since they describe what the subject did at a given time. Therefore, the subject and
the predicate work together to express a complete thought. Here are some more
examples.

3. The giant tree /bent and swayed in the wind.

4. Fifty-three officers/ received medals at the Police Department awards

ceremony.

5. Bored with the grown-up conversation, /little Fatima/ fell asleep under the
dining table (inverted Sentence)

6. The number of businesses in this county /has increased every year for the past
decade.

7. According to scientists, /birds and dinosaurs/ are biologically related.

8. All day and night unceasingly fell /the rain.

As could be noted, the subject can occupy any position within the sentence.
Occasionally also, this kind of simple sentence structure gets a little bit more
complicated with the addition of a compound subject. A compound subject is two or
more things that work together as the subject, joined by the word ‘and’ or the word
‘or’ . for example.

9. Dogs and cats /sometimes enjoy living together.

Both the two words in the subject are important hence the sentence is not only about
dogs, and it is not only about cats either; it is about both (dogs and cats). Since we
have two subjects that are joined by the word ‘and’, we will consider this as a
compound subject.

Sentence Elements

The predicate may be a finite verb alone or accompanied by any other element(s):
object, adverb/adjunct, complement. Therefore, the subject, the verb, the adjunct,
the object and the complement are known as sentence elements. These five units,
which are universally abbreviated as SVCOA, shall be identified in the following
sentence.

1. They (S) came (V)

2. John (S) carefully (A) Searched (V) the room (O)
3. John (S) reluctantly (A) sat (V) in the room (A).
4. Without much argument (A), we (S) recently (A) elected (V)him (O) *our
class chairman(C).
5. He (S) became (V) **our class chairman(C).
6. The young girl (S) is (V) now (A) * a fresh university student (C).
7. Mr. Bello (S) has given (V) *** Mary (O) **** a new writ watch (O)
8. It (S) rained (V) heavily (A) last night (A).
9. Did (V) it (S) rain (V) heavily (A) last night (A)?
10. ***** [She (S) said (V) that] it (S) rained (V) heavily (A) last night(A).

*subject complement

**object Complement

***direct object

****indirect object

*****two subjects in a multiple/compound sentence

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
A sentence is basically classified on the bases of structure and function. According
to structure, sentence can be classified into a simple sentence (only a main clause),
a complex sentence (a main clause + subordinate clause or vice versa), a compound
sentence (where two or more main clauses are conjoined) and a compound-complex
sentence (a combination of compound and complex sentences). Sentences are also
categorized into another four subdivisions based on function. These are declarative,
interrogative (questions), imperative (commands) and exclamatory (exclamations).
It is also pertinent to note that any of the above is a correct and complete sentence
provided it is well formed. Sentences could also be classified into regular and
irregular types. A regular/major sentence contains at least one well-formed
independent/main clause consisting of a subject and a predicate. An irregular/minor
sentence, on the other hand, is commonly found in mundane speeches, written
notices, adverts or commands (imperative sentences). Irregular sentences are single-
word or two-word expressions such as stop, poison, no entry, silence, well done,
highly inflammable, no smoking, delicious, and home-made ‘come’, ‘run’, ‘fire’.
These are all sentences in disguise. However, a sentence, in the real sense of the
word usually consists of sequences of more than one word. That is a ‘regular’
sentence.
Structural classification of sentences

It may be pointed out here that sentences can be divided into four classes from
structural point of view. They are:

1. Simple Sentence.
2. Compound Sentence.
3. Complex Sentence.
4. Compound-Complex or Double Sentence.
1. Simple Sentence: A sentence which has only one subject and one predicate is
called a Simple Sentence.

Examples:

- She works fast (positive/declarative).

- She doesn’t work fast (negative/declarative).
- Does she work fast (positive/interrogative)?
- Doesn’t she work fast (negative/interrogative)?
- I saw Al-min at the bus stop.
- The sun rises in the east.
- Man is a social animal.
- Brevity is the soul of wit.
- Revenge is a kind of wild justice.
- Boys and girls shout and play (compound subject.

2. Compound Sentence: A sentence which consists of two or more co-ordinate

clauses is called a Compound sentence. The clauses in a compound sentence are
joined by co-ordinating conjunctions: and, but, yet, or, then, so, etc.

Examples:

- Khalid shouted and everybody waved.

- We looked everywhere but we couldn’t find him.
- I went to Bauchi and visited the tomb of Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa.
- Aliyu told me about his marriage and I was glad about it.
- She tried hard but failed in her attempt.
- The doctor examined the patient and cured him.
- I looked at Maryam and she smiled at me.
- They are coming by car so they should be here soon.
3. Complex Sentence: A sentence which consists of one main clause and one or
more subordinate clauses is called a Complex Sentence. Adverbial clauses usually
come after the main clause.

Examples:

- Her father died when she was very young.

- She had a difficult childhood because her father died when she was very
young.
- When I went there, I found that Amina was cooking
- We will start the journey when the day breaks.
- Some subordinate clauses can come in front of the main clause:
- Although a few snakes are dangerous most of them are quite harmless.
- Although (subordinating conjunction), some snakes are dangerous (adverbial
clause) most of them are harmless (main clause)

4.Compound-Complex Sentence: Also known as a double sentence,

compound-complex contains a combination of 2 or more types of sentence
structures (a compound and a complex).

Examples:

- Although I like books, I do not like fictions but my friend does/loves them.
- His sister went to the supermarket and bought him present because it was his
birthday.
- My friend believes that he can do anything if he has money, but I don’t
agree.
- Until he graduates, he will live on campus with him but he wants to stay at
home.
- While the guest speaker went on his speech the audience laughed and threw
stones at him.
Classification of sentences according to functions

Sentences are divided into five kinds according to functions, namely:

1. Declarative Sentence.
2. Interrogative Sentence.
3. Imperative Sentence.
4. Exclamatory Sentence.
5. Optative Sentence.

1. Declarative Sentence: A sentence that states or declares something is called an

Assertive or Declarative Sentence.

Examples:

- The earth moves round the sun.

- Abuja is the capital of Nigeria.
- Hausa is spoken in the Northern Nigeria
- The museum is built by Bauchi State Government.
- Zainab Alkali is a Nigerian writer.

2. Interrogative Sentence: A sentence that asks question is called an

Interrogative Sentence.

Examples:

- What do you want?

- Do you understand English?
- Have you ever been to Great Britain?
- Did you post the letter?
- Where did you go yesterday?
3. Imperative Sentence: A sentence that expresses a command, a request, an
entreaty or suggestion is a called an Imperative Sentence.
(a) Request:

Examples:

- Please post the letter.

- What about having a cup of tea?
- What about going the Stadium this evening?
- Would you mind going out for dinner with me tonight?
- Can you lend me fifty Naira?
- May I use your phone?
- Could you wait for me?
(a) Command:
- Don’t smoke in the lecture hall.
- Stop there!
- Come here!
- Bring the book tomorrow.
- Be regular to your classes.
- Close the door!
(b) Suggestion:
- I would rather you keep quiet and listen to me.
- You had better speak more softly (strong, positive).
- You had better not shout (strong, negative).
- You could/might speak more softly (gentle, positive).
- We are to always help the poor.
- You should apply for the job.
- You had better consult a physician.
- What about a cup of tea?
- How about starting a small scale business?
4. Exclamatory Sentence: A sentence that expresses some strong or sudden
feeling is called an Exclamatory Sentence.

Examples:

- What a shame!
- What a beauty!
- What a great success!
- How brilliant Fatimah is!
- How difficult the question paper is!

5. Optative Sentence: A sentence that expresses a wish, probability, or

supposition (imaginary) is called an Optative Sentence.

Examples:

- May God help us.

- I wish you were my husband.
- May God help you in your attempt.
- If had wings, I would fly.
- If had passed the test, I would have been much happier.
- She ought to have been married by now.
- We wish they would be with us.

Features of a Sentence

The sentence is the chief unit of speech. It is a minimum complete utterance and
therefore conveys a complete thought (not introduced by a subordinator except
when it is a complex sentence in which case a main clause follows in order to
maintain/ retain the complete thought so required). This quality makes every good
sentence to be well-formed and complete.
In addition, a sentence conveys a sense as it is both grammatically correct and
socially acceptable. An expression that is incomplete enough to make a sentence is
known as a fragment.

Fragments

A fragment resembles a sentence in two ways. Both groups of words begin with a
capital letter and conclude with an end mark-- a period[.], a question mark [?] or an
exclamation mark [!]. The one important difference is that a fragment does not
contain a main clause. Like an engine, the main clause powers a complete
sentence, propelling the reader through the development of an idea. A fragment is
missing this essential component. In other words, any expression that is not
complete enough to make a sentence is a fragment.

When you analyze a group of words looking for the main clause, you have to find
three things: a subject, a verb, and a complete thought. If any one of these three
items is missing, a fragment results. Example.
And yawned loudly enough to make everyone in class turn around.
Subject=0; Verb= yawned; complete thought=0.

ACTIVITY

I. Mention whether each of the following is a sentence or a fragment.

1. The baby cried.
2. Loudly when her mother left the room.
3. Walking along the road.
4. They would have ended up in prison.
5. If it wasn’t for his sudden intervention at the inquest.
6. The hungry students returned home.
7. But there was no food left.
8. Having succeeded in fighting for independence.
9. Aren’t we still in Neocolonialism?
10. Everything relevant before the exams.
II. Identify and underline the predicate in each of the following sentences.
1. Worried about the difficult situation, the Chairman-elect has
threatened to resign.
2. My best friend is a well-trained medical doctor.
3. I hate swimming.
4. The run-away maid is here.
5. Barking dogs seldom bite.
6. In order to pass her examinations, she studies here.

III. Identify the subject in each of these sentences.

1. Teaching is a noble profession.
2. Remain standing outside.
3. Mother Theresa, a great social worker, was a very kind woman.
4. To smoke can endanger one’s health.
5. The old damaged machine in the workshop must be repaired.

IV. In the brackets provided, write all the sentence elements in each of the
following sentences.
1. The court declared him guilty ( ).
2. They kept me waiting ( ).
3. His foolishness placed him in danger ( ).
4. We wrote them a letter ( ).
5. My father’s remark disturbed me yesterday ( ).
6. His lovely wife prepared him a nice meal ( ).
7. She knitted her new-born baby a sweater ( ).
8. I shall find you a new job next week ( ).
9. Rome was not built in a day ( ).
10. The old should be respected ( ).

V. Write the structural classification of each of the following sentences.

1. He lost his wrist-watch, he was not happy.
2. They did not work hard so they failed.
3. Their parents knew they had loved each other but the parents did not
have any idea whether they were interested in marriage.
4. We live in a three-storey building.
5. The film ended but the audience did not go away.
6. She got the job after she had completed her studies.
7. I did not know what had happened when I was away.
8. Both the mother and the child thought it was raining.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT (GRAMMATICAL CONCORD)

This is the grammatical relationship between a subject and a verb, a pronoun and its
verb, or a demonstrative adjective and the word it modifies.

If the subject and verb of a sentence do not agree that sentence is ungrammatical.
We, therefore, speak of errors in agreement or faulty agreement. To avoid this, we
must adhere to the rules of concord. Although the rules are by no means exhaustive,
some of them are stated below.

1. A verb must agree with its subject in number/person that is, a singular verb
should follow a singular subject; and plural verb should follow a plural
subject.
Examples:
- The students attend the language class.
- This course has taught me a lot.
- He is interested in wrestling.
- The book is on the table.
- The books are on the table.
- The books are outdated.

2. Singular subject followed by “with”, as well as, together with, accompanied

by, take singular verb.
Examples:
- The Vice Chancellor, as well as his staff, is hard working.
- Amina, together with her friends, is here.
- The teacher, accompanied by the students, as arrived.
- Adams with his wife is here.

3. Indefinite pronouns such as everyone, everybody, nobody, somebody, no one,

take singular verb.
 Examples:
- Everyone is to blame.
- Somebody has taken it.
- Someone has done the assignment.
- Everybody dislike a cheat.

There are other subjects which appear deceptively plural (they are plural in
form) but function as singular.

- Each of the students owns a car.

- One of the teachers appears lazy.
- Of all the students, one has complained about her laziness.

4. When two or more subjects are joined by “and” and refer to the same person
or thing, the verb is in the singular. However, compound subject referring to
two different people or things take plural verb.
Examples:
- His brother and sponsor was there to help him.
- His brother and friend attends the wedding ceremony.
- The president and Commander-in-chief of the Armed forces has arrived.
- A dog and a cat are seldom friends.
- The man and his wife have arrived.
- The minister and NNPC boss reads riot acts to filling stations
- The minister of petroleum and the NNPC boss read riot acts of filling
stations.

5. When two subject refer to the same thing or thought of as a single idea or unit,
a singular verb is used.
 Examples:
- Macaroni and Cheese is her favourite dish
- Rice and beans is my favorite
- Rice and stew sounds delicious
- Tea and bread is my best delicacy
- Bread and butter is a snack that is easy to prepare.

But when the word means different thing or thought, a plural verb is used
instead. For example:

- rice and pap are common dishes in Africa.

6. Some nouns are plural in form but are singular in means and therefore take
singular verb.
The words include: Information, advice, evidence, aid, research, phonetics,
semantics, physics, furniture, luggage, equipment, knowledge, mathematics,
economics news, sports, economics etc.

Examples:
- Physics is an interest subject
- Mathematics is difficult to some students
- The sports news was aired an hour ago
- Students dislike phonetics subject

Note: Organizations, clubs, associations and country take singular verb.

- The United Nations has its headquarters in news ark

- Bauchi State Government is working out modalities to ensure prompt
payment of salaries to its workforce.

7. Singular subjects that are joined by “not only…but (also)”, “neither…nor”,

“either…or” take singular verb.
 Examples:
- Not only the Vice Chancellor but also his wife was present at the senate
meeting.
- Neither the boy nor his father has eaten
- Either the teacher or the students is in the class.

Note: If the subjects differ in number/person (i.e. one subject is in the singular
and other is in the plural); the verb agrees with the subject (noun) nearer to it.
This type of concord is called concord of proximity.

- Either the students or the teacher is to be present

- Neither the teacher nor the students seem lazy
- Not only the man but also his wives were involved in an accident.

8. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the group is regarded as one unit.
However, a collective noun takes a plural verb when emphasis is placed on
the individual members of the group; that is, the individual members of the
group are acting separately.

Examples:

- The audience was clapping (together)

- The audience were arriving (Separately)
- The committee are unable to agree on a date for the convocation
(separately)
- The committee is meeting today (together)

Other collective nouns include – an army of soldiers, a gang of criminals,

Club, a herd of cattle, a flock of goats, a class of students, hive of bees, bench
of bishops, a bunch and a bundle.
9. A demonstrative adjective (such as this, that, these, those) must agree in
number with the noun it modifies.

That – singular Those – Plural

This – Singular These – plural
Examples:
- That kind of music is outdated
- Those kinds of cars are in high demand
- These types of errors occur often
- This wrist watch is expensive.

10. Nouns (subjects) that are always regarded as plural take plural verbs.
Examples:
- The cattle look healthy
- The police are hardworking

11. Numbers, amount of money and years takes singular verb.

Examples:
- Ten Million is huge amount of money
- Three trillion naira was budgeted for this fiscal year
- Five years is the minimum in sentence for that offence

12. Name of books, films and newspaper take singular verb.

 ACTIVITY

I. To complete each of the following sentences, underline the Verb in

brackets that is more appropriate.
- The earth … (move/moves) round the sun.
- There … (is/are) a lot of books in university library.
- He and his daughter … (was/were) here yesterday.
- The author and editor …(was/were) arrested.
- My friend and well-wisher … (have/has) adviser me to read harder to pass
my examinations.
II. The sentences below are grammatically incorrect. Copy them verbatim
in your booklet and simply underline what makes each one wrong.
- Neither the students nor the teacher were at the scene of the accident
- Bribery and corruption go together
- Bread and butter taste good
- My father, together with my mother, have gone to the scene of the accident.
III. In each of the following sentences, underline the correct answer from
the options provided in brackets.
- Each of the mangoes (is/are) bad.
- Mrs. Anazi, the teacher and trader (look/looks) charming this evening
- My mother together with my sisters (have/has) gone to the scene of the
accident
- A case of instruments (are/is) lying outside
- Neither the children nor their mother (like/likes) the food
- Bread and butter …(are/is) good for teenagers.

Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with the best option from the
options in brackets.
1. Neither Musa nor Janet (has/ have)…competed the programme.
2. Either the cildren or their mother (was/ is )… free to make the trip.
3. One of the girls injured (their/her) …. knee.
4. The man, together with his children, (is/are ) … in the farm.
 5. Not only Munir but also his sister (was/ were) … involved in the accident.
6. Each of the chairs (was/were)… broken.
7. Rice and beans (tastes/ taste) delicious.
8. A team of experts (have/has) … arrived to perform the operation.
9. My uncle and sponsor (was/were) … extremely happy with my
performance.
10. None of the students (seems/seem) … ready for the quiz.

PHRASES AND CLAUSES

Phrases

To understand a phrase as a grammatical unit, it would be more appropriate to also

see a clause and then identify the areas of relationship and differences between the
two units. A clause consists of at least one finite verb and also one or more phrases.
Like a clause, a phrase comprises one or more words.

The number of words in a phrase does not matter. However, a single word remains
the nucleus of the whole phrase with other words as modifiers. Hence, each phrase
takes its name from the word class which plays the main part of the structure of the
phrase. This way, a word is either simple or complex some of which are split further
into smaller but meaningful grammatical units. Phrases are classified into NP, VP,
Prepositional Phrase, Adverbial Phrase and Adjectival Phrase. Others are Gerundial
phrase, Participial Phrase and Infinitival Phrase.

Phrases consist of word groups without finite verbs. They function as individual
nouns, adjective and adverbs, and this implies that they are noun phrases,
adjectival phrases, and adverbial phrases. Such linguistic structures help in the
realization of sentence elements. Examples of phrases are:
a. In the room
b. Behind schedule
c. Of the people
d. A room to let
 e. On the other hand

Phrases are classified according to use and form; for example, the prepositional
phrase ‘in the room’ depending on the context, can function either as an adverbial
phrase or as an adjectival phrase.
a. Look for your comb in the room (adverbial phrase of place).
b. The boy in the room is my brother (adjectival phrase modifying boy).

Classification according to use

Noun Phrase
The noun phrase performs the various functions of a single noun.
1. Noun phrase as subject:

The fountain of life has dried up.

The room to let has been taken by that bachelor.

2. Noun phrase as direct object:

I do not like this game of wits.

We appreciate her modest way of showing off.

3. Noun phrase as indirect object:

He brought the man behind bars food.

He gave the children of hope peace.

4. Noun phrase as object of the preposition:

He talked with a ray of hope.

 We are proud of your wonderful performance.

5. Noun phrase as complement of linking verb:

He is a well-tutored liar.

She is the apple of her father’s eye.

6. Noun phrase in apposition:

Messi, the wonderful footballer, slumped and died on a football field.

Mrs Ibe, the lady of the year, is an excellent dancer.

Adjectival phrase:

The adjectival phrase functions like a single adjective by modifying the noun or by
functioning as complement after the linking verb. It is equally important to note
that adjectival phrase always function as post modifier of the noun, for example:
Subject Predicate
Pre-modifier Noun-head Adjective-phrase
as post modifier
a. The tall Girl In that group Is my brother’s wife
b. The young Priest At the altar Will preach the sermon
c. The Fruit Tree At the bottom of Is shedding its leaves
the hill

Adjectival phrase equally function as predicate adjectives after the linking ver.
The following are Examples:

Subject Predicate
That drunken man Verb Adjective phrase as
The girl predicate
Seemed In a daze
Feels On top of the world
Adverbial Phrase
When a sentence element function as a phrase modifies the verb, the adjective or
the adverb, it is called an adverb phrase. Most adverbial phrases modify the verb.
Examples are:

Subject Predicate
Verb Adverb
I Will Before the weekend
The old man Is resting In his room
It Rained Heavily

Adverbial phrase may come after objects as in:

Subject Predicate
Verb Object Adverb Phrase
I Left The broom Behind the house
He Washes His car Every morning at eight
He Built A house On top of the hill.

Clauses

A clause is a group of words which forms a part of sentence and contains a subject
and a predicate.

Ex. When I was walking on the street

That honesty is the best policy

How to speak English fluently

Where she was born

When I was born

When I saw her

How to answer the questions

Kinds of Clauses: Clauses are divided into two classes, namely:

1. Principal Clause

2. Subordinate Clause

Note: A clause can be turned into a sentence.

Ex. I saw Olumide when I was walking on the street.

Everyone knows that honesty is the best policy.

I like those who speak the truth.

I can teach you how to speak English correctly.

Do you know where she was born?

We can't understand why she left her parents.

When I saw her, she was hugging her child.

Does Amaka know how to answer the question?

1. Principal clause: A clause which makes complex sense independently and

stands by itself is called a main, a principal, a superordinate or an independent
clause.

Ex. I received a letter.

 I replied to it.

I did my best.

I failed in my attempt.

2. Subordinate clause: A clause which depends on some other clause for its
meaning is called a dependent or a subordinate clause.

Ex. When I was walking on the street

That man is a social animal.

If you are a post graduate.

Before I saw her.

Till you understand it better

Unless you show me your identity

After she had left home

Note: Subordinate Clause can be turned into meaningful sentences.

Ex. I saw Olumide when I was walking on the street

Artistotle believed that man is a social animal.

If you are a post graduate student, you are eligible for this post.

She had stayed in Calabar for two years before I saw her.

You must read the poem till you understand it better.

You are not allowed in unless you show me your identity.

I went there after she had left home.

Kinds of Subordinate Clauses: Subordinate Clause can be divided into three,
namely:

1. Noun Clause
2. Adjective/Adjectival Clause
3. Adverb/Adverbial Clause
1. Noun Clause: A group of words which contains a subject and predicate of its
own and does the work of a noun is called a Noun Clause.

Ex. I kwon that that she is a teacher in the school.

What I like most in her is her modesty.

I know when to apply for a bank loan.

That she left her husband is know to all her friends.

A noun clause can be used as:

(a) The subject of the verb.

(b) The object of a transitive verb

(c) The object of a preposition

(d) In apposition to a noun or pronoun

(e) The complement of verb of incomplete predication

(a) The subject of the verb:

Ex: That she left her husband is known to all.

Whether to apply for the post is a problem to me.

What I like in Bukola is her modesty.

(b) The object of a transitive verb:

Ex: I know that she is a teacher in the school.

We don't understand how long she wants to remain uneducated.

I know when to apply for a bank loan.

We believe that love is blind

John Keats declared that a thing of beauty is a joy forever.

(c) The object of a preposition:

Ex: I am not satisfied with what I achieved in life.

She did not pay attention to what I explain to her.

There is no point in what my friend suggested to me.

I have confidence in what I do.

Do you have any idea about what you have read now?

(d) In apposition to a noun or pronoun:

Ex: It is surprising that my sister hasn't realized the value of my mother.

It is really a pity that Bukola has never recognized my presence.

The fact that she has a desire to marry a rich man is known to all her friend

I accept the theory that man is a social animal.

We believe the principal that all men are born free.

(e) The complement of a verb of incomplete predication:

Ex: My belief is that hard work brings success.

The problem is whether to attend the function or stay at home.

Her fear is that she will lose her job.

The question is where to find the money for the project.

Love is what we think of it.

My worry is whether I shall be able to see Bukola again.

2. Adjectival Clause. A group of words which contains a subject and a predicate

of its own and does the work of an adjective is called an Adjective Clause.

Note: An Adjectival Clause is introduced by relative pronouns like

who/which/that/but/as and relative adverbs like where/when/why

Ex: The girl who invited you to dinner is my sister.

The man who invite you to dinner is my uncle.

The beautiful girl whose father is an accountant in the state bank is appearing for
the degree exam.

The story which you wrote a year ago is a nice one.

This is the place where I met Bukola.

I want to know the time when the meeting will take place.

I don't know the reason why Emeka disliked me.

I believe there must be a time when my talent is properly recognized.

3. Adverbial Clause: A group of words which contains a subject and a predicate

of its own and does the work does of an adverb is called an Adverbial Clause.

Ex: I shall wait here till you return

If you know her name, Please tell me.

I stopped the work because I was very tired.

There are seven types of adverbial clauses and their common conjunctions are:

Contrast Clauses: although; though; even though; while;

Reason Clauses: because; since; as

Place Clauses: where; wherever; everywhere

Purpose Clauses: so that; so; because + want

Result Clauses: so that; so…that; such…that

Time Clauses: when, before, after, since, while, as, as soon as, by the time, until

Conditional Clause: if, unless, provided,(that); as long as

Supposition or Concession: though/although/even though/even/ if/while and where

as

4. Kinds of Adverbial Clause: Adverbial Clauses may be classified in to eight

kinds, namely:

(a) Adverbial Clause of Time

(b) Adverbial Clause of place

(c) Adverbial Clause of purpose

(d) Adverbial Clause of Cause

(e) Adverbial Clause of Condition

(f) Adverbial of Clause of Result

(g) Adverbial of Clause Comparison

(h) Adverbial Clause of Supposition or Concession

(a) Adverbial Clause of Time: A clause which used to indicate time is called an
Adverbial Clause of Time. It is introduced by conjunctions like
when/whenever/before/after/as/till/once and now.

Ex: I left very happy when I saw Asma’u

Whenever you want to eat, please remember me.

I had never thought of marriage before I saw Khalid.

I lost happiness in life after Duncan had died.

As he began sing, we stopped talking

I haven't seen Emo since she was married.

I shall wait for you until you have written the letter.

Don't talk while I am teaching.

(b) Adverbial Clause of Place: A clause which is used to indicate place is called
and Adverb Clause of Place. It is introduced by where or whenever you go, I will
continue to follow you. I visited the place where she built a school for children.
Whenever we went, we were insulted.

(c) Adverbial Clause of Purpose: A clause which is used to indicate purpose is

called an Adverb Clause of Purpose. A clause of purpose sis introduced by words
like that/in order that/so that and lest.

Ex: We read that we may understand the world.

He worked hard to earn money in order tat he might make his wife happy.

He came to Nigeria so that he might marry a Nigerian girl.

He filled the petrol tank so that he might avoid any hitch in his journey.

She left early lest she be delayed.

(d) Adverbial Clause of Reason: A clause which is used to indicate cause or
reason is called an Adverbial Clause of Cause or Reason. This type of clause is
introduced by words like because / since/as/in as much as and that.

Ex: I stopped the wok because I was tired.

I like Victoria because she is brilliant.

Since she has a desire to work, she discontinued her studies.

As I love you, I can do anything for you.

I am glad that she has been promoted.

We were sad that he has lost his son.

(e) Adverbial Clause of Condition: A clause which is used to indicate condition

is called an Adverbial Clause of Condition. This is introduced by words like
if/unless/whether/provided that and so long as.

Ex: If you help me, I shall he happy.

If I go there, I can see Bukola

Unless you tell her about your job, she won't know it.

Unless you try hard, you won't get the job

I can help you provided that you follow my advice.

So long as you work hard. You have no problem with e.

You must do this whether you like it or not.

(f) Adverbial Clause of Result or Consequence: A clause which is used to

indicate result or consequence is called an Adverbial Clause of Result or
Consequence. It is introduced by words like so that and such that.
Ex: Lami is so brilliant that I loved her at first sight. She sang so beautiful that
were impressed very much.

I spoke to her in such a way that she wanted to see me again.

He has such ability in Mathematics that all were amazed.

(g) Adverbial Clause of Comparison: A cause which is used to indicate

comparison is called an Adverbial Clause of Comparison. It is introduced by words
like as, as – as, so- as, and than.

Ex: Dorothy is as beautiful as Juliana.

Our country is not as rich as America

She was much happier than I imagined.

We are not as foolish as they think.

Water is as essential as food.

He speaks better than his sister.

(h) Adverbial Clause of Supposition or Concession: A clause which is used to

indicate supposition or concession is called an Adverbial Clause of Supposition or
Concession. This clause is introduced by words like though/although/even
though/even/ if/while and where as.

Ex: Though she is clever, she is not proud.

Although I tried hard, I could not succeeded in my attempt.

Even if you were a beauty queen, I can't marry you.

Even though you are my brother, I can't allow you to do such a cruel act.

Where as Bukola is friend, her Friend is impolite.

Note:

(i) An adverbial clause does the work of an adverb.

(ii) An adjectival clause does the work of an adjective.

(iii) A noun clause does the work of a noun.

(iv) Same clause can be used as a noun clause, adjectival clause or an adverbial
clause.

Ex: I know where I can get the book (Noun Clause)

I know the book stall where I can get the book. (Adjective Clause)

I went to where I can get the book. (Adverb Clause)

ACTIVITY
I. Identify and mention the type of phrase which is underlined in each of
the following sentences.
1. The test seemed really hard.
2. A very slim tall hungry-looking old man lives here.
3. The girl is rather too young to get married.
4. They always come very early.
5. The University is always making effort to render some social services to the
neighbouring villages.

II. In each of the following sentences, identify the prepositional phrase

and mention whether it is an adverbial or an adjectival.
1. He has travelled to attend an interview.
2. The lady in the pink dress is not happy.
3. Shall we go to the stadium now?
4. The young man with a broken limb caused the accident.
5. The river flows through the town.

III. Identify whether the subordinate clause in each of these complex

sentences and mention whether it is a noun clause, an adverbial clause
or an adjectival clause.
1. That the spectators became angry surprised everybody.
2. When you become a man, you put away childish things.
3. We shall hire a woman who knows how to cook.
 4. Why do you behave as though you were too poor?
5. I have seen the girl who stole the wrist watch.

VI. Identify and mention the type of clause that is underlined in each of the
following sentences.
1. He always knows when they are angry.
2. She took the decision that she would not eat the food.
3. The guest behaved as though he was not satisfied with the reception.
4. The teacher has promised to reward the students provided they remain
obedient.
5. The car which his cousin bought has been stolen.

ACTIVE VOICE AND PASSIVE VOICE

In grammar,’ voice’ refers to the relationship between a verb and its subject. If the
subject performs the action expressed by the verb, the verb is said to be in the
active voice. For example:

The girl threw the ball.

The Chairman read the summary.

The winner received the cheque.

Here the verbs indicate the action of throwing, reading, and receiving. In each
sentence the subject ( girl, chairman, winner) is performing the indicated action.

If the subject ‘received’ the action expressed by the verb, the verb is said to be in
the passive voice. In other words, if the subject is acted upon rather than acting, the
voice of verb is passive.

Here are examples:

The ball was thrown by the girl.

The summary was read by the chairman.

The cheque was received by the winner.

Here the subjects (ball, summary, and cheque) are being acted upon; they are
receiving the actions of throwing, reading, receiving. The persons performing
these actions are indicated by the prepositional phrases ‘by the chairman’, “by the
chairman”, ‘by the winner”. If these prepositional phrases are omitted, the
performer of the action remains unmentioned.

The ball was thrown.

The summary was read.
The cheque was received.
These impersonal constructions occasionally have advantages. Such an advantage
is obvious if the writer wishes to omit reference to the performer of the action.
Except in special situations of this kind, active construction is preferable. They are
more direct and more forceful. Usually too they are more effective.

Rules for changing active voice into passive voice

1. Identify the subject, the verb and the object (SVO).
2. Change the object into subject.
3. Put the suitable helping verb or auxiliary.

4. Change the verb into past participle of the verb.

5. Add the preposition ‘by’.

6. Change the subject into object.

LABORATORY REPORT WRITING

Laboratory report is a scientific or technical report which describes the procedure,
results and significance of experiments conducted in a laboratory. It is important to
know that past passive tense is necessary in laboratory report writing. An important
feature of scientific writing is that it is objective and therefore uses impersonal
expressions. The use of personal pronouns (I, he, she, it), the use and indefinite
pronouns (one, some, are, each) or the use of nouns like a person, a student, teacher
and each such wards referring to individuals should be as much as possible avoided.
Format/layout of laboratory report writing.
Title
Abstracts
Aim and Objectives
Introduction
Materials and Method
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommendations (If any)
References
Appendices (Optional)

Title
It states the topic of the investigation; it usually comes in a single sentence.
Example: Determination of the density of a steel sphere. Words often used to
introduce titles are: Study, Investigation, Measurement, determination, verification
and comparison.
Abstract
This is a brief concise summary of the entire document presented in a less technical
manner. It briefly captures the background, main purpose, methods adopted, results,
conclusion and recommendation (if any). Abstract is written after the work is
complete but brought to the beginning (preliminaries).

Introduction

This answers why the study is of scientific interest and explains the objective of the
study. The section discusses the results and conclusions of previously published
studies. Thus, the majority of statements here are referenced. It is written third
person using active voice. It is organized to more from general to specific
information. This background is summarized succinctly, but not itemized. The
section is limited to studies that relate directly to the present study. The last parts of
this section involve statement of problem and research question as well as
hypotheses (if any). This provides a good transition to the next section, known as
material and Methods, in which you explain how you proceed to meet your
objectives and answer research questions or test the hypotheses. Because journal
articles do not require extensive literature review, the few available are captured
under this section.

Material and Methods

This involves the materials used in the study and the steps you took in the
experiment/study. It is however, not a list of instruments. The section includes the
population size, sampling techniques and sample size and a brief description of
statistical test you used. The section is written in past tense as it describes what you
actually did to generate data. The entire procedure describes the steps that were
followed in carrying out experiment. It is usually written in past passive tense: some
of the verbs and procedures. Include- was/were carried out, was conducted, was
adjusted, was/were recorded, was noted, was determined, was noted, was added, was
placed, was setup, was set, was checked etc.
Results
This section presents the results/findings of the experiment but does not attempt to
interpret their meanings. It does not include the raw data collected. Instead, you only
summarize the data with text, tables and or figures. Here, you will use the text of the
paper to state the results then refer the reader to a table or figure where the data are
summarized. You always proceed from general to specific features of the data. The
text should relate your data in those of the literature. However, the same data should
not be presented in both a table and a figure. In this section, you always concentrate
on general patterns, trends and differences in the results.

You are always expected to state the result as concisely as possible. Accompany the
word “significantly” by the statistical probability level (e.g. p = 0.05). Although,
using a figure is acceptable, it is best to present the data in a table unless there is
visual information that can be gained by using a figure.

Discussion

This is the section where you interpret the data in relation to the original objectives
or hypotheses. Then, you relate your interpretations to the present state of knowledge
and future needs for research. In this section, it is acceptable to explain what the
results mean or why they differ from what others have found. Hence, you interpret
results in the light of other published results by putting additional information from
sources you cited in the introduction section as well as introducing new sources by
providing accurate citations. You should also relate your discussion back to the
objectives and questions you raised in the introduction section. However, you do not
have to simply restate the objectives. In this section, you equally suggest future
directions for research, new methods and explanation for deviation from previously
published results. It is, of course, essential that you cite sources in the discussion
section as evidence of your claims. The cited sources including those in the
introduction section must be accounted for under list of references, which is the last
section except where you have other information of secondary importance such as
row data that you place in the appendix.

Very importantly, in descripting the various steps that are followed in carrying out
an experiment (i.e writing the procedure), the passive is used.
Examples:
1. The liquid was heated in a test tube and reagent was added.
2. The results were tabulated, and then the following conclusion were reached.
 3. The switch K was then closed and an accurate balance print (was) found.
Change the following sentences below to suit standard format for laboratory report
writing.
1. Weight a dry stoppered 50ml flask and introduce 2.5g of acid.
2. Tighten the thread on a clamp
3. Use a metre rule to measure various lengths of 100cm, 80cm, 40cm and 20cm
respectively.
Answer
1. A dry stopped 50ml flask was weighted and 2.5kg of was introduced.
2. The thread was tightened on a clamp
3. Various lengths of 100cm, 80cm, 40cm and 20cm were measured with a metre
rule.
ACTIVITY
I. Match the information in column A to the appropriate items in column B.
COLUMN A
1. The circuit was tested by touching briefly the sliding contact on the 0 and
100 cm ends of the bridge wire.
2. Verification of the principle that pressure acts equally in all directions at a
point in a stationary liquid.
3. The resistivity of iron has been determined by using a metre bridge to
measure the resistance of a specimen of wire.
4. To show that glass is a poor conductor of heat.
5. The acceptance value of the resistivity of iron is 1.5 X 95M of a specimen of
wire.
COLUMN B
(a). Result (b). Conclusion (c). Title (d). Introduction (e). Discussion (f). Material
(g).Purpose (h). Method

II. Using the past passive, rewrite each of the verb forms in brackets in the
following laboratory report.
Some ammonium chloride (1. Place) in test- tube and some sodium hydroxide (2.
add). The test-tube (3. hold) over a low Bunsen burner flame and the contents
(4.heat) gently for a time. The test-tube (5. move) from side to side in the flame to
ensure a gentle heating action. The reaction which took place (6. observe)
carefully. A piece of dry, red litmus paper (7. hold) over the mouth of the test-tube
and the result (8. observe). The litmus paper (9. Moisten) and replaced on the
mouth of the test-tube. The result (10. again observe).
 III. The list of words here is about laboratory report: (1) Title (2) Abstract (3)
Introduction (4) Method and Material (5) Results (6) Discussion (7)
Conclusion (8) Recommendation. Match the one that corresponds with the
definition numbered 1 to 5.
1. Normally presented in tabular or graphical form.
2. The main purpose/rational for undertaking the research.
3. The steps that were followed in the research usually written in past passive
voice.
4. The summary of the study capturing the purpose, method,the main result and
conclusion.
5. The background information for the research.
NOTE TAKING AND NOTE MAKING
Note taking refers to notes taken from talks and lectures as well as notes from
reading materials such as books. Some people have made a distinction between
note taking and note- making. Such people would have likened the skills, anyway.
The term ‘note taking’ is better used to refer to only notes taken from lectures or
talks, while ‘note making’ refers to notes from student’s personal reading of books
as well as other relevant sources. While the former requires effective listening
skills to excel, the latter rests solely on the learner’s ability to paraphrase,
summarize and sieve relevant details from irrelevant ones. However, the duo can
be merged into one. During a lecture, a good student must learn to recognize the
main ideas from supporting details. Note taking and note making are vital tools
from academic works and everyone who studies needs them.

Purposes for taking and making notes

a. To help a student’s memory when reading and/or revising e.g for tests and
examination. Note taking and note making help student develop retentive
memory.
b. To obtain a record of the speaker’s or writer’s main ideas.
 c. To increase knowledge of the particular subject.
d. To help student concentrate on what the speaker or writer is saying.
Sources of notes are:
1. From written texts such as text books, Journals, manuals, reports, etc. the
student reads and makes note on the important print (ii) From oral discourse
for example talks, lecture, seminars. Etc. Here, students take note on
important points. (iii) Personal reflections mainly for the purpose and writing
essays, examinations, etc.
Types of Notes
Notes can be classified according to methods employed.
Summary method: This type of note is written in a compressed form of the
original source. Although it contains the important parts only, it could be said it
be an outline. This method is not recommended because it could represent
summary writing instead of what note taking or note making requires in stew of
Note taking a note making requires.
Outline method: Here the important points are systematically tabulated in note
form using spacing, numbering, phrases, abbreviations and symbol. This is the
most acceptable way of taking notes.
Graphic method: This involves the representation of information as from oral
or written discourse in graphic form. Here, the important points are presented in
tables, schematic diagrams, pie charts, graphs, flow charts, spider diagram,
histogram, bar chart, graphs, among others. This note taking and note-making
method in used with care because some topics cannot have most important points
adequately represented in this method. Scientific topic that involves
classifications are some of the topics that fit into this method of note taking and
note making.
Importance of note taking and note making
 1. Personal notes are more readily acceptable and easier to remember than the
original text.
2. Note taking compels the learners to listen.
3. Note-taking also enhances comprehension.
4. Effective notes highlight what is important in a lecture and help students
remember them.
5. Writing down important points aids the memory and facilitates study and
review.
6. Notes are critical for preparing students for examination.
7. A good note serves as a micro-library where the information can be stored
and be retrieved to meet the present need of the learners.

Note taking hints

a. Write legibly.
b. Be as brief as possible
c. Focus on the main ideas, concepts and facts.
d. Be consistent in the use of symbols and abbreaviations
e. Apart from formulas, specific facts, definitions and terms, always original in
use of words.
f. Indent to differentiate major points from minor ones.
g. Always date your notes.
h. Don’t waste time in taking notes.
i. Make your own notes during lectures.
j. Don’t try to write out everything.
k. Be attentive and think before taking the notes.
l. Condense your material.
m. Don’t over border yourself if a point is missed.
n. Rework your notes shortly after.
o. Write them and fill in all omitted gaps.
 p. Review your notes regularly to aid your memory.
q. Be interested for what you are being taught.
r. Eliminate every distraction and unrelated association.
s. Participate in meaningful and fruitful group discussions that can sharpen
your critical and analytical acumen.

The Basic Rules for Note making and Note- taking

a. The clear: show how the speaker’s or writer’s ideas are related to each other.
The use and linking words (connectives) is very important here.
b. The brief: Generally, notes do not require writing in full sentences; phrase are
more appropriate, Abbreviations and symbols are often used for brevity.
c. Be selective: Write only the main important points, leaving out supporting
details, jokes, digressions and too many illustrations.
In essence, good notes, require speed, accuracy and clarity.
Techniques for Effective Note-taking and Note makings.
To take good and quick notes, the student should
a. Completely omit those sentences that merely support major sentences.
Examples should be restricted or omitted.
b. Focus on the main ideas, that is, those words and sentences that provide the
main information, notes should consist of short phrase rather than complete
sentences. Common and conventional abbreviations and symbol should be
used. Examples are:
b/coz ---- because ≠ ---- note equal to eg ---- examples
& ---- and < ------ less than ie ----- that is
= ------ equal to > ----- greater than viz ---- namely
 ----- therefore ?------- Questions etc ---- etcetera
b/4 ------ before
 COMMON ERRORS IN ENGLISH
Regardless of level of education, most non-native speakers of English everywhere,
including Nigeria tend to ignore the standard form of the language. This tendency
culminates in a hybridized variety of English across several linguistic levels:
pronunciation, spelling, diction and sentence construction. Although there are varied
factors attributable to the errors made in the use of English among Nigerians in
particular, it is expected of students at the tertiary levels to ensure, at least, near
correct use and usage. To do so requires a great deal of effort.
✓ Words, phrases and clauses that are often misused by Nigerians irrespective
of their levels of education include the following:

a. Advice – noun form – Not an advice but piece of advice, advise – verb form.
✓ Let me give some advice which will help you overcome the problem.
✓ Use “Machinery” or “machines” , not “machineries”
✓ The machinery in the workshop is outdated
✓ The machines in the workshop are outdated
✓ Don’t use “Machineries”
Other words commonly used in the non-standard variety of English,
thereby adding a plural marker even when there shouldn’t one include
equipment, furniture, load and stationery
b. Use “Consist of” or “Comprises” not “Comprises of”
✓ The science block comprises two lecture rooms
✓ The science block consists of two lecture rooms
c. Use “turn off” the light, “switch off” the light, “witch on” or “turn on” not
“off “the light or “on” the light
d. Use “on foot” not “with leg”.
✓ Ahmed went to the campus on foot
Don’t use “with leg”
e. Use “in Hausa” or “in English” not “in Hausa language” or “in English
Language”.
The students greeted their teacher in Hausa
f. Use “there is no” decent house in this town not “there is no any” decent…
g. Use the man “shouted at” the boy, not “shouted on” the boy
h. Use my daughters “prefer cheese to” butter not “prefer cheese than” butter
i. Use “I would like to borrow N3,000.00 from you”, not “I will like you to
borrow me” …
j. Use “I would like you to “lend me” N3,000.00 (instead).
k. Use “I will accompany you” to the supermarket not “I will follow you” to the
supermarket.
l. Use I can “smell” fuel, Not I can “perceive” fuel, Not I can “hear the smell”.
m. Use I “can” do the work or I “would be able to” do the work,
Not I “can be able to” do the work
Both “can” and “able” to are used interchangeably to describe/express ability
to do something. So, for that reason, “can” and “able” should not be used
together in a sentence.
n. Comparative Superlative
More/better Most/best
The following expressions should be used appropriately
Example
✓ Of my two sisters, I like Eunice more/better
✓ Not most or best: because you are comparing two things
✓ Who is the happiest person in this class?
✓ Not most happiest
1. I could not buy that dress because it is not my size or … It did not fit me.
Not …. It did not size me. “Size” is a noun not a verb
2. Amina Muhammad came first in 100metre race not took first. Don’t use took
first.
 3. Nigeria defeated South Africa in the female football match last week, Not
won.
4. How to use “Being” and “been”
The verb “to be” (am, is, are, was, were) goes with “being’
Example
He is being punished
While “have”, “has”, “had” go with “been”
Examples
They have been congratulated
The matter has been reported to Me
NOTE: “have” goes with plural while “has” goes with singular
1. Note the following words
i. Lie lied lied lying (not to tell the truth)
ii. Lie lay lain lying (to lie own)
iii. Lay laid laying (to place or put something)
Examples
✓ He lay on the floor yesterday. Not laid, the past tense of “to lie down” is lay
not laid as shown above.
✓ He lied when he said that
✓ He lay on the bed, reading
✓ She laid the table for lunch.
Other common errors are
▪ Can be able instead of will/should be able;
▪ “I use to” in place of “I often/usually/normally”;
▪ “Isn’t it?” as a general tag question;
▪ “I will drop here” instead of “I will alight here”;
▪ “She delivered a baby” instead of “she gave birth”;
▪ “Cut your coat according to your size” instead of “,,, your cloth”.
 iv. Dangling modifier: this is when the action attributed to the subject of the
sentence cannot be performed by the subject.
Example
Running down the lane the flower was in full bloom,
Note: The flower cannot perform action of “running” so an appropriate subject
should be provided. For example, running down the lane, I saw the flower that is in
full bloom or running down the lane, the girl saw the flower that is in full bloom.
✓ It is very important for the student to always work with their dictionary.
Certain English pair of words, known as homophones, are pronounced in the same
(or near same) manner but spelt in a different way and they have different meanings.
Examples are: tyre/tier/tire; aisle/isle; altar/alter; bore/boar; blue/blew; cereal/serial;
feat/feet; son/sun; nun/none; know/no; rite/right/write; stare/stair; plane/plain;
hole/whole/hall; principle/principal; passed/past; beer/bear; meet/meat;
naught/not/note; piece/peace; dear/deer; rode/road; son/sun; wear/were/where;
new/knew; hear/here; blue/blew; break/brake; right/write; blue/blew; too/two;
weather/whether; course/coarse; dear/deer; late/let; get/gate; bet/bait; men/main;
rice/rise; horse/hoarse; Border/ boarder/Bother, Cause/course. Cease/seize; guard/
guide; live/leave, march/match; loose/lose; awe/own; live/leave; park/pack;
section/session; price/ prize; sale/sell/sail; proof/prove; sight/cite/site; sit/seat;
scene/seen; whether/ weather, desert/dessert; principal/principle, storey/story; stare/
stair; stare/stair; stationary/stationary; steal/steel; wire/were/where; vale/veil;
Summary/summary; timber/ timer; trash/thrash/thresh; salon/saloon; shelf/shelve’
pedal/peddle; lair/layer; greet/great; heard/hard; expansive/expensive; a
scent/assent, alley/ alley; altar/alter; access/excess; angle/angel
There are also many English words that are not pronounced according to their
spellings. This generates inconsistencies; and, therefore, a source of problem to non-
native speakers of the language. Such words, which are by no means exhaustive, are:
sword, southern, mosquito, guitar, listen, gnat, knowledge, leopard, quay, tomb,
debt, plumber and psyche. Others include thumb, picked, passed, numb, dwarf,
climb and Wednesday.
Other words, known as homographs, are written alike but pronounced differently
and have different meanings. Because they function according to contexts, they are
also known as dual purpose words. Example are subject (noun), subject (verb);
object (noun), object (verb); conduct (noun), conduct (verb) transport (noun),
transport (verb); perfect (adjective), perfect (verb). In each case, the function is
understood from the contextual clue of the other words in association, especially in
a given sentence. However, if spoken, the function is understood only from the
position of the stress.
It is also important to be careful with spelling of some commonly misspelt words.
Examples are: grateful, maintenance, length, modern, occasion privilege, embarrass,
offered, accommodation, beginning pronunciation, occurred, referring, reference,
writing, and grammar.
Note: It is also important and necessary to understand irregular verbs that do not
conform to the usual patterns of the addition of the past tense and past participle
forms.
Infinite Past tense Past participles
Bet Bet Bet
Burst Burst Burst
Cast Cast Cast
Cost Cost Cost
Hit Hit Hit
Split Split Split

ACTIVITY
Choose from the options lettered ‘a’ and ‘b’, the one that is more appropriate.
1. (a). She has removed the equipments from the laboratory.
(b). She has removed the equipment from the laboratory.
2. (a). I can be able to perform the experiment.
 (b). I will be able to perform the experiment.
3. (a). The returning students will seek further clarification.
(b). The returning students will seek for further clarification.
4. (a). The Faculty of Science comprises five departments.
(b). The Faculty of Science comprises of five departments.
5. (a). He looks so angry this afternoon, isn’t it?
(b). He looks so angry this afternoon, doesn’t he?

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation marks are graphic markers or points which are used in writing for the
following purposes:

1. To indicate a pause as in speech: the following are the marks that often
coincide with points in speech in which there is a pause:

a. the full stop (.)

b. the comma (,)
c. the semi-colon (;)
d. the colon (:)
2. to indicate a change or rise in the voice: Examples are:
a. the question mark (?)
b. the exclamation (!)
3. to introduce, link, or enclose words and expressions: Examples are:
a. the colon (:)
b. the dash ( __ )
c. the hyphen (-)
d. the parenthesis ( ) or brackets [ ]
e. the quotation ( " " )
4. To indicate omission in a sentence or the use of the possessive
They include the following:
 a. the ellipsis (…)
b. the caret ( ̂ )
c. the apostrophe (')

We shall now discuss punctuation marks under two broad divisions:

a. Terminal punctuation marks

b. Medial punctuation marks

Terminal Punctuation

There are three terminal punctuation marks. They are called terminal because they
usually occur at the end of sentences. Thy are the full stop, the question mark, and
the exclamation mark. Note that no two of the three terminal punctuation marks can
occur together; they are mutually exclusive of one another. In other words, only one
of them can occur at the end of a sentence depending on the syntactic function of the
sentence.

1. The full Stop

The full stop has three distinct functions. Read the following five sentences. They
are declarative sentences: all ending with full stop.

1. Books are very expensive nowadays.

2. Ngozi's second wedding anniversary comes up next Saturday.
3. Social injustice fosters crime in society.
4. Nobody has succeeded in explaining to me why military
seized power in Nigeria in 1983.
5. It rains for only three months in the northern parts of Nigeria.
Spelling and punctuation
Word or word group Standard Abbreviation

Professor Prof.
Compare cf,
Example eg.
Post Office Box P.O. Box
Private Mail Box P.M. B.
Illustration Illus.
Editor/edition ed.

Most English abbreviations end with the full stop. But there are occasions in which
the full stop is optional. Examine the following words. They can be abbreviated
with or without the full stop. Look very closely at each of the words and the
equivalent abbreviation. Can you see they can be abbreviated without the full stop?

Word Abbreviation

Mister Mr. or Mr

Doctor Dr. or Dr

Year Yr. or Yr

Missus Mrs. Or Mrs

There are also special types of abbreviations known as acronyms. Find out the
meaning of acronym from your dictionary. Acronyms do not conventionally need
the full sop. Below are some examples. Can you think of others?
 Abbreviation Full meaning of the Acronym
JAMB Joint Admission and Matriculation Board
NEPA National Electric Power Authority
USAID United State Agency for International
Development
NECON National Electoral Commission of Nigeria
PRODA Project Development Institute (Agency)
WAEC West African Examination Council
OPEC Organization of petroleum Exporting
Countries.

2. THE QUESTION MARK

Read the following sentences. They are questions.

1. Are books not very expensive nowadays?

2. When is Ngozi's second wedding anniversary coming up?
3. What does social injustice foster in society?
4. Has anybody succeeded in explaining to me why the military
seized power in 1983?
5. For how long does it rain in the northern part of Nigeria?

The declarative sentences used earlier could provide adequate answers to the above
questions as interrogative sentences often anticipate declarative responses or
statements.
The italicized expressions in the following sentences are a special form of question
– sentences known as question tags. Read them and suggest appropriate responses
for the questions.

6. It trained heavily yesterday, didn't it?

7. You haven't completed your examinations, have you?
8. You will attend my birthday party, won't you?
9. People shouldn't smoke in public places, should they?

Sometimes the answer to a question is so obvious that no response is expected.

They responses unnecessary. Question of this type are known as rhetorical
questions. Consider the following questions. Do they really have to be answered?

10. As a man you should not panic at sign of danger, or aren't you a man?

11. I am aware that you love your mother very dearly or am I wrong?

12. Is there anyone in this congregation who would not like to go to

heaven?

13. Woh! Isn't she beautiful?

14. Son, why are you always doing things that tarnish the good name of
this family?

3. The exclamation mark

The exclamation has only one function in the sentence: It expresses strong emotion
as indicated in speech by a rise in the pitch of the voice. When a person is excited,
surprised, digested, horrified, angry, or very happy, his emotion is evident in his
tone which in writing is expressed by means of the exclamation mark.

The following are some examples:

 1. Oh, what a mess!
2. What a horrible sight!
3. Aha, there she comes!
4. Shut that door, will you!
5. That was a wonderful show!

Medial punctuation marks

These are punctuation marks that often occur in the middle of the sentence. They
are:

1 The caret 6 the hyphen

2 The ellipsis 7 The colon
3 the dash 8 The semi-colon
4 The parentheses 9 the comma
5 The apostrophe 10 the quotation marks
We shall not discuss all the ten punctuation marks; only the following will be dealt
with: the comma, the colon, the semi-colon the hyphen, the apostrophe, the
quotation, and the parentheses. We have selected them because they are usually the
ones that present students with the greatest problems.

1. The comma: the comma is used in a variety of ways in the sentence but its
function is essentially to show where a speaker would naturally pause so as to
allow his message to be absorbed. Study the following sentences, for example:

(i) They sell cosmetics, toilet soap, dresses, shoes, and several other items in
that supermarket.
(ii) The maid complained, “I am tired of being treated like a slave”.
(iii) John, how far have you gone with your project?
(iv) Some women, even when they look old and worn out, never want to accept
that they are old.
 (v) Whenever people pay her some attention, she gets shy.

The above five sentences represent some of the common uses of the comma in the
sentence. Sentence (i) illustrates the use of the comma to give an enumeration or a
list; sentence (ii) shows how to introduce a direct speech or quotation; sentence (iii)
to mark off a direct address (or vocative) from the rest of the sentence; sentence (iv)
indicates how to enclose or mark off non – restrictive expressions (or parenthetical
elements) from the rest of the sentence; and sentence (v) separates a subordinate
clause from the main clause in complex sentence.

Check out the meaning of the following terms which have just been used to explain
the functions of the comma: vocative, non-restrictive, parenthetical (expressions.).
find out also when an expression is said to be restrictive. Note that, sometimes, the
comma is used not necessarily for any of the above five reasons but to ensure that
there is no ambiguity in the sentence.

1. The colon: This is a punctuation mark that alerts the reader that something is
to follow. For example:

(i) I kept the following items in that box: my certificates, my letter

appointment, some cash, some drugs, and my dresses
(ii) Only one thing in this life is permanent or certain: death.
(iii) These are the people who resent for the rally: Nike's sister, Ada's
cousin, some disabled children, and the social welfare officer for the zone.
(iv) Only one thing worried me about that business deal: the fact the agent
could be phoney.
(v) I have only two friends: Mike and Mary:
3. The semi-colon: This is a punctuation mark that represents a pause that is
midway between the pause of the full stop and that of the comma. Below are some
of the uses of the semi-colon:

(i) To link elements of a compound sentence when there is no conjunction:

Example:

a. The Nigerian civil war was a very expensive war; it cost the country
thousands of lives and millions of Naira.
b. The dog is one of man's best friends; it can be relied on at all times.

(ii) To separate the main elements of a compound complex sentence

especially if the main elements have been internally punctuated with commas;
e.g
a. If he comes, keep him engage; don't let him go until I come back.
b. Most men, when they become wealthy, get arrogant cruel and inconsiderate;
they also become mean when it comes to helping the needy.

(iii) To draw attention to the contrast between ideas expressed in a sentence

or separate sentence that are in themselves internally punctuated by commas:

Example:

a. That function attracted several important personalities such as chief Echeribe,

the regent of Abame; Professor Chibike, the Dean of Agriculture; Nze
Cornelius Ozoani, the supervisory council lor for works; and Brigadier, Aja,
the chairman of the Ports Authority.
b. I pardon you for your serious act of discretion; but next time you won't be that
lucky.
 4. The hyphen: The hyphen has essentially two distinct functions:

(i) To form compound words: Compound words can be compound nouns: or

compound adjectives nouns: eg

Vice-Chancellor
Father-in-law
Step-daughter
Worn-out tyres
Part-time lecturer
First-aid treatment
On-the-spot assessment
Pre-natal care
Ante-natal care
Post-war experience

(ii) To divide words into two at line endings: In writing, there is need sometimes
to break a word into two at the end of the line. When this becomes the case, the
following three considerations influence the splitting of the word:

a. The etymology of the word: i.e the source or origin of the word as well as its
constituent.

For Example.

Bio-graphy
Atmo-sphere
Back-yard
Chemi-stry
b. The syllable structure of the word: i.e how many syllables the word
contains. The writer is here advised to split the word so that there is some
balancing of the number of syllables in each line,

for example.

Consist-ency
Mathe-matics
Sleep-ing
Autho-rity
c. The use of affixes: The presence of affixes in a word can provide convenient
point for the splitting of the word at a line ending

auto-biography

in-efficiency
mal-practices
godli-ness
un-kind
kind-ness
recommend-ation
beauty-ful
ir-relevant

Note that the hyphen should be used very sparingly as an indiscriminate use of the
punctuation mark when writing has a tendency to make the written piece somewhat
untidy; in fact, it is recommended that only polysyllabic words could be split at the
end of a line.

5. The apostrophe: the apostrophe has two main functions in the sentence:
 (i) To form the possessive of nouns and impersonal pronouns: e.g

The people's Club of Nigeria

Ada's beautiful dress
Christ's apostles
Someone's property
Evereybody's opinion
Anyone's business

(ii) To indicate where there has been an omission of one or more letters in the
contracted from words: eg

Shan't
I'm
Should've
Mayn't

6. Quotation marks: There are two main functions of quotation marks:

(i) To present a verbatim text as in the direct speech: eg

a. The mysterious woman cursed, 'May you never see the light of the next day.
b. 'I am very happy that we’re able to come, he said.
c. 'I am finished, done for, ruined, she wailed when the loss of the precious
ornaments was revealed to her.
d. According to Yackson (1987), ' …. The protagonist is attempting to define
his place in the scheme of things and 'his wrestle with words' and varying
syntactic patterns is a search for an adequate expression that can clarify his
status for him.
(ii) To indicate the title of a poem, short story, or articles and other unpublished
material: eg

J.P Clark, in his poem 'Ibadan' …

'The Squandering of Riches' by Onyeke …
7. Parenthesis: This has essentially one dominant function: that of enclosing
textual material that is supposed to be regarded as of serious importance. For
example:

a. The cost of cars in Nigeria (and you will agree with me that cars are very
important) should be review
b. I would like you to consolidate your relationship with this supermarket as
our prices are highly competitive (you can compare our price with those of XYZ
Stores ).

Another function of the parenthesis is that it can be used to repeat information as in

repeating information given in figures after having been in words initially, eg
c. Five Hundred Naira (N 500.00)
d. Those books are sold at N45.00 (Forty Five Naira) in the local market

ACTIVITY

I. Copy the sentences below and replace the asterisks with the correct punctuation
marks.
1. Because it was a very hot afternoon* Dr* Stanley*s laboratory class was
half asleep as he held the test-tube in the flame of the Bunsen burner*
2. *When the liquid in the test-tube begins to boil* what*s the best thing to
do** He asked*

II. Re-copy and punctuate the following passage.

The human population has grown dramatically this century in 1990 there was 1.6
billion people on earth by 1950 the figure had grown to 2.7 billion demographers
estimate that by the end of the century the earth’s population will be over 6.1 billion
demography is the study of the change in size distribution and character of the human
population and the two most basic factors in demography are the birth-rate and the
death –rate the former expresses the number of children born per 1000 per year the
latter indicates the number of people who die per 1000 per year if we consider the
earth as a whole we see that population growth or decline is caused by the difference
between the number of births and deaths over a given period there are normally more
births than deaths and this is known as a natural increase in population

Suggested Readings

Atkinson, D. (1999). Language and science, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics,

19, 193-214.

Brown, F. A. (2003). English for tertiary education: An integrated approach. Jos:

Mazlink.
Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (2004). English for specific puroses- 19th Edition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jowitt, D. (2012). Nigerian English usage: An introduction, Lagos: LearnAfrica.
Oluikpe, B. O. A (Ed) (2011) The use of English for higher education, Onitsha:
Africana First Publishers Plc.
Quirk, R., & Greenbaum, S. (1973). A university grammar of English, London:
Longman.