Principle two: The amount of volts applied determines the speed of the motor.
Changes in voltage will change the speed of the motor.
Current
Current defined. Current is defined as the rate at which electrons flow in an electrical
circuit and is mathematically defined as cuffent,I, equals , Q, divided by
-l'i ft'-a-t T
Current is the circuit variable represented by the letter I and measured in units of
{_nf5-. The letter A or amps is used to abbreviate amperes. Current is
schematically illustrated with an arrow to show the D\ f-o <l < r' { '{la't)
Remember, a current exists if electrons are flowing.
Density. Current density, J, is a term used to express the atJ
The need for the expression comes from the fact that the a wue
goes up as the current density is increased. Sufficiently high temperatures can damage
insulation and even cause a fire
J ?I/A
Current density, J, equals the current,I, divided by the cross-sectional Are-o- A,
of the material.
A copper wire carrying 3000 amps has a cross-sectional area of 2 square inches.
Substituting the values results in: Current density, J, equals 3000 amps divided by 2
square inches. Therefore, J equals 1500 amps per square inch.
The recommendation is that copper is usually held to a current density of less than
Ic<> c' amps per square inch. The 1500 amps in this example can cause excessive
heat in the wire and result in damage
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Ca>
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Electrical energy. Electrical energy, E, is a variable that describes the amount of
power consumed or supplied in a certain period of time.
expressed
Energy E equals the power, P, times the time, t
A 100-watt light bulb is turned on for 20 hours. Substituting these values into the energy
equation shows: the energy consumed by the bulb, E, equals 100 watts times 20 hours,
which equals 2000 watt hours, or 2 kilowatt hours.
Current applied. Current is the ou,"l of electrons through an electrical circuit
Current is measured in , commonly known as The amount of
current required in an electrical motor circuit comes from shaft resistance or an increase
in shaft torque. To further illustrate this principle, consider the output shaft on an
electrical motor. The motor is turning at a fixed speed and at a given torque load. If the
load is increased, the torque on the output shaft of the motor is increased, but the rpm of
the motor stays constant. This increased torque, generated from the higher load, requires
the motor to draw more amps.
Joule's law forms the basis for understanding the relationship between power, volts and
amps. Mathematically this relationship is expressed as power, expressed in watts, equals
urd* times 11n^- If the voltage requirement and the maximum amps for
a motor are known, the amount of watts required to operate the motor can be calculated.
Power can also be expressed in horsepower. Horsepower equals volts times amps divided
by 745.7, a constant.
ln the example above, a 230 volt motor rated at 5 amps produces 1.5 horsepower. The
maximum output torque of the motor shaft can be calculated, if the motor rotates at 2850
rpm. Torque in foot pounds equals t"5 time 5252, a constant, divided by
rpm. The maximum output torque of the motor shaft is 2.76 foot pounds. I .5 tirnes -5251,
dir,'ided by 2850 rpm.
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Fllcctrical Fundamental s
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Resistance ,, .,/'l
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Resistance. Resistance is thg ' ,nn
f' z"-uln'n''-'r electron flow. Resistance is represented
by the letter, R, and measured in units of Cit,r,i:, . The Greek letter, Q, is used to
represent ohms. Resistance is schematically illustrated with a zrgzagline.
Large diameter conductors have ls,u, resistance to current, due to their large
cross-sectional area. To calculate the resistance of a long uniform wire, the resistivity of
the material, p, the length of the wire, L, and the cross-sectional area, A, must be known
The resistance, R, equals, p times the length, L, divided by the cross-sectional area, A
Remember, the larger the cross-sectional area, the t OrA) resistance; the longer the
wire, the the resistance
Conductance. Ccnductance, G, is the {r lY/ of resistance and is measured in
units of Oji ,t5 A material is conductive if it is suitable for carrying an electric
current. Gold, copper, and silver are good conductors, due to the ease with which
electrons tlow through them. The conductance, G, equals 1, divided by the resistance, R
Resistors. Resistors are devices fabricated for the purpose of current in a
circuit. Schematically, resistors are usually drawn with a series of zigzag Iines.
b L A resistor's value is determined by a standard fol;,. lj-t'u','.-. code. Each resistor has
U
H ,MBcolored bands, which represent its resistance in ohms.
The first two colored bands combine to give the first two significant digits of the
resistance. The third band is a power-of-ten multiplier. The fourth band gives the
i?l!1,4L*< of the resistor value. The table shown here represents the resistor color
code
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In the resistor shown here, red and green are the first two bands and correspond to values
A and B. Using the table, red has a value of 2 and green has a value of 5. Thus, red and
green together equal 25. The third color, yellow, is the power-of-ten multiplier and has a
value of 4. The fourth band, gold, is the tolerance, with the value of plus or minus 57o.
Substituting these values in gives: resistor value equals 25 times 10 to the fourth power in
ohms, plus or minus 5Vo.When multiplied together, this gives a value of 250,000 ohms,
or 250 kilo-ohms, plus or minus 57o.
Inductance
Inductance.Inductance in an electric circuit creates opposition toahawo-,t
"s in
current
Inductance is represented by the letter, L, and is measured in units of il"
The letter, to abbreviate henries. Inductors are schematically with a
-- t.
)trir'*" \r
I
: Y
The main purpose of an inductor is to prevent the current in a cilcuit from increasing or
ast I @a
decreasing instantaneously. Inductors into the circuit and are
sometimes known as -7,1 Cltl,?ca coils
An instantaneous increase in voltage in the circuit shown here results in an instantaneous
rise in current. If an inductor, which opposes change in current, is introduced into the
circuit, the result witl be a slower rise in current and voltage.
Inductors. Inductors are manufactured lbr use in electrical circuits and are rated to ve
a certain amount of inductance. The most basic inductor consists of a of
w-ire wrapped around a &s r<*
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The inductance, L, in an inductor equals the number of wbt ,0L1 N, squared, times
the cross-sectional area of the core in squatseinches , A, times the permeability of the core
material, p, all divided by the length of the core in inches, L, times 39.4, a constant.
The inductor shown here has 200 turns of wire with a cross-sectional area of 10 square
inches, a permeability of 12 times 10,7 to the negative seven, and a length of 2 inches.
The inductance equals 200 turns, squared, times 10 square inches times 12 times 10-7, all
divided by 2 inches times 39.4, a constant. This equals 0.00609 henries, or 6.09
miltihenries LloQ: oss (
, a3'ooo I
Inductors are used in such devices as electrical motors, transformers, and relays.
Inductor voltage. The voltage C/trt',, across an inductor is equal to the
inductance, L, multiplied by the change in current, A I, divided by the change in time, AT.
The Greek letter A is used to signify an incremental change.
In the example, a 0.005 henries inductor is undergoing a change in current that goes from
0 to 2000 amps in 2 seconds.
Substituting the values into the formula gives the voltage drop across the inductor.In this
voltage in the inductor V L is equal to 5 volts
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Energy stored. The energy stored in an inductor is related to the
C\rfI*,& the
inductor camies. The energy is represented by E L and is measured in
Energy stored is equal to the inductance, L, multiplied by the current,I, squared, all
divided by 2.lf a 300 millihenries conductor carries a current of 10 amps, E L is equal to
0.3 henries times 10 squared, all divided by 2. So, the total energy stored, E L, is equal to
15 Joules.
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Capacitance
Capacitance. Capacitance is the property of electricity that opposes change in voltage
and allows a circuit to charge
Capacitance is the circuit parameter represented by the letter C and measured in units of
abbreviated with the letter F. Capacitors are schematically illustrated
with a line and an arc for polar capacitors and two parallel lines for non-polar capacitors
The main purpose of capacitance is to provide additional , when needed
Capacitance in a circuit, C, equals charge, Q, divided by voltage, V
The capacitor shown here receives 5 amps of current for 10 seconds and has a final
voltage of 20000 volts.
First, solve for the charge, Q, which equals current, I, times time, T. Substituting the
values gives: charge, Q, equals 5 amps times 10 seconds. Therefore, Q equals 50
coulombs.
Now, solve for the capacitance. Capacitance,C,equals 50 coulombs, divided by 20,000
volts. Therefore C equals 0.0025 farads or 2500 microfarads.
Capacitors. Capacitors are manufactured for use in electrical circuits and are rated to
have a certain capacitance value. The most basic capacitor consists of two parallel
spaced by a very thin material.
A dielectric material is a substance that is a conductor of electricity but is
an efficient supporter of __--- fields. These electrostatic fields are what store
the energy in a capacitor.
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The positive plate or is separated a distance or thickness, T, from the
negative plate or The charge is stored in an electric field between these
two plates.
Parallel plate capacitors have capacitance values dependent on plate area, the dielectric
material, and the thickness and type of the dielectric material.
The capacitance of this parallel plate capacitor is determined according to the formula
capacitance, C, equals 8.85 times l0-rz, a constant, times K, the dielectric constant, times
A, the area of the smallest plate, all divided by the thickness, T, times 39.4, a constant.
In this example, the plate area is 20 square inches, the dielectric is mica, and the
dielectric thickness is 0.02 inches. For mica, K has a value of 6.
Substituting the values gets: C equals 8.85 times 10-12, times 6, the dielectric constant,
times 20 square inches, divided by 0.02, times 39.4, a constant. This equals 0.00135
microfarads, or 1350 picofarads.
Current. The current flowing into a capacitor,IC, in amps equals the
C, times the change in AV, divided by the change in AT
In this graph, the change in voltage goes from 0 to 5000 volts for a changing capacitor.
Using this information, along with the capacitance of the capacitor, the amount of current
flowing into the capacitor is determined.
This illustration shows a 200 microfarad capacitor with a change in voltage of 5000 volts
in 1 second. Substituting this data into the formula: the capacitor current equals 200
micro farads times 5000 volts, divided by 1 second, which equals 1 amp of current.
Yoltage. The voltage across a capacitor, VC, equals the stored in the
capacitor, Q, divided by the C
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This graph shows a current of 5 amps going into a capacitor for 30 seconds
Remember from the previous discussion that charge equals current times time.
Substituting the values from this example, charge, Q, equals 5 amps times 30 seconds, or
150
Knowing the charge, solve for the voltage by substituting the values. VC equals 150
coulombs, divided by 100 microfarads, which equals 1.5 million volts, or 1.5 megavolts.
Energy stored. The energy stored in a capacitor is related to the ACTOSS
the capacitor. The energy is represented by EC, measured in and equals
the capacitance, C, times the voltage, V, squared, all divided by 2.
If the voltage across a 1000 microfarad capacitor is 120 volts, the energy stored in the
capacitor, EC, is equal to 1000 microfarads multiplied by 120 volts squared, a[[ divided
by 2, so the energy stored equals 7.2 joules.
Electrical Laws
Ohm's Law. The most basic formula used in electrical circuits is Ohm's Law.It states
that current varies with voltage and with resistance.
A simple way to remember Ohm's Law is to use the Ohm's Law To
solve for resistance, simply cover the R with a finger and what is left is the equation:
resistance, R, equals the voltage, V, divided by the current, I.
This simple technique works when solving for voltage and current as well. For example:
current, I, equals the voltage, V, divided by the resistance, R. Also, the voltage, V, equals
the current, I, times the resistance, R.
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In this example, 12 amps of current pass through a 10-ohm resistor. Substituting these
values into the equation gives: the voltage across the resistor, V, equals 12 amps times 10
ohms, or 120 volts.
Watt's LaWPower. Power is the of doing work. It is the circuit variable
represented by the letter P and measured in units of The letter W is used
to abbreviate watts.
A power source is schematically illustrated in various ways but is always labeled with the
letter P.
Watt's Law allows us to calculate the power usage in an electrical circuit and states that:
power, P, equals the current, I, times the voltage, V, and is expressed in units of watts.
In an electrical circuit, power produce energy, and power _,
or loads, consume energy.
A simple way to remember Watt's Law is to use the Power To solve for
power, simply cover the P with a finger and what is left is the equation: current,I, times
voltage, V. This simple technique also works when solving for voltage and current.
Different forms of Watt's Law are derived by substitution of the three forms of Ohm's
Law into the basic power equation, P equals I times V. Also, by some simple substitution
using Ohm's Law, P equals I squared times R. Once again by substitution, P equals V
squared divided by R.
In the example, a 120-volt motor draws a current of 12 amps. Substituting these values
into the equation gives: power drawn into the motor equals 12 amps times 120 volts,
which equals 1440 watts or 1.44 kilowatts of power.
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Basic Magnetism
Applications. Electromagnetic machines are the workhorses of industry and commerce.
Several machines that use the principles of electromagnetism include the electromagnetic
relay, the electric motor, the electric generator, and the electric transformer.
open and close circuits with an electromagnetic switch. Electric motors
convert electrical energy to mechanical energy in the form of torque and a rotating shaft.
Electric are the opposite of motors. They convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy change the voltage and current in an electrical
system. High voltages from transmission lines are changed to usable low voltages
All of these machines use to perform their various functions
Magnetism. Magnetism is a term used to describe the forces exerted by a magnetic field.
Understanding magnetism is critical to understanding electricity. Magnets produce
electric currents and electric currents produce magnetic forces.
A magnet is classified as a permanent magnet or as an electromagnet. Permanent magnets
do not require to maintain their magnetic force. The three most common
types of permanent magnets are horseshoe, bar, and compass needle.
Electromagnets are made by passing a current through a of wire to
produce a magnetic field.
Magnetic fields. A magnetic field is the region of space around a magnet where the
influence of magnetic forces can be seen. Even though magnetic fields are invisible, the
of magnetic fields can be seen
When a sheet of paper is placed on a magnet, and iron filings are loosely scattered over it,
the filings arrange themselves along the invisible magnetic field. Although the paper
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representation here shows a plane surface, magnetic fields take up the whole volume of
space around the magnet.
Magnetic fields are represented graphically as lines. The the magnetic
field lines, the stronger the magnetic field.
Magnetic fields produced by electromagnets work the same as fields from permanent
magnets.
Polarity. Every magnet has two poles-a pole and a pole.
These are the points where maximum magnetic attraction occurs. The magnetic field
leaves the north pole and enters the south pole.
When two magnets are brought together, the magnetic fields around them interact. Like
poles each other, and unlike poles to each other
Right-hand rule. A magnetic field will always exist around a wire that carries a current.
The strength of the field is greatest next to the wire and gets progressively weaker as the
distance from the wire increases.
The right hand rule for a magnetic field is shown.
If the fingers of the right hand are wrapped around the wire, pointing the 1n
the direction of the current, the show the direction of the magnetic field
around the wire.
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