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The Sacred Paths of the West

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 T
The Sacred Paths of the West

Third Edition

Theodore M. Ludwig
Valparaiso University

Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 2006, 2001, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Published 2016 by Routledge

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Copyright © 2006, 2001, 1996 Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.

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in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text.

ISBN: 9780131539068 (pbk)

Cover Design: Bruce Kenselaar

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ludwig, Theodore M.
The sacred paths of the West / Theodore M. Ludwig. — 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p.) and index.
ISBN 0-13-153906-X
1. Religions—Textbooks. 2. Judaism—Textbooks. 3. Christianity—Textbooks. 4.
Islam—Textbooks. 5. Civilization, Western—Textbooks. I. Title.

BL689.L83 2006
200—dc22
2004060105
In Memory of My Colleague
and Mentor,
Walter E. Rast
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 Contents

T
Preface to the Third Edition xi Discussion Questions 67
Key Terms: Sacred Paths Among Indigenous Peoples 68
Part ONE:
Exploring the Sacred Paths 1 Part TWO:
Religions Arising
1 Perspectives on the Religious Path 3
Studying Religious Experience 3
in the Mediterranean World 70
Some Dimensions of Religious Experience 6
4 Religions of Ancient Egypt,
Basic Human Concerns and Religious Responses 10
Mesopotamia, and Greece 73
Sacred Story and Historical Context 11
Ancient Egyptian Religion 73
Worlds of Meaning: Theoretical Teachings 13
Cosmic Harmony and Human Existence 73
Ritual Practices and the Good Life 17
Ritual and Ethical Life 75
Discussion Questions 25
MAP • ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 76
Key Terms: Exploring the Sacred Paths 26
Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia 76
2 Beginnings of the Human Religious Cosmic State and Human Service 77
Adventure 27 Ritual and Ethical Life 78
Story of Humankind Before History 28 Religion in Ancient Greece 79
Religions of the Great Ancient Civilizations 31 Worlds of Meaning in Ancient Greece 79
Discussion Questions 33 Ritual Activities and the Good Life 80
Key Terms: Beginnings of the Human Religious Discussion Questions 81
Adventure 33 Key Terms: Religions of Ancient Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and Greece 81
3 Sacred Paths Among Indigenous Peoples 34
Identity Through Sacred Stories 35 5 The Zoroastrian Tradition 82
Recounting the Tribal Sacred History 35 Sacred Story and Historical Context 82
Identifying with the Culture Heroes 37 Zarathustra’s Life and Teachings 82
MAP • THE AMERICAS AND THE PACIFIC 38 Development of the Zoroastrian Tradition 83
Worlds of Meaning of Indigenous Peoples 39 Zoroastrian Worlds of Meaning 85
Sacred Reality in Sky and Earth 39 Supreme God and Lesser Divine Powers 85
MAP • AFRICAN PEOPLES 43 Creation and Human History 87
The World and Human Existence 44 The Path of Human Transformation 88
Paths of Healing and Transformation 48 Ritual and the Good Life for Zoroastrians 88
Ritual Activity and the Good Life 51 Prayer, Rituals, and Art 88
Sacred Time, Ritual, and Art 51 Community and Ethical Ideals 92
Society and the Good Life 57 Discussion Questions 93
Modern Transformations of Indigenous Societies 61 Key Terms: Zoroastrianism 94
vii
viii Contents

6 Jewish Sacred Story and Historical Context 95 Life and Teachings of Jesus 144
Foundations of the Jewish Story 95 Crucifixion and Resurrection 147
Beginnings: Israel, People of the Covenant 95 Beginnings of the Christian Church 150
The Promised Land and the Kingdom 99 Further Transformations of the Christian Way 153
MAP • ANCIENT ISRAEL 100 The Early Christian Church
Decline of the Kingdom: The Prophets 102 in the Roman World 153
The Founding of Judaism 103 MAP • THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 155
Further Transformations of Judaism 106 Medieval Christianity: The Age of Faith 157
Jewish Life and Thought in Islamic Contexts 106 Renaissance and Reformation 160
Tragedy and Response Struggles with Modernity 164
in Christian Medieval Europe 109 Christians in the World Today 165
Emancipation and the Modern Age 110 Discussion Questions 166
Continuing Struggles and Hopes 113
10 Christian Worlds of Meaning 167
Discussion Questions 114
Loving Parent and Triune God 167
7 Jewish Worlds of Meaning 115 Seeing God’s Face in Christ 167
One God as Creator, Revealer, and Redeemer 115 One God, Three Persons: The Trinity 168
The Development of Monotheism 115 Creation and Human Existence 170
Jewish Vision of the One God 116 The Nature of Creation 170
The World and Human Existence 118 Sin and Separation from God 171
Creation and Preservation of the World 118 The Path: Salvation by Grace 173
The Shadow of Sin 120 Saved by Jesus Christ 173
Following the Path of Torah 122 The Way of Faith 176
God as Redeemer 122 The Life of the World to Come 178
The Human Movement of Repentance 123 Discussion Questions 178
On the Path of Transformation 124
11 Ritual Practices and the Good Life
Universal Blessing, Now and Hereafter 125
for Christians 179
Discussion Questions 126
Christian Worship and Ritual 179
8 Ritual Practices and the Good Life for Jews 127 Breaking Bread and Praising God 179
Jewish Rituals and Worship 127 Festivals and Holy Days 180
Sabbaths for Rest, Festivals for Rejoicing 127 Worship in Daily Life 182
Mitzvot of Ritual and Worship 129 Healing and Medicine Among Christians 184
Healing and Medicine Among Jews 132 Art in Christian Worship and Ritual 185
Artistic Expression in Jewish Religious Life 133 The Life of Love: Society and Ethics 186
The Life of Torah: Jewish Community and Ethics 134 The Society of the Church 186
The Jewish People 135 Sanctification of Life in Ethics 189
The Life of Halakhah 136 Responsibility and Mission in the World 192
The Missions of Peoplehood 138 Discussion Questions 193
Discussion Questions 141 Key Terms: Christianity 194
Key Terms: Judaism 141
12 Muslim Sacred Story
9 Christian Sacred Story and Historical Context 196
and Historical Context 143 The Story of the Prophet and the Book 196
Foundations of the Christian Story 143 The Times Before Muhammad 196
Jewish Roots of the Christian Way 143 Muhammad as the Final Prophet 198
 Contents ix

Establishing the Ummah in Medina 201 The Life of Shari‘ah: Society and Ethics 238
A Religion for All Peoples: Expansion of Islam 204 Social Structure of Islam 238
The Islamic Ummah in History 205 The Way of Shari‘ah 241
The Classical Period of Islam 205 Transformation of Human Society 244
MAP • THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 206 Discussion Questions 245
Medieval Empires: Stability Key Terms: Islam 245
and Flourishing Muslim Culture 212
Reform Movements and the Modern World 214
MAP • THE CONTEMPORARY MIDDLE EAST
Part THREE:
AND SURROUNDING COUNTRIES 216 Ongoing Explorations
Muslims in the World Today 217 on the Sacred Paths 247
Discussion Questions 219
13 Muslim Worlds of Meaning 220 15 New Religious Movements 248
Allah, Lord of the Worlds 220 Spiritual Searching and Alternative Sacred Paths 248
Life Centered in One God 220 Rise of New Sectarian Movements 249
God in the World 221 Attraction to Alternative Paths in the West 250
Nature of the World and Humans 222 Nontraditional New Religious Movements 252
The World as God’s Creation 222 New Sacred Paths: Nineteenth-Century Roots 252
Negligence and Unbelief 224 New Spiritual Movements
Guidance on the Straight Path 226 of the Twentieth Century 258
Islam as a Path of Knowledge 227 Discussion Questions 263
Blessings Now and in the Life Hereafter 228 Key Terms: New Religious Movements 264
Discussion Questions 229
16 Guideposts and Crossings on the Paths 265
14 Ritual Practices and the Good Life Discussion Questions 270
for Muslims 230 Glossary 271
Ritual Worship and Sacred Times 230 Notes 280
The Five Pillars 230
Suggestions for Further Reading 283
Other Festivals and Rituals 234
Muslim Views of Healing and Medicine 236 Acknowledgments 290
Art in Islamic Worship and Life 237 Index 292
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 Preface to the Third Edition

T Events of recent years, especially the at-

tacks from terrorists claiming Islamic
motivation, but also other struggles in-
volving peoples of different religions, have made many peo-
ple realize the importance of getting to know the different
To carry out this goal of understanding, this volume
combines the necessary discussion of historical matters
with a thematic approach based on general issues that arise
out of human experience—questions about personal iden-
tity, human existence and wholeness, and the right way to
religions of the world. This volume is designed for those live. Since the reader can identify with such issues from
who want to focus on the religious traditions that have personal experience, windows are opened toward an un-
shaped the Western world, namely, Judaism, Christianity, derstanding of the meaning and guidance people find in
and Islam. To set these religions in context, we also explore their particular religious traditions.
ancient traditions of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, as Because the discussion of each religion is structured
well as the important religion of Zoroastrianism. The mate- around the key themes, readers will be encouraged to ex-
rial in this third edition of The Sacred Paths of the West is plore comparisons between the different religions. If done
also incorporated in a larger volume on the whole range of sensitively, such comparison facilitates understanding,
the world’s religions, The Sacred Paths: Understanding the both of the different religions and of the main motifs and
Religions of the World, Fourth Edition (Prentice Hall, 2006). concerns of that general dimension of human life we call
For people just beginning to study these religions, the religious experience.
sheer immensity of the data—names, vocabulary, historical This new edition has been revised throughout to bring
developments, teachings, and practices—can be daunting material up-to-date, particularly in light of recent world
and overwhelming. This volume is intended to help such events that affect people of all the religions. Some revisions
readers by focusing on the goal of understanding. And un- are intended to provide the reader with greater clarity in dis-
derstanding begins with a sense of what a particular reli- cussions of complex historical and theoretical materials. In
gion means for the people who practice it and live by it. Of particular, for each religious tradition a new section on heal-
course, it is important to realize that each religious tradi- ing and medicine has been added, inasmuch as people in all
tion is a living and growing organism stretched out over the religions are increasingly interested in their traditional
time and, thus, we pay attention to historical and cultural practices of healing as complementary to modern bio-
developments. But we also attempt to go beyond historical medicine. And various bioethical issues are of deep concern
information and let readers find themselves in the place of within the different traditions. To help the reader clarify and
the people who live by each religion—viewing the world review the material, a list of key terms with definitions has
through their sacred stories, their worldview, their rituals, been added to the discussion about each religion.
and their notion of the good life. The excitement and chal- The general structure and main features of the book
lenge of this venture will carry over, it is hoped, into a con- have been retained. The same thematic structure is used
tinuing engagement with understanding the complex in exploring each individual religion, providing opportu-
religious traditions of the world and with the various issues nity for comparison and understanding. It is particularly
raised in the academic study of these traditions. important that readers have some encounter with the

xi
xii Preface

sacred texts and scriptures of each particular religious ments, a special chapter is devoted to understanding
tradition—yet the comprehension and appreciation of some of these alternative movements.
such sacred texts are notoriously difficult for an outsider. Among the study features in this volume, the discussion
This volume incorporates extensive quotations from the questions for each chapter have been revised to promote
sacred texts of each tradition, providing interpretation so review of the material as well as further reflection on the
the reader can see the significance of these texts and com- character of each religious tradition. A listing of key terms
prehend what they mean for people of that religious tra- at the end of the discussion of each religion provides op-
dition. It will be helpful, of course, if this volume is portunity for reviewing and summing up the material.
supplemented with an additional collection of sacred Other study features include maps, timelines, and sugges-
texts, when that is feasible. tions for further reading for each religion.
It is important, for understanding each tradition, to Many have helped along the way in the development of
pay attention to the special artistic expressions growing this book and toward the completion of this third edition.
out of that religious experience. So this volume includes a And so I thank all those students and colleagues who have
discussion of artistic expression in the different religious made so many helpful suggestions concerning ways in
traditions to help the reader see that each religion or cul- which this text can become a means for better understand-
ture has its own unique aesthetic sense. Also, this volume ing the religious paths of the Western world. Special thanks
gives particular attention to the role of women in each also go to the reviewers who gave suggestions for this new
tradition. Greater awareness of women’s experiences and edition:
leadership roles has made possible many new under-
David Putney Old Dominion University
standings and insights in all the religious traditions.
Furthermore, since an important development in the Susan E. Hill University of Northern Iowa
modern Western world is the rise of new religious move- Donald L. Berry Gardner-Webb University
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The Sacred Paths of the West
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 Part Exploring the Sacred Paths
1

TR INTRODUCTION

eligions, to the surprise of some,

have not faded from importance in
our world today. Everywhere we look, we see religious tra-
tion may seem very different with each new culture that we
encounter.
To help get our bearings for this exploration in the sa-
cred paths of the West, it will be beneficial, here at the be-
ginning of our study, to stand back and reflect more
ditions, beliefs, and practices intertwined with the cultural, generally on the nature of religious experience, on the
political, and economic activities that make up the human main themes and forms through which religious experi-
enterprise. That is the way it has always been, but as our ence typically finds expression. Such an exercise can broad-
global village draws ever closer together today, the need to en our narrow vision of religion and open new windows of
recognize and understand the role of religions becomes vi- understanding. Thus, in Chapter 1 we begin our explo-
tally important. ration with some reflections on the nature of religion with-
Beginning to explore the religious traditions of the in human life. With a preliminary, working definition of
West is an exciting, though somewhat daunting, venture. religion we then take soundings from the various religious
There is so much to see, to sort through, and to compre- traditions to set up a collage of themes and forms of
hend. We are dealing with the deepest hopes and dreams, human religious experience. It is true, of course, that each
the most careful thoughts and views, and the most cher- particular human community has its own unique practices
ished rituals and practices of people all over the world. We and meanings, and one should exercise great care in mak-
are venturing onto the holy ground of others, and a hum- ing cross-cultural comparisons. Yet we can recognize that
ble, respectful, and grateful attitude is most appropriate. humans through all times and places have always experi-
As we begin this exploration, we need to be aware enced similar life concerns related to birth and death, fam-
that we carry preconceived ideas and judgments with us. ily and community, survival, and all the rest. And so their
We may, perhaps, have a certain amount of knowledge attempts to construct meaning through ideas and
about at least one religious tradition (our own, for exam- actions—that is, their religious expressions—can be linked
ple), and based on that we have some notions about what together in a provisional way. In this manner, we can set up
religion is. One major hurdle in understanding the reli- a tentative structure to guide our explorations into the sa-
gious traditions of the world is getting beyond the normal cred paths of the West.
tendency to look at the religious practices of others Our look at prehistoric human religious developments in
through our own filters of understanding, our own un- Chapter 2 is somewhat brief and tentative, and rightly so,
challenged views and experiences. since archaeological data from ancient sites, before any writ-
Another hurdle comes when we become inundated ten records, do not give a clear picture of religious feelings and
with the mass of detail and diversity of forms within the meanings. We may feel a sense of adventure as we reflect on
Western religions. It is easy to become confused and bewil- the immense ages during which the human species developed
dered, losing any coherent sense of what religion is all on this planet, surviving, experimenting, and creating cul-
about. What are we looking for? The answer to that ques- tures. Perhaps there will awaken in us a sense of indebtedness

1
 to our forebears who struggled to live, cre- ognize that many of them have faded from the picture as vi-
ated religious meanings, and bequeathed able human communities in modern times. These peoples
their physical and spiritual powers to us. have been co-opted by modern societies and often incorpo-
We need to remember that the “world reli- rated into world religions. Yet the themes and structures of
gions” of today are very recent phenomena religious life can often be seen clearly in these tribal religious
on the vast scale of humankind’s religious traditions and practices, for they tend to make little separa-
history. We will observe how, after the last tion between religious activities and the other aspects of life.
ice ages and the agricultural revolution, the Encounters with the sacred are expected as part of “normal”
ancient classical civilizations finally began life experiences. Their sacred stories and their ritual prac-

T
to develop, providing the fertile basis from tices still resonate as authentic human constructions of
which the world religions of today began meaning. We can value the heritage of these tribal peoples,
to take shape. understand the struggles they have experienced, and sense
As we look at the tribal, indigenous the excitement of revitalization in some of these indigenous
peoples of the world in Chapter 3, we rec- communities today.

2
Chapter Perspectives on the Religious Path
1

T The human adventure can be viewed

from many perspectives—and indeed
there should be many perspectives, since
there are many dimensions to human life, and there is not
just one human story but many stories. Common to these
forms of society, our psychological makeup, and much
more. But no matter what aspect of human existence we
happen to look at, deeper questions of meaning and pur-
pose are close at hand: Is there any sense or direction in the
living of our lives? How can we be happy and secure? What
stories is a searching for wholeness and meaning, for some responsibility do we have for fellow humans? Wrestling
connection to the larger continuity of human life. That with such questions of meaning in their deeper aspects in-
searching has often been expressed in what we call religious volves us in religious thinking and experiencing. Religion
structures, ideas, practices, and experiences. In this book, in this sense is not limited to any one dimension of human
we are setting out on a venture of understanding— existence. Rather, it has to do with the overall meaning of
understanding some of those religious traditions of hu- human existence: Why is everything the way it is? What is
mankind. To do this, we need to explore their main ideas the rhyme or reason behind all this?
and teachings, their rituals and art, their societal structures, Behind all such questions is a fundamental one: How
their whole ways of life. In all of this, we want to get to can people be in touch with what is ultimately real, that
know the people who practice these religions and live their unlimited source or sources from which they derive life
lives by them. and meaning? It is to that which they feel is ultimately
As we study different religious traditions of the West, real, the unlimited source that people within the various
we will also be attempting to understand some funda- religions direct themselves in many different ways. We
mentals of religion itself as a key human dimension, with designate this focal point of the religions as the sacred,
similar themes and structures across cultural lines. All the ground of ultimate vitality, value, and meaning. The
religion has to do with fundamental human issues and modes of experiencing the sacred, and the responses to
concerns. Who are we?—the basic question of identity— this experience, are many and varied; these are the forms
is crucial to our journey in life. What sense is there in and expressions that make up the religious traditions of

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life? How can we find the life that is real and fulfilling? the world.
Questions such as these reach to the depths of life con-
cerns that are felt, vaguely or forcefully, by all human be-
ings. Does life actually have meaning—any real
STUDYING RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE
meaning—or do we just live and die in the small frame of
a pointless, accidental cycle of the universe? Two General Approaches Studying religious experience,
Of course, there are many dimensions of being human, like studying any other dimension of human life, always in-
many concerns that are not directly religious ones. We are volves a kind of dual stance. That is, we are observers of
concerned about our physical makeup, our biological people as they practice their religious traditions, looking
structure, our reasoning capacities, our languages and from the outside and constructing our ideas about why
forms of communication, our historical memories, our they are doing what they are doing. But we also attempt to

3
4 Part 1 Exploring the Sacred Paths

see and understand their experiences as they themselves religions, each approach taken exclusively also has obvious
do, looking from the inside, as it were, seeing their own in- limitations. For example, explaining religion strictly from
tentions and the meaning they derive from their religious the outside could lead the scholar to put forth explanations
practices. Scholars of religion have elaborated theories of that would be unrecognized and rejected by the practition-
religion and methodologies for studying religion that focus ers of that religion. But a strict insistence on describing
on one or the other of these approaches, and they still only the meanings and interpretations put forth by practi-
debate how these approaches are to be evaluated. Both ap- tioners would foreclose the valuable insights that can come
proaches are important and necessary, and both approach- from comparative religious studies and from other human-
es have specific limitations. istic disciplines.
In looking from the outside, the academic study of reli- However these approaches are evaluated, it is clear that
gion necessarily involves observing, describing, evaluating, both the outside and the inside perspectives are important
organizing, and interpreting the data of religious practice. for an integral, rich understanding of the religions. In this
A major goal is developing theories that explain why these book we take the stance that, for readers just beginning to
religious practices have developed and what function they explore the religions, the important first step is to get to
fulfill in people’s lives. Theories and methods from sociolo- know the world’s religious traditions and the people who
gy, anthropology, political science, historical study, and live by them. So the emphasis will be on the actual stories,
many other disciplines are useful for interpreting religious teachings, and practices of the people of each religion, pre-
data. Scholars pay particular attention to issues of class, sented as much as possible as understood by the people
power, and authority, as reflected in religious practices. themselves. Of course, we also make much use of the out-
In looking from the inside, the study of religious prac- side perspective in explaining the historical and social con-
tice pays close attention to what the people themselves say texts of the religious traditions, in structuring our
about the meaning and purpose of their religious practices. investigation around particular themes, and in attempting
The attempt is to describe the phenomena as carefully as to understand them in the context of our own knowledge
possible without evaluating them according to some out- and experience.
side norm or explaining them in terms of cause or func-
tion. Interpretative theories focus on meaning, value, and The Task of Understanding So our main goal in this ex-
expectations as expressed by the people themselves. Schol- ploration is understanding the religions. But that is not an
ars pay particular attention to issues of understanding the easy task. Whereas many of us may have our own religious
religious practices. tradition, none of us belongs to all the religions. Therefore,
It is true that some scholars of the religions have opted we necessarily find ourselves in the position of being out-
exclusively for one or the other of these general approach- side looking in at the intimate practice of someone else. In
es. Some would say that the purpose of religious studies is doing so, we miss the inner compulsion of commitment
to create materialistic explanations of religion. That is, they and the special meaning the religion provides for the prac-
would use social scientific methodology to develop theo- titioner. Furthermore, our view cannot be completely “ob-
ries that explain religious activities just like any other jective,” for our own personal presuppositions and beliefs
human activities, bringing out the social, psychological, stand in the way and color our perspective.
political, economic, and other dynamics that motivate peo- It is important, then, that we consciously make a deep
ple in their religious practices. On the other hand, some effort to understand these religious traditions of others. To
have argued that scholars of religion should simply de- “under-stand” is to stand under what gives meaning to the
scribe the phenomenon of religion as it actually exists and other. It means to stand in her or his religious stance, to
as it is interpreted by its practitioners, without imposing look at the universe of religious symbols from the perspec-
value judgments or explaining it on the basis of theories tive of being on the inside. This is not easy to do, and it is
taken from the other human sciences. always an incomplete accomplishment. One cannot fully
This scholarly discussion is complex and ongoing. We understand Hindu religious experience unless one is a
might observe here that, while both of these approaches Hindu, and the same is true of Buddhist and Shinto and
can contribute much to our overall understanding of the Christian religious experience, as well as all of the others.
 Chapter 1 Perspectives on the Religious Path 5

It is possible to understand at least in an incomplete rituals, and structures found in them, it is helpful to consid-
way, however, if a number of important measures are er some ways of grouping the vast array of religions.
taken. First, an attitude of respect and openness is neces- There are various ways of classifying and grouping the re-
sary, a recognition of the value and importance that the re- ligious traditions, based on what we as observers consider
ligion has for the other person. Second, a conscious effort significant and helpful. Each classification may well reveal
must be made to become aware of our own presupposi- and highlight important dimensions of those particular tra-
tions, since they color our views of the religions of others. ditions; at the same time, other significant aspects may be ob-
By becoming aware of our presuppositions, we can “brack- scured and overlooked. One might approach the religions
et” them to some extent so they do not hinder us from en- with an historical scheme, for example, putting emphasis on
tering into the worldview of the other religion. Third, it is the continuities and discontinuities as cultures developed
helpful to refrain, at first, from important critical tasks over time. Another simple framework would be to locate
such as evaluating the truth or appropriateness of religious some religions as indigenous and ethnic, whereas others
ideas and practices, or explaining why the people follow would be considered cross-cultural or universal. A genetic or
such practices. There is a time for engaging in responsible family resemblance model is particularly helpful for compar-
evaluation and explanation. But it seems important first of ing the religious traditions; one example of this would be
all to understand, and a rush to evaluate and debate truth putting religious traditions into family groupings depending
or to develop explanatory theories can stand in the way of on whether they emphasize polytheism, monotheism, or
understanding. Fourth, a willingness to learn from the reli- monism. Another possible taxonomy would group religious
gious experiences of others and to integrate the new infor- traditions into geographic cultural circles, such as those aris-
mation and insights is an important component of the ing in India, those arising in East Asia, and those arising in
process of understanding. the Mediterranean world.
Understanding does arise from comparison. And so there For the purposes of our exploration in this book, we will
is also a certain value in being able to look at several religious draw on several such classification schemes as helpful for
traditions from the outside, as it were, if this is done sensi- interpretation and understanding. Our main consideration
tively and with understanding. By comparing various ele- will be the so-called world religions, those that have im-
ments in different religions, and especially by comparing pacted beyond local cultures. But we will also give some
what is unfamiliar with elements familiar from one’s own consideration to the local, tribal, indigenous peoples who
experience, it is possible to see basic structures of religion exist today (or existed until the recent past) in areas of
more clearly. We can see recurrent questions and concerns Africa, Melanesia, Australia, the Americas, and many other
about life and death, and we can survey the persistent places. In the major part of the book, we will follow a geo-
themes in the responses provided in different religious graphical framework, focusing on the religious traditions
paths. We can see common practices that give structure to arising in India, those of East Asia, and those arising in the
life and society and, thus, develop deeper understanding of Mediterranean world. We will note how the religions in
the common human needs that give rise to the various reli- each of these geographical areas display certain family re-
gious traditions of humankind. At the same time, seeing semblances even while having their distinctive features.
what is common sets the stage for reflecting on the unique For example, religions arising in India (South Asia)
characteristics of each of the traditions. share a historical development in the first millennium
B.C.E. and a set of common perspectives on the world and
Grouping the Religious Traditions It is a bit bewilder- the path to follow. These religions include the traditions
ing to look at the great variety of religions in the world, past known as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism (Sikhism de-
and present. Each tribal group has its own distinctive way of veloped much later but shares some of the same perspec-
life, which is its religion. And even the highly developed tives). These religions tend to have a nondualistic (or
major religious traditions of the world are quite numerous, monistic) worldview, the idea that somehow behind or
each with its unique ideas and practices—and there are sig- within all the multiplicity of forms and forces in this uni-
nificant divisions within many of these traditions. So that verse there is one unified sacred reality. These religions do
we do not get lost in the overwhelming variety of ideas, have gods that are important, but at a deeper level it is felt
6 Part 1 Exploring the Sacred Paths

that the inner soul of reality or the truth of all reality itself fierce monotheism, has long harbored the Sufi mystical
is the sacred ultimate. They agree that human existence is movement, which has cultivated language that sounds
part of the process of samsara, that is, birth and death over much like the Hindu and Buddhist nondualist thinkers.
and over in an endless cycle. According to this perspective,

T
the highest good for humans is to achieve awareness of ul-
timate truth through practices of meditation or devotion
and to find liberation from the cycle of rebirths. SOME DIMENSIONS OF RELIGIOUS
On the other hand, the religious traditions of East Asia, EXPERIENCE
such as those of China and Japan, form a loose family
grouping. There are many gods here, in Japanese Shinto The word religion, of course, has a variety of meanings as it is
and in the Chinese traditions, Daoism and Confucianism, used in the modern world. Although one might hear the
but at the center is an emphasis on harmony with the di- question, “Do you have religion?,” there is no “religion in
vine flow of nature and reverence for the ancestors and for general” but only very many practices and beliefs that have
family. Within that harmony, human existence in the world been included, at one time or another, under our term
is valued as positive and good. Chinese culture and religion religion. The modern term religion in Western languages is
have been particularly influential throughout the lands of based on the Latin religio, probably meaning a “bond” link-
East Asia. In particular, the Mahayana form of Buddhism ing worshipers of a god together. In Western history the term
has adapted the Buddhist outlook to the East Asian per- has been associated with ideas of worshiping God or gods as
spective and, thus, plays a unifying role in the cultural well as associated beliefs, rituals, moral prescriptions, social
grouping that makes up this East Asian family of religions. groupings, and so on. Over the past several centuries a great
The religions of the Mediterranean world arose histor- many scholars have attempted to create definitions of reli-
ically from the context of cosmic, nature-oriented reli- gion that can include spiritual practices of all cultures
gions of the ancient civilizations (Egypt, Mesopotamia, around the world and at the same time bring out that which
and Greece). Yet the religious traditions that eventually is distinctively common to all these practices. Since these de-
developed—Zoroastrianism and the three “Abrahamic” finitions come from many perspectives—theological, philo-
religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam)—constitute a sophical, sociological, anthropological, psychological, and
family of religions whose central perspective is basically many more—they are widely divergent and serve to expand
monotheistic; that is, they envision one God who created our sense of the possible meanings of religion. The interest-
everything. Since there is one God, this God must be ed reader can pursue this topic by consulting some of the
almighty and in charge of everything in the created many books that discuss theories and definitions of
world. The highest good for the creation is to fulfill the religion.1
will and design of this almighty creator, and to do this, For our purposes, it is important to start with an under-
humans need revelation from God through prophets. The standing of religion that is broad enough to include all cul-
three Abrahamic religions have a particularly close histor- tures of the world but at the same time narrow enough to
ical relationship, arising successively from the same Se- give focus and direction to our exploration. Drawing on
mitic society of the Near East, each tracing its roots in several scholarly definitions, here is a working description
some manner to the ancestor Abraham. of some key dimensions of religion:
We must keep in mind that any scheme such as this can
only suggest the main historical and cultural connections 1. Religion is human involvement with what is consid-
within the different groupings of religions. It is also true ered to be the realm of the sacred.
that different perspectives can be found in the same reli- 2. It is expressed in thought, action, and social forms.
gious tradition in varying degrees. Nondualistic Hindus,
3. It constitutes a total system of symbols with deep
for example, know a great deal about worshiping the great
meaning.
God who created and sustains everything, with teachings
and practices that resemble monotheism. Islam, for all its 4. It is a path of ultimate transformation.
 Chapter 1 Perspectives on the Religious Path 7

Human Involvement with the Realm of the Sacred

The first part of the definition of religion suggests a rela-
tionship between two levels of experience: the limited
human level and the level of that which is felt to be the sa-
cred. Of course, we cannot examine the sacred as if it was
an objective realm of reality, something to be proved or
disproved. Here we are not attempting to define ultimate
reality as an objective fact; we are simply exploring how
people of different cultures have described their experi-
ences of whatever it is that they consider the ultimate sa-
cred. We see that it is the common experience of many
peoples past and present that there is a sacred dimension of
reality with ultimate significance, and, furthermore, that
the highest good in human life has to do with relating to
that dimension.
Although the idea of the sacred is distinctive in each
particular religious tradition, we may perhaps discern
some general outlines that resonate across religious bound-
aries. After all, if there are any common human life experi-
ences throughout the different cultures of the world, we
should expect some general similarities in the way people
describe their experiences of what they consider to be the
sacred. One suggestive perspective comes from Rudolph
Otto, who studied various types of religious experience and
put forth the view that basic to religious experience is a
deep sense of the “numinous.” 2 This is a term he coined
from the Latin numen (“holy, sacred”) to express our basic
response to experiencing the sacred even before we develop
rational and moral notions about it. Experiencing the nu-
minous as ultimate mystery, people feel a strong sense of
Experience of the sacred takes countless forms in the religions of the
awe and reverence, at the same time being fascinated and world. Here a Hindu man prepares a religious offering.
drawn to the mysterious Other.
Drawing on Otto’s suggestion, let us make some obser-
vations about experiencing the sacred. First of all, bound
up with the numinous is an unlimited, primordial, over- enced within the human world. It cannot be completely
powering quality. The sacred is ultimate, the basis of every- held by humans, either with their hands or with their rea-
thing else, and nothing can supersede or encompass it. It son. Words can attempt to describe the sacred, but it is un-
accounts for everything, and it holds everything together— derstood that words can only point to the mystery in a
but it is its own basis without depending on anything else. symbolic way. Every word refers to a conditioned human
The sacred, whether expressed as God (Islam), Brahman reality, but the sacred both encompasses and transcends
(Hinduism), emptiness (Mahayana Buddhism), or some human realities. For this reason, people express the experi-
other formulation, is felt to be the universal foundation of ence of the sacred not only by words but also by a variety of
all truth, reality, goodness, and value. other symbolic forms, such as sculpture, ritual actions,
We encounter the sacred as Mystery, as the Wholly meditation, music, dance, silence, and so forth. On the Jew-
Other that remains completely “other” even when experi- ish festival of Simhat Torah, for example, dancing with the
8 Part 1 Exploring the Sacred Paths

Torah scrolls provides a deep experience of the sacred, sacred. Since religion is, obviously, a human affair, it neces-
more than words can say. Bathing in “Mother Ganges” pro- sarily involves human forms or modes of expression.
vides a direct, nonverbal sacred experience for Hindus. Joachim Wach3 suggests there are three such modes of ex-
After the reception of the Eucharist in a Christian church, a pression: theoretical (thinking, speaking), practical (doing,
moment of silence is often the most appropriate way of re- acting), and social (fellowship, community). These are the
sponding to the mystery. The stillness of Buddhist medita- building blocks of religious expression, and they fit togeth-
tion brings one into direct touch with the ultimate truth in er to form a complex, unique universe of meaning, that is,
a way that words can never do. a religious tradition.
Experience of the sacred is accompanied with awe and The theoretical mode of expression comprises the verbal
reverence. The sacred cannot be controlled by human de- aspect of religion, what is told and described. The religious
sign; it bursts the bounds of human understanding and path sets forth a way of thinking about the most impor-
overwhelms with energy and demand. The human response tant, basic issues of life: how the sacred is experienced,
is awe, respect, and submission. For Muslims, for example, where the world came from and where it is going, what the
washing the body and prostrating oneself in prayer express- goal of human life is, and how we can achieve that goal.
es the proper human relationship to the sacred. Rudolph These things are talked about in two basic ways: narrative
Otto called this quality of the sacred the mysterium tremen- or story (myth) and theoretical statements about reality
dum (terrifying mystery). For the ancient Israelites, the (doctrine). All religious traditions have stories or myths
mountain of Sinai was the awesome presence of the sacred; that put forth in narrative form the worldview and the im-
touching it could mean destruction. The image of a god or portant experiences of the sacred on which that religion is
goddess in the Hindu tradition is full of power, so that one founded. Leading thinkers also express their basic percep-
should not, for example, take pictures of it. tions in teachings or doctrines that generalize from the sa-
Experience of the sacred at the same time involves fasci- cred stories to present the fundamental truths that they
nation and love; we are compelled and drawn to the ulti- believe, providing intellectual guidance to the participants
mate origin of all that is good and true and beautiful, the in that religious path.
source of meaning and purpose in life, the fountain of vi- The practical level of expression in religion has to do
tality and strength. The sacred is wondrous, marvelous, with its visible and performed side: rituals, worship,
and compelling. Encounter with the sacred leads to the ethics, and so forth. Religion is not just mental but also
highest joy, rapture, and love. Buddhists who have experi- physical, and the acting out, the performance, of the in-
enced awakening describe it as ultimate bliss and rapture. volvement with the sacred is just as important as the sto-
The Muslim pilgrim is drawn to Mecca and to the experi- ries and the doctrines. Prostrating oneself before the
ence of the sacred there as by a powerful magnet. The sacred presence, going on pilgrimages, sharing in a sacred
Hindu worshiper lovingly performs puja to the image of meal, chanting texts and prayers, sitting in meditation,
the beloved god or goddess. A Christian writer, Augustine, wearing colorful robes, burning incense, observing moral
said that the soul is restless until it finds rest in God. rules, and hundreds of other religious rituals and types of
Since the sacred is the source of ultimate value, the behavior represent the acting out or performance of the
deepest need of human life is to have an ongoing relation- religious experience.
ship with the sacred. It is this need that is met in the vari- Religion is never simply an individual affair but always is
ous religious traditions of humankind. Each religious path, a group or communal experience involving social forms. It is
in its own way, provides the context so that the human the religious community that carries on the tradition, even
community can experience the presence of the sacred, with before the individual was born and after he or she dies. And
the power, value structures, meaning, and purpose that ful- it is in identifying with the religious community that the in-
fill the religious needs of human beings. dividual finds personal identity. There are different struc-
tures of community depending on the type of religious
Expression in Thought, Action, and Social Forms The experience, in family or clan, congregations, religious soci-
second part of our description of religion suggests what eties, and whole nations. And there are various types of reli-
goes into the making of that human involvement with the gious leaders, such as queens, kings, priests, priestesses,
 Chapter 1 Perspectives on the Religious Path 9

sages, prophets, masters, nuns, monks, shamans, and many world. It contains their universe of symbols that provides
more. Participation in the social forms of the religious com- the pattern of life that is their religious path. Within the
munity is what gives continuity of religious experience. circle, then, we see the most important symbols of that re-
ligion. The meanings these symbols supply have been told
A Total System of Symbols Taken together, these modes of in stories, painted and sculpted in art, sung and played by
religious expression form a total worldview, a “map” of musicians, expressed in poems and dramas, acted out in
human involvement with the sacred, and this brings us to rituals and worship, and argued and systematized by the-
the third part of our definition. Religion guides and gives ologians and philosophers for centuries.
meaning by presenting a view of the whole order of exis- The various symbols fit together in a circle, for they are
tence. This religious map of human existence is made up of all related to each other in such a way as to present a com-
symbols—words, ideas, rituals, pictures, gestures, sounds, prehensive and persuasive outlook on life. Above all, the
social groupings—that evoke the deepest feelings and most circle of symbols is centered—that is, there is a central vi-
important meanings in our lives. These are the means by sion that colors and permeates the whole circle in a perva-
which a group of people expresses their perception of what sive way. We might suggest, for example, that for Muslims
life is all about. To live as part of this community is to share the center is the Holy Book, the Quran, whereas for Chris-
a whole way of knowing the world and one’s place in it, a tians it is Christ. Buddhism centers on the path to nirvana,
whole way of looking at life and death, and a whole set of whereas the center for Shinto is the exhaustless life of the
assumptions about what is real and true and good. The sys- kami. Many Chinese would put the Dao at the center of
tem of symbols upholds deep-seated attitudes and motiva- their universe of symbols; other Chinese might center their
tions, providing a complete system of values for human life. world more on ancestors and family. The symbols closest
Let us consider a few examples of such symbols. In a to the center could be considered the primary symbols,
Buddhist monastery, an ordinary bowl for food becomes a those that are most essential to those of that religious path.
“begging bowl,” an important symbol of the spiritual status Toward the outside of the circle appear somewhat more
of the monk or nun on the path toward the ultimate goal of secondary symbols, those that are more inclined to change
all people in the community. A rooster and a dove are two when new experiences and challenges arise, those that re-
very common animals, but used by a priest in a Daoist rit- spond to the needs of the religious communities in differ-
ual they embody the operational forces of yin and yang and ent times and places. Of course, people do not always agree
create the balance of sacred power necessary for the well- on whether a particular symbol is primary or secondary;
being of the human community. Common words can be diverse religious experiences lead to different emphases
powerful symbols. The words blood and lamb have ordi- even within one religious tradition.
nary straightforward meanings; but for a Christian to say We should, therefore, keep in mind that a religious tra-
“The blood of the Lamb has saved me” arouses deep reli- dition is not a static, unchanging affair but rather a living,
gious feelings and meaning. Normal human activities often dynamic organism. Changes and transformations do
give rise to important symbolic meanings. For example, the occur in response to new experiences, new stories, and
act of eating a meal is one of the most common human ac- new challenges. Sometimes what appeared to be a prima-
tivities and is often done without any particularly deep ry symbol to some at one time becomes less important in
meaning. But a Jew sitting at the table celebrating the later ages, whereas a secondary symbol introduced by
Passover seder with her family experiences deep religious some new religious experience shifts into a primary posi-
meaning in that human activity. Similarly, washing oneself tion. For example, Indra was one of the most powerful
is an everyday human activity, but all religions have rituals gods for the ancient Aryans, but he shifts to a rather small
that express sacred meaning in washing, such as baptism, role in later Hinduism. On the other hand, Vishnu was a
bathing in a sacred river, or purifying oneself with water minor god for the Aryans, but he rose dramatically to be-
before entering a shrine. come one of the great gods in Hinduism. For traditional
We can envision the worldview of each religious tradi- Jews, the idea of bodily resurrection after death was at one
tion as a circle with a center. The circle suggests the totality time a primary symbol, but in recent times it has faded to
of what the people understand as their existence in the secondary importance for some modern Jewish thinkers.
10 Part 1 Exploring the Sacred Paths

On the other hand, the Land of Israel, which was simply a Following the life of Torah for Jews is the path toward spiri-
spiritual idea during the medieval period, has become for tual perfection. The path is a way of life, a praxis designed to
many modern Jews a very primary symbol in concrete restore wholeness and ultimate meaning to human exis-

T
form. In spite of changes in the circle of symbols, howev- tence by involvement with the source of life, the sacred.
er, there is an ongoing basic continuity, flowing outward
from the central vision and maintaining the fundamental
pattern of faith and life. BASIC HUMAN CONCERNS AND
As we look at the issues of human life and focus on RELIGIOUS RESPONSES
specific symbols from the religions, we must keep in mind To help in our exploration of the various religious tradi-
that a particular symbol must always be viewed in its total tions, our ground plan in this book is to take up a number
context. Some of the symbols will, of course, appear quite of common questions and concerns about human exis-
similar in a family of religions, and rightly so, given the tence and use them as windows into the fundamental views
shared history and culture. The word Dao (“way”), for ex- and practices of the people in each religious tradition. The
ample, is used by all three religious traditions in China— goal is not to produce a synthesis of answers from all these
Confucianist, Daoist, and Buddhist traditions—but with religions, for each is unique and distinctive. We must at-
significant differences of meaning. Our task is to see each tempt not to impose outside ideas but rather to be sensitive
symbol—each teaching, idea, story, ritual, practice, or to the way people of each religion frame their own con-
community structure—in the light that is reflected from cerns and responses. Still, if done judiciously, looking at
the central vision and from the total pattern of that par- common human questions provides opportunities to com-
ticular system of symbols. pare the religions while seeing clearly the unique character-
istics of each.
A Path of Ultimate Transformation The fourth part of Here are some main questions and religious responses
our definition points out that a religious tradition is not to think about as we find our way into the basic dimen-
only a system of beliefs and expressions about the relation sions of religion. The questions and responses fall into
to the sacred; it is above all a path, a way of life. Each reli- three general areas.
gious tradition offers something that many humans find
essential to human existence: a path of transformation, a 1. Sacred Story. The important question of identity—
path to ultimate meaning. who are we?—finds an answer especially in the
An important part of religious experience, it appears, is sacred stories of each religious path, as those stories
the realization of the defective or fractured nature of originated and were passed on through various his-
human involvement with the sacred, for from this arise the torical dynamics to the present community.
fundamental troubles and anxieties of existence. This
awareness of the human problem is coupled with knowl- 2. Worlds of Meaning. Questions of meaning and un-
edge of the ideal, ultimate relationship to the sacred. One’s derstanding are answered in the main theoretical
religious practice provides a way of overcoming this frac- teachings of the religious tradition. What’s it all
ture, of restoring the bridge to the sacred, of transforming about? What sense is there in life? How can we start
oneself to attain the goal of life as expressed in that particu- living real life? The answers point to teachings about
lar religious tradition. The path continues throughout one’s the sacred reality, world origins and human exis-
lifetime, through rituals, symbols, disciplines, study, social tence, and the path of transformation.
relationships, and states of consciousness. Buddhists, for ex- 3. Ritual Practices and the Good Life. Some ques-
ample, follow the Eightfold Path toward the ultimate attain- tions relate to practical and social aspects of life:
ment of nirvana. Christians follow the path of Christ to How can we find new power for life? How should
overcome sin and attain eternal life. For Hindus, the paths we live? The answers point to ritual and worship, on
of action, worship, and knowledge lead toward spiritual re- the one hand, and to communal life and ethics, on
alization and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. the other.
 Chapter 1 Perspectives on the Religious Path 11

It will be helpful to explore these questions and respons- those clear episodes that illumine all aspects of life. Thus,
es in a preliminary way, drawing on examples from across these stories, even though they may seem in some cases to
the religious traditions, in order to set the stage for our refer to distant mythological ages, are understood to be real
look at each of the religions in the following chapters. and true, for they reveal the bridge to the sacred that is es-
sential for human existence. Although they are presented in
story form, they provide a kind of map for human life, a
Sacred Story and Historical Context model that can be followed so life can be lived in the fullest
way according to the design established by the sacred
One basic human concern is the question of identity: Who
power. Knowing these stories means the people know how
are we? Who am I? When a person tries to answer that
human life is to be lived in a meaningful way; not knowing
question, she starts by telling the story of her life. Although
the stories or forgetting them would be to live a chaotic,
there are many parts of her life story she might emphasize,
subhuman existence.
one important aspect would be her religious identity: “I’m
But knowing and remembering the sacred story are not
Hindu.” “My family has always been Buddhist.” “I can’t
just intellectual exercises. To perform the stories—
imagine not being a Christian.” “Of course, I’m Muslim.”
repeating them in words and acting them out in rituals—is
But what does that mean? It means that a person connects
actually to become participants in the founding events. It is
his or her own story with the sacred story, the master story,
to reactualize the central happenings so they become real
of his or her religious tradition—especially with those cru-
and powerful in human life today just as they were in the
cial events or realities of the founding of the tradition. To
special time told about in the sacred stories.
express his identity as a Buddhist, a person tells the story of
In sum, the story provides an answer to the question of
the Buddha and the founding of Buddhism. To renew her
identity by making it possible to identify with those events
Christian identity, a person looks to the sacred story of
and beings that exemplify in a clear and powerful way the
Christ, for that is the story—the master story—with which
relationship with the sacred that undergirds human life.
her own life story connects. To be a Sikh means to tie one’s
The master stories may be about human sages and leaders
own life story into the master story of the Gurus who
who founded the religious path, or they may be about gods
founded Sikhism. The story of the founding or the reveal-
and heroes in mythological ages—or both. But in all cases
ing of the religious path is of particular concern because it
the stories tell about the beginnings, the origins, of the real,
provides the divine authority for one’s religious identity. In
authentic way of human life. And, thus, they tell us who we
this study of the religions we devote considerable attention
really are.
to the master story and also the historical changes and
Some of the religions are “founded” religions in the
transformations that shaped each religion.
sense that their sacred history points to specific persons
who had a role in the religion’s origins. Buddhism, Jainism,
Myth and Sacred Story All religious traditions have Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
master stories telling of decisive events and leaders through may be cited as examples, though the view of the founders
which the new truths and practices were inaugurated as the may be quite different among these traditions. Since these
basis of the new way of life. These birth-giving events and religions focus on founders who lived in a particular age
leaders are told about in their stories, written about in their amid crucial events of human history, the stories tend to
scriptures, sung about in their songs, depicted in their art, dwell more on actual historical events and human person-
and remembered in their rituals. They form the central alities than do the stories of religions that do not have cen-
focus, the paradigm, by which the people express their reli- tral founding events and leaders.
gious identity. Peoples of indigenous, tribal societies, even though they
These sacred stories, or myths, have a very important often do not remember a particular “founder,” have their
function in religion, for they establish the basic outlook myths about the sacred beings and ancestors of the “time of
and the way of life of the people of that religion. They tell the beginnings” who performed the crucial actions to cre-
of the central encounters of the people with the sacred, ate life the way it is. These myths are repeated in festivals so
12 Part 1 Exploring the Sacred Paths

the power and vitality they tell

about can become real once
more for the people. Also, re-
ligious traditions such as Hin-
duism and Shinto, even
though they have no particu-
lar founding events or leaders,
have their stories about the
gods and the cultural heroes,
stories that provide the foun-
dation of the authentic way of
life.
In presenting and interpret-
ing the stories of these com-
munities, we rely on scholarly
work that has clarified the ori-
gins and early history of each
of the religions, providing a
historical context for the sto-
ries. It is also our intention,
however, to see each story as it
is told and interpreted by that
religious community. We are, According to the Muslim story, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem marks the spot from which
after all, not dealing with histo- Muhammad was taken on a journey to heaven. The mosque stands above the foundation of the Jew-
ry strictly speaking but with sa- ish temple, which Christians also consider a holy place.
cred history. And that sacred
history is expressed not by archaeological finds or history take into account the transformations brought about, for
books but in the stories told in the worshiping communities. example, by the establishment of Christianity as the reli-
gion of the Roman Empire, the medieval synthesis of
Change and Transformation in the Religious Tradition doctrine and life, and the Reformation and the Counter-
The history of the religious tradition does not end with the Reformation. And it would be most difficult to understand
sacred stories of the beginnings. Each religion is a living or- Chinese religion without considering the rise of Daoism,
ganism that changes and develops in new situations and the development of the state cult of Confucius, the impor-
experiences. Understanding this dynamic quality of reli- tation of Buddhism, and so forth. So it is with each reli-
gious tradition is important, for it is the “passing on” gious tradition. Although in this book we cannot focus
(traditio) of the story through many generations of people extensively on the historical developments of each religious
that finally shapes the religious identity of present-day fol- tradition, it is important to become aware of the major
lowers of the path. They receive and interact with the story transformations and the effect they have had on the under-
through the tradition that has brought it to them. standing and practice of that tradition.
For example, one cannot understand Buddhism in the Our modern era in particular has been a time of drastic
world today without taking some account of the Mahayana challenges and far-reaching transformations for many of
perspectives and also the various developments in South- the world’s religions. The rise of science has brought forth
east Asia and in East Asia. Judaism has been transformed questions about traditional religious worldviews, scrip-
by the teachings of the rabbis, the medieval persecutions, tures, and long-accepted teachings. Political and economic
the emancipation, and most recently the experience of the turmoils often have caught religious communities up in di-
Holocaust. To understand modern Christianity one must visive power struggles or pushed them toward nationalism
 Chapter 1 Perspectives on the Religious Path 13

or revivalism. Immigrations and population shifts have re- dhist, Daoist, and Shinto traditions. It is generally under-
sulted in many people living as religious minorities in dias- stood, of course, that such divine beings are not ultimate in
pora situations, where traditional religious supports are power or status.
limited. Most people have become much more aware of re- Another general view of the sacred is monotheism, the
ligious pluralism, and religious communities are struggling view that there is one sacred reality, a personal God who
with the challenge of living together with people of many created and supports this world and everything in it, with
faiths. And so, as we look at each religious tradition, we will no alternates, no competitors. There is one God and one
pay attention to their responses to the challenges of the world, the creation. However, God is not a part of this
modern world. world. God is transcendent, that is, above and beyond the
created world, holy and eternal. At the same time God is
present in a personal way to the created world. God en-
Worlds of Meaning: Theoretical counters us especially in historical events, giving us guid-
Teachings ance and challenging us to fulfill the divine will. The three
Sacred Reality What’s it all about? Confronted with the Abrahamic religious traditions are strong advocates of this
maze of human life in a mind-boggling universe, we won- perspective on the sacred, but it can be found in modified
der how we can make sense of everything that is. How does forms in Zoroastrianism, Sikhism, and even special Hindu
it all hold together? The answer presented in each religious and Buddhist groups.
tradition, in its own distinctive way, is what we call the sa- Still another conception of the sacred is sometimes
cred, the ground of all, the ultimate reality. Each tradition called nondualism or monism, a broad category of thought
has appropriate terms to point to this ultimate reality: God, and experience with an emphasis placed on the unity of all
Goddess, Brahman, nirvana, Dharma, Dharmakaya, Dao, reality. Nondualism means that there is no real difference
Heaven, and many more. Without such a vision of sacred between the ultimate reality and the phenomenal world.
reality, religious people feel there would be no center, no Monism is the view that all reality is one unified divine re-
order, only a chaos of things and events occurring haphaz- ality. There may still be many personal gods, but they may
ardly without rhyme or reason. And so since the beginning be understood, for example, as facets of the one sacred real-
of human life on this planet, people have always sought ity, or as beings on a higher level of the rebirth cycle. With-
after sacred reality as the source and support for this world in these traditions, it may be emphasized that the sacred is
and human existence within it. our inner true self; it may be the suchness of reality; it may
What are some of the ways people think about the sa- be the state of ultimate consciousness; it may be the princi-
cred? Some people, especially in the ancient world and ple that is found in all reality. This kind of perspective on
among indigenous peoples of today, have understood the the sacred ultimate is present in some forms of the Hindu,
sacred to be experienced in numerous forms and powers. Buddhist, Daoist, and Neo-Confucianist traditions. Ten-
Some speak of an impersonal sacred power that penetrates dencies toward monism can also be found in certain mysti-
and interacts with everything. Wherever we turn, in nature cal movements in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as well
and in society, we encounter Power. Often the sacred is per- as in some philosophical thinkers in the Western tradition,
sonified as gods and spirits, who are immanent in the vari- such as Plotinus, Spinoza, and Hegel.
ous aspects of the world: One god shows power in the rain So the sacred can be experienced as many in nature, or
and storm, another in the healing and creating power of one beyond nature, or one and many both in and beyond
the sun, another in pregnancy and childbirth, and so forth. nature, and more. Depending on which vision is dominant,
This view, often called polytheism, means power is shared, the religious path to the sacred has distinctive features in
with no one sacred being having unlimited sway. Many of each particular religion. The crucial question is, how do we
these religions do have a supreme god who is the primor- encounter the sacred? Is the sacred found in the forces of
dial creator and has ultimate authority, but this god dele- nature and society? Is the sacred encountered in history
gates the functions of the world to other gods and and events? Is the sacred met within as one’s real self? Is the
goddesses. This general vision of the sacred can also be sacred experienced as a personal being or as impersonal re-
found to be widespread in Asia, within the Hindu, Bud- ality? Is the sacred known as the ultimate truth of reality?
14 Part 1 Exploring the Sacred Paths

In each of the religions, people have opted for a particular our own existence within the world and society, the need to
vision of the sacred and, thus, each has a distinctive reli- feel a purpose or destiny, and the need to integrate evil and
gious path. Yet people in each religion often explore the death into our view of life without despairing.
other possible perspectives as well in order to add depth to The religious traditions deal with questions like these
their own vision and experience. especially in their cosmogonic stories, that is, their stories
Of course, religious perceptions change over time, and about the creation and maintenance of the world and of
the modern secular worldview has influenced the view of humans within it. For it is in knowing the origins of the
the sacred in most religious communities. In ancient world that we know its real essence and character.
times it was a common assumption of almost all peoples In the creation stories of the peoples of the world, the
that this world and human life are supported by divine origin of the world is attributed to many causes. Often a
power or powers, although various peoples differed in variety of gods and divine helpers create the world, re-
their conception of the divine realm. In modern times, maining as ongoing powers within the world. Sometimes
however, far-reaching questions have been raised in peo- the creation of the world is seen as a battle between the var-
ple’s minds about the traditional beliefs concerning the ious divine forces, and humans get caught up in the con-
sacred. As science and technology have developed all flict. The monotheistic religions insist that the entire
around the globe, notions of sacred reality have gradually creation results from the one creator God. Again, especially
been eased out of the picture. We live our lives in a very among the religions of India, the origin and the operation
secular way, that is, without paying attention to the sacred of the world may be viewed as an eternal recurring process,
in most aspects of our existence. Is there really a God who like waves on an ocean, emanating from the sacred reality.
controls all events? Do Vishnu and Shiva actually have The cosmogonic myths or stories telling of origins also
power in the world? Is nirvana real? Is it true there is an provide important views about the nature of the world and
underlying principle of all reality? Questions about God the role of humans within it. Some of the ancient peoples
have bothered Jews and Christians ever since the Enlight- and indigenous peoples teach that the world is controlled
enment, but today people of all religions are facing the by many divine forces, expressing their wills in the func-
challenges that modernity and secularity pose for the tra- tioning of nature; therefore, the most important role of hu-
ditional concepts of the sacred. mans is to serve and propitiate these gods. People of the
In spite of these developments, adherents of the reli- Abrahamic religions teach that because there is one God,
gions still find meaning in the depth dimension of the sa- the creator and preserver of all things, this world makes
cred. There are, of course, questions and problems that sense as a good and purposeful creation. And humans are
have to be dealt with, and modern people cannot easily go to assist God to care for this world, fulfilling God’s design.
back to conceptions of sacred reality as a heavenly grandfa- Other, such as Hindus and Buddhists, teach that the world
ther who watches lovingly over all his children, for exam- as we experience it is somewhat illusory and passing. The
ple, or as gods, goddesses, and demons who cause all good most important thing for humans to do is to get in touch
and bad things to happen. Yet it is the experience of many with that which is ultimate rather than the changing and
people of the different religions today that a sense of the sa- transitory world. Again, it is sometimes taught, as in the
cred still is essential and can be retrieved in the tradition Chinese religions and in Hinduism, that there is a universal
and practice of their religious path. How can we find again world order or harmony into which everything fits, and
a way to experience the sacred present and powerful in our humans do best by living their lives according to this order.
lives? Take up the path and see, they would answer. It seems that all religions have some view of human fail-
ure and imperfection. This follows from their vision of
World Origins and Human Existence What sense is what the ideal is. The ideal human existence is sometimes
there in life? And why are we here? Why is there so much expressed in creation stories, in descriptions of the origins
evil and suffering in the world? Questions such as these are of the world and of humans. There was an age of inno-
at the heart of all religious experience, for they pertain to cence, for example, a paradisiacal state when people lived
the deepest needs of human life—the need to understand peacefully and in harmony. The original human state is
 Chapter 1 Perspectives on the Religious Path 15

looked to as a kind of standard of what we ought to be. And pect except violence and destructive behavior any time that
juxtaposed to that is the realistic view of how things actual- humans are free to act unchecked? But some would say that
ly are: fractured and estranged because of human imper- humans are basically good and peaceful by nature. Then the
fection and failure. Of course, the extent to which we are violence and evil must be the result of other forces, such as
thought to be alienated from the good, ideal state differs in possession by evil spirits, the corrupting influence of soci-
the various religions. But it is commonly accepted that hu- ety, or oppression by tyrants. Or human evil may arise from
mans are not what they can or ought to be. Naturally, much our human tendency to forgetfulness and ignorance.
evil happens without our choice. But in our experience we Is human nature fundamentally good or evil? To put the
know that people sometimes do things that are destructive question thus is certainly an oversimplification, for most
and violent. In our own lives we recognize that we some- religious thinkers emphasize human moral responsibility.
times do things that are hateful and ugly, and we fail to do Somehow humans must be free to make their own choices
the things we ought to do—why? There is a big shadow of in decisions of behavior, or they would not be responsible
failure and imperfection cast over human existence. for anything they do. The realities of human existence lead
The religious traditions of the world give differing rea- most people to conclude that there is within us a struggle
sons for human failure and evil. Some African tribal reli- concerning choices about good and evil. Outside forces
gions, for example, have myths of origin in which the first perhaps influence us; perhaps there are inner inclinations
humans live in a paradisiacal state with the supreme god, toward good or evil. But finally—in the view of most reli-
represented by the heavens, close to them on earth. Be- gious teachers—the choice is authored by the person her-
cause of some fault in the humans—such as being too self or himself, who bears the final responsibility for it.
greedy for food—the supreme god moves far away, with What this unsettling state of imperfection, ignorance,
the result that human life becomes full of pain, death, and struggle, discord, or sin does, when realized against the
evil. The three Abrahamic religions teach that God, al- standard of sacred design and law for human existence, is
though making humans as the crown of creation, also to impel us toward some change: repentance, seeking help
gave them of all creatures a dimension of freedom. And from sacred powers, following a new path to transform our
within that freedom comes the possibility and the reality incomplete human existence.
of rebellion, unbelief, and fracturing of the loving rela-
tionship with God. The Path of Transformation and Wholeness How can
Another way of looking at the human problem is found we start living real life? Where are meaning and peace to be
in the Hindu and Buddhist traditions, where human exis- found? How can we be healed? Questions such as these
tence is often seen as a kind of trap. Because of the fire of arise when we come face to face with the existence of fail-
desire that leads us to cling to false ideas of self, we are ure, imperfection, and evil in our lives, knowing at the
trapped in an infinite cycle of material existences full of same time that this is not the way things should be. These
pain and suffering. We cling to the sensual ego-centered il- are questions about the possibility of transformation.
lusions, and by doing so we fall under the causal law of Many different terms are used in the various religions: sal-
karma: We reap exactly what we sow, experiencing the fruits vation, liberation, enlightenment, purification, healing,
of our clinging actions. The general view among Confu- perfection, and more. This religious transformation in all
cianists, Daoists, and Shintoists is that the highest human religious paths means wholeness and rightness—a trans-
good is to be in harmony with the universal order of the formation away from the fragmentation, alienation, sin,
cosmos and the flow of sacred powers of the world. When and ignorance we feel in our lives, a movement toward
we act in ways to cause disharmony, whether in society or in peace, health, wholeness, and perfection. Transformation
nature, we experience the resulting fractures and discords as as taught in a particular religious tradition responds to the
evil and suffering. way in which the human problem is understood and expe-
Sometimes the problem is put in the form of a question: rienced. For example, sin must be transformed by forgive-
Is human nature fundamentally good or evil? If human na- ness, pollution by purification, ignorance by knowledge,
ture is evil through and through, then what else can we ex- fracture by healing, and wandering by guidance on the
16 Part 1 Exploring the Sacred Paths

straight path. All religions offer some means by which such own power in terms of performing disciplines, still these
transformation can be possible. disciplines draw on deep sources of sacred power. One of
Functioning as a means of transformation, a religious the distinctive characteristics of each religious tradition, in
path provides methods of interaction with the realm of the fact, is its particular vision of the interaction between
sacred. This is the ultimate source of life and meaning, and human practice and sacred gift.
the basic human problem arises when this source is cut off The means of transformation or salvation that a reli-
for one reason or another. The first need is for some kind of gious tradition offers will involve all three levels of
restoration of this contact so that sacred power can trans- human expression: theoretical, practical, and social. On
form life. the theoretical level, the myths and doctrines are to be
Although people of all religions agree that it is the understood and accepted by faith and/or reason, so that
power of the sacred that transforms humans, there are dif- the person’s whole outlook on life can be transformed.
ferent visions as to how this power arises and operates in On the practical level, ritual, discipline, and practice are
restoring the relationship. People in some religions empha- means of transformation. Such activities would include
size human depravity and helplessness; in this view, all praying, baptism, acts of repentance, sitting in medita-
power and salvation must come from a source outside one- tion, studying, keeping rules of purity, acts of self-disci-
self. A good example of such an approach is Japanese Pure pline, and the like. Means of transformation on the social
Land Buddhism, which stresses the notion of complete level would include participating in social structures such
human degeneracy and helplessness in this “age of the end as families, congregations, sacred peoples, priesthoods,
of the Buddhist law.” This means that the only hope for hu- monasteries, and the like, so that the new way of life can
mans to escape an endless series of rebirths in the suffering be lived fully as a lifelong practice.
realms is to rely totally on help from the compassionate Together, these various means of transformation make
Buddha, Amida. On the other hand, some religious teach- up a path to follow. This path of transformation is a dy-
ers emphasize an approach to the means of transformation namic process that goes on throughout life in greater and
that relies on power within oneself. Also in Japanese Bud- smaller rhythms. It continually involves a double move-
dhism, Zen adherents say there is no need to look to Amida ment: a distancing and separating from the situation that is
Buddha for help or salvation. Each person has the tran- fractured and wrong, and a restoration and renewal of the
scendent Buddha nature in herself or himself, and through state of wholeness and harmony with the sacred. The
the practice of meditation each person can awaken to that movement of separation includes acts such as repentance,
Buddha reality and reach enlightenment. vows of abstinence, withdrawal of thoughts from outer
These two opposite extremes are from the same reli- things, and rituals of washing and purifying oneself. The
gious tradition, namely, Japanese Buddhism. This would movement of restoration and renewal comes through acts
suggest that even within one religion we might expect to such as retelling sacred revelation, feelings of ecstasy in
find both the “outside power” and the “self power” em- worshiping one’s god, receiving assurance of forgiveness,
phases. And this is the case. In Hinduism, for example, one and awakening the mind in enlightenment.
finds both a tradition of worshiping the gods in reliance on Furthermore, the path of transformation is both a
their grace, and also a tradition of passing beyond the gods means and an end in itself. As a means it is a praxis, a
to pure realization of the sacred through discipline and method of moving toward a goal: transformation or salva-
meditation. It is true that people of some religions, such as tion, restoration of the relationship with the sacred. In one
Christianity, speak more about “grace” (outside power); sense, that goal is never fully reached within human life, for
and people of other religions, such as Islam, place more the problems of human failure and sin remain until death.
emphasis on human responsibility for action (self power). For that reason many religious traditions have ideas of the
But the relation to the sacred is always a two-way relation. future human state in which the ideal goal is perfectly and
Even if salvation comes totally from the sacred power, still completely consummated. There may be some model per-
humans receive it and live it out in human religious struc- son who achieves that goal now, such as a savior, saint,
tures. And even if the whole emphasis seems to be on one’s prophet, samnyasin, buddha, arhat, or jina. But for the rest
 Chapter 1 Perspectives on the Religious Path 17

Ritual Practices and the Good Life

Religion by its very nature is practical and social. Theoreti-
cal teachings about the sacred and about life need to be
lived, not just believed. And the path provides a structure
of life within a religious community. It is never just an in-
dividual affair but always involves the person in a larger
community of people going on that religious path. The re-
ligious community provides daily life with a structure in-
cluding both sacred time and sacred life. That is, the
ordinary time of one’s existence is punctuated by special
times of ritual and festival. And the ordinary living of one’s
daily existence becomes the arena of the good life in fulfill-
ment of the sacred design for the whole community.

Making Time Sacred Through Ritual, Worship, and Art

Where can we find new power for life? How can we feel
more in touch with what is real? These questions and many
more like them have to do with our need regularly to renew
the meaning and purpose of our lives, day by day, year by
year, in family and in community, through ritual, devotion,
and worship.
Mircea Eliade4 has suggested that, looked at in a com-
pletely profane or secular way, human life would be a self-
contained, closed system with intervention by sacred
Thai men light incense sticks during solemn rituals of ordination as power logically excluded. There would be no “breaks” to
Buddhist monks.
the sacred, no special or strong (sacred) times that can pro-
vide centers of meaning and, thus, give structure and order
of us, the path is a means toward a goal of transformation to life.
that will be a complete, perfect reality only in a transcen- Since humans cannot tolerate such a meaningless chaos
dent state or a world or lifetime to come. of existing, we seek out special or strong times. In tradi-
However, seen from another point of view, the path of tional religious contexts, these are the sacred celebrations,
transformation is itself the experience of transformation. the festivals, holy days, and rituals that periodically punc-
There is an “already, even though not yet” quality to the ex- tuate and renew the ordinary day-by-day passage of our ex-
perience in following the path. The path is itself the means istence. Even modern, secularized people who have little
we have of experiencing contact with the sacred. Zen Bud- use for traditional religious rituals have not transcended
dhists express this most strikingly. Master Dogen insisted the need to have sacred times. Breaks in time, centers of
that practice (sitting in meditation) and enlightenment meaning and renewal, are widely sought after in such
(experiencing the Buddha nature) are the same thing, with forms as vacations, national holidays, parties, sports, enter-
no difference at all. Other religious teachers would perhaps tainment, and the like. The purpose of such sacred times is
not identify the path so closely with the transformation it “re-creation,” that is, the renewal and enlivening of our
brings. But all would agree that following the path is not otherwise humdrum routine of existing.
just a means to reward in another state or world to come; Religious communities have found that the power that
the goal of transformation is already at least partially pre- motivates life needs constantly to be renewed. Life-power
sent right now as we follow the path. tends to run down, to become exhausted and weak. There is