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Table of Contents
1.0 COURSE OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................1
2.0 MOTIVATIONS FOR 4G ......................................................................................................1
3G Limitations ....................................................................................................................................................1
4G Goals .............................................................................................................................................................2
4G Architecture ..................................................................................................................................................3
4G Building Blocks ..............................................................................................................................................4
3.0 LTE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE .......................................................................................5
Long Term Evolution...........................................................................................................................................5
LTE Architecture Goals .......................................................................................................................................6
LTE Network Architecture...................................................................................................................................7
E-UTRAN Architecture ........................................................................................................................................8
EPC Architecture .................................................................................................................................................9
4.0 LTE DEVICES ................................................................................................................... 10
LTE UE Capabilities ...........................................................................................................................................10
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) .....................................................................................................................11
5.0 LTE AIR INTERFACE ....................................................................................................... 12
Bandwidth Flexibility ........................................................................................................................................12
Spectrum Flexibility ..........................................................................................................................................13
OFDM and OFDMA: Higher Data Rates............................................................................................................14
Shower Analogy................................................................................................................................................15
Multicarrier Multiplexing .................................................................................................................................16
OFDM ...............................................................................................................................................................17
OFDMA .............................................................................................................................................................18
Multiple Antennas ............................................................................................................................................19
6.0 INTRA-LTE AND INTER-3GPP MOBILITY ....................................................................... 20
Typical LTE Call .................................................................................................................................................20
Basic Services in LTE .........................................................................................................................................21
Potential LTE Services .......................................................................................................................................22
Voice Solutions in LTE .......................................................................................................................................23
IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) .......................................................................................................................24
SMS Solutions in LTE .........................................................................................................................................25
LTE Performance Targets .................................................................................................................................26
Policy and Charging Control (PCC)....................................................................................................................27
7.0 LTE DEPLOYMENT .......................................................................................................... 28
Interworking with 3GPP (Pre-R8) .....................................................................................................................28
Interworking with 3GPP (R8) ............................................................................................................................29
Optimized eHRPD Architecture ........................................................................................................................30
LTE Deployment Considerations .......................................................................................................................31
Access Network Considerations .......................................................................................................................32
Cell Site Considerations ....................................................................................................................................33
Backhaul Options .............................................................................................................................................34
Summary ..........................................................................................................................................................35
8.0 ACRONYMS ..................................................................................................................... 36

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1.0 Course Objectives

In this presentation, we will explore, at a high level, some of the key goals, concepts, and operations
associated with the Long Term Evolution program, most commonly known by its acronym, LTE. The topics we
will cover include:
• The motivation and goals of fourth generation, or 4G, wireless networks
• The design of the LTE access and core network architectures
• The capabilities of LTE devices
• The underlying concepts of the LTE air interface
• The basic services supported by LTE, and
• Some considerations for deploying LTE networks

2.0 Motivations for 4G

3G Limitations

Let’s begin by examining the motivations and the goals for 4G in general.
Third generation, or 3G, networks have been deployed commercially for some years now, and have been very
successful. Despite this, however, 3G systems may not be able to meet the changing needs of the
marketplace.
For example: The data rates that can be delivered to mobile subscribers over 3G networks is well below 3
Mbps, on average. This limits the user experience, especially when dealing with high bandwidth video or
multimedia services.
Packet delays are often 100 ms or more, which adversely impacts real-time services like Voice over IP.
3G networks evolved from voice-oriented, circuit-switched networks, and are not optimized for Internet
Protocol, or IP, which most modern data services are based on.
The existing 3G offerings are not compatible with each other, which limits interoperability and roaming, and
keeps equipment costs relatively high.

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4G Goals

Fourth generation, or 4G, networks are designed to directly address most, if not all, of these limitations.
All of the 4G technologies currently defined offer peak data rates of 100 Mbps or more, orders of magnitude
faster than what 3G can provide. At the same time, packet delays are significantly lower than in 3G, enabling
Voice over IP and other real-time applications, and the amount of radio spectrum needed to serve a single user
is reduced, allowing more users to be served in the same radio bands.
All 4G solutions are based on IP networking and packet data protocols. This, combined with the greater radio
efficiency, means that the cost of the equipment needed to serve a particular market is significantly reduced,
which, in turn, means that the cost of deploying and maintaining the network is also lowered. The ability to
quickly and efficiently transport IP packets across the 4G networks means that the development and rollout of
new services and applications based on IP is much simpler, reducing the time between the initial concept and
the commercial launch.
The greater capabilities of 4G networks will provide a richer user experience, and enable the highly desired
“quadruple play”, combining voice, video and data services in a completely mobile environment.

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4G Architecture

In order to deliver these capabilities as quickly and efficiently as possible, 4G network architectures have been
designed according to a number of key principles.
Both the access and core networks make extensive use of IP-based interfaces and protocols.
The core network and access network have been made independent of one another, allowing each to evolve at
its own pace without impacting the other.
The architectures have been simplified, reducing the number of nodes and interfaces in the network.
All applications are based on packet technologies, supporting all of the common IP services like Web browsing
and email, as well as newer capabilities such as Voice over IP.
All network interfaces and protocols have been standardized, allowing operators to select multiple vendors to
build and deploy their networks.
The combination of open interfaces, access and core independence, and the extensive use of IP protocols,
then allows users to use their services over any access technology capable of supporting IP packets, provided
seamless mobility across multiple networks and technologies.

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4G Building Blocks

Based on these goals, the current 4G options have settled on a set of common building blocks for their
network designs. Although they differ in the specific details, all 4G solutions share the same basic
characteristics.
All of the 4G air interfaces are based on Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access, or OFDMA, technology.
OFDMA is very effective at transmitting data over the radio channel, and lends itself very well to multiple
antenna techniques, which can be used to further increase the quality and speed of data transmissions. The
end result is a very high spectral efficiency, maximizing the use of the available radio bandwidth, and reducing
the cost per bit over the air.
The access networks are based on IP technologies, and have moved away from the centrally controlled
architecture of previous solutions. Radio and mobility management functions are now distributed, which
reduces the latency in the access network and allows the network to grow along with the market demand.
The core networks are also based on IP, and have eliminated the need for circuit-oriented voice switches by
moving to packet voice solutions. The use of call servers and gateways further reduces the cost of the network,
and enables a more measured approach to keeping up with market growth.

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3.0 LTE Network Architecture

Long Term Evolution

Long Term Evolution, or LTE, is a specific 4G solution. Let’s take a closer look at the design and capabilities of
LTE.
The LTE specifications have been defined by the 3G Partnership Project (or 3GPP), which is also responsible for
Global System for Mobile Communications, or GSM and Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, or
UMTS standards. Although the initial LTE specs have been released, additional work is underway to improve
and enhance the standards.
LTE has been adopted by vendors and operators around the world, and provides a clear path for migrating
existing 3G networks to LTE.
LTE meets the goals set out for 4G technologies and networks, and offers a scalable and flexible solution
capable of serving a wide variety of markets.
LTE makes extensive use of IP-based standards and solutions, and is explicitly designed to support the Quality
of Service, or QoS, requirements of real-time applications like Voice over IP.
LTE can directly interwork with other 2G and 3G networks, allowing LTE to be deployed with little or no
disruption to existing operations.

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LTE Architecture Goals

The LTE access and core networks follow the 4G design goals, designed to reduce cost and complexity while
improving performance and flexibility.
The LTE network architectures are designed to achieve a number of goals:
• The transition to an all-IP network allows the deployment of IP-based multimedia services, including
voice and video.
• The access network has been flattened, distributing the functionality of the Radio Network Controller,
or RNC, to the radio base stations. This reduces the number of network nodes that the user data must
pass through, which in turn reduces end-to-end latency.
• The access and core networks now have fewer nodes and fewer interfaces, all based on IP. The result
is a significantly less complex network design.
• Seamless mobility allows subscribers to move freely between different networks and different access
technologies, while still being able to access their services wherever they go.
• The use of open, standardized interfaces allows multiple network operators to share a single LTE radio
access network, which reduces the costs and time involved in deploying new networks.

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LTE Network Architecture

The LTE access network is known as the Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network, or E-UTRAN. It
consists solely of radio base stations, called evolved Node Bs, or eNodeBs, interconnected using IP-based
protocols.
The LTE core network is the Evolved Packet Core, or EPC. The EPC is also a packet-oriented, IP-based network;
no circuit switches are used.

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E-UTRAN Architecture

Previous access network architectures relied on a centralized Radio Network Controller to manage the base
stations and radio interfaces.
The E-UTRAN, however, removes the controller, and distributes its functionality to the eNodeB’s, which use IP-
based protocols to directly coordinate their activities.
Each eNodeB is responsible for managing its own resources, assigning and reallocating radio resources as
subscribers request new services and connections, and for enabling encryption and packet compression over
the air. When a user moves from one location to another, the eNodeBs handle the handover of the connection
themselves. The end result is a flat, simple and efficient network design that can easily grow with the market.

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EPC Architecture

The EPC is entirely based on packet-switched (IP) technology, and provides LTE users with access to services,
content, private packet networks, and, of course, the Internet. There are five main components within the EPC.
The Mobility Management Entity, or MME, is responsible for registering LTE devices and tracking their locations
for paging. The MME also manages the establishment of bearers, which carry user traffic between the external
packet networks and the access network.
The Home Subscriber System, or HSS, is the primary subscriber database, storing the services each user has
subscribed to and managing the secret keys needed for authentication, encryption and other security
functions.
The Serving Gateway, or S-GW, is responsible for routing user traffic between the EPC and the E-UTRAN, and
serves as the anchor point for handovers within the E-UTRAN.
The Packet Data Network, or PDN, Gateway serves as the interface between the EPC and external IP networks,
such as the public Internet. The PDN Gateway also performs packet filtering, in order to categorize incoming
packets and determine how they should be treated in order to achieve the user’s Quality of Service
requirements.
The Policy Charging and Rules Function, or PCRF, is tasked with determining what the QoS requirements for
each bearer should be, based on the needs of the service and the user’s subscription parameters. Working
together, these network components provide an efficient and cost-effective system for delivering IP-based
services to mobile users.

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4.0 LTE Devices

LTE UE Capabilities

In order to take advantage of the capabilities offered by the LTE access and core networks, the mobile
equipment has had to evolve as well. Let’s take a look at the key characteristics of LTE mobile devices.
An LTE device is referred to as a UE, for User Equipment. LTE defines five different categories of UE; the higher
the category, the higher the theoretical peak data rate the device can handle.
In a 20 MHz LTE radio channel, a Category 1 device can support up to 10 Mbps on the downlink and 5 Mbps
on the uplink. Category 1 UEs are the simplest of the five, and are the first devices to become commercially
available.
Categories 2 through 4 provide increasing levels of capability, ultimately achieving up to 150 Mbps on the
downlink and 50 Mbps on the uplink.
Category 5 devices are the only ones capable of supporting 4 transmit antennas at the eNodeB, allowing them
to handle up to 300 Mbps on the downlink and 75 Mbps on the uplink. These rates will enable delivery of
advanced multimedia services that are impossible on current 3G networks.
In addition to their LTE-related functions, UEs may also provide multimode operation, allowing them to work
seamlessly with other air interface technologies, such as GSM/UMTS or 1x/1xEV-DO.

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Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

LTE UEs are designed to use a Subscriber Identity Module, or SIM, similar to the smart chip used in many 3G
devices.
The SIM contains the user’s identity, and provides access to the user’s services.
It stores the subscriber’s profile and security information, including the algorithms and keys needed to perform
encryption and authentication.
It holds the user’s contacts, phone numbers, and text messages.
The standardized interfaces and physical format of the SIM allows users to easily transfer their information
between devices, enabling simple upgrades and the ability to roam into non-LTE networks.
By design, a valid SIM is required before an LTE UE can initiate or receive any service, with the exception of
emergency calls.

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5.0 LTE Air Interface

Bandwidth Flexibility

The LTE air interface, like all other 4G solutions, is based on Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing, or
OFDM, and Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access, or OFDMA, technologies. It has been designed to
meet the unique needs of multiple markets around the world.
LTE supports a broad range of radio bandwidths, from as little as 1.4 MHz all the way up to 20 MHz; as the
channel bandwidth grows, so do the peak data rates and the number of users that can be supported.
Operators can deploy LTE using a small radio channel to begin with, and then easily expand as additional radio
spectrum frees up and traffic demand grows.

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Spectrum Flexibility

LTE is defined to support a wide range of radio bands, to enable easy deployment around the world.
LTE can be employed in current 2G bands, as those systems are gradually phased out.
As users migrate to LTE and 3G channels are reallocated, many operators will introduce LTE in their current 3G
bands.
As UHF TV stations are retired in favor of digital broadcasting, the spectrum can be made available for wireless
services. The relatively low frequency means that fewer cells are required to cover a particular area, which can
be a tremendous cost saving for the operators.
In the US, the bands around 700 MHz have recently been made available to cellular operators.
New LTE spectrum can be introduced at higher frequencies, such as 2.5 GHz or 2.6 GHz, where wider carriers
are available and more capacity can be provided.

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OFDM and OFDMA: Higher Data Rates

Now let’s take a closer look at the basic concepts associated with the technologies underpinning LTE and other
4G air interfaces: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing, and Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access.
The demand for wireless data continues to grow, as users come to expect the same services, the same
content, and the same performance in the wireless world that they are used to at home and in the office. There
is no doubt that current 3G solutions offer significantly better data rates than previous first or second
generation technologies, but they are inherently limited in how fast they can go.
Regardless of how quickly a server can push data out to a wireless subscriber, the radio link itself can only
carry so much data at one time. Current 3G solutions may be able to deliver a few megabits per second to a
user under ideal conditions, but in poor radio environments or during busy hours, that data rate can slow down
dramatically, to a few tens of kilobits per second.
This may be sufficient for checking emails or downloading a Web page, but watching a video under these
conditions would be unacceptable to most users. The radio “pipe” can theoretically be made bigger, but typical
solutions are complex (and therefore expensive) and may not be able to provide enough capacity. The
approach taken in 4G, therefore, is not to make a larger, more expensive radio, but instead to create a large
number of smaller, cheaper radios.

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Shower Analogy

The idea behind this approach can be illustrated through a simple analogy. Imagine the shower in your house.
Water comes into the shower through a single pipe. When the water reaches the shower head, the flow is
broken into large number of smaller streams.
Each stream contains relatively little water, but all of them together carry all of the water needed for an
enjoyable shower.

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Multicarrier Multiplexing

Similarly, a high-speed data transmission can be divided into a large number of low-speed data streams
running in parallel. This approach is known as multicarrier multiplexing.
It is much easier and cheaper to design and operate a low-speed data channel and replicate it many times in
parallel, than it is to create a single high-speed channel. Both approaches deliver the same data rate to the
user, but the cost and complexity of the parallel solution is much lower.

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OFDM

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing, or OFDM, is a specific form of multicarrier multiplexing, using a
large number of small radio channels, called subcarriers, to carry data. OFDM has a significant advantage over
previous frequency division solutions, in that it can take full advantage of the available radio spectrum.
Earlier frequency division multiplexing technologies, such as those used in 1G and 2G networks, also divided
the available spectrum into individual radio channels.
However, to avoid interference between the channels, spaces or guard bands had to be left in between the
channels, limiting the number of channels available for data, and therefore limiting the maximum data rate
that could be achieved.
OFDM, however, eliminates interference between the channels; that is the meaning of the word “orthogonal.”
Eliminating guard bands significantly reduces the amount of radio spectrum needed to carry a given amount of
traffic.
Conversely, a given amount of spectrum has room for many more OFDM subcarriers, significantly increasing
the number of users that can be supported, and the peak data rate that can be delivered to any one user.

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OFDMA

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access, or OFDMA, is the means by which OFDM subcarriers are
assigned to users.
At any moment in time, different numbers of users will be running different applications, each of which has
different data requirements. Web browsing, for example, requires a reasonably high data rate, on the order of a
couple of hundred kilobits per second, in order to deliver a Web page quickly.
Video applications, in contrast, may require one or more megabits per second in order to keep up with a high
resolution display, while Voice over IP may need only 10 kilobits per second to provide a high-quality voice call.
OFDMA distributes the available subcarriers to the active users according to their current needs, and then
reassigns them on the fly as the requirements change.

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Multiple Antennas

OFDM-based radio systems are ideally suited to support multiple antenna techniques, which can dramatically
improve the quality of radio transmissions and increase the capacity of the system.
By combining copies of the same signal received from multiple antennas, the overall quality of the signal can
be improved significantly.
This better signal requires less power to achieve the same performance targets, is less prone to fading and
other forms of interference, and can be picked up at greater distances or in areas that previously experienced
poor coverage.
Conversely, different signals can be sent over each antenna in parallel, allowing the system to support more
users at once, or to provide a faster data rate to a single user.
The end result is a radio efficiency that is significantly higher, delivering more bits per second per Hertz of
spectrum than is possible in 3G networks. Initial LTE deployments are expected to use two transmit antennas
at the eNodeB and two receive antennas at the UE, while later systems will increase this to four transmit and
four receive antennas. Note that the UEs themselves have only one transmit antenna.

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6.0 Intra-LTE and Inter-3GPP Mobility

Typical LTE Call

Although a lot of attention has been paid to the raw data rates possible in LTE, its value is actually in the wide
range of services and applications that it enables for mobile subscribers.
Regardless of the specific service being invoked, an LTE device must execute a number of basic steps in order
to set up and maintain a call in an LTE network.
When a UE is first powered on, it must scan for and acquire the LTE network, and establish a signaling
connection with the access network.
The UE then uses this connection to register with the core network, perform authentication, and enable
encryption.
The UE can then request the specific service it requires, and establish the Quality of Service requirements for
its traffic bearer across the LTE network, such as the minimum data rate and packet delay characteristics.
At this point, user traffic flows to and from the UE. The network takes care of monitoring the bearers, ensuring
that they continue to meet the requirements of the service.
As the UE moves, the access network is responsible for managing handovers and maintaining the radio
connection to the UE.
When the user’s service is completed, the UE then detaches from the network, frees up its allocated resources,
and goes idle, waiting for the user to perform some other action.

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Basic Services in LTE

The initial driver for LTE deployment is primarily Internet access, supporting the most commonly-used data
applications: Web browsing, email, and file transfers. These services are typically delay tolerant, requiring only
best-effort packet delivery.
Video services, including video streaming and conferencing, are already popular in current networks, and the
demand is expected to continue to increase. Latency must be managed in order to provide a smooth playback,
while the high data rates involved will require greatly increased backhaul requirements in the network.
Voice is the primary service offered in wireless networks. Since LTE is based on packet technology, Voice over
IP solutions are needed to deliver voice over LTE; IP Multimedia Subsystems, or IMS, will be used to
interconnect with the circuit-switched PSTN, while the LTE network must ensure that minimum bit rate and
delay requirements are met. The goal is to deliver higher call capacity in the same amount of radio spectrum as
3G currently provides, with equivalent quality, in order to allow network operators to migrate their entire
subscriber base to LTE over time.

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Potential LTE Services

In addition to basic voice, video and data services, LTE also enables a wealth of potential new value-added
services. These include:
• Short Message Services, or SMS, and Multimedia Messaging Services, or MMS. SMS and MMS have
proven to be extremely popular on existing 2G and 3G networks; LTE provides a number of solutions
for offering these capabilities on 4G as well.
• Video and Multimedia Conferencing. The enhanced data rates supported by LTE enable high-quality,
real-time video streaming and conferencing applications.
• Interactive Learning. Universities and knowledge companies like Award Solutions can deliver course
lessons and training seminars over LTE, allowing them to reach truly mobile audiences.
• Push Services and Location-based Advertising. Information can be pushed out to interested
subscribers, including sports scores, stock quotes and traffic alerts, just to mention a few possibilities.
Users in particular locations can be informed of nearby shops and points of interest, along with special
deals and incentives to attract their interest.
• Machine-to-Machine Communications. Not all services require human intervention; meter reading,
telemetry, police and fire alerts, and other automated systems can make use of LTE networks to
provide low cost, efficient connections to remote and mobile locations.
The possibilities are virtually unlimited.

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Voice Solutions in LTE

Although data services are expanding rapidly, voice remains the most commonly used wireless service, and is
likely to remain that way for some time. LTE defines a number of alternative approaches to serving voice users,
depending on the coverage and capabilities of the LTE network relative to existing 2G or 3G systems.
Initially, network operators may choose to use the existing 2G/3G networks to provide voice services to their
subscribers. The availability of hybrid devices, capable of supporting both LTE and 2G/3G technologies, allows
the user to remain on the LTE network while using data applications, moving to the 2G/3G network only when
voice services are needed. This process is known as Circuit Switch Fallback.
With the deployment of IP Multimedia Subsystems, or IMS, into the LTE network, the need to move to 2G/3G
for voice services is eliminated within the LTE coverage area. IMS is the preferred solution for Voice over IP,
using call servers and media gateways to interwork with the legacy wired telephony network.
Only when the user leaves the area served by LTE will it be necessary to transition the call from the LTE packet
network to the 2G/3G circuit network, through a process called Voice Call Continuity.

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IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)

Although not strictly part of the EPC, the IP Multimedia Subsystem, or IMS, is designed to deliver voice, data
and multimedia services to LTE subscribers.
IMS allows mobiles operating in an LTE network to establish voice connections with other users, or to the
Public Switched Telephone Network, or PSTN, using a Call Server to set up and manage calls.
The Call Server, in turn, interacts with a Media Gateway to connect the “all-IP” EPC to the circuit-oriented PSTN.
In addition to traditional voice services, the Call Server can also manage data applications, allowing the design
and deployment of multimedia services into the mobile environment.

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SMS Solutions in LTE

Short Message Service, or SMS, has been one of the most popular mobile services for many years. Not only
does it enable mobile subscribers to exchange text messages, it is also used to configure and provision mobile
devices over the air. Supporting SMS in LTE is not a trivial task, however, since SMS depends heavily on the
circuit-switched infrastructure for its operation. LTE offers two solutions for delivering SMS to its users.
The first option is to use IMS call servers to communicate directly with the SMS Center, which is responsible for
managing SMS message delivery. A special IP-based gateway interface is used to allow the call server and
Short Message Service Center, or SMSC, to exchange messages.
The second option is to direct SMS messages to the Mobility Management Entity, which then interacts with the
existing 2G/3G network to deliver the messages. Note that, in both cases, the mobile subscriber remains on
the LTE access network.

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LTE Performance Targets

In order to successfully deliver the wide variety of services and applications envisioned by its designers, LTE
must be capable of meeting a number of fairly aggressive performance targets.
In a 20 MHz radio channel, LTE is expected to support a peak data rate of up to 300 Mbps on the downlink,
and 75 Mbps on the uplink.
Latency must be significantly reduced, taking less than 100 ms to connect an idle mobile, with less than 5 ms
of delay across the access network.
The average user throughput should be at least three to four times higher than is experienced on current UMTS
High-Speed Packet Access, or HSPA, networks on the downlink, and two to three times higher than the uplink.
Similarly, total cell throughput should be two to four times higher than is provided by HSPA.
And the total voice subscriber capacity should be at least 40 Voice over IP users for every MHz of radio
bandwidth. These are aggressive goals, but very achievable in LTE.

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Policy and Charging Control (PCC)

In order to achieve these goals, LTE uses a system called Policy and Charging Control, or PCC, to establish and
manage the Quality of Service requirements for each bearer in the network. PCC is composed of three primary
functions.
The Application Function, or AF, is provided by the call server or other service controller, which provides a
description of the specific service being requested. This description includes the minimum or maximum bit
rates needed, maximum delay requirements, and other factors.
The Policy Charging Rules Function, or PCRF, determines the specific QoS characteristics that will be
established, based on the service description and the subscriber’s service profile.
The Policy Charging Enforcement Function, or PCEF, is handled by the PDN Gateway, which is responsible for
translating the QoS requirements into the specific type of traffic bearer that will be set up, enforcing the limits
set by the requirements, and providing traffic monitoring for billing purposes. This scheme ensures that each
user receives the resources that they require for their services, subject to the limits of their subscription
profiles and the availability of those resources in the network.

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7.0 LTE Deployment

Interworking with 3GPP (Pre-R8)

Although there will be opportunities to deploy LTE networks in new markets, most LTE installations are
expected to overlay existing 2G or 3G networks. This simplifies some aspects of the initial deployment (such as
support for voice services), but complicates others, particularly with regards to seamless roaming between
technologies. In order to provide network operators with an easier transition, 3GPP has defined solutions to
allow LTE to directly interwork with earlier mobile solutions.
Since 3GPP is also responsible for GSM and UMTS standards, it should be no surprise that LTE is able to
directly interwork with these 2G and 3G networks. For older networks, which have not been fully upgraded to
the Release 8 standards, the LTE network simply emulates the network components of the 2G/3G system.
The Mobility Management Entity looks like a Serving GPRS Service Node to other SGSNs, while the PDN
Gateway behaves like a Gateway GPRS Serving Node, or GGSN.
Subscriber data is retrieved from the Home Subscriber System as if it were a Home Location Register. This
approach allows the LTE EPC to provide services and connections to the older network, without requiring the
2G/3G access and core networks to be upgraded or replaced. UEs, which are both 2G/3G and LTE capable,
can move between the two networks seamlessly.

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Interworking with 3GPP (R8)

UMTS networks using Release 8 or later can be integrated more closely with the LTE network, improving the
performance of the interworking and simplifying many of the network functions. In this case, the UMTS Radio
Network Controller and SGSN emulate LTE network components, rather than the other way around.
The SGSN provides the functions of both an MME and a Serving Gateway, communicating directly with the
MME and S-GW in order to manage handover operations, much as an eNodeB does in LTE.
In addition, a direct tunnel can be established between the RNC and the S-GW to redirect user traffic,
significantly reducing packet delays across the network.

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Optimized eHRPD Architecture

Interworking solutions have been defined for non-3GPP networks as well. In particular, 1xEV-DO systems can
take advantage of the evolved High Rate Packet Data, or eHRPD, architecture, which has been optimized for
handovers between LTE and 1xEV-DO.
A direct link between the 1xEV-DO Radio Network Controller and the MME allows 1xEV-DO-capable devices on
the LTE network to pre-register with the 1xEV-DO network; this alone significantly reduces the time required to
handover the UE from LTE to 1xEV-DO.
The 1xEV-DO Packet Data Serving Node, now called an HRPD Serving Gateway, or HSGW, acts as a
combination of MME and S-GW, allowing traffic to be redirected from the LTE network to the 1xEV-DO network.
In addition, a direct link between the S-GW and the HSGW speeds up the transfer of packets to the 1xEV-DO
network during the handover sequence. The end result is an interworking solution that allows hybrid LTE/1xEV-
DO devices to move quickly and seamlessly between the networks.

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LTE Deployment Considerations

Although the standards have defined a variety of solutions for deploying LTE in existing markets, there are a
number of practical considerations that must be born in mind when planning an LTE network.
LTE introduces a number of new technologies and capabilities that require special attention during the
planning stages of deployment.
The use of multiple antenna techniques may require significant upgrades to existing cell sites, in order to
handle the new (and complex) radio equipment. New tools and techniques to optimize radio performance for
multiple antenna systems will be needed as well.
The significantly higher data rates supported over the air interface will require equivalent increases in backhaul
capacity in order to carry the anticipated traffic load.
IMS systems are needed to support voice services, and to interconnect with the circuit-switched PSTN.
Explicit management of QoS is required to make the most effective use of network and radio resources, and to
ensure that a satisfactory experience is delivered to each user.
LTE makes extensive use of IP version 6 within the access and core networks, which requires new approaches
to IP network planning and configuration. The fact that most external IP networks are based on IP version 4
makes IP address management and interworking even more challenging, as UEs will often be assigned both an
IPv6 and IPv4 address at the same time.

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Access Network Considerations

LTE has a very flexible and scalable air interface. The amount of radio spectrum assigned to LTE channels, and
the frequency bands available in the marketplace, can have a dramatic impact, not only on the services that
can be supported, but also on the antenna selection, cell locations, power requirements, and so on.
Interworking with underlying 2G/3G networks requires additional network interfaces, and can complicate the
design of the core network. Availability of hybrid devices (for seamless interworking) and the voice solution
selected can affect user perceptions.
Initial LTE devices will be PC card or USB data modems, focusing on high speed data access. LTE handsets and
other form factors will come later.
Although work on LTE has been ongoing for several years, it is still a relatively new technology. Growing pains
are to be expected.
The significant increase in data rates offered by LTE require an equally significant increase in backhaul
capacity in order to carry that traffic. Depending on the nature of the backhaul facilities, this can lead to very
high operational costs for the access and core networks.
Existing tools and techniques for 2G and 3G networks do not support the new LTE network architecture and
interfaces, especially on the radio side.

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Cell Site Considerations

Finding locations for cell towers is an ongoing challenge for network operators. For operators adding LTE to an
existing network, the natural solution is to reuse existing towers. However, a number of factors must be
considered.
If LTE is being deployed in a different radio band from the current system, the distance between cells may not
be optimal. The higher the frequency, the closer the cells must be in order to maintain the same level of
coverage; using existing cell locations may lead to gaps.
In addition, the antennas themselves are generally designed to support particular radio bands; additional
antennas would need to be added to the tower to handle new bands, leading to weight and cabling concerns.
This situation is further aggravated when Multiple Input/Multiple Output, or MIMO, antenna systems are
needed, which increase the amount of equipment required on the tower.
If the LTE deployment is intended to serve a large audience indoors, in-building solutions may be needed to
ensure that there is enough coverage and capacity wherever subscribers need access.
Enough power to drive the additional LTE channels (possibly including battery backup) must be available at the
cell, along with enough backhaul capacity to carry the much higher data rates supported by LTE. In most cases,
adding LTE to existing cell sites will require significant equipment upgrades.

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Backhaul Options

The bandwidth required to carry traffic from each cell site continues to grow, as new technologies are deployed
and as new services are introduced.
When wireless data services were first introduced, two T1 interfaces were sufficient to keep up with demand.
With LTE, however, backhaul throughput requirements can easily reach 100 Mbps or more, and new options
must be found to connect the cell sites with the rest of the network.
The most common technologies considered for LTE backhaul are microwave and fiber. Microwave is relatively
easy to deploy, especially in new markets, but can be prone to fades and interference. Fiber or optical
solutions, in contrast, have much higher capacity, but are not always available near the cell site location.
Nonetheless, either one is capable of carrying the Ethernet-based signaling and user traffic between the LTE
access and core networks.
The best choice of backhaul technology for an operator depends upon a number of factors, including traffic
growth, availability, tariffs, and so on; what is certain is that current T1-based facilities will not be able to keep
up with the demand for wireless data services.

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Summary

This concludes our brief overview of LTE. Let’s summarize the key points that we have covered.
The demand for wireless data continues to grow, resulting in opportunities and challenges for network
operators.
The LTE air interface leverages Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access and multiple antenna
techniques to provide a high-speed, efficient radio solution.
The LTE access and core network architectures have been greatly simplified, using IP-based protocols to create
flat, scalable, and cost-effective networks.
Interworking solutions have been defined for both 3GPP networks (in other words, GSM/GPRS and UMTS) and
non-3GPP networks (including 1xEV-DO and Mobile WiMAX).
LTE has defined a number of solutions for supporting voice services when LTE is introduced into a market.
The greater capabilities of LTE also place a greater demand on network resources, requiring upwards of 100
Mbps of backhaul capacity to carry the expected data load as traffic levels increase.
As its name implies, the Long Term Evolution program is expected to serve the needs of the mobile wireless
data market for many years to come. Even as the initial networks are being rolled out, work is already
underway for further enhancements to LTE, to be ready for the changing demands of the future.

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8.0 Acronyms
1 P
1xEV-DO 1x Evolution for Data Optimized PCC Policy and Charging Control
PCEF Policy and Charging Enforcement Function
2 PCRF Policy and Charging Rules Function
2G Second Generation Wireless Systems PDN Packet Data Node
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
3
3G Third Generation Wireless Systems Q
3GPP Third Generation Partnership Project QoS Quality of Service

4 R
4G Fourth Generation Wireless Systems RNC Radio Network Controller

A S
AF Application Function S-GW Serving Gateway
SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node
E SIM Subscriber Identity Module
E-UTRAN Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access SMS Short Message Service
Network or Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio SMSC Short Message Service Center
Access Network
eHRPD Evolved High Rate Packet Data U
eNodeB Evolved NodeB or E-UTRAN NodeB UE User Equipment
EPC Evolved Packet Core UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System
G USB Universal Serial Bus
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node
GHz GigaHertz W
GPRS General Packet Radio Service WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications Access

H
HRPD High Rate Packet Data
HSGW HRPD Serving Gateway
HSPA High Speed Packet Access
HSS Home Subscriber Server

I
IMS IP Multimedia Subsystem
IP Internet Protocol
IPv4 Internet Protocol version 4
IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6

L
LTE Long Term Evolution

M
Mbps Megabits per second
MHz Megahertz
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MME Mobility Management Entity
MMS Multimedia Messaging Service
ms millisecond (1/1000 second)

O
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access

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