Ethnobotanical study of medicinal

plants used to treat human ailments

in Oda-Bultum district, west
Hararghe zone of Oromia region,
Ethiopia
Meseret Chimdessa Egigu and Shumete Mogesse

Correspondence

Meseret Chimdessa Egigu* and Shumete Mogesse

School of Biological Sciences & Biotechnology, College of Natural & Computational Sciences, Haramaya University,
Haramaya, P.O. Box 138, Ethiopia.

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Ethnobotany Research and Applications 29:56 (2024) - http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.29.56.1-35

Manuscript received: 13/07/2024 – Revised manuscript received: 07/11/2024 - Published: 07/11/2024

Research

Abstract
Background: Traditional medicinal plants of Oda-Bultum district in west Hararghe, Ethiopia were studied.

Methods: Medicinal plants and socio-demographic features were obtained through semi-structured interviews, group
discussion and guided onsite observations. Informant consensus factor, preference ranking and fidelity level were employed
for the data analysis. Moreover; descriptive statistics, t-test, analysis of variance and linear regression were used to reveal
the effects of socio-demographic factors on respondents’ traditional medicinal knowledge.

Results: Totally 161 species distributed among 68 families were enumerated for the treatment of 70 human ailments.
Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were species rich families. Leaves were the most frequently (41.43%) reported plant parts for the
preparation of remedies. Crushing, or pounding was the principal approach of remedy preparation. Oral administration was
frequently (66.3%) used route of application. The highest (0.45) ICF was observed for Gastro-intestinal related ailments
category. Alysicarpus rugosus and Phytolacca dodecandra scored 100% of FL for Cough and Gonorrhea, respectively. In PR,
Carica papaya was ranked first to treat typhoid. The tested socio-demographic features including age, occupation and
educational level significantly (p< 0.05) affected the traditional knowledge on medicinal plants possessed by the study
population. Analysis of multiple regression also suggested these factors are determinants of the ethnomedicinal knowledge
of the people of the study district.

Conclusions: From this study, we conclude that, besides allopathic medication the indigenous people of Oda-Bultum district
depend on traditional medicine of plant origin. Therefore, plants of the district and associated local medicinal knowledge
should be given due attention for conservation and further pharmacological investigation.

Keywords: Ethnomedicine; Ethnobotanical indices, Herbal medicine; Indigenous knowledge, Medicinal plants; Oda-Bultum,
Traditional healing practices
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 2

Background
Traditional medicine (TM) has a long history of use in health maintenance and practiced almost in every country in the world
(Rayan 2014). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about 60% of people in the world use TM, and up to
80% of the population living in Africa depend on it for some aspects of healthcare need (WHO 2000). Particularly, for many
rural communities in Africa, TM is the major and in some cases the only available source for healthcare provision (Antiwi-
Baffour et al. 2014). So far, modern healthcare system has never been adequate to provide equitable health services in
Ethiopia due to financial limitations of the country (Hunde et al. 2006, Bogale et al. 2023). Therefore, TM medicine that
mainly based on plant resources is an alternative healthcare system in most rural areas. World Health Organization has
recognized that TM sector is crucial in ensuring people’s access to preventative, curative and rehabilitative healthcare
services with minimal financial input. Hence, in order to promote widespread health coverage, countries should attempt to
integrate TM services into conventional healthcare services (WHO 2013).

Indigenous people develop their local-specific knowledge (Indigenous knowledge) on the use and management of plants
including medicinal plants through long years of interactions with them in their surroundings (Gebeyehu et al. 2014).
Indigenous knowledge on TM involves collection of raw materials, preparation of remedies, traditional diagnosis and
prescription of remedies to patients. These practices may vary with locality within a given country and/or region due to
socio-cultural influence, historical background and availability of medicinal resources (WHO 2013). Difference in indigenous
knowledge may also exist within the same ethnic group based on variation in gender, age, social standing, profession and
intellectual capabilities (Agize et al. 2013).

Plants are the major components in TM system that have formed the basis of healthcare throughout the world since the
earliest days of humanity (Gebeyehu et al. 2014, Silva & Fernanandes 2010, Megersa et al. 2013, Yassin et al. 2015). They
have played a central role in combating many human and livestock ailments in many indigenous communities of Africa
including Ethiopia. Traditional healers, particularly herbalists, have detailed knowledge base of traditional medicine (Kuma
et al. 2015). Knowledge in TM does more than providing raw materials used in traditional remedy. They serve as valuable
guidance in selecting and obtaining plant material of potential therapeutic interest for modern drug development (Samuel
et al. 2015). In the face of newly emerging infectious diseases, growing multidrug resistance by pathogenic microorganisms
and the proliferation of degenerative diseases, indigenous knowledge on TM is of paramount importance in new drug
discovery from plants.

Of about 250,000 identified vascular plant species of the globe, 50,000-80,000 are reported to have medicinal use. About
15,000 of these plant species are endangered to extinction due to anthropogenic and natural factors. As a result, our planet,
earth, is losing at least one potential major drug every two years (CBD 2008). The loss of medicinal plant may also result in
the loss of associated indigenous knowledge (Andarge et al. 2015). Therefore, medicinal plants and associated indigenous
knowledge are under big threats nowadays. Thus, botanical collection and documentation of associated knowledge should
be carried out before such rich heritages are lost (Yirga 2010a, Yirga 2010b). Most available literatures indicate that
ethnobotanical studies on medicinal plants are carried out in south, southwest, central, north and north-west part of
Ethiopia. However, such studies are scanty in eastern part of the country (Belayneh et al. 2012) including Oda-Bultum district
in West Haraghe zone, Ethiopia. Majority of the indigenous people living in Oda-Bultum district belong to Oromo ethnic
group, i.e., the dominant ethnic community in Ethiopia (Kuma et al. 2015). The Oromo ethinic community has been governed
by a longstanding traditional social structure called Gada System. The Gada system establishes regulatory mechanisms to
help the community preserve natural resources, maintain social, political and cultural systems (Yineger et al. 2008). Oromo
people possess highly accumulated indigenous knowledge on natural resources of their surroundings, and rely much on them
for various purposes. Particularly, they have acquired a rich traditional medicinal knowledge on using plants of their vicinity
to treat human and livestock ailments. In spite of their conscious positive attitude to preserve plant diversity, medicinal
plants and associated indigenous knowledge are under threat because of growing human population size and related factors.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to document ethnomedicinal practices of the indigenous people for the treatment
of various human ailments.

Materials and Methods

Description of the Study Area
The study was carried out in Oromia Region, West Hararghe Zone in Oda-Bultum district (8О10ꞌ & 9О0ꞌ N and 40О 50ꞌ & 41О21ꞌ
E), Ethiopia. The district is found at about 361 km to the east of Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia. The altitude of the
district ranges from 840-2920 m.a.s.l. (Western Hararghe Zone Rural Land Administration Office: SPM, 2016) (Figure 1). The
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 3

study district has a bimodal rainfall pattern with high rainfall between June and September, and small amount between
March and May. Annual average rainfall ranges from 900-1200 ml. The dry season usually extends from October to February.
The annual average temperature of the district ranges from 22-29 oC (Oda-Bultum Agricultural and rural Development Office,
2014).

Figure 1. Map of Oda-Bultum district

Selection of study site and respondents

Reconnaissance survey was made to identify potential study kebeles (kebele is smallest administrative unit). Out of 39 kebeles
of the district, six kebeles were purposively selected based on the availability of traditional medicine practitioners with
guidance of experts of the district’s Agricultural and Rural Development and Health Offices. These kebeles were Sebale (1800-
2920 m.a.s.l.), Obbi (1960-2280 m.a.s.l.), Bate (1990-2060 m.a.s.l.), Surri (1860-1920 m.a.s.l.), Hake-Bas (1380-1660 m.a.s.l.)
and Gebiba (1380-1660 m.a.s.l.). Prior to ethnobotanical data collection, respondents were picked from the selected kebeles.
Totally, 395 respondents of which 348 are ordinary (non-key-informants) residents and 47 key informants (traditional
herbalists) have participated in the study. Non-key-informants were selected randomly, whereas key informants were
selected purposively based on the information gathered from the local people such as kebele administrators, development
agents, elders and health extension workers. The total population size of the six kebeles was estimated to be 31225. The
sample size was determined using Yemane’s (1967) formula, which was then apportioned to the kebeles based on their
population share.

Socio-demographic and ethnobotanical data collection

Socio-demographic and ethnomedicobotanical data were gathered on three field trips made to the sites. Preceding to data
collection, permission was sought from the study district Administrative Office. This office communicated with chiefs of the
selected kebeles through official letters to let us collect data in the villages. Upon arrival to the villages, we explained the
objective of the research to the selected informants, and obtained their oral consent to share information on ethnomedicinal
practices. First respondents were interviewed separately on socio-demographic data including gender, age, educational
level, marital status, religion and occupation. Then, ethnobotanical data were collected through semi-structured interviews,
group discussions and field visits with key informants for observations. Respondents were interviewed individually to
mention about the local names of plants they use to treat diseases, diseases treated, part(s) of plants used, methods of
preparation of remedies, route of application of remedies and dosage. Interview questions were prepared in English and
translated to Afaan Oromo, the local language. After interview, we made discussions with 6-9 key informants based on the
prepared checklist and went to the field with them for onsite observation of the plants and specimen collection. Voucher
specimens were collected and prepared as per herbarium procedure for identification. Some common species were
preliminarily identified in the field by using a hand book prepared by Tesemma (2005). In addition, further identification of
all specimens was done by comparing with authentic specimens, illustrations and taxonomic keys from different volumes of
Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, and with the assistance of experts of Haramaya University Herbarium. The identified specimens
were deposited in Haramaya University Herbarium.
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 4

Data analysis
Descriptive statistical method was used to analyze qualitative data. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices including informant
consensus factor (ICF) and fidelity level (FL) were computed. Informant consensus factor is a value that shows extent of
agreement between people on the medicinal values of plants for the cited illness. In order to calculate this index, we first
broadly classified the reported ailments into 8 categories (Table 2). ICF value was determined as follows:

nur − nt
ICF =
nur − 1

Where, nur = is number of use citations for each ailment, nt= is the number of species used for the ailment category (Rodringo
2005, Teklehaymanot & Gidey 2007).
FL, which shows a tendency of using a given plant to treat single ailment was computed by following the equation used by
Rodringo (2005) as follows:

NP
FL(%) = ∗ 100
N

Where, FL= fidelity level, Np = the number of informants that claim the use of a plant species to treat a particular disease, N
= the number of informants that use the plants as a medicine to treat any given disease.

Preference ranking was also done for one of the most cited life threatening human diseases, Typhoid. Eight medicinal plants
were cited to treat typhoid, and ten key informants were selected to take part in a preference ranking to rank the cited
plants according to their perceived efficacy by assigning the highest number (10) for the most effective and 1 for the least
effective plant.

Impacts of socio-demographic features on ethnomedicinal knowledge of the respondents were also analyzed by
independent t-test and one-way ANOVA. Multiple regression analysis was ran to identify socio-demographic factor(s) that
predicted respondents’ ethnomedicinal knowledge. For statistical analyses, we used SPSS version 16, and statistical
differences were considered significant at p<0.05.

Results and Discussion

Reported medicinal plants
A total of 161 medicinal plant species distributed among 68 families were recorded from the six kebeles of Oda-Bultum
district to treat about 70 human ailments (Table 1). Documentation of quite large number of medicinal plants shows that
Oda-Bultum district harbors diverse flora and wide utilization of traditional medicine of plant origin. Among the reported
human ailments, body swelling, ailments caused by intestinal parasites, gonorrhea, febrile illness, typhoid, wound, kidney
problem, tonsillitis and cough/common cold were among top ten cited important ailments. This may suggest the
commonness of these ailments in the study district so that a large number of community members have well recognized
them. Assessment of familial species richness showed that Asteraceae with 13 species was the richest family followed by
Lamiaceae (12 spp.); Fabaceae (11 spp.); Solanaceae and Euphorbiaceae (6 spp. each); Brassicaceae, Rutaceae, Malvaceae
and Poaceae (5 spp. each); Cucurbitaceae and Myrtaceae (4 spp. each); and Verbenaceae, Apiaceae, Minispermaceae,
Rosaceae, Anacardiaceae and Rhmnaceae (3 spp. each). Most of these families were reported in previous surveys (Usman et
al. 2022, Desalegn et al. 2022) made in different parts of Oromia region, Ethiopia showing a wide ecological distribution of
these families and agreement among Oromo ethnic group of different localities on their medicinal values. According to
Ricklefs & Renner (1994) successful ecological adaptations support familial species richness with which the local people be
familiarized and explored their medicinal properties through time. Popularity of these families for medicinal use suggests
production of diverse secondary compounds. For example, some species under Asteraceae are known to produce
sesquiterpene lactones (Chadwick et al. 2013) and phenolic compounds (Jaiswal et al. 2011, Petropoulos et al. 2019).
Moreover, a study conducted by Tesfaye et al. (2021) showed anticancer activity of extracts from species under Asteraceae.
Similarly, antidiabetic and antimicrobial properties were reported by Gyang et al. (2004), Sasikumar et al. (2005) and Teka et
al. (2015). Studies also show that members of Lamiaceae family possess a variety of essential oil contents such as terpenoids,
flavonoids, phenolics and alkaloids that have pharmacological importance (Poonkodi 2016). Therefore, these families
deserve closer attention to explore the active principles for the treatment of reported ailments. The rest 51 families had 2
or 1 species.
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 5

Table 1. List of medicinal plants collected from the study area

Voucher Number Scientific name, habit Family name Local name Disease treated Part(s) used, method of preparation and application
SOB-22-091 Achyranthes aspera L., Herb Amaranthaceae Darguu-daalattii Wound/skin burn Fresh Leaves will be crushed to smear the extract on the affected body
part
Back pain Fresh Root will be crushed, boiled with milk and drunk
Febrile illness Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drink the extract
Tooth ache Fresh Leaves will be crushed and held on the affected tooth
Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
SOB-22-082 Acokanthera schimperi (A.DC.) Apocynaceae Qaraaruu Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be pounded together with root of Euclea racemosa,
Schweinf., Tree Alysicarpus rugosus and Gomphocarpus fruticosus, mixed with water
and drunk
SOB-22-073 Justicia schimperiana (Hochst.ex Acanthaceae Dhumugaa Jaundice Fresh Root will be pounded together with the root of Ehretia cymosa,
Nees) T. Anderson, Shrub mixed with water and drunk
Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be pounded together with the root of Euclea racemosa
Typhoid mixed with water and drunk
Lymph node Fresh Leaves will be crushed and soaked in water to wash the affected
swilling, Wound body part
Rabies, Amoebiasis Pounded fresh root is mixed with water and drunk
SOB-22-017 Agave sisalana Perrine, Shrub Agavaceae Algee Ear disease Fresh Leaf will be heated and squeezed to drop its extract in to the ear
SOB-22-020 Allium cepa L., Herb Amaryllidaceae Shunkurtii diimtuu Impotence Bulbs will be pounded together with rhizomes of Ginger officinale and
boiled with seeds of Cicer arietinum to eat
Heartburn Bulbs will be chewed and swallowed
SOB-22-157 Allium sativum L., Herb Alliaceae Qulubbii-adii Febrile illness Bulbs will be chewed with seeds of Lepidium sativum and swallowed
Dyspepsia/ Bloating Bulbs will be chewed then swallowed
Intestinal parasite Bulbs will be chopped, boiled in water and drunk
Wound Bulbs will be pasted and smeared on the wound
Toothache Bulbs will be crushed and held on the tooth
Common cold Bulbs will be chopped and concocted with honey to eat
Typhoid Chopped Bulbs & rhizome of Ginger officinale will be concocted in
water and drunk
Throat infection, Bulbs will be crushed, mixed with honey and eaten
Nerve problem
(paralysis)
SOB-22-108 Aloaceae Hargisa Hypertension Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water and to drink
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 6

Aloe bertemariae Sebsebe and Diabetes

Dioli, Herb Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be pounded, soaked in water and drunk
Kidneys disease
Impotence Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water and sugar to drink
Diarrhea
Ear disease Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract into
the ear
Typhoid Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water and sugar to drink
Nerve problem Crushed fresh Leaves will be used to massage patient’s body
(paralysis)
Skin warts Latex will be heated and creamed on the affected area
SOB-22-127 Aloysia citrodora Palau, Shrub Verbenaceae Naanaa Cough/ Common Fresh whole plant will be boiled with goat milk and drunk
cold
Uvula infection Fresh whole plant will be crushed and squeezed for gargling and
swallowing the extract
SOB-22-018 Alternanthera sessilis (L) DC., Amaranthaceae Mararree-furdoo Eczema Fresh entire plant part will be roasted, powdered, and mixed with
Herb butter or oil to smear on the affected area
Hemorrhoid Fresh entire plant will be pounded mixed with oil of Olea hochstetteri
to apply on the anus
SOB-22-025 Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC., Fabaceae Alii-hanqaa Impotence Fresh Root will be crush and mixed with water to drink
Herb Gonorrhea Pounded fresh Root will be concocted with that of Gomphocarpus
fruticosus, Acokanthera schimperi and Euclea racemosa in water and
drunk
Cough Fresh Root will be crushed, boiled with tea and drunk
SOB-22-023 Anethum foeniculum L., Apiaceae Shish Diabetes Fruits and seeds will be pounded mixed with water and drunk
Herb Intestinal worms
SOB-22-159 Anthemis tigreensis J.Gay ex A. Asteraceae Zar-nab Cough Pounded fresh seeds and leaves together with the leaves of
Rich., Herb Otostegia integrifolia and concocted with coffee to drink

SOB-22-035 Aristolochia bracteolata Lam., Aristolochiaceae Foroorree Intestinal worms Fresh Root will be crushed, boiled with coffee and drunk
Herb
SOB-22-032 Artemisia afra Jacq.ex Willd., Asteraceae Saakayyee-adii Typhoid Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Herb Hiccups
SOB-22-031 Asparagus africanus Lam., Asparagaceae Saaritee-adii Urine retention Fresh Leaves will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
Shrub Diarrhea
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 7

Gonorrhea Fresh Leaves will be pounded together with the leaves of Catha edulis
and drunk
Uvula infection Fresh Leaves will be chewed to swallow the extract
External parasite Leaves will be pounded together with the leaves of Spilanthes
infestation mauritiana and applied on the body
SOB-22-029 Asparagus racemosus Willd., Asparagaceae Saaritii-gurraatii Urine retention Fresh Leaves will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
Shrub Diarrhea
Gonorrhea Fresh Leaves will be pounded together with the leaves of Catha
edulis, mixed with water and drunk
External parasite Fresh Leaves will be pounded together with the leaves of Spilanthes
mauritiana and rubbed on the affected body
SOB-22-004 Asplenium aethiopicum Aspleniaceae Bega-nagubdee Skin burn Fresh Leave will be crushed and then placed on the affected body part
(Burum.f.) Becherer
Shrub
SOB-22-009 Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Balanitaceae Beddennoo Uterus problem Dry stem will be smashed together with stem of Syzygium guineense
Tree and Zizyphus spina-christi and fumigate the vagina with its smoke
SOB-22-057 Bersama abyssinica Fresen., Melianthaceae Qillisaa Ascariasis Dry fruits and seeds will be powdered, mixed with water and drunk
Tree Taeniasis
SOB-22-011 Bidens pilosa L., Herb Asteraceae Cogooggee Fungal skin Fresh Leaf will be crushed together with the leave of Xanthium
infection spinosum then rubbed on the affected area
Skin cut Fresh Leaves will be crushed and placed on the affected body part
bleeding/wound
Febrile illness Fresh Leave will be crushed, squeezed to drink the extract
Nasal bleeding Fresh Leave will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract into the
nostrils
SOB-22-146 Brassica nigra (L.) W.D.J. Koch, Brassicaceae Sinaafiic Throat infection Dried Seeds will be roasted, pounded together with the bulb of Allium
Herb sativum, mixed with honey and eaten
Intestinal parasite Dried Seeds will be powdered, mixed with water and drunk
Bone cancer Dried Seeds will be powdered, boiled in water together with the root
of Gomphocarpus fruticosus and drunk
Common cold Dried Seeds will be powdered and drunk with tea
Asthma Dried Seeds will be roasted, powdered together with the bulb of
Allium sativum, mixed with honey and eaten
SOB-22-098 Brassica carinata A.Braun, Brassicaceae Midhaan-Raafuu Dyspepsia Dried Seeds will be chewed and swallowed
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 8

Herb Uterus problem Dried Seeds will be roasted together with seed of Trigonella foenum-
graecum, powdered and mixed with water to drink
Malaria Dried Seeds will be pounded together with bulb of Allium sativum,
Typhoid mixed with honey and eaten
Common cold Dried Seeds will be pounded, boiled together with honey and goat
milk and drunk
SOB-22-005 Brucea antidysenterica J.F. Mill., Simaroubaceae Buna-saree Lymph node Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water to wash the body with
Tree swilling
Menorrhagia Fresh Leaves and stem bark will be pounded together, mixed with
water and drunk
SOB-22-099 Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Fabaceae Qajiimaa Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be crushed and placed on the affected part
Alston, Shrub Tonsillitis Fresh young leaves will be crushed, squeezed and to drink the extract
Lymph node Fresh young leaves will be crushed and rubbed on the affected area
swelling
Giardiasis Fresh Root will be pounded, boiled with water to drink
SOB-22-010 Clinopodium paradoxa (Vatke) Lamiaceae Xosinyoo/Xosiinee Hypertension Pounded fresh leaves will be boiled with tea and drunk
Ryding, Shrub Cough Pounded fresh leaves will be concocted with leaves of Otostegia
integrifolia in tea and drunk
Common cold Pounded fresh leaves will be concocted with leaves of Otostegia
integrifoli, Aloysia triphylla in tea and drunk
Diabetes Pounded fresh leaves will be boiled with water and drunk
Nerve problem Entire plant part will be pounded together with the leaves of Citrus
(paralysis) limon; Citrus medica and seed of Ricinus communis made into syrup
to massage the body with
Kidneys problem Entire plant part will be boiled together with coffee and drunk
SOB-22-030 Calpumia aurea (Ait.) Benth., Fabaceae Ceekaa Diarrhea Fresh Leaves will be crushed together with the leaves of Vernonia
Shrub amygdalina and Psidium guajava, and mixed with water to drink
Jaundice Fresh Root will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
Gonorrhea
Vomiting
Syphilis
Rabies
Poison
detoxification
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 9

External parasite Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water and used to wash the
infestation (e.g., body with
Lice and flea)
Spider poison
Amoebiasis Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
SOB-22-036 Capparis cartilaginea Decne. Capparaceae Harangamaa- Body welling Fresh Leaves will be crushed and rubbed on the swollen body part
Shrub gurraacha
SOB-22-028 Capparis tomentosa Lam., Shrub Capparaceae Harangamaa-dimaa Body welling
Dyspepsia Fresh Root will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
SOB-22-016 Capsicum annuum L., Herb Solanaceae Mixmiixaa Bloating Fresh Fruits and seeds will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
Dyspepsia Fresh young leaves will be pounded, mixed with water to drink
Uvula infection Fresh young leaves will be pounded and eaten
Heartburn
SOB-22-026 Carica papaya L., Tree Caricaceae Paapaayyee Malaria Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with sugar and water to drink
Typhoid Fresh stem bark will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Intestinal worms Dried Seeds will be roasted, powdered and mixed with honey and tea
to drink
Dandruff Fresh Fruit will be crushed, mixed with water to make a syrup to
smear on the affected area
Febrile illness Fresh young leaves will be crushed and drunk with coffee
Gastritis Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Body swelling Fresh unripe fruit will be crushed and placed on the affected body
part
SOB-22-015 Carissa spinarum L, Shrub Apocynaceae Agamsa Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Malaria
SOB-22-014 Casimiroa edulis La LIave, Tree Rutaceae Asaamirroo Kidney problem Fresh Fruit will be smashed, mixed with water and drunk
SOB-22-109 Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl., Celastraceae Jimaa Wound Fresh Leaves will be pounded and applied on the wound
Shrub/Small Tree Diarrhea Fresh Leaves will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
Gonorrhea Fresh Leaves will be crushed and boiled with water to drink
Common cold Fresh Leaves will be boiled with crushed rhizome of Ginger officinale
and drunk
SOB-22-045 Caylusea abyssinica (Fresen.) Resedaceae Chiif Tonsillitis Fresh Root will be crushed and squeezed to get the extract to drink
Fisch. & C.A. Mey., Herb Uvula infection Fresh Root will be crushed and squeezed to get the extract to drink
and gargle
Urine retention Fresh Root and leaves will be crushed and boiling with coffee to drink
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 10

SOB-22-013 Cicer arietinum L. Herb Fabaceae Shumburaa Gonorrhea Dried Seeds will be powdered, mixed with the latex of Opuntia ficus-
indica and baked as bread to eat
Impotence Dried Seeds will be cooked together with crushed bulb of Allium cepa
and mixed with honey to eat couple of hours before sexual
intercourse
SOB-22-027 Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich., Menispermaceae Muka-hadhaawaa Diarrhea Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Climber Snake poison Fresh Leaves will be crushed and applied on the bitten body part.
SOB-22-153 Cissampelos pareira L., Menispermaceae Baal-tokkee Snake poison Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to apply the mix on
Climbinhg shrub the affected body part
Dyspepsia Fresh Root will be chewed to swallow its extract
Diarrhea Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Bone cancer Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled in water with the seed powder
of Brassica nigra to drink
Toothache Fresh Root will be crushed then held on the affected tooth
Cough Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled with the root of Alysicarpus
rugosus to drink the concoction
Heart problem Fresh Root will be chewed to swallow its extract
Tumor Fresh Root will be crushed, heated and put on the affected body part
Typhoid Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Nose infection Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract into
the nostrils
SOB-22-041 Citrus limon Osbeck, Tree Rutaceae Xuxxoo Gum bleeding Fresh Fruit juice will be drunk
Febrile illness Fresh Fruit peel will be crushed and smoked to inhale
Vomiting The juice of fresh Fruit will be drunk
Bloating
Hiccups
Nausea
Common cold
Poison
detoxification
SOB-22-050 Citrus medica L Tree Rutaceae Turungaa Hypertension Fresh Fruit will be chopped and eaten
SOB-22-052 Citrus paradisi Macfad. Rutaceae Samargeela Gastritis Fresh fruit peels will be chewed and swallowed
Tree Hypertension
Bloating Fresh Fruit juice will be drunk
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 11

SOB-22-034 Clerodendrum myricoides Lamiaceae Misiirichii Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be crushed with the leaves of Commicarpus
(Hochst.) R.Br. ex Vatke, Shrub verticillatus, Premna schimperi, Croton macrostachyus, Rhus
natalensis to apply on the affected area
SOB-22-156 Coleus edulis Vatke., Herb Lamiaceae Shimbiir Gum bleeding Fresh Stem will be used to brush teeth
Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be crushed and rubbed on the affected body part
Skin burn Fresh Leaves will be crushed and put on the affected body part
SOB-22-065 Commelina benghalensis Commelinaceae Hoola-gabbis Ring worms Fresh Stem latex will be creamed on the affected area
Forssk., Herb Skin warts
SOB-22-059 Commicarpus pedunculosus Nyctaginaceae Homacheysaa Wound Wound is smeared with crushed fresh leaves
(A.Rich.) Cufod., Shrub Skin burn
SOB-22-038 Commicarpus verticillatus (Poir.) Biluu Bleeding Fresh Leave will crushed and then placed on the affected body part
Standl., Herb Body swelling
Wound Wound is smeared with crushed fresh leaves
SOB-22-079 Conium maculatum L. Herb Apiaceae Shukaar Typhoid Dry Seeds will be powdered, mixed with water and drunk
Tonsillitis
Bloating
Kidney problem
Gastritis
Heart problem
SOB-22-047 Corchorus olitorius L., Shrub Malvaceae Soggidda-re’ee Gonorrhea Fresh whole plant will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Tooth ache Fresh whole plant will be crushed and put on the tooth
Snake poison Fresh whole plant will be crushed and applied on the affected area
SOB-22-071 Cordia africana Lam., Tree Boraginaceae Waddeessa Wound Dry Leaves will be roasted, powdered and mixed with butter or oil to
Spider poison smear on the wound
Eczema
Placental retention Dry Leaves will be roasted, powdered, and mixed with water to drink
Dystocia Dry Leaves will be roasted, powdered, and mixed with water then
drunk when there is difficulty of delivery
Amoebiasis Dry Bark will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Skin rash Dry Leaves will be roasted, powdered, and mixed with butter or oil
then smeared on the infected body part
SOB-22-056 Crinum abyssinicum Hochst. ex Amaryllidaceae Qulubbii- Breast cancer Fresh Bulb will be crushed, covered with fresh leaf of Cordia africana,
A. Rich., Herb waraabeessaa heated and placed on the breast
Body swelling Fresh Bulb will be crushed, heated and placed on the affected body
part
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 12

Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Kidney problem
Scabies Fresh Leave will be crushed and creamed on the affected body part
SOB-22-070 Croton macrostachyus Hochst. Euphorbiaceae Bakkannisaa Ringworm Fresh young leaves will be cut to rub the exudate against the affected
Ex Delile Tree body part
Bloating Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be crushed together with the leaves of Premna
schimperi then put on the affected body part
Gonorrhea Dry Leaves and stem bark will be pounded, mixed with water and
drunk
Febrile illness Dry Leaves will be smoked
Kidney problem Dry Leaves and stem bark will be pounded, mixed with water and
drunk
Hemorrhoids Dry Leaves will be smoked to fumigate the anus
Uterus problem Dry Root will be smoked to fumigate the vagina
Tonsillitis Bark powder will be mixed with water and drunk
Eye disease Fresh young leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract
into the eye
Intestinal worms Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
SOB-22-039 Cucumis africanus L. f. , Herb Cucurbitaceae Harree-googee Heart problem Fresh Root will be crushed, boiled with coffee and drunk
Epilepsy Fresh Root and leaves will be pounded, soaked in water for 2 days to
drink the filtrate
Jaundice Fresh Root will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be pounded together with whole plant part of Malva
parviflora, mixed with water and drunk
Kidney problem Fresh Root will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
Diarrhea
Hemorrhoid Fresh Fruit will be heated and then placed in the anus
Lymph node Fresh Fruit will be crushed and then placed on the affected body part
swilling
Placental retention Fresh Fruit will be chopped, soaked in the oil of Olea hochstetteri and
put inside the vagina
Nausea Fresh Leaves will be chewed and swallowed
Rabies Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Bloating Fresh Leaves will be chewed to swallow its extract
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 13

Wound Fresh Fruit will be crushed and then put on the wound
Body swelling Fresh Fruit will be crushed, heated and placed on the body
SOB-22-096 Cucumis ficifolius A.Rich., Herb Cucurbitaceae Cuquun Body swelling Fresh whole pant will be crushed, mixed with water to wash the body
Cough/ Common Fresh Leave will be crushed together with the bulb of Allium sativum
cold and boiled with coffee to drink
SOB-22-040 Cucurbita pepo L., Herb Cucurbitaceae Dabaaqulaa Intestinal worms Dry seed will be roasted and eaten
SOB-22-100 Cussonia holstii Harms ex Engl., Araliaceae Buna-waraaboo External parasite Fresh Root will be pounded, mixed with water to wash the body
Tree infestation
SOB-22-150 Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Poaceae Xajii-saar Giardiasis Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Stapf, Herb Vomiting
Diarrhea
SOB-22-063 Cyphostemma digitatum (Lam.) Vitaceae Burii-udaan-mucaa Bone cancer Fresh Root will be pounded together with bulb of Allium sativum and
Desc., Climber heated with honey and eaten
SOB-22-048 Datura stramonium L., Herb Solanaceae Banjjii Bloating Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Rabies
External parasite Fresh Leaves will be pounded, mixed with water and rub the mix on
infestation a body
Ear problem Fresh young leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract
into the ear
SOB-22-019 Desmodium sp. Fabaceae Xilloo Wound Fresh Root will be crushed and placed on the affected body part
Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Body swilling Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with coffee and drunk
SOB-22-066 Digitaria velutina (DC.) Hitchc., Poaceae Buraana Skin cut bleeding Fresh Leave will be crushed and placed on the affected body part
Herb Heartburn Fresh entire plant will be chewed and swallowed
Vomiting Fresh entire plant will be pounded together with the leaves of
Foeniculum vulgare, Ruta chalepensis and root of Eleusine jaegeri,
soaked in water and drunk
SOB-22-044 Dipcadi viride (L.) Moench, Herb Hyacinathaceae Ciccoo-bocoo Breast cancer Fresh Bulbs will be crushed, mixed with water to drink as well as to
rub against the affected body part
Body swilling Fresh Bulbs will be crushed and then placed on the affected body part
Skin warts Fresh Bulbs will be crushed, mixed with water and rubbed against the
affected body part
SOB-22-155 Dodonaea angustifolia L., Shrub Sapindaceae Ittacha Gum bleeding Fresh Stem will be used to brush teeth
Fungal skin Fresh Leaves will be crushed and rubbed on the affected body part
infection
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 14

Poison Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
detoxification
Scabies Fresh Leaves will be crushed and rubbed on the affected body part
Lymph node
swilling
Body swilling
Eczema Fresh Leaves will be roasted, powdered, mixed with butter and
smeared on the body
SOB-22-068 Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Flacourtiaceae Koshimoo Jaundice Fresh Leaves will be crushed and boiled with coffee to drink
Warb., Shrub Hemorrhoids Dry Seeds will be pounded and mixed with water then put inside the
anus
Fever Fresh Root will be pounded together with the leaves of Otostegia
integrifolia, boiled with tea and drunk
SOB-22-067 Echinops kebericho Mesfin, Asteraceae Qabariichoo Intestinal worms Fresh Root will be pounded, and mixed with water and drunk
Shrub Tonsillitis Fresh Root will be pounded, mixed with honey and eaten
Bone cancer Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled with coffee to drink
Urine retention Fresh Root will be crushed, concocted with edible oil and drunk
SOB-22-055 Echinops longifolius A.Rich., Asteraceae Baal-waraantii Kidney disease Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Herb Urine retention
SOB-22-141 Ehretia cymosa Thonn., Tree Boraginaceae Ulaagaa Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be crushed together with the leaves of Croton
macrostachyus, Carissa spinarum, and Rhus natalensis and applied on
the affected body part
Diarrhea Fresh Leaves will be crushed, boiled with coffee and drunk
Tooth ache Fresh Leaves will be crushed and held on the tooth
Skin rash Fresh Leaves will be roasted, powdered, and mixed with butter or oil
to smear on the affected body part
SOB-22-043 Ekebergia capensis Sparrm., Tree Meliaceae Biraa-hadiyyaa Intestinal worms Fresh or dried Fruits and seeds will be pounded, mixed with water
and drunk
SOB-22-058 Eleusine floccifolia Spreng., Herb Poaceae Coqoorsa Snake poison Fresh entire plant will be pounded and applied on the affected body
part
SOB-22-062 Eleusine jaegeri Pilg., Herb Poaceae Migra Vomiting Fresh Root will be crushed together with the leaves of Ruta
chalepensis, Foeniculum vulgare and whole plant of Digitaria velutina
and mixed with water to drink
Diarrhea Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
SOB-22-061 Musaceae Warqee Dyspepsia Fresh Latex will be squeezed from its stems and drunk
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 15

Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Hiccups

Cheesman, Herb
SOB-22-072 Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Tree Myrtaceae Baharzaafii-adii Common cold/ Fresh Leave will be crushed and boiled in water to sniff the vapor
Cough
Febrile illness
SOB-22-049 Euclea racemosa L., Shrub Ebenaceae Mi’eessaa Toothache Fresh Root will be pounded and held on the tooth
Gonorrhea Fresh Leaves will be pounded together with the roots of Alysicarpus
rugosus, Acokanthera schimperi and Gomphocarpus fruticosus and
mixed with water to drink
Intestinal worms Fresh Root will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Tonsillitis Fresh young leaves will be crushed, mixed with water and drunk
Impotence Fresh Root will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
Uvula infection Fresh young leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drink the extract
External parasite Fresh Leaves will be crushed and rubbed on the body
SOB-22-047 Euphorbia abyssinica J.F. Gmel., Euphorbiaceae Adaamii Gonorrhea Latex will be collected from stem, mixed with seed powder of Cicer
Tree arietinum baked as a bread to eat
Skin warts Latex from the stem will be smeared on the skin
Hemorrhoid
Wound
Dandruff
SOB-22-069 Euphorbia hetrophylla Desf., Euphorbiaceae Annanoo Hemorrhoid Latex from the stem will be smeared on the skin
Shrub
SOB-22-003 Euphorbia schimperiana Hochst. Euphorbiaceae Gurii Ringworm Fresh Root will be crushed and squeezed to smear on the affected
ex A.Rich., Herb area
Hemorrhoid Fresh Root will be crushed and squeezed to apply to the anus
SOB-22-081 Euphorbia tirucalli L., Shrub Euphorbiaceae Qinciba Hemorrhoids Latex will be collected and smeared on the affected area
Gonorrhea Latex will be collected from stem, mixed with seed powder of Cicer
arietinum baked as a bread to eat
SOB-22-161 Ficus vasta Forssk., Tree Moraceae Qilxuu Ear disease Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract into the ear
canal
SOB-22-076 Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Herb Apiaceae Kamoona Kidney disease Fresh Root and leaves will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Urine retention Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Hypertension Fresh Fruits and seeds will be crushed and boiled together in water
to drink
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 16

Vomiting Fresh Root will be pounded together with root of Eleusine jaegeri,
leaves of Ruta chalepensis, and whole part of Digitaria velutina,
mixed with water and drunk
Dyspepsia Fresh Fruit will be chewed and to swallow its extract
Back pain Fresh Fruits and seeds will be crushed and boiled in water to drink
Intestinal worms
Placental retention Fresh Root will be pounded together with the root of Ricinus
communis and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-083 Galium aparinoides Forssk., Herb Rubiaceae Laaleessaa Giardiasis Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled with water to drink
Prevent abortion
Urine retention
Snake poison Fresh Root will be crushed and put on the affected area
Cough Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled with coffee to drink
Asthma Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled with coffee and butter to drink
SOB-22-078 Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Herb Zingiberaceae Zinjibila Common cold/ Fresh/dry Rhizomes will be crushed and boiled with tea to drink
Cough
Tonsillitis
Hemorrhoids Fresh/dry Rhizomes will be pounded together with bulb of Allium
cepa and leaves of Raphanus sativus and put on the anus
Intestinal worms Fresh/dry Rhizomes will be crushed and boiled with tea to drink
Impotence Fresh/dry Rhizomes will be crushed together with the root of Malva
parviflora, mixed with water and drunk
SOB-22-046 Gloriosa simplex L., Herb Colochicaceae Qorii-kuruphoo Snake poison Fresh/dry Root will be crushed then rubbed against the affected body
part
Bone cancer Fresh Root will be crushed together with the bulb of Allium sativum,
boiled with coffee and drunk
Tumor Fresh/dry Root will be crushed then placed on the affected body part
SOB-22-080 Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Asclepiadaceae Harrii-hiiyyoo Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
W.T. Aiton, Herb Tuberculosis Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled with butter to drink
Impotence Fresh Root will be crushed and cooked with seeds of Cicer arietinum
to eat
Ring worm Fresh entire plant will be pounded and mixed with butter to smear
on the affected body part
Bone cancer Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled with coffee to drink
Tuberculosis Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled with honey and butter to drink
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 17

SOB-22-074 Gossypium barbadense L., Shrub Malvaceae Jibrii-bukkee Headache Dry Seeds will be pounded and smoked to sniff
Kidney problem Pounded fresh Root will be mixed with water and drunk
Urine retention Fresh/dry Root will be pounded, boiled with water and drunk
Intestinal worms Dry Seeds will be pounded and consumed
Ear disease Fresh flower will be heated and squeezed to drop the extract into the
ear canal
SOB-22-002 Grewia villosa Willd. Shrub Tiliaceae Ogobbii/ Ogobdii Menorrhagia Fresh Leave will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-077 Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass. Asteraceae Nugii Cough/ Common Seed will be roasted, pounded and boiled with honey to drink
Herb cold
Asthma
Tuberculosis
SOB-22-084 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) Rosaceae Heexoo Taeniasis Dry Seeds will be pounded and eaten with banana fruit
J.F.Gmel., Tree Dyspepsia Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Ameobiasis Fresh Seeds will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Back pain Fresh Seeds will be pounded and cooked with meat to eat
SOB-22-107 Hordeum vulgare L., Herb Poaceae Garbuu Gastritis Dry Seeds will be roasted, powdered and mixed with sugar to eat
Bone fracture Dry Seeds will be roasted, powdered and made into porridge to eat
with milk, butter or honey
SOB-22-086 Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Cupressaceae Gatirraa-abashaa Diarrhea Fresh Leave will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Endl., Tree External body Fresh Leave will be pounded and rubbed against the body
parasite infestation
Uterus problem Dry Seeds will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-112 Kalanchoe marmorata Baker, Crassulaceae Phiphii Ear disease Fresh Leaves will be heated and squeezed to drop the extract into the
Herb ear canal
Jaundice Fresh Root will be pounded and boiled in water to drink
Asthma Fresh Root will be pounded together with that of Ximenia americana
and boiled in water to drink
Rabies Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-119 Kalanchoe lanceolata (Forssk.) Crassulaceae Burii-furdoo Breast cancer Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Pers., Herb External parasite Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to rub against the
infestation skin
Uvula infection Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract into
the throat
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 18

SOB-22-126 Kleinia longiflora DC. Shrub Asteraceae Huluqqoo Nerve problem Fresh/dry Leaves will be pounded together with whole part of
(paralysis) Ocimum basilicum, leaves of Citrus limon and Ruta chalepensis and
smoked to fumigate the patient
SOB-22-095 Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Cucurbitaceae Buqqee Ear disease Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop its extract into the
Standl., Climber ear canal
Lymph node Fresh Leaves will be crushed and placed on the affected body part
swilling
SOB-22-001 Lantana camara L., Shrub Verbenaceae Bakka-argattee Fungal skin Fresh Leaves will be pounded to rub against the affected area
infection
Febrile illness Fresh/dry Leaves will be smoked with the leaves of Otostegia
integrifolia
SOB-22-143 Lepidium sativum L. Herb Brassicaceae Shifuu Febrile illness Dry Seeds will be smoked to fumigate the patient
Bloating Dry Seeds will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
Gastritis
Dyspepsia Dry Seeds will be chewed and swallowed
Ameobiasis Dry Seeds will be roasted, powdered, mixed with water and drunk
Bone cancer Dry Seeds will be pounded together with the bulbs of Allium sativum
Cough and mixed with honey to eat
Tonsillitis
Rabies
SOB-22-115 Leucas stachydiformis (Benth.) Lamiaceae Muka-aroo Spider poison Fresh Leaves will be crushed then rubbed against the affected body
Hochst ex. Briq., Herb part
SOB-22-134 Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R. Lamiaceae Bokuu-ferdaa Dyspepsia Fresh Leave will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Br., Herb Spider poison Fresh Leaves will be roasted, powdered and mixed with edible oil or
butter to smear on the affected body part
SOB-22-090 Leucas minimifolia Chiov., Shrub Lamiaceae Barbarreessaa Urine retention Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Uterus problem
Fever
SOB-22-051 Lippia abyssinica (Otto &A.Dietr) Verbenaceae Sukee Fungal skin Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water then rubbed
Cufod., Shrub infection against the affected body part
Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be roasted, powdered and mixed with butter or oil
Eczema to smear on the affected body part
Snake poison Fresh Leaves will be pounded and rubbed against the affected body
part
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 19

SOB-22-102 Lysimachia ruhmeriana Vatke, Primulaceae Muka-gergoo Bed bug infestation Fresh entire plant will be crushed and boiled in water, and applied
Herb onto the body to repel the bed bug
SOB-22-022 Maesa lanceolata Forssk., Tree Myrsinaceae Baal-adii Bloating Fresh Leave will be crushed and mixed with water then drunk
Asthma
Typhoid
SOB-22-024 Malva parviflora L., Herb Malvaceae Dobbii- qalloo Gonorrhea Fresh entire plant will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Impotence
Giardiasis Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Eye disease Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract into
the eye
Intestinal parasite Fresh entire plant will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Back pain Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-053 Melia azedarach L., Tree Meliaceae Kiniin-zaaf Intestinal parasite Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Diarrhea
Typhoid
Kidney problem
Ameobiasis
Bloating
SOB-22-101 Mimusops kummel Bruce ex Sapotaceae Bururrii Urine retention Fresh Root will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
A.DC., Tree Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be crushed, mixed with water to apply on the
affected body part
External parasite Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to wash the body
infestation
Wound Fresh Leaves will be crushed and placed on the affected area
Intestinal parasites Fresh Leaves will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-097 Mirabilis jalapa L. Herb Nyctaginaceae Harmal Tonsillitis Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with honey to eat
Breast cancer Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with honey and water to drink
External parasite Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with water to rub against the
infestation body
Diarrhea Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-129 Moringa oleifera Lam., Tree Moringaceae Shifarraa Hypertension Fresh Leaves will be chopped and boiled with water to drink
Kidney problem
Jaundice
Diabetes
Heart problem
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 20

Febrile illness
Bone cancer
Nerve problem
(Paralysis)
Diarrhea Fresh Leaves will be chopped and cooked to eat with bread
Intestinal worms
SOB-22-123 Musa paradisiaca L., Herb Musaceae Muuza Snake poison Fresh Leave will be pounded and smeared on the affected area
SOB-22-160 Myrsine africana L., Shrub Primulaceae Qacama Taeniasis Dry Seeds will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Ascariasis
External parasite Fresh Leaves will be pounded and mixed with water then to apply on
infestation the body
SOB-22-142 Myrtus communis L. Shrub Myrtaceae Adas Typhoid Fresh Leaves will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-085 Nicotiana tabacum L.Herb Solanaceae Timboo Tooth ache Fresh Root will be crushed and held on the tooth
External parasite Fresh Leave will be pounded and smeared on the body
infestation
Snake repellent Dry Leaves will be crushed and smoked around the house
SOB-22-007 Ocimum basilicum L., Herb Lamiaceae Mosolbaa Typhoid Fresh/dry entire plant will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Spider poison Fresh entire plant will be crushed then rubbed against the affected
body part
SOB-22-033 Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst.ex Lamiaceae Daamaa-kasee Febrile illness Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drink the extract as well
Benth., Shrub as rub the extract on the body
Common cold Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drink the extract
Eye disease Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract into
the eye
Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be crushed and rubbed against the affected area
SOB-22-120 Olea hochstetteri Baker., Tree Oleaceae Ejeersa Headache Fresh/dry Leaves will be smashed and burned to fumigate the patient
with the smoke
Heartburn Fresh young leaves will be chewed and swallowed
Snake poison Fresh young leaves will be crushed and applied onto the affected area
Common cold Dry Stem will be smashed and burned to fumigate the patient with
Asthma the smoke
Cough
Scabies Dry Stem will be smashed, boiled in water to extract its oil to smear
on the body
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 21

SOB-22-113 Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill., Cactaceae Tiinii Dandruff Fresh phylloclade will be crushed and mixed with water to wash the
Shrub head
SOB-22-087 Otostegia integrifolia (Benth.) Lamiaceae Xunjiitii Cough Fresh/dry Leaves will be crushed and boiled in water together with
Scheen & V.A. Albert, Shrub Febrile illness the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus to sniff the steam
Headache
Ameobiasis Fresh Leaves will be crushed and boiled with water to drink
SOB-22-111 Parthenium hysterophorus L., Asteraceae Farramsiis Hemorrhoids Fresh entire plant will be crushed and boiled with coffee to drink
Herb
SOB-22-128 Pavonia serrata Franch., Shrub Malvaceae Muka-onnee Heart problem Fresh entire plant will be crushed and boiled with coffee to drink
SOB-22-093 Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her., Phytolaccaceae Handoodee Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Climber Rabies
Jaundice
Asthma
Syphilis
Intestinal worms
SOB-22-133 Plantago lanceolata L., Herb Plantaginaceae Torba-utaal Gland TB Fresh entire plant will be crushed and then placed on the affected
body part
SOB-22-122 Plumbago zeylanica L., Shrub Plumbaginaceae Marxas Bone cancer Fresh/dry entire plant will be crushed and boiled together with
honey and coffee to drink
Headache Fresh/dry Root will be powdered and sniffed
Heart problem Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled together with coffee to drink
Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be crushed and boiled together with honey and coffee
to drink
Urine retention Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Body Swelling Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with water to apply on the
affected body part
Breast cancer Fresh entire plant will be crushed and boiled together with honey and
coffee to drink
Back pain Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-154 Afrocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) Podocarpaceae Birbirsa Insect repellent Fresh Leaves will be crushed and then rubbed onto the skin
C.N. Page, Tree
SOB-22-088 Premna schimperi Engl., Shrub Lamiaceae Urgeessaa Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be crushed together with the leaves of
Commicarpus verticillatus, Rhus natalensis and Ehretia cymosa and
applied onto the affected body part
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 22

Ear disease Fresh Leaves will be roasted, powdered, and mixed with butter or oil
to drop the mixture into the ear canal
Jaundice Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-110 Prunus persica (L.) Batsch, Tree Rosaceae Kukii Intestinal worms Fresh Root and leaves will be crushed together and mixed with water
to drink
Diarrhea Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Tonsillitis Fresh Leave will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-124 Psidium guajava L., Tree Myrtaceae Zayituunaa Typhoid Fresh young leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Ear problem Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drop the
extract in to the ear canal
SOB-22-117 Punica granatum L, Tree Punicaceae Rumaana Cough Fresh Leaves will be pounded, mixed with water and drunk
Ameobiosis
Diarrhea
Cholera
Tape worm Fresh Fruit and seeds will be crushed, boiled in water and drunk
Hypertension
Kidney problem Fresh young leaves will be crushed and boiled in water to drink
Snake poison Fresh Leaves will be pounded and mixed with water to apply on the
affected body part
Intestinal parasite Fresh Leaves will be pounded together with Allium sativum bulbs and
mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-104 Coleus abyssinicus (Fresen.) A.J. Lamiaceae Muka-ajoo Febrile illness Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drink the extract
Paton, Shrub Eye disease Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract into
the eye
SOB-22-121 Raphanus raphanistrum L. Herb Brassicaceae Raafu-shimbirroo Impotence Dry Seeds will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Fungal skin Dry Seeds will be pounded and mixed with water to wash the body
infection
SOB-22-140 Raphanus sativus L., Shrub Barassicaceae Fujul Snake poison Fresh/dry Seeds will be pounded and put on the affected area
Ear problem Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to add its extract into ear
canal
SOB-22-089 Rhamnus prinoides L’Her., Shrub Rhamnaceae Geeshee Tonsillitis Fresh Leave will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Intestinal worms Fresh Fruits will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-008 Rhus glutinosa (Hochst.ex Anacardiaceae Xaaxeessaa Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be pounded together with the leaves of Croton
A.Rich.) Moffett, Shrub macrostachyus and Coleus edulis then applied onto the affected area
Diarrhea Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 23

SOB-22-114 Rhus natalensis Bernh., Shrub Anacardiaceae Daboobeeyssaa Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be pounded and smeared to apply on the affected
Snake poison body part

SOB-22-103 Rhus retinorrhoea Steud.ex Oliv., Anacardiaceae Bubbissaa Body swelling Fresh Leaves will be pounded and smeared on the affected body part
Shrub Wound/ Skin burn Fresh Leaves will be crushed and put on the wound
Jaundice Fresh Root will be pounding together with the leaves of Sida
cuneifolia and Withania somnifera , mixed with water and drunk
SOB-22-152 Rhynchosia malacotricha Fabaceae Ud-saliim Intestinal worms Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Harms., Shrub Heart problem
Breast cancer Fresh Leaves will be crushed and boiled with coffee to drink
External parasite Fresh Roots and leaves will be pounded and mixed with water to
Scabies wash the body
SOB-22-135 Ricinus communis L., Shrub Euphorbiaceae Qobboo Urine retention Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
External parasite Fresh Leaves will be crushed and rubbed on the body
Jaundice Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Rabies Fresh Root and leaves will be pounded together and mixed with
water to drink
SOB-22-138 Rosa abyssinica R.Br.ex Lindl, Rosaceae Qajiimaa-adii Gonorrhea Dry Seeds will be pounded and cooked with meat and eaten
Shrub Back pain Dry Seeds will be pounded and boiled with honey in water to drink
SOB-22-116 Rumex abyssinicus Jacq., Shrub Polygonaceae Dhangosha Body Swelling Fresh Leave will be crushed and put on the affected area
Bleeding
Gonorrhea Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink

SOB-22-094 Rumex nervosus Vahl, Shrub Polygonaceae Dhangaggo Fungal skin Fresh Leave will be crushed and put on the affected area
infection
Body Swelling
Diarrhea Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-131 Ruta chalepensis L., Herb Rutaceae Xalasaan Heart problem Fresh Fruit will be chewed and swallowed
Common cold Fresh Leaves will be boiled with tea or coffee and drunk
Typhoid Fresh Leaves and fruits will be boiled in water together with the
leaves of Carica papaya and Psidium guajava to drink
Dyspepsia Fresh Fruits will be chewed and swallowed
Kidney problem Fresh Leaves and fruits will be boiled with coffee and drunk
Gastritis Fresh Fruits will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Intestinal worms
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 24

Vomiting Fresh Leaves will be pounded together with root of Eleusine jaegeri,
whole part of Digitaria velutina and leaves of Foeniculum vulgare,
mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-147 Salvia nilotica Juss. Ex Jacq., Lamiaceae Hool-gab Bloating Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Shrub Febrile illness Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drink the extract
Spider poison Fresh Leaves will be roasted, powdered, and mixed with butter to
Eczema smear on the affected body part
Urine retention Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Fever Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water then drunk
Wound Fresh Leaves will be crushed then placed on the wounded body part
SOB-22-148 Senecio nandensis (S. Moore) C. Asteraceae Jiniiraas Nerve problem Fresh Whole plant parts will be crushed with the leaves of Ruta
Jeffrey, Herb (paralysis chalepensis and bulb of Allium sativum, boiled and drunk
Swollen body part Fresh Leaves and stems will be crushed and then placed on the body
Febrile illness Fresh whole plant parts will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Urine retention
Tooth ache Fresh Stems will be crushed and held on the affected tooth
Spider poison Fresh Whole plant parts will be crushed and mixed with water to
drink as well as smear on the affected area
Placental retention Fresh whole plant parts will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Fungal skin Fresh Leaves and stem will be pounded together with bulb of Allium
infection cepa to apply on the skin
SOB-22-132 Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Fabaceae Shakamsaa Snake poison Fresh Leaves will be crushed and applied on the affected body part
Irwin & Barneby, Shrub Body Swelling Fresh Leaves will be crushed and placed on the affected body part.
Diarrhea Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-145 Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Shrub Fabaceae Muka-gurraacha Snake poison Fresh Leaves will be crushed put on the affected body part
Wound
Typhoid Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with water then drunk.
SOB-22-125 Sida cuneifolia Roxb. , Shrub Malvaceae Rigaa-gaangee Impotence Fresh Root and leaves will be pounded together with the root of
Commelina benghalensis, Eleusine floccifolia and Achyranthes aspera
and mixed with water to drink
Febrile illness Fresh Leaves will be pounded together with the leaves of Ocimum
lamiifolium and mixed with water to drink
Uvula infection Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drink the extract
Jaundice Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Diarrhea Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 25

SOB-22-064 Silene macrosolen (Steud. ex) A. Caryophyllaceae Liiq Heart problem Fresh whole plant parts will be pounded and mixed with water to
Rich., Herb Intestinal parasite drink
Headache Fresh whole plant parts will be pounded, squeezed to drop its extract
into nostrils
Diarrhea Fresh whole plant parts will be pounded and mixed with water to
drink
Uvula infection Fresh whole plant parts will be pounded and squeezed to drink the
extract
Cough Fresh whole plant parts will be pounded and boiled with tea to drink
Body Swelling Fresh whole plant parts will be pounded and boiled with water to
wash the body
Tumor Fresh whole plant parts will be pounded and rubbed against the
affected body part
SOB-22-106 Smithia aeschynomenoides Fabaceae Hinnaa Diarrhea Fresh Leaves will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Welv.ex Baker, Shrub Wound Fresh/dry Leaves will be pounded and mixed with the juice of Citrus
Fungal skin limon to smear on the wound
infection
SOB-22-092 Solanum incanum L., Shrub Solanaceae Hiddii Skin cut bleeding Fresh Leaves will be crushed and put on the cut
Tooth ache Fresh Leave will be crushed and held on the tooth
Nasal bleeding Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract into
nose
SOB-22-151 Solanum nigrum L., Shrub Solanaceae Shaamaa-korboo Uvula infection Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drink the extract
Spider poison Fresh Leaves will be pounded and rubbed against the affected body
part
Skin warts Fresh Fruits will be crushed and rubbed against the affected body part
Hemorrhoid
SOB-22-139 Sphaeranthus suaveolens Asteraceae Raasshedii Anxiety disorder Fresh whole plant parts will be crushed together with the seeds
(Forssk.) DC., Herb Ricinus communis then tied on head
SOB-22-021 Spilanthes mauritiana DC. ., Herb Asteraceae Gutiich Tooth ache Fresh Leave will be crushed and held the tooth
Tonsillitis Fresh Flowers will be chewed and swallowed
Uvula infection
SOB-22-136 Stephania abyssinica (Qu.-Dill., Menispermaceae Kaalaalaa Syphilis Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
& A. Rich.) Walp., Climber
SOB-22-137 Syzygium guineense (Wild.) DC., Myrtaceae Beddessaa Uterus problem Dry Stem will be smashed together with stem of Balanites aegyptiaca
Tree and Zizyphus mauritiana to fumigate vagina with smoke
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 26

SOB-22-158 Tagetes minuta L. Herb Asteraceae Ardi-fasaaz Gastritis Fresh Root will be chewed and then swallowed
SOB-22-054 Tamarindus indica L., Tree Fabaceae Rooqaa Dyspepsia Fresh Fruits will be crushed and mixed with water and sugar to drink
Wound Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with butter to smear on the
affected part
Diarrhea Fresh/dry Seeds and leaves will be pounded together and mixed with
Fever water to drink
Intestinal worms Fresh/dry Fruits and seeds will be pounded together and mixed with
water to drink
Bone cancer Root and leaves will be crushed, boiled together with honey and
coffee to drink
Malaria Fresh/dry Fruits and seeds will be pounded together with bulb of
Allium sativum and mixed with honey and water to drink
SOB-22-144 Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Fabaceae Abish Dandruff Dry Seeds will be soaked in water for 1-2 days to wash hair with
Herb Gastritis Dry Seeds will be pounded and mixed with water and sugar to drink
Amoebiasis
Uterus problem
Dystocia
Placental retention
SOB-22-130 Verbascum sinaiticum Benth., Scrophulariaceae Gurra-harree External parasite Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Herb infestation
Urine retention Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Heart problem Fresh Root will be chewed and swallowed
Impotence Fresh Root will be pounded together with the leaves of Euclea
racemosa and rhizomes of Ginger officinale and boiled with water
and honey to drink
Nausea Fresh Root will be chewed and swallowed
Boil Fresh Leaves will be crushed put on the affected area
Placental retention Fresh Root will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
SOB-22-037 Vernonia amygdalina Del., Tree Asteraceae Ebichaa Intestinal parasite Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Diabetes
Diarrhea
SOB-22-118 Vernonia stipulacea Klatt., Herb Asteraceae Dhadhahoo Febrile illness Fresh whole plant parts will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Head ache
Uvula infection Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drink the extract
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 27

Lymph node Fresh whole plant parts will be crushed and mixed with water to
Swilling smear on the affected area
SOB-22-060 Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal , Solanaceae Hiddii-budee Headache Fresh Root will be pounded and squeezed to drop the extract into the
Shrub nostrils
Heart problem Fresh Root will be pounded together with root of Silene macrosolen
and mixed with water to drink
Bloating Fresh Root will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Ear disease Fresh Leaves will be crushed and squeezed to drop the extract into
ear canal
Spider poison Fresh Leaves will be crushed and rubbed against the affected body
part
SOB-22-042 Xanthium spinosum L, Shrub Asteraceae Araddoo Fungal skin Fresh Leaves will be crushed and rubbed against the affected body
infection part
Skin cut bleeding Fresh Leaf will be crushed and put on the cut skin
SOB-22-006 Ximenia americana L., Olacaceae Hudhaa Jaundice Fresh stem Bark will be crushed and boiled with coffee to drink
Shrub/small Tree Uvula infection Fresh Fruits will be pounded and squeezed to drink
Rabies Fresh Root will be pounded, mixed with dough and baked to eat
Tonsillitis Fresh Fruits will be crushed and squeezed to drink the extract
SOB-22-149 Zaleya pentandra (L.) C. Jeffrey Aizoaceae Mararree- qal’oo Eczema Fresh whole plant parts will be roasted, powdered, and mixed with
butter or oil to smear on the affected area
SOB-22-012 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam., Tree Rhamnaceae Qurquraa- Muscle stiffness Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to massage the
gurraacha affected area
Tuberculosis Dry Seeds will be pounded together with the bulb of Allium sativum,
seeds of Guizotia abyssinica and mixed with butter to eat
Bone cancer Dry Seeds will be pounded together with the bulb of Allium sativum
and boiled with butter to drink
Diarrhea Dry Seeds will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
Body Swilling Fresh Leaves will be crushed together with leaves of Premna
schimperi and Commicarpus verticillatus put on the affected area
SOB-22-105 Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf., Rhamnaceae Qurquraa-adii Body Swilling Fresh Leaves will be crushed together with leaves of Premna
Tree schimperi and Commicarpus verticillatus put on the affected area
Bone cancer Dry Seeds will be pounded together with the bulb of Allium sativum
and boiled with butter to drink
Nerve Fresh Leaves will be crushed with the whole part of Senecio nandensis
problem(paralysis) and mixed with oil to smear on the affected body part and massage
Ethnobotany Research and Applications 28

Impotence Fresh Leaves will be pounded together with rhizome of Ginger and
bulb of Allium cepa, and mixed with water to drink
Muscle stiffness Fresh Leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to massage the
affected area
Epilepsy Fresh young leaves will be crushed and mixed with water to drink
Tuberculosis Dry Seeds will be pounded together with the bulb of Allium sativum,
seed of Guizotia abyssinica, and mixed with butter tto drink
Diarrhea Dry Seeds will be pounded and mixed with water to drink
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 29

Herbaceous plants constituted the largest (39.6%) proportion of the reported medicinal plants followed by shrubs (35.1%),
trees (21.4%) and climbers (3.9%). Our observation agrees with many ethnomedicinal studies conducted in different localities
of Ethiopia (e.g., Bogale et al. 2023, Usman et al. 2022, Desalegn et al. 2022, Ahmed 2021, Gonfa et al. 2020, Meragiaw et
al. 2016, Mukaila et al. 2021, Lulekal et al. 2008). The predominance of herbs and shrubs for medicinal use may be ascribed
to their relative abundance in the study area. Most (81.37%) of the reported medicinal plants were not cultivated and
collected from wild habitats such as forest, grass lands, roadsides, etc. Whereas 18.63% were being cultivated for other
purposes including food (as vegetables and fruits), spice, fiber and construction apart from their use as medicine. Our
observation accords with that of Bogale et al. (2023).

Remedy preparation and usage

The local people in the study district use different plant parts for remedy preparation. Leaf was, however, the popular plant
part used followed by root, seed, the whole plant parts, fruit, bulb and latex. At times, combination of the main plant parts
(e.g., leaf and root) of the same species was reported (Figure 2A). Recently, researchers such as Bogale et al. (2023), Usman
et al. (2022) and Desalegn et al. (2022) reported similar results. Copiousness, easy availability and processing into remedy
may be the reason to prefer leaves to other organs. As a result, through their long years of empirical observations, locals
may have witnessed the better curative potential of leaves than other plant organs. Leaf is a plant organ where
photosynthesis and important secondary metabolisms occur to contribute to production and accumulation of secondary
metabolites, which are of therapeutic value. According to Muluye & Ayicheh (2020) leaves are vital reservoirs of most
bioactive compounds like alkaloids, phenolics and terpenoids. Collecting leaves for medicinal purpose may not damage the
plant, allowing for sustainable use (Usman et al. 2022).

Our study revealed that the local people of the study district principally use freshly harvested plant parts for therapeutic
purpose followed by only dried plant parts. Use of plant parts in a fresh and dried state is also possible for some ailments
(Figure 2B). Use of fresh plant parts as predominant state was reported previously by many researchers, for example; Bogale
et al. (2003), Muluye & Ayicheh (2020) and Usman et al. (2022). This may be due to curative potential of freshly harvested
plant organs. In most cases, most of the secondary compounds of therapeutic value exist unchanged in fresh plant parts
(Megerssa & woldetsadik 2022). The preparation of remedies begins with physical processes like crushing and pounding the
plant material to create fine particles. This allows for decocting extracts or mixing the material with various substances such
as water, tea, coffee, milk, butter, or oil for use. Our results are in line with those of Bogale et al. (2023), Usman et al. (2022)
and Desalegn et al. (2022). In the current study district remedies are applied in different ways and it depends on the type of
ailments and site of illness. Oral route was reported as major way of administering remedies followed by dermal, nasal, ear
canal, through eye and vagina (Figure 2C). This finding agrees with previous studies (e.g., Bogale et al. 2023, Yineger et al.
2008, Chaachouay et al. 2022, Agisho et al. 2014). During our survey, we elicited for information on remedy dosage. There
was no general agreement among respondents on the dosage. Moreover, no precise measurement of the amount, which
we noted as a weakness of traditional medicine system. Age and gender are parameters considered for dosage prescription.

Ethnobotanical indices
Informant Consensus Factor
The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) is a quantitative approach of assessing the agreement among informants regarding
their knowledge on the use of medicinal plants. Its value ranges from 0 to 1 with values approaching 1 indicates higher
agreement among respondents (Kefalew et al. 2015). In this study, all cited ailments were grouped into 8 categories, and
the ICF values ranged from 0.07 to 0.45 (Table 2). Relatively, Gastro-intestinal related ailments scored the highest (0.45) ICF
value followed by Dermatological ailments, whereas sensory disorders scored the lowest value. Usman et al. (2022)
previously reported similar result in their study conducted in Goro district, southeast of Ethiopia, which is close to the current
study district. The relatively highest agreement on the treatment of gastrointestinal related ailments may show that they are
well recognized by the local community of the study area for which people communicate among themselves on their remedy.
Generally, however, ICF value of all categories of ailments was less than 0.5 compared to some previous studies in eastern
and southeastern Ethiopia (Bogale et al. 2023, Usman et al. 2022). A low ICF value may show that individuals possess unique
experience and their traditional knowledge on medicinal plants are held by a few informants and unshared. The current
expansion of modern medication may also be a reason to give less attention to traditional medicine, hence, low ICF. Overall,
less ICF suggests that deterioration of traditional knowledge that deserves a focus for documentation and sustainability.
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 30

Figure 2. Plant parts used for remedy preparations (A), state of plant parts during remedy preparation (B) and route of
remedy application (C)

Table 2. Informant consensus factor on major categories of ailment

Ailment category Use citation (NUr) № of species used Informant
(Nt) consensus factor
Gastro-intestinal related ailments 138 77 0.45
Dermatological related ailments 91 62 0.32
Genitourinary and venereal ailments 79 54 0.32
Respiratory and throat infection 63 44 0.31
Skeleto-muscular ailments 16 13 0.20
Circulatory system related ailments 48 42 0.13
Headache, Fever and Febrile illness 30 26 0.12
Bite and external parasite related infection 33 30 0.09
Sensory disorder 16 15 0.07

Fidelity level (FL)

Fidelity level (%) is a quantitative measure that shows the relative importance of a given plant species to treat a claimed
ailment in a particular community. If a particular plant species is constantly mentioned by a larger proportion of informants
for the specified ailment, FL will be higher, suggesting that plant species is more likely to have therapeutic potential for the
claimed ailment. In this study, FL was calculated for ten most reported plants to treat top ten frequently cited ailments.
Values of FL ranged from 78 to 100% with Alysicarpus rugosus and Phytolacca dodecandra scored 100% for Cough and
Gonorrhea, respectively (Table 3). Some of these species, for example, Premna schimperi was reported by Bogale et al. (2023)
for body swelling. Calpurnia aurea was reported for the removal of ecto-parasites including louse and tick by Usman et al.
(2022).
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 31

Table 3. Fidelity level for ten most cited medicinal plants to treat top ten reported ailments
№ Ailments cited Botanical name OF MPs used to treat NP N FL%
the cited ailment
1 Cough Alysicarpus rugosus 39 39 100
2 Gonorrhea Phytolacca dodecandra 35 35 100
3 Body swilling Premna schimperi 36 37 97.3
4 Common cold Allium sativum 44 46 95.65
5 Diarrhea Melia azedarach 44 46 95.65
6 External parasite (e.g., louse Calpurnia aurea 36 39 92.31
infestation)
7 Typhoid Carica papaya 46 51 90.2
8 Febrile illness Otostegia i ntegrifolia 58 69 84.06
9 Kidney problem Aloe bertemariae 41 49 83.67
10 Urine retention Foeniculum vulgare 32 41 78.05

Preference ranking (PR)

Preference ranking exercise was done to prioritize eight medicinal plants based on their relative curative potential to treat
typhoid as perceived by ten key informants. Carica papaya was the most preferred species to treat typhoid (Table 4). This
species was previously reported by Bogale et al. (2023) and Usman et al. (2022) for stomach complaint, suggesting the need
for further investigation to validate its effectiveness pharmacologically.

Table 4. Preference ranking of medicinal plants used to treat Typhoid

№ Plant species Respondents Total
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10

1 Carica papaya 9 10 10 10 9 10 10 8 10 9 95
2 Ocimum basilicum 7 8 9 8 10 9 9 7 8 10 85
3 Aloe bertemariae 8 9 6 7 7 6 7 6 6 8 70
4 Allium sativum 6 7 8 6 5 7 6 9 7 7 68
5 Conium maculatum 5 4 5 4 6 5 5 5 4 6 49
6 Artemisia afra 3 3 2 3 1 3 1 4 2 3 25
7 Ruta chalepensis 2 1 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 21
8 Maesa lanceolate 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 2 15

Respondents’ Socio-demographic features as factor for ethnomedicinal knowledge

Socio-demographic features of a given population may affect the extent of traditional knowledge (TK) on ethnomedicine
(Gazzaneo et al. 2005, Hanazaki et al. 2013). Thus, we analyzed if there are discrepancies in TK of respondents by considering
the amount of cited medicinal plants by respondents of different socio-demographic groups (Table 5). From our results, age
significantly (p < 0.001, df = 4, F = 6.465) affected ethnomedicinal knowledge of the respondents. The number of reported
medicinal plants increased with age of the respondents, which indicates more years of experience by elderly people enabled
them to explore the medicinal values of plants of their surroundings. Our result is supported by previous studies conducted
in different parts of Ethiopia (Bogale et al. 2023, Usman et al. 2022, Desalegn et al. 2022, McCarter & Gavin 2915, Giday et
al. 2009, Girmay et al. 2021). Lowest report of medicinal plant from younger respondents may be attributed to insufficient
knowledge transfer from elderly to younger generations, which may endanger TK in the future. It is also possible that younger
generations are less interested to traditional medicine due to better access to modern medication than elderly people at
their age. Occupation wise, our respondents were farmers, retired persons, religious leaders and traditional healers.
Assessment of their ethnomedicinal knowledge showed significant (p < 0.001, df = 3, F = 8.502) difference. Traditional healers
who earn their income mostly from practicing traditional medicine reported highest number of plants followed by religious
leaders, retired persons and farmers. Less report from farmers may be ascribed to their better economic potential than other
groups to visit modern health facilities. Educational level also significantly (p = 0.007, df = 4, F = 3.686) affected
ethnomedicinal knowledge of the respondents. However, gender, marital status and religion of respondents had no
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 32

significant (p>0.05) effect on ethnomedicinal knowledge of the respondents. With respect to gender, our finding is opposite
to many other previously reported results that show males are more knowledgeable than females (Bogale et al. 2023, Usman
et al. 2022), for example. Usually, in Ethiopia, transfer of ethnomedicinal knowledge is gender biased and patrilineal. In this
study, absence of significant difference between male and female may be due to our sampling technique (simple random
sampling) in which less number of female household head are captured. In addition, analysis of multiple linear regression
showed that age (β = 2.218, p = 0.001), educational status (β = 1.124, p = 0.029) and occupation (β = 1.586, p = 0.043) of the
study population were found to be determinants of respondents’ knowledge on traditional medicine, and our finding is in
line with that of Bogale et al. (2023).

Table 5. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of the different socio-demographic groups

Socio-demographic Group Percentage No. of medicinal plants F p-value
feature reported
Gender Male 89.80 16.60±0.62 0.229 0.633
Female 10.20 15.60±1.71
Marital status Married 91.80 16.74±0.61 2.355 0.114
Single 8.20 13.40±1.42
Religion Islam 81.02 16.03±0.65 0.605 1.190
Christian 18.98 18.35±1.19
Age 20-30 8.03 10.50±1.00 6.465 0.000
31-40 27.74 14.60±0.87
41-50 33.58 16.50±1.00
51-50 19.00 18.80±1.40
>60 11.70 21.10±1.70
Occupation Farmer 87.60 15.50±0.57 8.502 0.000
Retiree 5.10 21.57±3.20
Religious leader 3.60 24.60±2.00
Traditional healer 1.50 30.50±1.50
Education Illiterate 40.90 15.50±0.90 3.686 0.007
Elementary school (1-8 grades) 46.00 16.30±0.81
High school (9-12 grades) 2.90 15.30±4.10
Higher education (≥Diploma) 1.50 11.00±4.00
Religious education 8.80 23.00±1.70
Study kebele Bate 16.10 16.10±1.50 0.578 0.717
Gebiba 17.50 15.30±1.40
Hake-Bas 17.50 15.80±1.40
Obbi 16.80 18.00±1.00
Sebale 15.30 17.70±1.60
Surri 16.80 16.20±1.50

Conclusions
The documentation of numerous medicinal plants indicates that the indigenous people of the study district possess rich
traditional medicinal knowledge. However, younger generations, and people of higher modern educational status appeared
to have less knowledge of ethno medicinal knowledge. The fact that values of ICF are lower also suggest that information
exchange between the indigenous people is weak. Therefore practice of traditional medicine should be given due attention
to preserve indigenous knowledge and medicinal plants.

Declarations
List of abbreviations: Not applicable
Ethics approval and consent to participate: Oral consent was obtained from respondents to share their experience prior to
data collection
Consent for publication: All authors agreed on the publication of the manuscript
Availability of data and materials: All required data are included in the manuscript
Competing interest: Authors have no competing interest
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 33

Funding information: The study was funded by Ministry of Education, Ethiopia

Author contributions: M. C. Egigu contributed to the designing of the research and specimen identification, analyzed data
and wrote the manuscript; S. M. conducted field work, contributed to specimen identification and manuscript writing

Acknowledgements
The authors thank Oda-Bultum District Administrative Office and the respondents for their cooperation.

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