LITERARY CRITICISM AND THEORY

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPER AND ANSWERS

PART B
OCTOBER 2019
13. Primary and Secondary Substance
In Aristotle's metaphysics, primary and secondary substances are key concepts:
• Primary Substance: Refers to individual, concrete entities that exist
independently. These are unique objects or individuals, such as a specific
person, animal, or object.
• Secondary Substance: Refers to the general categories or species to which
primary substances belong. These are abstract concepts like "human,"
"dog," or "table."
•

14. Sublime
The term "sublime" has been used in various contexts, but generally, it refers to
something that inspires awe, wonder, and a sense of transcendence. It's often
associated with experiences that are vast, powerful, or overwhelming, such as a
majestic mountain range or a powerful storm.

15. Wordsworth's Take on the Subject Matter of Poetry

Wordsworth believed that poetry should arise from "emotion recollected in
tranquillity." He advocated for the use of simple language and the exploration of
everyday experiences, often drawing inspiration from nature and the lives of
ordinary people. He emphasized the importance of the poet's personal feelings
and experiences in shaping the poetic work.
16. Difficulty in Discussing Metaphysical Poetry According to Eliot
T.S. Eliot found it difficult to discuss metaphysical poetry due to its intellectual
complexity and the fusion of thought and feeling. He argued that metaphysical
poets often employed unexpected metaphors and conceits, making their poetry
challenging to analyze and appreciate. Additionally, their poetry often delved into
philosophical and theological themes, which could be difficult for modern readers
to grasp.

17. Contrast Between French and English Masters

Eliot contrasted the French masters Racine and Baudelaire with the English
masters Milton and Dryden. He argued that the French poets were more
concerned with the exploration of psychological and emotional depths, while the
English poets were more interested in grand themes and heroic narratives. Eliot
suggested that the French poets were more attuned to the complexities of the
human psyche, while the English poets tended to prioritize formal perfection and
intellectual rigor.

18. Walter Benjamin's Views on the Work of Art as a Modern Institution

Walter Benjamin argued that the advent of mechanical reproduction has
transformed the nature of the work of art. In the age of mechanical reproduction,
the aura of the original artwork is diminished, and the work of art becomes
accessible to a mass audience. This shift has implications for the way we
experience and value art. Benjamin also explored the concept of the "cult value"
and "exhibition value" of art, arguing that the latter has become increasingly
dominant in modern society.

19. Freudian Interpretation and Sexual Connotations

Freudian psychoanalysis often involves attributing latent sexual meanings to
seemingly innocent objects and symbols. For example, a dream about a staircase
might be interpreted as a metaphor for sexual intercourse, with the steps
representing the stages of the sexual act. Similarly, a phallic symbol can represent
the male genitalia, while a yonic symbol can represent the female genitalia.

20. Polysemic Sign

In the work of later Barthes, a polysemic sign is a sign that can have multiple
meanings or interpretations. This is in contrast to the traditional Saussurean view
of the sign as a stable relationship between a signifier and a signified. Barthes
argued that the meaning of a sign is not fixed but is rather produced through a
complex interplay of cultural, social, and historical factors.

21. Three Stages of Rasa Experience

According to Abhinavagupta, the three stages of the rasa experience are:
1. Virasa: The initial stage, where the audience becomes absorbed in the
dramatic performance.
2. Sahrdaya: The stage of empathy, where the audience identifies with the
characters and experiences their emotions.
3. Rasa: The culminating stage, where the audience experiences a
transcendent aesthetic pleasure.

FEBRUARY 2021
13. Plato's Reaction to Skepticism
Plato, a strong advocate of idealism, was critical of the materialistic and skeptical
philosophies of Democritus and the Pythagorean school. He believed that their
focus on physical atoms and mathematical abstractions, respectively, led to a
neglect of the true nature of reality, which he saw as a realm of eternal forms and
ideas. Plato's dialogues, such as the Timaeus and the Republic, often critique
these philosophies, arguing that they fail to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the world and human experience.
14. Sources of Sublimity
Sublimity, a concept explored by various philosophers and literary theorists, refers
to a quality that inspires awe, admiration, and a sense of transcendence. The
sources of sublimity can vary, but common themes include:
• Natural phenomena: Vast landscapes, powerful storms, and celestial bodies
can evoke feelings of sublimity.
• Human achievement: Great works of art, architecture, and literature can
inspire awe and admiration.
• Moral and spiritual experiences: Acts of heroism, religious devotion, and
philosophical contemplation can be sublime.

15. Dryden's Take on the Second Unity

The Second Unity, often referred to as the Unity of Time, is one of the three
unities of dramatic structure. It stipulates that the action of a play should take
place within a limited timeframe, typically 24 hours. Dryden, an influential English
literary critic and poet, was more flexible in his interpretation of this rule. He
argued that the unity of time could be stretched to encompass a longer period, as
long as the play's action remained focused and coherent.

16. Wordsworth's View on Triviality and Meanness

Wordsworth, a leading figure of the Romantic movement, was deeply concerned
with the decline of poetic language and the rise of trivial and mundane subjects.
He believed that poetry should elevate the reader's mind and inspire noble
sentiments. To achieve this, poets must avoid using language that is commonplace
or trivial. Instead, they should strive to employ language that is vivid, imaginative,
and expressive.
17. Johnson's Attitude to the Metaphysical Poets
Samuel Johnson, a prominent English critic, had a mixed opinion of the
Metaphysical poets. While he admired their intellectual ingenuity and their ability
to make unexpected connections, he criticized their use of elaborate metaphors
and conceits, which he believed often obscured the meaning of their poems.
Johnson's critique has been the subject of much debate, and many modern critics
have challenged his negative assessment of the Metaphysical poets.

18. Lacanian Reversal of the Cartesian Dictum

The Cartesian dictum "I think, therefore I am" suggests that the self is a rational,
conscious entity that precedes language. Lacan, a French psychoanalyst, offers a
different perspective. He argues that the self is not a pre-existing entity but is
constituted through language and the symbolic order. In other words, "I am,
therefore I think," meaning that our sense of self is formed through our
interactions with language and others.

19. Linguistic Codes vs. Visual Codes

Linguistic codes and visual codes are different systems of representation used to
convey meaning.
• Linguistic codes: These involve the use of language, including written and
spoken words, to communicate ideas. Examples include books, articles, and
conversations.
• Visual codes: These rely on visual elements, such as images, symbols, and
colors, to convey meaning. Examples include paintings, films, and
advertisements.
•

20. Logocentrism of Language

Logocentrism is the belief that language is a stable, transparent medium that
directly reflects reality. It assumes that words have fixed meanings and that
language can be used to accurately represent the world. However, many
philosophers and linguists have challenged this view, arguing that language is
inherently ambiguous and that meaning is produced through interpretation and
context.

21. Abhinavagupta's Integration of Rasa and Dhvani

Abhinavagupta, a renowned Indian philosopher and aesthetician, integrated the
concepts of rasa (aesthetic emotion) and dhvani (suggestion) to develop a
comprehensive theory of aesthetic experience. He argued that rasa is not merely
a subjective emotion but is evoked by the suggestive power of language. Dhvani is
the underlying meaning or significance that is conveyed through the suggestive
power of words and images. By combining these two concepts, Abhinavagupta
provided a profound and nuanced understanding of the aesthetic experience.

JANUARY 2022
13. Aristotle's Lyceum vs. Plato's Academy
While both Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum were significant philosophical
institutions of ancient Greece, they differed in their approaches and
methodologies:
• Focus: Plato's Academy was primarily focused on metaphysical and idealist
philosophy, exploring the nature of reality and the soul. Aristotle's Lyceum,
on the other hand, emphasized empirical observation and logical reasoning,
focusing on the natural world and human affairs.
• Method: Plato's Academy used dialectical methods, involving discussions
and debates to arrive at philosophical truths. Aristotle's Lyceum, however,
relied on systematic observation, classification, and analysis to understand
the world.
14. Aristotle's Concept of Unity
Aristotle's concept of unity is a fundamental principle in his philosophy,
particularly in his works on metaphysics and ethics. It refers to the idea that a
thing or a concept is unified by a single, unifying principle. This principle can be a
form, a function, or a purpose. For instance, a human being is unified by the
human form, which distinguishes them from other beings.

15. The Third Unity

The "third unity" is a dramatic convention, often associated with neoclassical
drama, that emphasizes the unity of time, place, and action. This means that a
play should take place within a single day, in a single location, and should have a
single, unified plot.

16. Science Without Poetry

In his essay "Literature and Science," Matthew Arnold argues that without the
influence of poetry, science risks becoming cold, mechanical, and devoid of
human value. Poetry, he contends, provides a deeper understanding of human
experience and emotions, which is essential for a truly fulfilling life.

17. The Difficulty of Discussing Metaphysical Poetry

T.S. Eliot, in his essay "Metaphysical Poets," acknowledges the difficulty in
discussing metaphysical poetry due to its complex and often unconventional
nature. He points out that the metaphysical poets often employed unexpected
metaphors, obscure allusions, and intricate thought patterns, which can be
challenging to interpret and appreciate.

18. Marxist Take on Art and Literature

Marxist theory views art and literature as products of specific historical and
economic conditions. It argues that these cultural forms are influenced by the
social class structure and the dominant ideology of a particular society. Marxist
critics often analyze texts to reveal the underlying power dynamics and class
struggles that shape their content.

19. What Texts Do, According to Eagleton

Terry Eagleton, a prominent literary theorist, argues that texts do not simply
convey meaning but actively shape our understanding of the world. They can
reinforce or challenge dominant ideologies, provoke emotional responses, and
even incite social change.

20. The Process of Lacanian Critical Analysis

Lacanian psychoanalysis, applied to literary criticism, involves a complex process
of interpretation. It typically involves:
1. Identifying the Real: Recognizing the underlying, often traumatic, core of
the text.
2. Analyzing the Imaginary: Examining the symbolic representations and
fantasies that mask the Real.
3. Deconstructing the Symbolic: Unraveling the language and structures that
constitute the text's meaning.
4.
21. Contributions of Dandin
Dandin was an Indian poet and literary theorist who made significant
contributions to Sanskrit literature. He is best known for his works Kāvyādarśa (A
Mirror of Poetry) and Dasakumāracarita (The Adventures of Ten Princes). His
Kāvyādarśa is a foundational text on poetics, outlining the principles of poetic
composition, including the use of figures of speech and narrative techniques.
NOVEMBER 2022
13. Plato's View of Poets in Ion:
Plato, in his dialogue Ion, portrays poets as divine beings inspired by the Muses.
They are not rational thinkers but rather conduits for divine inspiration. This view
positions poets as intermediaries between the divine and the human world,
suggesting that their creativity is not a product of conscious effort but a gift from
the gods. However, Plato also expresses concern about the potential negative
influence of poetry, particularly its ability to arouse strong emotions and mislead
audiences.

14. The Sublime:

The sublime is a concept in aesthetics that refers to an experience of awe, wonder,
and transcendence evoked by certain works of art, natural phenomena, or
spiritual experiences. It is often associated with feelings of power, vastness, and
infinity. The sublime can be both terrifying and exhilarating, and it challenges our
ordinary understanding of the world.

15. Dryden's Take on the Second Unity:

The Second Unity, or Unity of Place, is one of the three unities of dramatic
structure, along with Unity of Time and Unity of Action. Dryden, an influential
English literary critic and poet, generally adhered to the three unities, but he was
more flexible in his interpretation of the Second Unity. He argued that the unity of
place could be stretched to encompass a single city or even a larger geographical
area, as long as the action remained focused and coherent.

16. The Third Unity:

The Third Unity, or Unity of Action, is the most fundamental of the three unities. It
requires that a play have a single, unified plot without any subplots or digressions.
The action should be causally connected and should progress logically towards a
single, climactic resolution. Adherence to this unity helps to create a sense of
dramatic focus and coherence.

17. Wordsworth's Definition of a Poet:

According to Wordsworth, a poet is a person who possesses a greater degree of
"sensibility" or sensitivity to the world around them. This heightened sensitivity
allows the poet to perceive beauty and meaning in everyday experiences that
others might overlook. Additionally, the poet must have the ability to express
these perceptions in language that is both powerful and moving.

18. Lukacs' Concept of 'Reflection' in the Novel:

Georg Lukacs, a Marxist literary critic, uses the term "reflection" to describe the
way in which novels can reflect the social and historical realities of a particular
time and place. However, he emphasizes that this reflection is not simply a passive
mirroring of reality. Rather, novels actively shape and interpret reality, offering
new insights and perspectives. Lukacs argues that the novel is uniquely suited to
this task because of its ability to portray the complex interplay between individual
characters and their social environments.

19. Walter Benjamin's Views on the Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical
Reproduction:
Walter Benjamin, a German cultural critic, argued that the development of
mechanical reproduction technologies, such as photography and film, had
fundamentally changed the nature of the work of art. In the age of mechanical
reproduction, the aura of the artwork—its unique, authentic presence—is lost.
Instead, art becomes accessible to the masses and loses its traditional value as a
cult object. Benjamin explored the implications of this shift, considering both the
potential for democratization of art and the loss of its original function.
20. Classical Methodological Procedure in Psychoanalysis:
Psychoanalysis, as developed by Sigmund Freud, is based on a classical
methodological procedure that involves the analysis of free associations, dreams,
and slips of the tongue. Through these techniques, the analyst seeks to uncover
unconscious thoughts and desires that are influencing the patient's behavior.
These unconscious elements are often rooted in early childhood experiences and
can be brought to conscious awareness through the process of analysis.

21. Abhinavagupta's Contribution to Indian Poetics:

Abhinavagupta was a major figure in the development of Indian aesthetics and
poetics. His most significant contribution lies in his concept of rasa (aesthetic
flavor). Rasa is a complex emotional response that is evoked in the audience
through the skillful presentation of dramatic action. Abhinavagupta developed a
sophisticated theory of rasa that explores the different types of rasa and the
techniques that poets can use to evoke them. His work has had a profound impact
on the study of Indian aesthetics and continues to be influential today.

OCTOBER 2023
13. Aristotle's Reception Through Ages
Aristotle's works have had a profound and enduring impact on Western thought,
shaping philosophy, science, and the arts for centuries. His ideas on logic,
metaphysics, ethics, politics, and aesthetics have been studied, debated, and
adapted by countless thinkers.
• Medieval Period: During the Middle Ages, Aristotle's works were translated
into Latin and Arabic, influencing Islamic philosophy and theology. His ideas
were integrated into Christian scholasticism, particularly in the works of
Thomas Aquinas.
• Renaissance: The Renaissance saw a renewed interest in Aristotle's works,
particularly his treatises on rhetoric and poetics. His ideas on tragedy and
comedy influenced playwrights like Shakespeare.
 • Modern Period: In the modern era, Aristotle's ideas have continued to be
influential, especially in fields like philosophy, linguistics, and literary theory.
His work on logic has been foundational to the development of formal logic,
and his Poetics has been a cornerstone of literary criticism.
•

14. Errors That Hinder Sublimity

Aristotle, in his Rhetoric, identifies several errors that can hinder sublimity in
speech:
• Puerility: Using childish or trivial language.
• Bombast: Using excessive or inflated language.
• Meanness: Using language that is too plain or ordinary.
• Coldness: Lacking passion or emotion in delivery.
• Anti-climax: Failing to build to a powerful conclusion.
•

15. Time Distribution in Plays

Aristotle, in his Poetics, suggests that the ideal length of a tragedy should be such
that it can be performed in a single sitting. He also emphasizes the importance of
unity of action, which implies that the plot should be focused and well-structured.
The time frame of the play should be limited to a single day or a few days at most.

16. The Third Unity

The three unities of drama are unity of action, unity of place, and unity of time.
The third unity, unity of time, as mentioned earlier, suggests that the action of the
play should take place within a limited time frame. This unity was particularly
emphasized by neoclassical critics.
17. Eliot's Contrast Between French and English Masters
T.S. Eliot, in his critical essays, often contrasted the French and English poetic
traditions. He argued that the French poets, such as Racine and Baudelaire, were
more concerned with formal perfection and psychological depth. In contrast, the
English poets, like Milton and Dryden, were more interested in grand themes and
heroic narratives.

18. Lukacs' Use of 'Reflection'

Georg Lukacs, a Marxist literary critic, used the term "reflection" to describe the
way in which a novel reflects the social and historical conditions of its time. He
argued that the novel, as a work of art, is not a mere imitation of reality but a
critical reflection of it. The novel, according to Lukacs, can reveal the
contradictions and tensions within society and can inspire social change.

19. Langue and Parole

These terms were introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist.
• Langue: Refers to the abstract language system, the underlying rules and
structures that govern a language.
• Parole: Refers to the concrete speech acts, the individual utterances
produced by language users.
•

20. Myths
Myths are traditional stories, often involving supernatural beings and events, that
explain the origins of the world, the nature of humanity, and the relationship
between humans and the divine. Myths often serve as a cultural blueprint,
shaping values, beliefs, and behaviors.
21. Major Topics in the Natyasastra
The Natyasastra, an ancient Indian treatise on dramatic arts, covers a wide range
of topics, including:
• The origins of drama: The divine origins of drama and its connection to the
Vedas.
• Dramatic theory: The nature of drama, its elements, and its purpose.
• Acting techniques: The training and performance techniques of actors.
• Stagecraft: The design and construction of stages, costumes, and props.
• Music and dance: The role of music and dance in drama.
• Dramatic genres: The different genres of drama, including tragedy, comedy,
and farce.