Course Material on

ME6125: Mechanics of Viscous Fluids

3.00 Credits Hours
April 2022 Semester

Prepared by

Dr. Mohammad Mamun

Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh

July – October, 2022

 Introduction to Fluid Dynamics

Fluid Dynamics involves the science of predicting physical fluid flows and heat transfer.

Fluid Dynamics is concerned with heat and mass transfer, fluid flow, chemical reaction,
and other related processes that occur in engineering equipment, in the natural
environment, and in living organisms.

Nearly all methods of power production involve fluid flow and heat transfer as essential
processes. The same processes govern the heating and air conditioning of buildings.
Major segments of the chemical and metallurgical industries use components such as
furnaces, heat exchangers, condensers, and reactors, where thermo-fluid processes are at
work. Aircraft and rockets owe their functioning to fluid flow, heat transfer, and chemical
reaction. In the design of electrical machinery and electronic circuits, heat transfer is
often the limiting factor. The pollution of the natural environment is largely caused by
heat and mass transfer, and so are storms, floods, and fires. In the face of changing
weather conditions, the human body resorts to heat and mass transfer for its temperature
control. The processes of heat transfer and fluid flow seem to pervade all aspects of our
life.

Description of Fluid Flow: Eulerian

There are two methods for fluid flow

description:

1. Eulerian / Spatial : “Fixed” frame

of reference where fluid flows past
a stationary observer
Stationary fixed volume of fluid in space.
[control volume approach]. Mass can change following continuity.
(Control Volume Approach)
Any property such as velocity, V =
iu + jv + kw is given by V = V(x, y,
z, t),
p = p(x, y, z, t).

2. Lagrangian / Material: “Fixed” on Lagrangian

a fluid particle. Observer / reference
frame travels with the fluid particle
[system approach].

V = V[ x(t), y(t), z(t)]

p = p[ x(t), y(t), z(t)]
Moving fixed mass of fluid. Volume can
change along the flow due to expansion or
compression of the fluid. (System Approach)

2
Reynolds’ Transport Theorem:

Any property on either of these two systems can be transformed into another
system by using Reynolds’ Transport Theorem which is given by the following:

𝑑
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝐴
(𝑁𝑠𝑦𝑠 ) = ∫ 𝜌𝜙𝑑∀ + ∫ 𝜌𝜙𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Where, N is any extensive property of a system, such as mass, momentum,

energy, etc. and 𝜙 is the corresponding intensive or specific (per unit mass)
property of the system, 𝑉 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 represents the flux of 𝜙 (outward normal for
positive direction) through the differential control surface 𝑑𝐴 onto the differential
control volume 𝑑∀.

Acceleration of a Fluid Particle:

Given, V = iu + + jv + kw = V(x, y, z, t)

Acceleration,
𝐷𝑉 ⃗ 𝛿𝑉⃗ 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑤
𝑎= = + . + +
𝐷𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑉⃗ 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑤
𝑎= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑉⃗
𝑎= ⃗ . 𝛻). 𝑉
+ (𝑉 ⃗
𝛿𝑡

D     
Here, = +u +v +w = + (V .)
Dt  t x y  z t

is called substantial or material derivative. (Also called particle or total

derivative)

The operand can be either a scalar or a vector, e.g.,

Dp  p p p p p
= +u +v +w = + (V .) p
Dt  t x y  z t

Eulerian Lagrangian
derivative derivative

3
4
Fluid Forces and Moments on Objects

Fluid forces (drag, lift, etc) and moments on objects are due to only two basic sources:

1. Pressure distribution over the object surface(s).

2. Shear stress distribution over the object surface(s).

No matter how complex the object shape maybe, the fluid forces and moments on the
object are due entirely to the above two basic sources. The only mechanisms nature has
for communicating a force to an object moving through a fluid are pressure and shear
stress distributions on the object surface(s).

A distinctive feature of the science of fluid flow and heat and mass transfer is the
approach it takes toward the description of physical processes. Instead of bulk properties,
such as momentum or angular momentum of a body in mechanics or total energy or
entropy of a system in thermodynamics, the analysis focuses on distributed properties.

Here, efforts are made to determine the entire fields such as pressure distribution
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡), velocity distribution 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡), temperature distribution 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡),
density distribution 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡), etc. Even when an integral characteristics, such as the
friction coefficient or the net rate of heat transfer, is the ultimate goal of analysis, it is
derived from distributed fields.
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Different Approach to Fluid Dynamics Problem Solution

There are three fundamental approaches to analyze fluid forces on objects:

Fluid Dynamics

Experimental Fluid Analytical Fluid Computational Fluid

Dynamics (EFD) Dynamics (AFD) Dynamics (CFD)

1. EFD: It involves putting the physical objects/models inside wind tunnels

and/or other facilities and measure the pressure and shear stresses on object
surface.

2. AFD: This involves constructing a mathematical model of the physical

system involving the object(s) and the fluid, then solving it analytically
(closed-form/continuous solution at an infinite number of points).

3. CFD: This also involves constructing a mathematical model of the physical

system involving the object(s) and the fluid, then solving it computationally
(solution obtained at discrete/finite number of points).

For many systems, experimentation becomes very expensive and sometimes impossible
(e.g., space shuttle experiments, human respiration system, blood flow etc.) and for most
practical engineering systems involving fluid flow, the mathematical models (the
governing equations) consist of non-linear, partial differential equations which are
very difficult to solve analytically. Only a few analytical solutions are available which
involve very simple and symmetric geometry such as a steady flow over a flat plate,
Couette flow, laminar pipe flow (Poiseuille flow), flow over a cylinder, etc.

6
Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation):

Fig: The conservation of mass in an infinitesimal control volume of a fluid flow between two
stationary parallel plates.
𝐷
For a system, 𝐷𝑡 (𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 ) = 0

Using Reynolds’ Transport Theorem, This can be presented for a Control Volume as
follows:
𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑑
For continuity equation, (𝜙 = = 1), ∫ 𝜌 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑∀ + ∫𝐶𝑆 𝜌. 𝑉 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉

Here, the first term indicates the rate of changes of mass inside the control volume (CV)
and the second term indicates the rate of mass flow across the control surface (CS).
Now for an infinitesimal control volume as shown below, the first term becomes,
𝑑 𝛿𝜌
∫ 𝜌 𝑑∀≈
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝛿𝑡
𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧

For the second term, we have to analyze the Mass flows across the control surface.
𝛿
Mass outflow through the right x-face, [𝜌𝑢 + 𝛿𝑥 (𝜌𝑢)𝛿𝑥] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧

Mass inflow through the left x-face, 𝜌𝑢 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧

𝛿(𝜌𝑢)
So, the net mass outflow through the x-face, 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑥
𝛿(𝜌𝑣)
Similarly, the net mass outflow through the y-face, 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑦

7
 𝛿(𝜌𝑤)
and the net mass outflow through the z-face, 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑧

Summing up all the components and dividing by 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧, we get,

𝜹𝝆 𝜹(𝝆𝒖) 𝜹(𝝆𝒗) 𝜹(𝝆𝒘)
+ + + = 𝟎 ⋯ ⋯ (𝟏)
𝜹𝒕 𝜹𝒙 𝜹𝒚 𝜹𝒛
This is the most generalized form of the continuity equation in Cartesian Coordinates.
𝜹𝝆
In vector form, this can be presented as: + ⃗𝛁. (𝝆𝑽
⃗ ) = 𝟎 ⋯ ⋯ (𝟐)
𝜹𝒕
The forms (1) and (2) of the continuity equations shown above are conservation form
(divergence form) of the continuity equation since all parameters are kept inside the

divergence operator ⃗∇.

⃗ area taken out of the divergence term, then the equations take non-
If 𝜌 and 𝑉
conservation form (convective form) of the continuity equation, i.e.,
𝛿𝜌 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑤
+ 𝜌 + 𝜌 + 𝜌 =0
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝜌
Or ⃗ .𝑉
+ 𝜌(∇ ⃗)= 0
𝛿𝑡

8
Conservation of Momentum (Newton’s Second Law):

For a system, 𝐹𝑠𝑦𝑠 = ∫𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑚

Using Reynolds’ Analogy, This can be presented for a Control Volume as follows:
𝑑
For a CV, ∑𝐹 = 𝑑𝑡 ∫𝐶𝑉 𝜌𝑉 ⃗ 𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑉 ⃗ . 𝜌. 𝑉
⃗ . 𝑛̂. 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆
Here, the first term indicates the rate of changes of momentum inside the control volume
(CV) and the second term indicates the rate of momentum flow (velocity flux) across the
control surface (CS).
Now for an infinitesimal control volume as shown below, we have,
𝛿𝐹 = 𝛿𝑚. 𝑎 = 𝜌𝑑𝑣. 𝑎 = 𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. 𝑎
Here, 𝛿𝐹 = 𝛿𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 + 𝛿𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝛿𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑔𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
In an arbitrary plane with an elemental area 𝛿𝐴, the surface forces are 𝛿𝐹𝑛 which acts in
the normal direction, 𝛿𝐹1 and 𝛿𝐹2 which act in in-plane directions as shown in the
figure.
In the limiting case when, 𝛿𝐴 → 0, these forces can be represented by :
𝛿𝐹𝑛 𝛿𝐹1 𝛿𝐹2
𝜎𝑛 = lim and 𝜎1 = lim , 𝜎2 = lim respectively.
𝛿𝐴→0 𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐴→0 𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐴→0 𝛿𝐴
Thus, 𝛿𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 can be represented by corresponding stresses as shown in the figure:

Fig: Surface forces acting on the infinitesimal control volume due to the velocity component u.

9
If we analyze only the x-direction surface forces, then we get,

Face Normal Force In-plane Force-1 In-plane Force-2

Orientation
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
Left x-face
Right x-face [𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 )𝛿𝑥]𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑥
Bottom y- y-direction 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑥 z- direction
face
Top y-face y-direction [𝜏𝑦𝑥 z- direction

𝛿
+ (𝜏 )𝛿𝑦] 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑦 𝑦𝑥
Rear z-face z-direction y- direction 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦
Front z-face z-direction y- direction [𝜏𝑧𝑥 +
𝛿
(𝜏𝑧𝑥 )𝛿𝑧] 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦
𝛿𝑧
𝛿
Forces in the right x-face: [𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 (𝜎𝑥𝑥 )𝛿𝑥]𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 , this force is normal to the right x-
face and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧, these two forces are in-plane forces.
Forces in the left x-face: 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 , this force is normal to the x-face and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 and
𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧, these two forces are in-plane forces.
𝛿
Forces in top y-face: [𝜏𝑦𝑥 + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 )𝛿𝑦] 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑥 is in-plane force.
𝛿𝑦
Force in bottom y-face: 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑥 is in-plane force.
𝛿
Force in front z-face: [𝜏𝑧𝑥 + 𝛿𝑧 (𝜏𝑧𝑥 )𝛿𝑧] 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 is in-plane force
Force in rear z-face: 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦
Summing up all the x-direction surface forces, we get,
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
[ (𝜎𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 ) + (𝜏 ) ] 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑧𝑥
Similarly, for the y-direction, the summation of the surface forces becomes,
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
[ (𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) + (𝜏 ) ] 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑧𝑦
And for the z-direction,
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
[ (𝜏𝑥𝑧 ) + (𝜏𝑦𝑧 ) + (𝜎 ) ] 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑧𝑧
Now, Newton’s second law for the infinitesimal control volume can be written in the x-
direction as:
𝛿𝐹𝑥 = 𝛿𝑚. 𝑎𝑥
𝐷 𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉 ⃗ = 𝑖̂𝑢 + 𝑗̂𝑣 + 𝑘̂ 𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑥 = ⃗𝑥 ) =
(𝑉 (𝑖̂𝑢)
𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡
𝐷
𝛿𝐹𝑥 │𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 + 𝛿𝐹𝑥 │𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝜌. (𝑖̂𝑢)
𝐷𝑡

10
 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢
𝜌𝑔𝑥 + [ (𝜎𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 ) + (𝜏𝑧𝑥 ) ] = 𝜌 [ + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ]
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
Again the normal stress component 𝜎𝑥𝑥 consists of two components, one is the normal
pressure p, acting onto the surface in the inward direction and another one is the
normal stress, 𝜏𝑥𝑥 , due to viscous force, acting outward from the surface. Thus, 𝜎𝑥𝑥 =
−𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑥
Similarly, 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = −𝑝 + 𝜏𝑦𝑦 and 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = −𝑝 + 𝜏𝑧𝑧
Putting these values we get,
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝜌𝑔𝑥 + (−𝑝) + [ (𝜏𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 ) + (𝜏 ) ]
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑧𝑥
𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢
=𝜌 [ + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ]
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
So the x, y and z-directional equations becomes,
𝛿𝑝 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢
𝜌𝑔𝑥 − + [ (𝜏𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 ) + (𝜏𝑧𝑥 ) ] = 𝜌 [ + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ]
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑝 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣
𝜌𝑔𝑦 − + [ (𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) + (𝜏𝑦𝑦 ) + (𝜏𝑧𝑦 ) ] = 𝜌 [ + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ]
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑝 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤
𝜌𝑔𝑧 − + [ (𝜏𝑥𝑧 ) + (𝜏𝑦𝑧 ) + (𝜏𝑧𝑧 ) ] = 𝜌 [ + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ]
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧

In vectorial notation,
⃗
𝐷𝑉
𝜌𝑔 − ⃗∇. 𝑝 + ⃗∇. 𝜏𝑖𝑗 = 𝜌 𝐷𝑡

For incompressible flows of Newtonian fluids,

𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑤
𝜏𝑥𝑥 = 2𝜇 , 𝜏𝑦𝑦 = 2𝜇 , 𝜏𝑧𝑧 = 2𝜇
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑤
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜇 ( + ), 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 𝜇 ( + )
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑦
𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑤
𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜇 ( + )
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥

Using these relationships, the momentum equations become,

𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑝 𝛿 2𝑢 𝛿 2𝑢 𝛿 2𝑢
𝜌[ + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ] = 𝜌𝑔𝑥 − + 𝜇[ 2 + 2 + 2 ]
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑝 𝛿 𝑣 𝛿 𝑣 𝛿 2𝑣
2 2
𝜌[ + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ] = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 − + 𝜇[ 2 + 2 + 2 ]
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑝 𝛿 𝑤 𝛿 𝑤 𝛿 2𝑤
2 2
𝜌[ + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ] = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 − + 𝜇[ 2 + + 2]
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧
In vector notation,
⃗
𝐷𝑉
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑔 − ⃗∇. 𝑝 + 𝜇 ⃗∇2 𝑉
⃗
𝐷𝑡

11
Thus the momentum or N-S equations can be stated as follows:

Mass per unit volume x Acceleration = Body force per unit volume + Pressure force
per unit volume + Viscous force per
unit volume

[Note that pressure force is considered positive when its direction is onto (toward) the
surface but in vector notation the force is positive when its direction is outward from
the surface, so a minus sign is used.]

Equations (3) and (4) are the non-conservative forms of the N-S equations.

The conservation form of the N-S equations are as follows:

In vector notation,
𝐷
⃗ ) = 𝜌𝑔 − ⃗∇. 𝑝 + 𝜇 ⃗∇2 𝑉
(𝜌𝑉 ⃗
𝐷𝑡

In scalar (component-wise) notation,

𝛿(𝜌𝑢) 𝛿(𝜌𝑢2 ) 𝛿(𝜌𝑢𝑣) 𝛿(𝜌𝑢𝑤) 𝛿𝑝 𝛿 2𝑢 𝛿 2𝑢 𝛿 2𝑢

+ + + = 𝜌𝑔𝑥 − + 𝜇[ 2 + 2 + 2 ]
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿(𝜌𝑣) 𝛿(𝜌𝑢𝑣) 𝛿(𝜌𝑣 2 ) 𝛿(𝜌𝑣𝑤) 𝛿𝑝 𝛿 2𝑣 𝛿 2𝑣 𝛿 2𝑣
+ + + = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 − + 𝜇[ 2 + 2 + 2 ]
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿(𝜌𝑤) 𝛿(𝜌𝑢𝑤) 𝛿(𝜌𝑣𝑤) 𝛿(𝜌𝑤 2 ) 𝛿𝑝 𝛿 2𝑤 𝛿 2𝑤 𝛿 2𝑤
+ + + = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 − + 𝜇[ 2 + 2 + 2 ]
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧

12
Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass)

Generalized Continuity Equation:

    
+ (u) + (  v) + (  w) = 0 or, + .( V ) = 0
t  x y z t


For steady flow, = 0 , So the equation becomes,
t

  
(u) + (  v) + (  w) = 0 or, .( V ) = 0
x y z

u v  w
For incompressible flow,  = const. , + + =0 or,
x y z

.V = 0

 1  1  
In cylindrical polar coordinate, + (  rvr ) + (  v ) + (  vz ) = 0
t r r r  z

13
Momentum Equation (Conservation of Momentum / Newton’s Second Law of
Motion)

 p  xx  yx  zx  u u u u 
 gx − + + + =   +u +v +w 
x x y z  t x y z
 p  xy  yy  zy  v v v v
gy − + + + =   +u +v +w 
y x y z t x y z
 p  xz  yz  zz  w w w  w
 gz − + + + = +u +v +w
z x y z  t x y  z 

DV
 g − p + . ij = 
Dt

Body force per unit volume + Pressure force per unit volume + Viscous force per unit volume
= Mass per unit volume x Acceleration

This is the generalized momentum equation, which is valid for any fluid for any type of
flow.

In this equation, the unknowns are velocity ( V or u , v , w components, i.e., 3

unknowns ), pressure ( p ), density (  ), normal and viscous stresses (  ij or 9 stresses).

So, there are 14 unknowns with only 4 equations (3 component equations of momentum
plus 1 continuity equation). Thus, it cannot be solved analytically.

14
Navier-Stokes (N-S) equations:

For Newtonian fluids (water, air, etc.) and incompressible flow, Momentum equation
becomes

 u u u u  p   2u  2u  2u 
 +u +v + w  =  gx − + 2 + 2 + 2 
 t x y z x  x y z 
 v v v v p   2v  2v  2v 
 +u +v + w  =  gy − + 2 + 2 + 2 
t x y z y  x y z 
 w w w  w p  2w 2w 2w 
 +u +v +w =  − +   2 + 2 + 2
 z 
g
 t x y z  x y z 
z

DV
 =  g − p +  2V or,
Dt

 V 
 + (V .)V  =  g − p +  2V
 t 

Neglecting Body force (gravity),

This is the Navier-Stokes equation. Any physical

V −p system involving Newtonian fluids (water, air, etc.)
+ (V .)V = +  2 V
t  and incompressible flow can be modeled using this
equation.

15
 In this equation, the unknowns are velocity ( V or u , v , w components, i.e., 3 unknowns ),
and pressure ( p ).

So, there are 4 unknowns with 4 equations (3 component equations of momentum plus 1
continuity equation). Thus, it could be solved analytically.

But this is a non-linear, partial differential equation which is very difficult to solve
analytically.

Only a few solutions are available which involve very simple and symmetric geometry such
as a flow over a flat plate, couette flow, laminar pipe flow (poiseulli flow), flow over a
cylinder, etc.

Euler Equation (Equation of Motion)

 V 
For Inviscid fluid,  = 0 : so,  + (V .)V  =  g − p
 t 

V −p
Neglecting Body force, + (V .)V =
t 

u u u u 1p
+u +v +w =−
t x y z  x
v v v v 1p
+u +v +w =−
t x y z  y
w w w w 1p
+u +v +w =−
t x y z  z

In this equation, viscous terms are removed, but the unknowns are still velocity ( V or u , v ,
w components, i.e., 3 unknowns ), and pressure ( p ).

So, there are 4 unknowns with only 4 equations (3 component equations of momentum plus 1
continuity equation). Thus, it could be solved analytically.

16
But this is still a non-linear, partial differential equation which is very difficult to solve
analytically.
Governing Equations for Computational Fluid Dynamics:


Continuity: + .( V ) = 0
t

V −p
Navier-Stokes: + (V .)V = +  2 V
t 

Energy:

𝛿𝑇 ⃗ . ⃗∇)
(𝑉
⃗ .∇
+ (𝑉 ⃗ ). 𝑇 = . 𝑝 + 𝛼∇2 𝑇 + Φ
𝛿𝑡 𝛼

𝑘
where, 𝛼 = 𝜌𝐶
𝑝

and Φ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

⃗ . ⃗∇ )𝑝 and the
In most practical fluid-engineering problems, the derivative of pressure (𝑉
dissipation function Φ can be neglected.

Then the energy equation becomes,

𝛿𝑇 𝛿𝑇 𝛿𝑇 𝛿𝑇 𝛿 2𝑇 𝛿 2𝑇 𝛿 2𝑇
+𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤 =𝛼 ( + )
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧 2

But a source term may be added to the equation on the right-hand side.

17
18
Fluid Dynamics Problem Solution Processes:
The cornerstone of fluid dynamics is the fundamental governing equations---the continuity,
momentum and energy equations. These equations speak physics. They are the mathematical
statements of three fundamental principles upon which all of fluid dynamics is based:
1. mass is conserved.
2. momentum is conserved (Newton’s second law).
3. energy is conserved.

Overview of Fluid Dynamics Problem Solution

The total process of determining practical information about problems involving fluid motion can
be represented schematically as below:

FOR EACH ELEMENT OF FLUID

Conservation of mass → Continuity Equation

Conservation of momentum → Euler Equations
(Newtons second law of motion) Navier-Stokes Equations
Conservation of Energy → Energy Equation
Equation of state

Solve the equations with the boundary conditions

Velocity Distribution : u(x,y,z,t), v(x,y,z,t), w(x,y,z,t)

Pressure Distribution : p(x,y,z,t)
Density Distribution : ρ(x,y,z,t)
Temperature Distribution : T(x,y,z,t)

Duduce flow behaviour: Flow separation

: Flow rates
:Heat transfer
:Forces on bodies (skin friction, drag, lift)
:Efficiencies (turbine, diffuser)

19
Potential Flow Analysis
2D Incompressible Inviscid Flow (Plane Flow / Axisymmetric Flow)

u v
Continuity Equation: + =0
x y
Euler Equation:
u u u 1p
+u +v =−
t x y  x
v v v 1p
+u +v =−
t x y  y

Here, u , v and p are 3 unknowns with 3 equations.

But the non-linear parts are present with partial differential equations. Solutions are difficult.

Cauchy-Riemann Equations

For a single complex variable, z = x + iy

The complex valued function, f ( z ) = f ( x + iy ) =  ( x, y ) + i ( x, y ) ,

   
= and =−
x y y x

Using these relations two functions can be defined:


1. Stream Function,  : It is defined as such that, u= and
y


v=−
x

20
  
2. Velocity Potential,  : It is defined as such that, u= and v=
x y

^ ^ ^
i j k
  
Vorticity,  = 2 =  x V =
x y z
u v w

v u v u
For Irrotational Flow,  = 0 ; i.e., − =0 ; or, =
x y x y

Potential flow is defined as Incompressible, Inviscid and Irrotational flow.

So, for irrotational flow,

u v
Continuity Equation: + =0
x y

v u
Condition of Irrotationality: − =0
x y

2 equations with 2 unknowns u and v.

These are linear equations. so solutions from elementary flows can be superimposed
to get solutions for different other flows.

Now Stream Function,  automatically satisfies the continuity equation by definition.

 2  2
The irrotationality condition produces, + 2 = 0 , i.e.,  2 = 0 , which is Laplace
x 2
y
equation.

For Velocity Potential,  , automatically satisfies irrotationality condition, and

21
  2  2
The continuity equation produces, 2 + 2 = 0 i.e.,  2 = 0 , which is Laplace
x y
equation.

Property

Continuity Equation Automatically Satisfied satisfied if  2 = 0

Irrotationality Condition satisfied if  2 = 0 Automatically Satisfied

Laplace equation is encountered in many branches of physics such as electricity, heat

flow and elasticity and has many analytical solutions. Since Laplace equation contains
the continuity equation and the irrotational flow condition, any function, that satisfies
Laplace equation, is a possible fluid flow case.

So it is possible to solve a potential flow problem for only one variable in terms of stream
function,  or the potential function,  .

Streamlines and equipotential lines are orthogonal to each other.

Example-1: The following figure shows the flow through a bend where the streamlines
and the equipotential lines have been plotted. The two form an orthogonal network called
flownet.

22
Some elementary potential flows (Imaginary)

1. Uniform Flow
2. Source Flow
3. Sink Flow
4. Vortex Flow
5. Doublet

Example-2:
A square heated plate is surrounded by an inviscid, incompressible, irrotational, still
fluid and subjected to the boundary wall temperatures as shown in the Fig. below. Find
the steady-state temperature distribution at the plate surface.

Governing Equations Setup:

Continuity : 𝛿𝜌 𝛿 𝛿
+ (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣) = 0
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦

Navier-Stokes : 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑝
𝜌[ +𝑢 + 𝑣 ] = 𝜌𝑔𝑥 −
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑝
𝜌[ +𝑢 + 𝑣 ] = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 −
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦

Energy : 𝛿𝑇 𝛿𝑇 𝛿𝑇 𝛿 2𝑇 𝛿 2𝑇
+𝑢 +𝑣 =𝛼 ( + )
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2

For 2D potential flow, so continuity equation is automatically satisfied.

𝜕
Steady state, 𝜕𝑡 ( ) terms will be zero.
Still fluid, 𝑢 = 𝑣 = 0
Neglecting gravity, only pressure term remains in the N-S equations, which is
unnecessary to determine the temperature in this case.
Only energy equation needs to be solved for this problem.
23
So energy equation becomes,
𝛿 2𝑇 𝛿 2𝑇
0=𝛼 ( + )
𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2
The governing equation for this particular problem simplifies to Laplace equation:
𝛿2 𝑇 𝛿2𝑇
+ = 0, which can be solved analytically to obtain the solution as given below:
𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2

Benefits of Incompressible, Inviscid and Irrotational flow (Potential Flow)

For high speed (high Reynolds number)) flow about streamlined bodies, viscous effects
are confined to boundary layer and wake region. The analysis of such high speed (high
Re) flows past streamlined bodies can greatly be simplified by the fact that viscous
effects are generally important only within thin regions immediately adjacent to solid
boundaries.
Outside these viscous boundary layers, the flow can well be approximated as inviscid
(ideal fluid flow).

24
Magnus Effect: A rotating body in a uniform flow will have a net lift force on it (1853).
This is called ‘Magnus effect’. Magnus effect acts not only on cylinders but also on other
closed shape rotating bodies such as spheres or airfoils (Kutta condition). Magnus effect
can be used to explain how a spinning ball moves in a curved trajectory. It can also be
used to calculate the lift force generated on an airfoil [Kutta-Joukowski Law(1902)].
Limitation of Potential Flow

Although potential flow analysis can be used to predict the lift force over a closed
rotating body such as a cylinder or an airfoil with Magnus effect, It cannot predict
viscous drag. Magnus effect can predict the direction of lift force correctly but it predicts
its magnitude quite inaccurately.
.

Potential Flow Analysis Viscous Flow Analysis

As seen on the left above, potential flow theory generates the above streamlines over a
stationary cylinder, predicting zero drag force on the cylinder. This is the case for any
closed body as predicted by the potential flow analysis irrespective of its shape which is
not physical and it is known as d’Alembert paradox (1752) since he found some finite
drag on the cylinder during his experiments.

In a real viscous flow as shown on the right above, shear stresses inside the boundary
layer will cause a frictional drag force. Viscous action will cause separation and the
pressure at the front and back of the cylinder would not be symmetric as wrongly
predicted by the potential flow analysis.

25
 Introduction to Turbulent Flow
One of the main objectives of fluid flow analysis is to visualize the flow structure
(velocity/pressure/ temperature/density fields, etc.) in and around other objects in order to
predict its influences on the objects.
Based on flow structure, flow can be either (i) laminar or (ii) turbulent. In laminar case,
flow occurs in an orderly fashion in lamina (layers), i.e., one fluid layer on top of another
layer. Laminar flows can be solved numerically using the basic flow equations with some
reasonable mesh employing present day computational resources.
However, the majority of flows in nature and of engineering interest are turbulent.
Turbulent consists of an indeterminate number of chaotically moving fluid masses, which
are called "eddies". Eddies exist in an extremely large range of sizes (called scales) and
their motion has an extremely large number of time scales.

In order to determine if a fluid flow system is laminar or turbulent, one needs to

determine the flow Renolds number (𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑈𝐿/𝜇) as follows:

For most problems on a human scale, the Reynolds number is quite large. For instance, a
man standing in a mild 10 m/s breeze has a Reynolds number of about 3 × 105. For a
baseball thrown by a major league pitcher, the Reynolds number is about 2×105.Water
flow in a 2.5-cm diameter bathroom supply pipe has Reynolds number (based on pipe
diameter) of about 2×104, whereas a modest river might have Reynolds number (based on
width) of 5×107. An automobile driving at highway speeds has a Reynolds number of
about 1 × 107, and the wing of a commercial jet airplane has Reynolds number (based on
chord length) of about 2 × 108. The Reynolds numbers of major atmospheric or oceanic
features are quite large; for instance, for a typical atmospheric low-pressure
system Re ∼ 1012 and for an oceanic Gulf Stream ring eddy Re ∼ 5 × 1010.
So for most simulations of natural or engineering systems, prevalence of turbulent flow
need to be considered and solved accordingly.
Computational methods for turbulent flows:
▪ Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
▪ Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
 ▪ Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)

Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)

• Theoretically this is equivalent to
discretizing the Navier-Stokes eqn on a
sufficiently fine grid for resolving all
motions occurring in turbulent flow.

But the relationship between length 𝜂 of smallest

All turbulent flows, even those that
eddies and the length 𝐿 of largest eddies is of the
are steady in the mean (stationary),
order:
contain unsteady, three-
𝑳 dimensional turbulent eddies of
≈ 𝑹𝒆𝟑/𝟒 various sizes. Shown is the average
𝜼 velocity profile and some of the
Number of elements necessary to discretize the eddies; the smallest turbulent
flow field is: 𝒏𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎 ≈ 𝑹𝒆𝟗/𝟒 eddies (size 𝜂) are orders of
In industrial applications, where 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟏𝟎𝟔 , magnitude smaller than the largest
𝟏𝟑 turbulent eddies (size 𝐿) Direct
𝒏𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎 ≈ 𝟏𝟎
Numerical Simulation (DNS) is a
Therefore, fully capturing of the motion of eddies - CFD technique that simulates all
is well beyond the capability of the current largest, relevant turbulent eddies in the
fastest supercomputers. flow.
So DNS is not suitable for turbulent flow solution
in present state-of-the-art computational facilities.

Large Eddy Simulation (LES)

• No attempt is made to resolve
all scales of eddies
• Only large eddies are
computed
• Small eddies are modelled
using subgrid-scale (SGS)
models. Large Eddy Simulation (LES) is a simplification
• However, LES creates a of DNS in which only the large turbulent eddies
prohibitive (huge) demand on are resolved – the small eddies are modeled,
computational resources. So significantly reducing computer resource
this is also not suitable for requirements. Shown is the average velocity
turbulent flow solution in profile and the resolved eddies.
most cases.

2
Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)

• RANS eqns are the most widely used method for turbulent flow simulation.
• As shown in the figure above, each variable such as velocity components, pressure,

temperature in turbulent flow has fluctuations near a mean value.

• In many situations, the mean values are all that are required to confidently design and
predict the behavior of an engineering system with turbulent flow.
• So in RANS method, variables of turbulent flow are decomposed in a mean part and a
fluctuating part such as:
𝑢 (𝑡) = 𝑢̅ + 𝑢′ (𝑡)
Putting these into Navier-Stokes equations and taking an average over time result in
equations with time-averaged variables in place of the instantaneous ones as follows:

𝛿𝑢̅ 𝛿𝑣̅ 𝛿𝑤
̅
+ + =0
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧

𝛿𝑢̅ 𝛿𝑢̅ 𝛿𝑢̅ 𝛿𝑝̅ 𝜕 2 𝑢̅ 𝜕 2 𝑢̅ 𝜕 2 𝑢̅ 𝝏 ̅̅̅̅ 𝝏 𝝏

𝜌 [𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ +𝑤̅ ]=− + 𝜇 ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) + 𝝁 [ (−𝝆𝒖 ′𝟐 ) + ̅̅̅̅̅̅
(−𝝆𝒖 ′ 𝒗′ ) + (−𝝆𝒖̅̅̅̅̅̅
′ 𝒘′ )]
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝛿𝑣̅ 𝛿𝑣̅ 𝛿𝑣̅ 𝛿𝑝̅ 𝜕 2 𝑣̅ 𝜕 2 𝑣̅ 𝜕 2 𝑣̅ 𝝏 ̅̅̅̅̅) + 𝝏 (−𝝆𝒗 ̅̅̅̅
′𝟐) +
𝝏
𝜌 [𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ +𝑤̅ ]=− + 𝜇 ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) + 𝝁 [ (−𝝆𝒖′𝒗′ (−𝝆𝒗̅̅̅̅̅̅
′ 𝒘′ )]
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝛿𝑤̅ 𝛿𝑤
̅ 𝛿𝑤̅ 𝛿𝑝̅ 𝜕2𝑤 ̅ 𝜕2𝑤 ̅ 𝜕2𝑤 ̅ 𝝏 ̅̅̅̅̅̅) + 𝝏 (−𝝆𝒗 𝝏 ̅̅̅̅̅𝟐 )]
𝜌 [𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ +𝑤̅ ]=− +𝜇( 2 + + 2 ) + 𝝁 [ (−𝝆𝒖′𝒘′ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
′ 𝒘′ ) + (−𝝆𝒘′
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

In vector form: ⃗̅ = 0
∇. 𝑉

(𝑉 ⃗̅ . ∇) . 𝑉 ⃗̅ = ∇𝑝̅ + 𝜈∇2 𝑉
⃗̅ + 𝛁. 𝝉
⃗ 𝒊𝒋(𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕)
𝜌
• It can be observed that RANS introduces an additional term in the N-S equations,
𝛁. 𝝉
⃗ 𝒊𝒋(𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕) which is called Renolds stresses term.
̅̅̅
𝒖 ′𝟐 ̅̅̅̅
𝒖 ′ ′
𝒗 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝒖′𝒘′
• ⃗ 𝒊𝒋(𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕) = − ( 𝒖′𝒗′
𝛁. 𝝉 ̅̅̅̅̅ 𝒗′ ̅̅̅̅
𝟐
𝒗′𝒘′ )
̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅ 𝒗′𝒘′
𝒖′𝒘′ ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅𝒘′
𝟐

• Renolds stresses contain nine stress terms in total, but six (unknown) stresses to calculate.
• To calculate for Reynolds stresses additional equations are required.
• This is called turbulence closure problem (more unknowns than number of equations).
• Here turbulence modeling equations are employed to provide additional equation for the
solution and thus resolves the turbulence closure problem.

3
Turbulence Modeling Schemes

A simple sketch of turbulence modeling approaches

4
 Selected Topics for the Term Final Exam
Fundamental Governing Equations of Fluid Dynamics:
Derivation of the Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass) in its most generalized
differential form (unsteady, 3D, conservation and non-conservation forms) in Cartesian
coordinate system. Continuity Equation in Cylindrical coordinate system.

Derivation of the most generalized Momentum Equation (unsteady, 3D) in their

conservation and non-conservation differential forms in Cartesian coordinate system.

Derivation of the Navier-Stokes Equations from the generalized Momentum Equation in

Cartesian coordinate system. N-S equations in Cylindrical coordinate system.

Derivation of the most generalized differential form of the Energy equation in its
conservation and non-conservation forms. Energy equation in Cylindrical coordinate
system.

Generalization (Parametric form) of all three conservation equations in terms of a general

parameter 𝜙 (which assumes different values for different equations). Identification
of the four common terms in their generalized form, the definition of the four terms
(unsteady term, convective term, etc.) and their physical and analytical significance.

Simplification of Conservation Equations:

(a) Incompressible flow
(b) Steady flow
(c) Steady, 2D
(d) Steady, 1D
(e) Unsteady, 2D
(f) Flow between two parallel plates one stationary, another moving at constant
velocity
(g) Flow between parallel fixed plates
(h) Fully Developed pipe flow
(i) Steady, 2D, Flow over a flat plate
(j) Steady state temperature distribution in a square cavity

Boundary Conditions for the Solution of the Governing Differential Equations:

(a) Wall (No-slip condition)
(b) Velocity inlet
(c) Pressure outlet
(d) Symmetry
(e) Axis

Solutions of the Governing Equations for Some Simple Fluid Flow Cases:
Start from the most generalized form of conservation equation(s), then make logical
assumptions in order to get the simplified/reduced form of the equation(s) as applicable
to the physics of the problem, apply the appropriate initial conditions and boundary
conditions for the following:

5
Exact solutions of N-S equations for some simplified geometry problems such as Couette
Flow, Poiseuille Flow, Hagen-Poiseuille Flow, etc.
Exact solutions of Energy equation for Steady-state temperature distribution over a
Fin/Thin Rod/Thin Plates, Formulation of the solution matrices for the unsteady
temperature distribution problem.

Turbulence Modeling:
Turbulence Modeling – why it is required.
Turbulence Modeling Schemes – How much each scheme resolves the eddies.

Boundary Layer:
Derivation of Boundary Layer Equations for 2D flows.
Applying ‘Order of Magnitude’ principle to derive the equations in non-dimensional
form.
Blasius solution of the boundary layer over a flat plate.

Short Descriptive Topics:

a) Illustrate the two approaches of describing fluid flow cases? Differentiate them.
b) State Reynolds Transport Theorem. Show with examples how it can be used to
transport the volumetric rate of change of a certain property within a fixed-mass
system to the mass rate of change of that property within a fixed control volume.
c) Define substantial derivative. Differentiate between the acceleration of a fluid
parcel differ from that of a solid particle.
d) Explain the physical significance of divergence of velocity.
e) Differentiate between the conservation and non-conservation forms of the
governing equations of Fluid Dynamics.
f) What are the basic steps involved in the solution of a fluid-related problem using
the basic governing equations?
g) “The same three fundamental equations are used in all the Fluid-related
problems” – how do they result in different solutions for distinguished physical
fluid processes and/or systems?
h) Why simplifications and/or adaptations of the governing equations for a particular
system are necessary?
i) Discuss the importance of Potential flow theory.
j) What is d’Alembert paradox? – Explain.
k) Explain ‘Magnus effect’.
l) What are Kutta condition and Kutta-Jukowski Law? Where are they applicable?

Note: All the assignments are included in the term final exam.