ENG851

BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM

COURSE WRITERS: Professor Iyabode O. A. Nwabueze, Dr. Felicia Oamen

Department of English, National Open University of Nigeria
and Dr. Afolabi Jide Alebiosu, Ronik Polytechnic, Lagos

COURSE EDITOR: Professor Sola T. Babatunde,

Department of English, University of Ilorin

Course Guide

Introduction

Welcome to ENG851: Bilingualism and Multilingualism. It is a 3-credit unit course

for the Master of Arts in English students. It builds on what you have learnt at the

undergraduate level in ENG151, ENG251, ENG353 and ENG355. It brings the reality

of how language works in society, especially, in communicating intentions and

meanings. The link of language meeting and language dominance and how the politics

of it are played out in communities and their effects on the individuals should be clear

from going through this course. Bilingualism and Multilingualism may seem two sides

of a coin; it would be of interest to see how you view the issues on this after going

through this course. We sincerely hope you learn a lot as you study this course. It will

open your eyes to a lot of things you have always taken for granted. Let’s roll together!

Course Competencies

 The course will enable you define and explain the core concepts as well as

related concepts in the field of bilingualism and multilingualism.

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  It is expected that you should be able to research into the processes involved

in bilingualism and multilingualism, the examples of communities with these

characteristics and the processes entailed.

 From this course, you will also learn to identify and utilise the practical

processes involved in doing research in the fields of bilingualism and

multilingualism.

Course Objectives

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

 Define the concepts of bilingualism and multilingualism;

 Explain the concepts of bilingualism and multilingualism;

 Identify the links between the two concepts and relate how they interact;

 Identify related concepts in these fields;

 Determine the features that show a community of practice as being bilingual or

multilingual;

 Examine the processes involved in language interactions that result in

bilingualism and/or multilingualism;

 Critical assess the politics of bilingual and multilingual situations;

 See how the language policy in Nigeria can affect the situation;

 Interconnect our language use to our everyday experience;

 Identify and practicalise processes involved in researching into bilingual and

multilingual experiences;

 Critically relate our everyday language usage to our real-life experiences;

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  Do a sample language project in any of the situations in a community of

practice, applying all the current possible research tools or developing a novel

one to interact with real live data from the field.

Working Through this Course

To complete the course, you are required to read the study units, get the

recommended reading materials and read them. You will also need to undertake

practical exercises for which you need a pen, a notebook and other materials that will

be listed in this guide. It is advised that you do not jump units; study all of them because

they have been arranged in such a way that the content of one unit is built on the

content of a preceding one. There are exercises at the end of each unit. The exercises

are to aid your mastery of the concepts being discussed. At the end of each unit, you

will be required to submit written assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of

the course, you will write a final examination.

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Study Units

Module 1: Basic concepts and issues in bilingualism/multilingualism

Unit 1: Code: language or dialect?

Unit 2: Bilingualism versus multilingualism

Unit 3: Diglossia and bilingualism/multilingualism

Unit 4: Code mixing/code switching: Relevance and effect

Unit 5: The place of language as identity in a globalised world

Module 2: Bilingualism

Unit 1: Definitions and theories of bilingualism

Unit 2: Individual or societal: Measurement of bilingualism?

Unit 3: How is bilingualism acquired/learnt and used?

Unit 4: Values of bilingualism

Unit 5: Examples of bilingualism

Module 3: Multilingualism

Unit 1: Definitions and theories of multilingualism

Unit 2: Individual or societal: Measurement of multilingualism?

Unit 3: The Influencing factors in the acquisition, learning and use of multilingualism

Unit 4: Values of multilingualism

Unit 5: Examples of multilingualism

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Module 4: Bilingualism/multilingualism in a globalised world

Unit 1: Bilingualism/multilingualism and national development

Unit 2: Language policy and planning in a bilingual/multilingual community

Unit 3: Challenges, opportunities and constraints of bilingualism/multilingualism in a

community

Unit 4: Consequences of bilingualism/multilingualism on a society: Hybridisation,

modernisation and possible linguicide

Unit 5: The global village: Is there any advantage?

References and Further Reading

The references used in the course material are listed at end of each Course Unit.

However, in addition, related materials that you can read to enrich your learning is

added too so that you can expand your horizon on the course. You should do well to

ensure that you find such materials to read. As a research student, it is also expected

that you would use the opportunity given you by the University to study as much as

possible on the topic by going into the e-library of the University. The University

subscribes to some data bases, which will give you more than enough resources to

do a good research work.

Presentation Schedule

The date for the submission of your Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs), now really

Computer Marked Assignments, are also captured in the University calendar. Do well

to familiarise yourself with them and ensure that you study hard and take all of them.

In sincerity, these TMAs are expected to help you assess yourself and review how well

you have learned the content of your course material on the course.

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Assessment

This course is assessed in two ways: Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) and a final

examination.

Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs)

You will need to do a specified number of the Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs).

Every unit in this course has a Self-Assessment Exercise. The total marks for the three

(3) assignments will be 30% of your total work. It is also important for you to note that

TMAs are usually given as CBAs in NOUN. Thus, the Tutor Marked Assignments will

be done online and they will be graded immediately. Therefore, you need to be on the

lookout for the academic calendar to know when each of your TMAs are due to go live.

It is also important for you to be ready in case any of your TMAs comes in the form of

seminar presentation. In addition, it is obvious that you need to master your computer

skills and become very techno-friendly.

Final Examination and Grading

You are also expected to take an end-of-semester examination, which is 70% of your

total mark. The final examination of ENG851 will be of three (3) hours’ duration. All

areas of the course will be assessed. The examination will consist of questions, which

reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercises and Tutor-Marked Assignments you

have previously come across. You are advised to revise the entire course after

studying the last unit before you sit for the examination.

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Course Marking Scheme

The following table lays out how the actual course mark allocation is broken down.

Assessment Marks %

Assignments (three) 30

Final Examination 70

Total 100

How to Get the Most from the Course

In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the

advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed

study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of

it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer

might give you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your set books

or other materials. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study

units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points. Each of the study units

follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the

unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a

whole. Next is a set of learning outcomes (LOs). These LOs let you know what you

should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use these

LOs to guide your study. When you have finished the units, you must go back and

check whether you have arrived at the intended outcomes for your learning. If you

make a habit of doing this, you will significantly improve your chances of passing the

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course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other

sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from your course guide. The

following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into trouble,

email your facilitator. Remember that your facilitator’s job is to help you. When you

need assistance, do not hesitate to call and ask your facilitator to provide it. Follow the

following advice carefully:

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly; it is your first assignment.

2. Organise a study schedule. Plan the time you are expected to spend on each

unit based on the projected study hours and how the self-assessment

assignments relate to the units. Whatever method you choose to use, you

should decide on and write down dates for working on each unit.

3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick

to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course

work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your facilitator

know before it is too late for help.

4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the Introduction and the Intended Learning Outcomes

for the Unit.

5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is

given in the ‘Introduction’ at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always

need both the study unit you are working on and one of your set books on your

desk at the same time.

6. Work through the Unit. The Unit's content has been arranged to provide a

sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit, you will be instructed

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 to read sections from your set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your

reading.

7. Review the LOs for each unit to ensure that you have achieved them. If you feel

unsure about any of the LOs, review the study material or consult your

facilitator.

8. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s LOs, you can then start

on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your

study so that you keep yourself on schedule.

9. When you have submitted an assignment to your facilitator for marking, do not

wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule.

Consult your facilitator as soon as possible if you have any questions or

problems.

10. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the

final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit’s LOs (listed at the

beginning of each unit) and the Course Objectives (listed in the Course Guide).

11. Keep in touch with your Study Centre. Up-to-date course information will be

continuously available there. Also, ensure to check your emails, SMS and the

University website for constant updates and information on your programme in

general. If your programme or Faculty has a social media platform to pass

information to students, make sure you also make maximum use of this to your

benefit. Interestingly, the University recently launched an app to help get

information across to you. Ensure that you download the application. It is really

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 a very robust one that can help you get a lot of things done. You have to be a

registered student to access it though.

Online Facilitation

There are eight (8) online facilitation hours available for you to interact with your

lecturer and clarify issues you need to ask questions about in the course. If your course

has a facilitator, ensure that you attend all sessions. There is usually a university-wide

timetable for this purpose. However, in case you have a special arrangement in your

class with your supervisor, ensure the schedule and timetable is followed so that you

can get the best out of the course. It is to your benefit. However, in case your course

does not yet have facilitation facility, make best use of the videos the University is

producing for each course to make your life easier. This course too will soon have its

instructional videos produced to help you better understand it. Watch out on your

virtual learning environment and key into using them for the purpose of improving your

learning experience.

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Course Information

Course Code: ENG851

Course Title: Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Credit Unit: 3

Course Status: E

Course Blub:

Semester: 1

Course Duration: 1 semester

Required Hours for Study: 24

Course Team

Course Developer: NOUN/Prof Iyabode O. A. Nwabueze

Course Writers: Prof Iyabode O. A. Nwabueze, Dr Afolabi Tajudeen Alebiosu, Dr

Felicia Oamen

Content Editor:

Instructional Designer:

Learning Technologists:

Copy Editor:

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Ice Breaker

Sincerely, studying the bilingual and multilingual situation in the society can be very

interesting as well as be an eye opener. Do you know that many of us really code mix

and code switch unconsciously? This is usually due to having been exposed to the

concerned languages at proficiency level. Even you may not be aware of this until you

need to make use of either of these languages in unfamiliar situations. The course

developer had this situation where she was to pray in Yoruba due to the nature of her

audience and found herself struggling to express herself in the language to pray even

though she speaks it so fluently. Wow! That was a surprise. Bilingualism and

multilingualism have political undertones also coming into play due to language

dominance struggles. It would be nice to see how you would approach this matter in

the face of the new national language policy. Let us do this course with the

consciousness of the reality of our communities of practice, which could be where you

reside, work or social spaces. All have some features you will notice as you undertake

this course. It is now time for us commence this awesome journey together and explore

the use of language in our communities!

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Module 1: Basic concepts and issues in bilingualism/multilingualism

Unit 1: Code: language or dialect?

Unit 2: Bilingualism versus multilingualism

Unit 3: Diglossia and bilingualism/multilingualism

Unit 4: Code mixing/code switching: Relevance and effect

Unit 5: The place of language as identity in a globalised world

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UNIT 1: CODE: LANGUAGE OR DIALECT?

Source:

https://www.facebook.com/netgists.home.blog/photos/a.103666194320560/108

686257151887/?type=3&locale=ru_RU

1.1 Introduction

Hello and welcome to ENG851. The course title of EN851 is Bilingualism and

Multilingualism. You must have noticed that developments in modern society have

significantly influenced the use of language in society. Some of these developments

include the rising need for education, increase in trans-border mobility, advancement

in information technology and digital communication among others. The outcome of

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these is, first, that the world has truly become a global village. Second, people have

more opportunities to interact with other members of society at the local and global

levels. The implication is that people have access and exposure to more languages

today so that the world linguistic map currently shows that many people speak more

than one language. This is why some have argued that monolingual individuals and

communities hardly exist anywhere in the world today. This Module serves as the

introductory part of the issues we are going to investigate in this course. In this Unit,

we will provide a general overview of the term, code. In addition, we will examine

language and dialect as sociolinguistic concepts. Finally, we will attempt to distinguish

between language and dialect. This discussion is important as the boundary between

the concepts sometimes appears fuzzy, leading to interchange in the meanings that

people ascribe to them.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

1. describe code as a sociolinguistic term;

2. explain language and dialect;

3. distinguish between language and dialect.

1.3 What is Code?

The word code as a linguistic term is not unfamiliar to us. Sometimes, in informal

interaction, we use the term ‘code’ to refer to the framing of a language in such a way

that only the targeted persons can understand the message. Thus, in this context, our

message is sometimes described as ‘coded’ when the intention is to prevent some

people from being privy to secrets that we view as meant for selected persons.

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Wardhaugh (2006:88) however described code as a neutral term that refers to ‘any

kind of system that two or more persons employ for communication’. Padilla and

Liebman (1975:35) also described code as ‘any linguistic system used for

interpersonal interaction’. They listed languages, dialects and varieties of dialects as

examples of code. Wardhaugh noted that the word code is neutral and therefore is a

more useful term for referring to a linguistic system. According to him, other

sociolinguistic concepts such as language, dialect, style, standard language, pidgin

and creole could arouse very strong emotions among speakers. Llamas et al (2007)

expressed similar view on the notion of code. They explained that the use of the term

code rather than other linguistic terms helps speakers to avoid the political and social

evaluations that are reflected in concepts such as language, dialect or even register.

This view is easy to relate with as language users sometimes exhibit some form of

sentiments to their language. For instance, how would you feel if your indigenous

linguistic code was referred to as pidgin or creole while another code used in your

speech community was described as standard language? It is likely that you would

feel uncomfortable with this. You may even argue that the status ascribed to your

native code is inappropriate. That shows you that people indeed are attached to and

sentimental about their indigenous codes. Wardhaugh noted that the term code is

taken from information theory, and this thus underscores the need to look at the

significance of the term from the angle of communication theory. For instance, have

you observed that based on the speech event, people choose one language rather

than the other when they interact with others? Have you also observed that speakers

sometimes shift from one code to another or even mix elements of the two codes when

engaged in interaction? This is because speakers when engaged in interaction,

particularly in a multilingual speech environment, sometimes judge one code or the

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other as appropriate for referential or expressive purposes. These and many other

aspects of communication are indicative of the fact that different factors influence the

linguistic choices that language users make when engaged in communication. More

importantly, they demonstrate that many speakers use more than one language when

communicating with others, choosing from different and appropriate codes that are

available to them to meet different communicative needs in contemporary society.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Briefly discuss what you understand by the term code.

1.4 What is Language?

Language is vital to human society. In fact, it is the instrument that people employ to

coordinate the affairs of society. The question however is, what is language? There

are many definitions that been proffered by scholars about what the term language

refers to. Nonetheless, it is necessary that we provide some of the common definitions

of language that are available in the literature and then attempt to discuss these in

relation to the interest of this course. Following the linguistic perspective, Sapir (1921)

cited in Swann et al (2004:162), defines language as ‘a purely human and non-

instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a

system of voluntarily produced symbols’. Wardhaugh (1972) explains that language is

a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for communication. In addition, Halliday

(2003) describes language as a semiotic system or a system of meaning. Verderber

(1999) notes that language is the collection of words and the system for their use in

communication. These descriptions reflect Noam Chomsky’s asocial view of

language. In other words, they mirror an approach to language study that is formalistic,

abstract, and focused on explaining the form or system of language. However, as a

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member of society, you would have observed that language is a communal

possession. That is, there is a link between language and its users/society. More

importantly, sociolinguistic investigation of language focuses not just on the study of

language as a system but also on the contextual examination of the nature and use of

language. Thus, aspects of language such as context, communicative purpose,

speakers’ background among other factors are of interest to scholars in the field of

sociolinguistics. For instance, based on its manner of acquisition and use, a

sociolinguistic study of language could classify it as the first, second or foreign

language of its users. If you take English as an example, its classification as a first,

second or even foreign language in a speech community, is based on how people

acquire the language, the functions they deplore it to perform, etc. Sociolinguistic study

of a language could also focus on its vitality. In this way, research enquiry focuses on

investigating whether the language is living or dead. Sociolinguists also investigate the

influence of different social variables such as situation, communicative function,

region, ethnicity, gender and social class on language variation. This is because these

factors have been known to have influenced the development of varieties of language

such as American English, Canadian English, New Zealand English, Ghanaian

English, Nigerian English, etc.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Explain in your own words, what you understand by the concept of language.

1.5 What is Dialect?

If you remember, we mentioned in 1.4 that language is dynamic in nature. We also

noted that language variation could occur as a result of the use and spread of a

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language. Differences in the use of language could occur at the individual (idiolect),

social (sociolect) or regional (dialect) levels. Dialects are sometimes considered as a

substandard form of a language. However, in linguistic terms this is not the case.

Rather, a dialect is a sub-categorisation of a language that is linguistically

differentiated on the basis of grammar, lexis and phonology. A dialect is a variety of a

language that is used in a particular geographical environment and has some linguistic

characteristics that distinguishes it from other dialects of the language. Examples of

dialects of a language based on regional spread is the Yoruba language spoken in Ife,

Ondo, Ijebu, Cotonou, etc. Examples of dialects of English language include Welsh

English, Cockney, Scottish English, Yorkshire, Nigerian English, Liberian English,

Ghanaian English, etc. It has been observed that there is a link between dialect and

sociolect. Sociolect is the language variety used by a group of people who can be

classified as ‘upper’, ‘middle’, ‘lower’ or ‘working’ class. The argument is that the higher

a sociolect is on the scale of prestige, the less regional the variety will be. Rather, the

variety may likely end up being classified as the Standard form of the language. An

example of a prestigious sociolect is Standard English.

The notion of dialect continuum is also an aspect that we need to pay attention to. If

you observe carefully, you will realise that speakers of two dialects of a language may

not necessarily understand one another. For example, it is possible that Yoruba

speakers from Lagos and Ikare-Akoko in Ondo State may not enjoy mutual intelligibility

if they were to interact, using their different dialects of the Yoruba language. Even in

cases where the language users live close, for instance, the Ifes and the Ijeshas in

Osun state, lexical differences could also sometimes affect mutual intelligibility. The

case of China is a classic example where it is reported that six mutually unintelligible

dialects are spoken in the country. Wardhaugh (2006) provides explanation for this

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phenomenon by noting that two dialects spoken by people who live close may exhibit

some linguistic differences but the speakers will likely understand one another. Ife and

Ijesha dialects may likely fall within this category. However, Wardhaugh also notes

that the farther speakers go from one another in terms of geographical location, the

less likely it is that they will understand each other’s dialects. One way to confirm or

challenge Wardhaugh’s assertions on dialect continuum as a student of language is

to carefully observe how language works in your society, particularly if you live in

Nigeria’s multidialectal and multilingual environment.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Briefly discuss what you understand by the concept dialect.

1.6 Differences between Language and Dialect

The discussion in 1.5 brings us to another issue on language and dialect, which is, the

difference between the two concepts. The language-dialect distinction is an aspect

that attracts scholars’ and language users’ interests. This is perhaps because of

societal perception of dialect as being substandard on the one hand and language as

being ‘better’ and more developed on the other hand. One criterion that is often used

to distinguish between language and dialect is mutual intelligibility. Mutual intelligibility

is used to ascertain if a language that is being investigated is a single language, two

dialects of one language, or two separate languages. The mutual intelligibility criterion

is however sometimes problematic in its application, particularly where political and

cultural factors also serve as determinants of the status of the language-dialect

categorisation.

Mutual intelligibility could also be difficult to determine with regards to the degree of

how well users of the dialects can comprehend them. For instance, it is sometimes

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possible that some people in a community could claim they do not understand the

neighbouring community’s dialect(s), while some other speakers in the same

community could claim that they understand the dialect. A classic example is that of

codes used in Edo State of Nigeria where linguistic diversity is prevalent and

symmetrical comprehension of languages/dialects may not be the case in every

situation (Ogeifun & Taiwo, 2019). The question then is, how do we ascribe language-

dialect status to the codes used in a State where the linguistic diversity exhibited by

neighbouring villages and towns poses a challenge of intelligibility for members of the

speech communities? This and other issues surrounding classification of languages

and dialects are areas that we may need to probe further as scholars engaged in

sociolinguistic enquiry within Nigeria’s speech domain. In addition, language users

sometimes ascribe status to language(s) based on their cultural attachments.

Wardhaugh cites China as an example of a speech community where mutually

unintelligible Chinese languages are referred to as ‘dialects’ simply because the

language users have chosen to do so.

Apart from the mutual intelligibility criterion, Bell (1976) identified seven (7) factors for

classifying a language. These criteria include standardization, vitality, historicity,

autonomy, reduction, mixture, and de facto norms. Standardization refers to the

process of codifying a language. This process could involve the development of

dictionaries, grammars, spelling books and literature for the language. Vitality is

another factor which, according to Bell, helps to classify a language. Classifying a

language according to its vitality requires that the researcher investigates the

existence or otherwise of a community of speakers of the language. The vitality of a

language therefore helps a scholar to determine if the language could be classified as

living or dead. Examples of dead languages in the world include Manx, the old

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language of the Isle of Man, and Cornish. Latin is also classified as dead because, in

today’s world, the language is studied rather than used in every day discourse.

The third criterion is historicity. This refers to the sense of identity, ethnicity, and social

ties that a group of people have because they use a particular language. Most of the

ethnic groups in Nigeria construct their identities through their sentiments and

attachment to their indigenous languages. This perhaps accounts for why every ethnic

group in the country seeks to protect their language and resist any form of perceived

linguistic domination. Linguistic rivalry has however been identified as a major

challenge for classification (and perhaps, development) of languages in Nigeria. The

question then is, is there a way of managing ethnic attachment to codes such that

some indigenous languages could be adopted for extended functions nationally and

globally? Further research in this area could provide the answers that would aid

language development in Nigeria.

Autonomy is another factor that could help to classify a language. Autonomy refers to

the feelings that the speaker of a language has in the fact that his or her language is

different from other languages. Reduction occurs when a particular variety of a

language is regarded as a sub-variety rather than as an independent language. It

could also occur when a variety of a language lacks resources such as a writing

system or is restricted in terms of the functions that it could perform. The criterion of

mixture refers to speakers’ perception of their language as ‘pure’. Finally, de facto

norms reflect speakers’ feelings that good speakers of the language are ideal

representatives of the norms of proper usage while the poor speakers are not. In some

instances, de facto norms limit users’ focus to one particular sub-variety as

representing the ‘best’ usage of the language, e.g., Standard English.

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1.7 Summary

This Unit discusses the concepts of code, language and dialects. It also brings to the

fore some issues that have characterised scholars’ enquiry into the classification of

the concepts in the field of sociolinguistics. One area that promises to keep generating

debate in multilingual societies is that of the distinction between language and dialect.

The challenge of applying the mutual intelligibility criterion for language-dialect

classification in Nigeria for example remains problematic, and so is the challenge of

ethnic attachment to indigenous languages which has impeded the development and

expansion of the use of these languages for attainment of national cohesion.

1.7 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Buhari, B. (2021). Introduction to sociolinguistics. Nas Media.

Llamas, C., Mullany, L.& Stockwell, P. (2007). Sociolinguistics. Routledge.
Ogbeifun, A.F. & Taiwo, O. (2019). The linguistic status of Usen. Journal of Linguistic
Association of Nigeria (JOLAN), 22(2), 248-263.
Padilla, M. & Liebman, E. (1975). Language acquisition in the bilingual child. Bilingual
Review/La Revista Bilingüe, 2(1/2), 34-55.
Stokwell, P. (2007). Sociolinguistics: A resource book for students. Routledge.
Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An introduction to sociolinguistics. Blackwell Publishing.

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1.9 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

Answers to SAEs 1

1. A code is a linguistic system that people use for communication or interpersonal

interaction.

2. The term code is neutral and not likely to generate the type of sentiments and

emotions that terms like pidgin, creole, standard language, dialect, etc. could evoke in

users of language.

3. Different factors such as the speech event or the purpose for which language is

used may determine the type of code people use for interpersonal interaction.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for communication.

Answers to SAEs 3

1. Dialect is a term that refers to a variety of a language used in a geographical

environment.

2. Dialect is a sub-categorisation of a language and could be distinguished based on

grammatical, lexical and phonological differences.

3. A dialect may transcend its regional variety status as it gains more prestige.

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UNIT 2: BILINGUALISM VERSUS MULTILINGUALISM

2.1 Introduction

Welcome back. Have you noticed that developments in modern society have

increased human mobility and interaction? Yes, they have. This is why language

contact is on the increase because people travel around the world as migrants,

tourists, academics, diplomats, asylum seekers, children of mixed marriages, etc. The

result of this is that many more people speak language(s) other than their Mother

Tongue today. In addition, based on the pervasive and intrusive nature of the Internet

which has in some ways transformed the world into a global ‘village’, there are

arguments about whether ‘pure’ monolinguals still exist in the world. Therefore, in this

Unit we will examine bilingualism and multilingualism as sociolinguistic concepts. We

will also consider other related issues such as semilingualism, ‘alingualism and

biculturalism. In addition, we will discuss the link between bilingualism and

multilingualism. This is expected to enhance our understanding of the characteristics

of bilingualism and multiculturalism, and perhaps open us up to new ways of thinking

about these notions as sociolinguistic concepts.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to

i. discuss the term bilingualism

ii. examine degrees of bilingualism

iii. explain the term multilingualism

iv. critically examine the differentiates or brings together these concepts:

iv. assess some theoretical arguments on the relationship between

bilingualism and biculturalism.

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2.3 What is Bilingualism?

Source: https://www.istockphoto.com

There is no doubt that in some countries, only one language is used for all

communicative purposes. However, in many countries, people use different languages

for different purposes. For example, if you live in Nigeria, you would have noticed that

on different occasions and in different speech situations, you need to speak one

language or the other to be able to communicate effectively. Sometimes, you need to

speak a particular language when interacting with your family members. At other

times, you use another language when interacting with your friends, transacting

26
business in the marketplace or communicating with the outside world. Generally, when

people speak two languages, they are said to be bilingual.

However, scholars in the field of sociolinguistics have noted that defining the term

bilingualism is a bit complex and not as straightforward as it appears. One of the issues

which seems to complicate efforts at defining the concept is, as Wardhaugh (2006)

noted, the idea that some speakers are actually bi-dialectal rather than bilingual. In

other words, they speak two varieties of a language that are distinctly different and not

two languages. Another issue is the complication posed by the notion of the degree

of competence that bilinguals exhibit in the use of the two languages. This will be

examined more closely later. Suffice to say for now that these issues have influenced

scholars’ perception of bilingualism over the years.

Nonetheless, let us consider some of the definitions that scholars have proffered for

the term bilingualism. A classic description of bilingualism is that of Bloomfield (1933)

in which he defines the phenomenon as “native-like control of two languages.” The

major argument that has been raised against this definition is that it imposes the idea

of perfection on bilinguals’ linguistic control of two languages when in actual

performance a bilingual exhibits different degrees of competence in the two languages

(cf. Chomsky, 2006). Mackey (1970) describes bilingualism as the alternate use of two

or more languages by the same individuals. Similarly, Llamas et al (2007) define

bilingualism as “the ability of a speaker or group to speak two or more languages.”

Fromkin et al (2011:460) define bilingualism as “the ability to speak two (or more)

languages, either by an individual speaker, individual bilingualism, or within a society,

societal bilingualism.” While Llamas et al’s and Fromkin et al’s definitions attest to the

idea that bilingualism involves the use of more than one language, yet they reflect the

27
controversy surrounding the number of languages that a bilingual could control. While

bilingualism has been described as involving the use of two languages, the concept is

often also used in the literature to refer to the use of three or more languages. For the

sake of clear delineation of concepts, in this course we prefer to refer to bilingualism

as the control of two languages. It is important to also state that bilinguals can be

ranged along a continuum of a rare instance of speakers who have native-like control

of two languages and at the extreme end, speakers who have just a minimal control

of the second language (Spolsky, 2003). In addition, the bilingual’s competence in the

two languages usually depends on her/his needs and uses of the languages. This

submission is important as many scholars have perceived bilinguals as two

monolinguals living in one person. However, it has been observed that the constant

interaction of the two languages that a bilingual use ultimately produces a different

language system.

Self-Assessment Exercise

In your own words, briefly explain the term bilingualism.

2.4 Degree of Bilingualism

You would have noticed that the argument in 2.3 is based on the idea that bilinguals

do not use language in the same way and for the same purposes. For example, a

lawyer, banker or medical doctor will usually demonstrate a higher degree of

proficiency in her/his use of English than a market woman in one of the villages in

Nigeria. Thus, the level of proficiency that a bilingual is able to achieve in the two

languages is significantly influenced by the level of exposure that s/he has to the

languages. The level of proficiency could range from a very limited ability in some

28
aspects of the two languages to high proficiency in the languages. Sociolinguists’

interest in the study of the degree of bilinguals’ proficiency in two languages has led

to different classification of bilingualism. Bilingualism could be classified into societal

bilingualism and individual bilingualism. Individual bilingualism is further classified

based on the distinction between the degree of competence in the languages spoken.

Bilinguals could further be classified by age, manner of acquisition of the languages

and context.

Thus, we have such classifications as early/late bilinguals; formal/informal bilinguals;

acquired/learnt bilinguals; additive/subtractive bilinguals;

compound/coordinate/subordinate bilinguals; balanced/dominant bilinguals and

folk/elite bilinguals. For instance, the categorising of bilinguals into early and late

bilinguals is influenced by the age of the learner when s/he is exposed to the

languages. Early bilinguals would then be learners who acquired two languages in the

pre-adolescent stage of life while the late bilinguals would be learners who already

had a Mother Tongue and learnt a Second Language (L2) after the age of 8 years. In

most cases, early bilinguals are regarded as speakers who have native-like linguistic

competence in both languages while late bilinguals are usually regarded as non-native

speakers of the L2.

Balanced bilinguals are categorised based on their attainment of equal or similar level

of proficiency in the two languages while the dominant or unbalanced bilinguals have

one language that is dominant and another that is weaker. It is worthy of note that the

idea of balanced bilingualism could be contentious as some scholars have noted that

it is an ideal that may be difficult to attain. Additive bilinguals are speakers whose

second language serves as an advantage while subtractive bilinguals are those whose

29
second language serves as a detriment to the first language. In fact, the subtractive

bilingual stands the chance of losing her/his first language or ending up with a linguistic

situation known as semilingualism. Semilingualism refers to a situation where a

bilingual is not able to function appropriately in any of her/his two languages. Elite

bilinguals (also known as elective bilinguals) are those who acquired a second

language through formal study of the language while folk bilinguals are those who are

usually forced to learn the second language when in contact with those who speak it.

Coordinate bilinguals are those who learned the two languages in separate contexts

and are able to keep them distinct while compound bilinguals learnt the two languages

one after the other. For compound bilinguals, the second language is assumed to be

learnt through the first. Thus, the compound bilingual is not able to keep the two

languages apart. The subordinate bilinguals use their first language or Mother Tongue

more, so that the L1 significantly dominates the second language in their daily

interactions.

Categorising bilingualism is helpful in that it helps to understand the nature of the

linguistic phenomenon in relation to different speakers. However, a more realistic way

to view bilingualism is to consider it as a continuum rather than mere categories. This

is because bilinguals use their languages for different purposes, in different domains

and with different members of society. These and many other factors therefore

influence the level of proficiency that speakers could exhibit (Dewaele, 2015).

Nonetheless, because scholars approach the study of bilingualism from different fields

and theoretical stand points, the discussions on the concept will always generate

interesting debates based on researchers’ perspectives and scholarly interests in the

phenomenon.

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Self-Assessment Exercise

Critically examine the notion of degrees of bilingualism.

2.5 Bilingualism/Biculturalism

Have you ever wondered why the language that people speak seems to reflect some

of their beliefs, conventions, habits, etc and thus makes the speakers appear

somewhat different from one another? It is simple. Language and culture are

interrelated, and this leads us to the issue of biculturalism and its link to bilingualism.

The debate on the extent to which the languages acquired/learnt by a speaker could

affect her/his culture is an ongoing one. The language we speak plays a significant

role in establishing and maintaining our culture which could include our way of life,

value patterns, conventions, belief system, etc. However, the question is, to what

extent does the acquisition of a second language suggest the acquisition of the cultural

behaviour of a second language? In other words, does the acquisition and use of two

languages mean that the bilingual possesses two cultures? Some have argued that

the acquisition of a second language does not automatically mean access to another

culture. This is because they view biculturalism as immersion into two distinct cultures

and participation in traditional practices such as food, dressing, folklore, etc. The

argument then is that it may be difficult to truly function in two cultures in this way.

Let’s consider a Nigerian or Kenyan bilingual for example. Is it possible for her/him to

be immersed in the traditional Nigerian/Kenyan culture and the British culture at the

same time? It may be difficult to find such bilinguals. Nevertheless, one must concede

to the idea that the acquisition of a second language creates access to biculturalism.

This is because languages embody cultural meanings and norms and thus, their users

may unconsciously absorb the culture of the language. This opens up another issue

31
which is the link between the age of language acquisition/learning and levels of

biculturalism that a speaker could attain. The question is, does the age of the learner

aid or impede the level of acculturation that s/he could gain? This is an area of enquiry

that you could explore for further research as a scholar.

Self-Assessment Exercise

In your own words, briefly explain the link between bilingualism and biculturalism.

2.6 What is Multilingualism?

As we mentioned in 2.3, many linguistic writings present bilingualism and

multilingualism as synonyms. In this regard, bilingualism is used as a generic term to

refer to an individual’s or community’s use of two or more languages. However, in this

course, we prefer to keep the concepts apart, choosing rather to reserve the meaning

of bilingualism for the use of two languages by an individual or country and

multilingualism to refer to the use of more than two languages by an individual or a

country (Swann et al, 2004). Clyne (2017) notes that there is a distinction between

official multilingualism and de facto multilingualism. In the former, the country is

officially declared multilingual. This however does not mean that all of its citizens are

multilingual. In fact, some of the citizens may be monolingual due to limited exposure

to other languages. Considering the fact that some African countries actually have

villages that are monolingual in nature, perhaps we may need to critically interrogate

the language situation in the continent again to synchronically assess its emerging

linguistic map in the 21st century. Clyne further notes that a nation may be officially

declared bilingual and yet some of its citizens may be multilingual. An example of this

type of linguistic situation is that of Canada where English and French are the official

32
languages, and the country is officially bilingual However, due to after school contacts,

interactions with migrants and perhaps exposure to other languages through the

Internet, some of the citizens are multilingual which thus makes the country a de facto

multilingual one.

Apart from language contact, cultural factor could also encourage the development of

multilingualism in a society. For example, among the Tukano of the northwest

Amazon, inter marriage is encouraged while marriages among people who speak the

same language is viewed as a kind of incest. Thus, according to Wardhaugh’s (2006)

report, within this environment, several languages are used. These include: the

language of the men, the languages of the women married from different neighbouring

tribes and the language of regional trade. It has been observed that multilingualism

could create a sense of solidarity among speakers of different languages who are

brought together by the different languages that they share. Conversely, it has also

been argued that multilingualism could lead to language loss, particularly among

migrants and speakers of minority languages. This is why there has been an ongoing

discussion on whether the multilingual nature of Africa in general and Nigeria in

particular is a blessing or a curse.

Self-Assessment Exercise

In your own words, briefly explain the concept of multilingualism.

2.7 The Relationship between Bilingualism and Multilingualism

As earlier noted, there are different perspectives on the best way to categorise and

classify the use of languages along the lines of bilingualism and multilingualism. Some

33
scholars categorise the number of languages which a speaker uses as the basis of

differentiating between monolingualism, that is, the use of one language, and

bilingualism, that is the use of more than one language. In this way, there is no

distinction between people who speak two, three or more languages. Other scholars

view bilingualism as a special case of multilingualism and thus see the latter as the

broad umbrella under which bilingualism features as a sub classification.

Notwithstanding these differences in scholars’ perspectives on the two concepts, there

is an agreement on the idea that the acquisition and use of two or more languages

provide some advantages for the language user which thus establishes a link between

bilingualism and multilingualism. For example, it has been observed (although these

claims are subject to scholarly contestation), that language users who are able to

speak more than one language have more improved cognitive abilities and

communicative competence. They are also reported to be able to develop proficiency

in language learning, critical thinking and intercultural competence (Dewaete, 2015;

Chumbow, 2018; Mahzoun, 2021). In particular, bilingualism and multilingualism are

said to enhance language users’ opportunities to access career, economic,

educational, security and cultural advantages in today’s largely multilingual global

speech domain. This is demonstrated in the fact that migrants usually see the need to

acquire a majority language when they relocate to areas where their Mother Tongue

is a minority language.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Discuss the link between bilingualism and multilingualism.

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2.8 Summary

In this Unit, we examined the concepts of bilingualism and multilingualism. We also

considered some issues related to bilingualism and biculturalism on the one hand and

degrees of bilingualism om the other hand. In addition, we discussed the link between

bilingualism and multilingualism. The discussions hinged on the fact that development

in contemporary society have engendered increase in bilingualism and multilingualism

among individuals and nations of the world due to seamless interactions and language

contacts that have been prompted by modernity.

2.9 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Bhatia, T.K & Ritchie, W.C. (2013). The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism

(2nd edition). Wiley.

Chomsky, N. (2006). Language and mind. Cambridge University Press.

Djumabaeva, J.S. & Kengboyeva, M.Y. (2021). Bilingualism and its importance in

human life. Linguistics and Culture Review, 5(1), 53-63.

Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. & Hymans, N. (2011). An introduction to language.

Wadsworth.

Viorica, M. Hayakawa, S. (2020). Measuring bilingualism: The quest for a “bilingualism

quotient”. Applied Psycholinguistics, 1-22.

35
2.10 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Some scholars view bilingualism as the native-like control of two languages.

2. However, it is more practical to describe bilingualism as the alternate use of two or

more languages by the same individuals or speech community

3. Bilingualism is also described as the control of two languages by an individual or

speech community.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. People’s exposure to a language will usually influence the degree of proficiency

that they can attain in the language.

2. Bilinguals are therefore classified as early/late bilinguals; formal/informal bilinguals;

additive/subtractive bilinguals; compound/coordinate/subordinate bilinguals, etc.

based on their level of proficiency in the language.

Answers to SAEs 3

1. Languages express cultural meanings and norms.

2. Language users may unconsciously absorb the culture of the language.

3. A bilingual may exhibit cultural traits of the languages s/he uses.

Answers to SAEs 4

1. Multilingualism refers to the use of more than two languages by an individual or a

country.

36
2. Official multilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which a country is officially

declared as multilingual.

3. De facto multilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which a country is

officially declared as a bilingual country but some of the citizens speak more than

two languages.

Answers to SAEs 5

1. Bilingualism and multilingualism could improve cognitive abilities, communicative

competence, critical thinking and intercultural competence, among others.

2. Bilingualism and multilingualism could enhance language users’ opportunities to

access career, economic, educational, security and cultural advantages globally.

37
UNIT 3: Diglossia and Bilingualism/Multilingualism

3.1 Introduction

Welcome to Unit 3. In this Unit we will go a step further in our discussion of bilingualism

and multilingualism. One of the advantages which the ability to speak more than one

language offers the speaker is the choice to use a particular language or dialect when

engaged in a speech event and switch to another one when engaged in another. This

is usually due to an implicit awareness that speakers have about the influence of

linguistic and social factors on the appropriate choice of language in communication.

Therefore, in this Unit we will discuss the sociolinguistic concept of diglossia. We will

also consider the connection between diglossia, bilingualism and multilingualism.

Finally, we will look at some practical diglossic situations, using Nigeria as a case

study. This is expected to help us gain further insight into the functioning of language

in bilingual/multilingual societies.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to

i. explain the term diglossia

ii. discuss types of diglossia

iii. explain diglossia and language shift

iv. distinguish between diglossia and bilingualism

v. examine the functioning of diglossia in multilingual societies

38
3.3 What is Diglossia?

Diglossia is one of the linguistic phenomena prevalent in a society where more than

one language is used by people. Ferguson in his seminal article defined diglossia as:

“a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary

dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards),

there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex)

superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written

literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is

learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal

spoken purposes but it is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary

conversation.” (Ferguson, 1959)

According to Ferguson, diglossia (Classical diglossia in this case) refers to a linguistic

situation in which two varieties of a language are used by speakers in different

domains of the society. Fishman (1967) however noted that we could also have

another type of diglossia which he refers to as extended diglossia. According to him,

a diglossic situation could occur in cases where two genetically unrelated (or

historically distant) languages are used for different communicative functions in a

speech community. The central word in this description is ‘domain’. Domain includes

specific times, settings and role relationship which influence language choices in

communication. Examples of domains are religious domain, family domain, work

domain, education domain, market domain, etc. The domains are usually ranked

hierarchically such that one of the languages or varieties of the language is deemed

suitable to be used in formal domains or formal communicative situations. This is

39
known as the High variety or H (in which case, H refers to High). This variety dominates

such domains as education, work place, religion (liturgy or preaching), etc. The H

variety has the greater international prestige and is also the variety preferred by the

local political elite. It could indeed be argued that the H variety is the language of the

more powerful section of the society. In colonial situations, before most African

countries gained independence, the language of the colonialists/government which

was English/French assumed the position of H. This situation has been sustained in

most African nations up till date. In Nigeria for example, the Standard Nigerian English

could be said to occupy the H variety level because it is deemed to have the greatest

prestige in the country. In addition, a variety of the language which includes the

vernaculars that are used in everyday talk could be reserved for use in informal

domains such as among family, friends, entertaining television broadcasts, for

example, soap operas, Nollywood, etc. This variety is known as the Low variety or L

(in which case, L refers to Low).

From the foregoing discussion, you would have observed that the classification of the

varieties is based on some features of the varieties of language. Ferguson identified

the following nine features: function, standardisation, prestige, acquisition, literary

heritage, stability, grammar, lexicon and phonology as central to this classification.

With regards to function, in a diglossic situation, the H and L varieties are used for

different purposes, so that using L in a H domain would appear unacceptable or odd

to speakers in the speech community. In relation to standardisation, H is strictly

standardised with dictionaries, grammars, texts, etc. while L is rarely standardised. In

most diglossic speech communities, the H variety is highly valued while the L variety

is considered less worthy. In terms of acquisition, the L variety is learned first and thus

40
is the Mother Tongue while the H variety is learned formally in schools. One of the

features of diglossia is its stability. It has been observed that a diglossic situation can

persists for several centuries, reflecting continuous borrowing from H to L. In most

societies, the H variety is used as the language of literature. The grammar of H is also

more complex than that of L. H will usually include in its total lexicon, technical terms

and learned expressions. Conversely, L will include in its total lexicon popular

expressions and names of objects of localised distribution. The phonologies of H and

L are usually relatively close and thus constitute a single basic phonological structure.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Critically assess the notion of diglossia.

3.4 Diglossia and Language Shift

Scholars (e.g. Wright, 2008; Hudson, 2002) have observed that diglossia tends to

influence or stimulate language shift in a speech community where a minority

language variety is in a diglossic relationship with a majority or dominant variety. The

term language shift, language transfer, language replacement or language

assimilation refers to the process whereby members of a speech community with time,

abandon their original vernacular language for another language. This phenomenon

is common in a situation where a language or a variety of a language that is considered

as prestigious spread and dominate other languages or varieties that the speakers

consider to be of lower status in their speech community. Thus, the attitude of the

speakers towards a language and the domains of its use are factors that are critical to

language shift. Examples of language shift that have occurred over time include those

of the Egyptian Arabic that has largely replaced the Coptic language in Egypt; Celtic

41
languages that were largely replaced by Latin when the Romans invaded the United

Kingdom.

Hudson (2002) observed that language shift requires some form of social motivation.

According to him, this motivation tends to be provided by high prestige individuals in

society who employ H as a native, vernacular variety. In other words, language shift

will likely occur where a powerful elite group use the H as their vernacular. In cases

where this role models do not exist, L will most likely maintain its stable function as the

vernacular variety in the speech community, particularly as it enjoys the functional

protection of being natively acquired. One major effect of language shift is the attrition

of the abandoned language. In the case of Nigeria, the question is, is there a gradual

shift in the country’s diglossic situation that could eventually lead to the spread of the

use of H (Standard Nigerian English) to the L informal speech domain? If this shift

exist, is there a possibility of it leading to a displacement of any of the indigenous

languages in the country? These questions are pertinent because it does appear that

a gradual shift is taking place in the South South states of the country where the

Nigerian Pidgin English (which some have argued, has become a creole in these

domains) has gradually replaced the indigenous languages as L in social interaction.

Is the Language Policy entrenched in the National Policy on Education able to ensure

the preservation of the indigenous languages in Nigeria’s diglossic language situation?

In addition, has the entrenchment of English language in most speech domains of

Nigeria resulted in the loss of some indigenous languages?

Self-Assessment Exercise

Briefly discuss the link between diglossia and language shift.

42
3.5 Diglossia Without Bilingualism/ Bilingualism Without Diglossia

There would be no reason to talk about functional distribution of languages in

monolingual societies because only one language is used. It has however been noted

that purely monolingual societies are becoming rarer in the contemporary

technologized world. As we noted in 3.3, the occurrence of bilingualism in most speech

communities of the world sometimes also implicates the need to distribute the

functions of two varieties of a language or two languages into formal (High) domains

and informal (Low) domains of language use. However, we could also have

sociolinguistic situations where diglossia exist in a society without bilingualism or

conversely where bilingualism exist without diglossia (Kyriakou, 2019). How is this

possible, you may ask? Here are some possible explanations that we could proffer for

this phenomenon. There are instances in which two or more speech communities co-

exist on religious, political or economic basis. In this situation, they exist as a single

functioning unit in spite of the fact that there are socio-cultural divide existing between

them. In this situation, there could exist impermeable boundaries between the people,

such that the roles that people who are not born into the speech community play as

well as their access to language are restricted because they are regarded as outsiders.

Thus, in this case, two languages do exist in the society but there is no functional

distribution between them. An example of diglossia without bilingualism is that which

existed in England after the Romans invaded the kingdom. During this period, the

elites spoke French as the H language while Anglo-Saxon was used by the masses

as the intragroup language. It should be noted that in this case, the majority of the

elites and the majority of the masses did not interact with one another and thus the

society could not be regarded as a single speech community. It should also be

expected that societal bilingualism may not occur in this type of environment since the

43
people are classified into the upper and lower classes, each group using a language

that is needed for its restricted roles. African societies are largely multilingual in nature.

However, class stratification particularly on ethnicity basis still exist in the traditional

African societies so that one could argue that the existence of national diglossia in

some African countries may not necessarily imply absolute bilingualism in the rural

communities. It will not be surprising to find that people who live in these places do not

use the H variety for any form of communication.

It is also possible to have a situation where bilingualism does exist in a speech

community but then there is an absence of diglossia. In this case, there is absence of

a social consensus among the speakers of similar cultural extraction as to the

functions of the varieties of the language that they speak. In other words, there is no

compartmentalization between the two varieties in terms of functions and domains of

use. This occurs mainly under circumstances of rapid social change or great unrest in

which there is widespread abandonment of previous ways of life and norms before

new ones are established. One of the areas where this phenomenon could be

observed is among migrants who may resort to a random use of their Mother Tongue

and another language for intragroup interaction at home, work, school, etc. This is

mostly due to a dislocation of values and norms as a result of immigration and

industrialization, so that languages and varieties that were formally distinct begin to

influence each other phonetically and lexically. It has been observed that bilingualism

without diglossia is less stable than bilingualism with diglossia (Fishman, 1971 cited in

Nercissians, 2001). A major effect of bilingualism without diglossia is that one of the

varieties or language that is associated with the predominant social forces may likely

displace the other(s). For example, we find that immigrants sometimes lose the use of

their native language as they adopt their host community’s language(s).

44
Self-Assessment Exercise

3.6 Briefly differentiate between diglossia without bilingualism/ bilingualism without

diglossia

3.7 Triglossia and Multilingualism

Don’t forget that we mentioned in Unit 1 that the term multilingualism refers to the use

of more than two languages in a speech community. In Nigeria’s multilingual society

for example, more than 500 languages aside from a large number of dialects are used

by different ethnic groups. It is therefore possible to have people who can speak many

languages in this kind of speech community. Assigning roles to the languages that are

spoken in the multilingual domain is therefore a major concern of government. In most

instances, we usually assume that a diglossic situation exist in multilingual societies

and that two varieties of a language or two languages are assigned the H and L status

in these speech communities. However, it is sometimes not the case. In fact, in most

situations the linguistic phenomenon prevalent is what is described as triglossia. In a

triglossic situation, we have three linguistic codes in which two are superposed

varieties (an indigenous lingua franca and an introduced world language) and the third

is a vernacular language. In Tanzania for example, there is a complexity of the

functional distribution of languages or varieties of language. For example, triglossic

situation is prevalent in the country among three languages which are used sometimes

for overlapping roles. The languages include the MT of each ethnic group, Swahili

which is the lingua franca and national language, and English which is the language

of higher learning. However, a diglossic situation also exist between the vernacular

and Swahili on the one hand and Swahili and English on the other hand.

45
As should be expected, governments of multilingual societies assign roles to the

languages used in their countries. While some communities in these countries exhibit

some characteristics of homogeneity, some others are linguistically heterogeneous in

nature. For example, one could say that in some of the rural agricultural speech

communities in multilingual countries, some level of monolingualism is demonstrated

among the speakers as their activities are usually limited to their communities. In some

suburban environments, local languages/dialects/major languages could be used by

the speakers. In the urban cities, it is possible to have speakers who speak their local

language, a major language and a foreign language such as English, French, Spanish,

etc. In this case, the speaker can be classified as multilingual. This tells you that

linguistic diversity is most reflected in Africa’s cosmopolitan cities where inter-ethnic

communication is required rather than rural environments that are more closely

connected.

Nigeria seems to exhibit some form of ambivalence or complexity with regards to the

functional distribution of the languages spoken in the country. The triglossic nature of

Nigeria’s multilingual situation is reflected in the 1979 Constitution where English is

assigned the role of the language for all official purposes such as administration,

business, government, post primary education, media, etc. Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba

are assigned federal status, however, as regional languages or regional lingua franca.

The minority languages remain largely the tool of intra-ethnic communication. The

triglossic distribution of languages in Nigeria is even more clearly stated in the National

Policy on Education enunciated in 1977 (revised in 1981). The policy recommends

that the medium of instruction in primary education ‘is initially the mother tongue or the

language of the immediate community and, at a later stage, English’. In addition, it

stipulates that two Nigerian languages are to be studied at the junior level of secondary

46
school and one at the senior secondary school. Furthermore, English is to be used as

the medium of instruction for post primary education. These policies reflect Nigerian

government’s effort at assigning roles to the languages that are used in the country.

As straight forward as they appear, there are many challenges between language

policy and language practice in the country.

First, the policies were adopted against the background of ethnic groups’ attachment

to their languages – a challenge which has made it practically impossible to choose

one of the codes spoken in the country as the national language. For instance, section

51 of the 1979 constitution states that ‘the business of the National Assembly shall be

conducted in English and in Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba when adequate arrangements

have been made therefore’. Many years later, the language of communication for the

National Assembly remains solely English. In addition, because no legal sanction is

applied where states and sometimes private institutions fail to comply with government

policy on the functional distribution of languages in education, there appears to be lack

of harmonization in the use of languages as media of instruction in educational

institutions in the country. Other factors which include the linguistic composition of the

classroom, insufficient time allotted to learn indigenous languages, particularly at the

junior secondary school level, dearth of textbooks and other teaching aids in Nigerian

languages among many other factors have impeded the successful realization of the

target of the language policy in the educational sector of the country (Francomacaro,

1994). The question then is; how do we preserve the indigenous languages

(particularly the minority languages) in Nigeria from becoming endangered? In

addition, how can the language policies be realized in the practical day to day life of

the country in the face of increasing dominance of English language in the country and

beyond? These and other areas are open to sociolinguistic enquiry and research.

47
Self-Assessment Exercise

Briefly discuss triglossia in a multilingualism environment

3.8 Summary

In this Unit, bilingualism and multilingual were examined as sociolinguistic concepts.

In addition, linguistic phenomena such as language shift, diglossia and triglossia which

are linguistic phenomena that could engender languages in multilingual and pluralistic

speech communities were examined. We ended the Unit by raising concerns on the

fate of indigenous languages in the face of the advancing influence and use of English.

3.8 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Fishman, J. A. (1967). Bilingualism with and without diglossia. Journal of Sciences

Issues, 23(2), 29-38.
Hudson, A. (2002). Outline of a theory of diglossia. International Journal of the
Sociology of Language, 1-48.
Kyriakou, M. (2019). A critical review of the theory of diglossia: A call to action.
International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Translation, 2(5), 334-340.
Saiegh-Haddad, E. Laks, L. & McBride, C. (2022). Handbook of literacy in diglossia
and in dialectal contexts. Springer.

Wright, C. (2008). Diglossia and multilingualism – Issues in language contact and

language shift in the case of Hong Kong pre and post-1997. ARECLS, 5, 263-279.

48
3.9 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Diglossia refers to a linguistic situation in which two varieties of a language are

used by speakers in different domains of the society.

2. A diglossic situation involves the use of a High Variety and a Low variety.

3. The High variety is learnt formally and used in the domains of education,

workplace, religion, etc.

4. The Low variety is used in informal domains such as among family, friends,

entertaining television broadcasts, etc.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. Language shift, language transfer, language replacement or language assimilation

refers to speakers’ abandonment of an original vernacular language for another

language.

2. Diglossia influences language shift in speech communities where minority language

varieties are in diglossic relationship with majority or dominant varieties.

Answers to SAEs 3

1. Bilingualism without diglossia refers to a linguistic situation in which two languages

exist in a speech community but there is no functional distribution between the

languages.

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2. Bilingualism with diglossia is a linguistic situation in which there is no social

consensus among the speakers of two varieties of a language with regards to the

functions and domains of their use.

Answers to SAEs 4

1. Triglossia refers to a linguistic situation where three linguistic codes exist. Two of

the codes are superposed varieties (an indigenous lingua franca and an introduced

world language) and the third is a vernacular language.

2. Nigeria’s 1979 Constitution and National Policy on Education of 1977 (revised in

1982) reflect a triglossic linguistic situation because English is assigned the role of

official language, Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are assigned the role of regional languages

and the minority languages are used mainly for intra-ethnic communication.

UNIT 4: Code Mixing/Code Switching: Relevance and Effect

4.1 Introduction

Hello once again. From our discussions in Unit 1-3, you would have noticed that

language is dynamic and not used in any fixed way. One of the aspects of language

that shows its dynamism is speakers’ ability to (particularly bilinguals and multilinguals)

consciously or unconsciously change from one language to another when interacting

with other people. The phenomenon can practically be compared to the way we

change clothes for different occasions. In this Unit, we will explain and differentiate

between the sociolinguistic concepts of code mixing and code switching. We will also

consider the reasons why speakers code mix or code switch and the difference

50
between code switching and borrowing. Finally, we will critically assess the relevance

and effects of code mixing/switching in bilingual and multilingual communities.

4.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to

i. explain the term code mixing

ii. explain the term code mixing

iii. distinguish between code mixing/code switching and borrowing

iv. discuss the functions of code mixing/code switching

v. assess the relevance and effects of code mixing/ code switching on

bilingual/multilingual societies

4.3 What is Code Mixing and Code Switching?

If you speak two or three languages, you would have noticed that you sometimes

change (sometimes unconsciously) from one of the codes to another while

communicating with others. Generally, this linguistic behaviour is known as code

mixing/code switching. Code mixing and code switching are linguistic phenomena that

also occur in language contact situation. Bilingual or multilingual speakers sometimes

change from one language to anther while engaged in a conversation, particularly if

the languages exist in their speech community. Some scholars have argued that the

terms code mixing and code switching are one and the same and therefore should

both refer to a bilingual’s use of two or more languages or varieties of a language

within the same conversation. Thus, cover terms such as switch, switch point or

switching should then refer to a speaker’s change from one variety of language to

another or from one language to another (Muysken, 2003). However, the two concepts

51
carry shades of meaning and describe related but somewhat different use of language

in speech situations. Code mixing refers to instances where the lexical items and

grammatical features of two or more languages or varieties of a language are used in

one sentence. Thus, the change from one code to the other occurs intra-sententially,

involving switches within a clause or sentence boundary. This is reflected when an

Igbo-English bilingual says for example: Kporom (call me) the lady, now! Or when a

Hausa-English bilingual says: Yana cin abinci (he is eating the food) but there is no

water.

Weinrech (1953) argued that code mixing showed a lack of bilinguals’ proficiency

because according to him, an ideal speaker ought to move from one language to

another based on factors such as the interlocutors, topic, etc. In addition, he argued

that such changes ought not to take place within a single sentence. Nonetheless, there

is copious literature that supports the idea that many bilinguals actually produce mixed

sentences in conversations. Code switching on the other hand, refers to the rapid

change from one language to another in a single speech event. In other words, the

speaker switches between sentences in a conversation. Therefore, the change from

one code to the other occurs inter-sententially. Example of code switching is

demonstrated when a Hausa-English says: Na fada wa Musa. I will go tomorrow. Other

switches that a speaker could make in conversation are known as tag switching and

intra-word switching. The former involves the insertion of tags or phrases of one

language into an utterance of another language and the latter refers to a change within

a word boundary. The following are examples of tag switching and intra-word switching

that a bilingual/multilingual could use in conversations.

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Tag-switching in Nigerian Pidgin/English bilingual expression: See ba (a Nigerian

Pidgin expression meaning, right), I will not give you this money.

Intra-word switching in Igbo/English bilingual expression: Stopu ya (stop it)

Scholars hold divergent views on the idea that that there are linguistic constraints that

govern the ways and places where bilinguals and multilinguals can change from one

language to another when engaged in conversations. Some researchers (e.g. Labov,

1971; Singh, 1998) note that code switching and code mixing are forms of irregular

mixture of two distinct languages, thus, there may not be any syntactic restrictions on

where switching can take place. Other scholars (e.g. Sankoff & Poplack, 1981; Elgin,

2000) argue that code switching is not a random action, but rather that there are rules

that govern the ways in which speakers switch languages when interacting with others.

They base their arguments on the universality of the social and functional factors that

engender syntactic constraints on code switching. Thus, they identify the following

linguistic constraints as factors that could influence speakers’ code switching. They

are: the equivalence of structure constraint which indicates that speakers are likely to

switch from one language to another at the point in discourse where the mix of

Language A and Language B does not violate the syntactic rule of any of the

languages. The second syntactic constraint is the size-of-constituent constraint which

demonstrates that higher level constituents such as sentences and clauses are likely

to be switched more that the lower constituents, that is one-word categories such as

nouns, verbs, adjectives, determiners and adverbs. The third linguistic constraint is

the free morpheme constraint which indicates that code switching is not allowed

between a free and a bound morpheme. For example, it will be strange to hear a

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Yoruba speaker of language say, I am jeuning (which consists of an English bound

morpheme–ing affixed to a Yoruba root, jeun which means eat). However, it should be

noted that this form of code switching could occur where the word has been integrated

phonologically into the second language and has attained the status of borrowing.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Explain the terms code mixing and code switching.

4.4 Code Switching Versus Borrowing

As we already know, one of the effects of language contact in a bilingual or multilingual

environment is that a mixed code or variety is likely to develop. Language mixing could

occur as we mentioned before in form of code switching. It could also occur in form of

borrowing. So what is the difference between code switching and borrowing? The

issues relating to the distinction between code switching and borrowing could be said

to be diachronic and synchronic nature. First, borrowing may occur in the speech of

monolinguals and bilinguals/multilinguals. However, code switching occurs in the

speech of bilinguals or multilinguals who have some level of competence in two or

more languages. In addition, borrowing refers to a diachronic process in which

languages enhance their vocabulary for use in different domains of communication.

On the other hand, code switching is spontaneous in nature and reflects an individual’s

mixing of elements of two or more languages while engaged in conversation.

Borrowing therefore involves the use of some forms of the first language (L1) in the

second language (L2) or vice versa. According to Spolsky (1998), borrowing is the

outcome of consistent switching of words particularly among speakers in a speech

community. He explains that when an individual uses a word from one language in

54
another language, this could be described as a case of code switching. However,

when the new words from one of the languages become engrained in the other such

that other speakers who do not really know the meaning of the words begin to use

them in conversation, then this is a case of borrowing. It has been observed that at

the word category, lexical items such as nouns, verbs and adjectives which belong to

the open class are likely to be borrowed more that words which belong to the closed

class.

Generally, scholars consider code switching and borrowing as forming a continuum in

which code switching provides the means through which new words could be

introduced into a language in form of borrowing. This could be seen as evident in the

use of the word JAPA which is gradually emerging as part of contemporary Nigerian

English. JAPA is a compound Yoruba word which originally means to go away.

However, its meaning has been semantically extended to refer to citizens’ migration

to foreign countries in search of greener pastures. However, the extent to which it

eventually becomes incorporated into Nigerian English is what will determine its status

as a borrowed word or slang. Other examples of lexical items such as Agbada,

Tokunbo, Danfo, etc. are examples of Nigerian words that could be said to have

attained the status of borrowed words in Nigerian English.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Briefly differentiate between switching and borrowing.

55
4.5 Functions of Code Mixing and Code Switching

As we have established in 4.3 above, code mixing and code switching are linguistic

phenomena that manifest in bilingual and multilingual situations. It should be noted

that unlike the case of diglossia where the speakers are aware that they have changed

from H to L, the switch of codes in conversations is more of an unconscious action. In

fact, the speakers may not really be aware that they have changed codes. Many

reasons account for why speakers mix or switch codes in conversations. Two major

types of switching were identified by Wardhaugh (2006) based on the purpose for

which bilinguals switch from one language to another in conversations. These two

kinds of code switching are referred to as situational and metaphorical code switching.

The situational code switching refers to change from one language to another

according to the situations in which speakers find themselves. In this case, the topic

is not changed. However, when a speaker changes from one language to another

because the topic has changed, then metaphorical code switching is said to have

occurred. Code mixing and code switching are usually deployed in conversations to

perform some functions. Different studies (e.g. Hoffman, 1991; Spolsky, 2003) agree

that code mixing and code switching are used in conversations to perform some

sociolinguistic functions. Speakers could mix or switch from one language to another

in order to establish a sense of solidarity or affiliation with other interlocutors. In this

speech situation, the mix or switch could be deployed by speakers to facilitate

interpersonal relationships with the listeners. Speakers also mix or switch codes to

accommodate the listeners. This is done for example when the listeners exhibit

difficulty in comprehending some words or concepts. This could also occur where the

speaker lacks the appropriate vocabulary in one of the languages. In addition, code

switching and mixing could also be used by speakers to create ethnic identity

56
particularly in multilingual and multi-ethnic societies like Nigeria, Ghana for example.

Code switching could also be used to indicate a change from informal discourse to a

formal one. It has also been observed that speakers switch from one language to

another to conceal fluency or memory challenges.

Self-Assessment Exercise

List and discuss three functions of code switching

4.6. Relevance and Effects of Code Mixing/Code Switching in

Bilingual/Multilingual Societies

It is possible that as a member of a bilingual or multilingual society, you naturally find

code mixing and switching normal phenomena and accept these as typical ways of

using language. However, there are debates on the implications of code switching in

language acquisition and learning. Some studies (e.g. Redlinger & Park, 1980) reflect

scholars’ reservations about bilingual children’s mixing of elements of two or more

codes in conversations. These studies viewed children’s alternation of codes in

conversation as a reflection of their confusion or incompetence in distinguishing

between the two languages. Following the Unitary Language System Hypothesis,

these scholars postulated that the lexicons and grammars of the bilingual children’s

languages first exist as a single system and gradually develop into two separate

linguistic systems through a process of linguistic differentiation. Code switching in

children was therefore seen as a pre-separation stage in the process of language

acquisition for young bilinguals. Some other scholars (e.g. Young, 2010) perceive

code switching as a reflection of the speaker’s linguistic double consciousness, which

is segregationist and has its roots in racist logic. These scholars posit that code

57
switching is likely to impede the linguistic competence of nationals of multi-ethnic and

multicultural societies. Other studies that have investigated language users’ attitude

to code switching have reflected prescriptivist perspective on the phenomenon. Their

findings reveal monolinguals’ purism and bias against code switching which they

describe as ‘gibberish’. In other studies, scholars view code switching as speakers’

expression of laziness, poor linguistic proficiency or effect of colonialism.

In spite of these negative views of code switching, the phenomena have some

relevance in bilingual and multilingual societies. For instance, conversational analysts

have suggested that code switching may enhance turn selection or serve as a

resource for achieving repairs of errors in conversation. In addition, code switching

has been identified as a resource for constructing speaker identity (Nilep, 2006). Code

switching has also been found to have pedagogic relevance with regards to bilingual

students’ understanding of concepts in the two languages. In the English as a Foreign

Language (EFL) domain in particular, teachers consider code switching as a teaching

tool which could be used for explaining topics, asking questions, giving instructions,

checking students’ understanding and classroom management (Yevudey, 2013;

Sadiq, 2022). Code switching has also been found to be relevant in the field of

medicine and health care as it is a linguistic resource that could be deployed to

enhance medical communication in doctor-patient interaction.

With the foregoing discussion, you would agree that code switching could have some

effects on language users and codes in bilingual/multilingual environments. First,

studies in different bilingual and multilingual countries in Africa (e.g. Soyete, 2017;

Mortega, 2022) reveal that students participate more actively in classrooms where

teachers allow them to code switch from L1 to L2 than in classrooms where only L2

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(in most cases, English) is used. Second, although early empirical studies of code

switching described it as a time consuming process, more recent research have shown

that bilinguals can simultaneously activate both languages when engaged in

conversations such that there is no significant cognitive cost to code switching

behaviour. Code switching has been described as a continuum which could eventually

lead to mixed codes. The various varieties of contemporary English such as Jamaican

English, New Zealand English, Ghanaian English, Nigerian English, etc. could be said

to be examples of mixed codes which include local lexicon drawn from the speech

community’s L1.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Discuss the relevance of code switching in bilingual/multilingual societies

4.6 Summary

In this Unit, we explained the terms code mixing and code switching and the functions

that they perform in speech situations. In addition, we distinguished between code

switching and borrowing. Finally, we examined the relevance and effects of code

switching in bilingual/multilingual speech communities.

59
4.8 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Adiah, M. (2024). Code-switching in multilingual societies. European Journal of

Linguistics, 3(1), 38-51.

Alshihry, M. A. (2023). Language Mixing in Multilingual Families: A Study of Code-

Mixing and Code-Switching Patterns. Onomázein, 61, 843–854.
Mortega, J. R. N. (2022). Effects of code-switching on students’ learning and
motivation in online class discourse: Inputs for language planning’. International
Journal of English Language, Education and Literature Studies, 1(4), 1-11.
Nilep, C. (2006). Code switching in sociocultural linguistics. Colorado Research in
Linguistics, 19, 1-22.

4.9 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Code mixing refers to instances where the lexical items and grammatical features

of two or more languages or varieties of a language are used in one sentence.

2. Code switching refers to the rapid change from one language to another in a single

speech event. In other words, the speaker switches between sentences in a

conversation.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. Code switching is spontaneous in nature and reflects an individual’s mixing of

elements of two or more languages while engaged in conversation.

2. Borrowing involves the use of some forms of the first language (L1) in the second

language (L2) or vice versa.

3, Borrowing is a diachronic process in which languages enhance their vocabulary

for use in different domains of communication

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Answers to SAEs 3

Speakers code mix or switch to:

1. establish a sense of solidarity or affiliation with other interlocutors.

2. facilitate interpersonal relationships with the listeners.

3. to accommodate the listeners who may not understand one of the languages.

Answers to SAEs 4

Code switching:

1. helps the speaker to establish a sense of solidarity or affiliation with other

interlocutors.

2. may serve as a resource for achieving repairs of errors in conversation.

3. may serve as a resource for constructing speaker identity

4. may serve as a teaching tool for EFL teachers.

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Unit 5: The Place of Language as Identity in a Globalised World

5.1 Introduction

Welcome back. In this Unit, we will explore other aspects of language in society. Here,

we are concerned with language in relation to globalisation. I believe you are aware

that factors such as modernity, technological advancement and increasing mobility

and interaction among people of different tribes and nations have made the world to

become what has been described as a global village. One of the outcomes of this

development, is that many more people in the world are bilingual or multilingual. It is

important to note that the language that people speak defines them and their world

view. In other words, language is central to how people construct subject position for

themselves as speakers and groups. Thus, in this Unit, we will consider the concept

of globalisation and its connection to identity construction. In addition, we will examine

the connection that exist between language and identity, particularly in the

contemporary globalized world. Finally, we will critically assess multilingualism and

national identity in the globalized world.

5.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to

i. explain the concept of globalisation

ii. explain the term identity

iii. discuss the link between language and identity

iv. explain linguistic identities in a globalised world

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 v. critically assess multilingualism and national identity in a globalised world

5.3 What is globalisation?

Source: https://www.istockphoto.com

The term globalisation is sometimes viewed narrowly as referring to international trade

and investment flows among advanced economies of the world. However, broadly

speaking, it refers to the renewed and growing interdependence of the people of the

world, their cultures and economies. This is the result of cross border trade in goods,

services and technology which are being exported from one country to another in the

contemporary world. Globalisation involves higher levels of international relations

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manifest in increased human interactions and movements between different regions

and populations around the world. Globalisation is not new to human society. Right

from ancient times, people have shown a tendency to migrate and exchange goods

and services beyond their primordial borders. European colonization and trading

activity is however perceived to be the first wave of globalisation. Nonetheless, it did

not outlast the First and Second World wars because after the crisis, nations began to

seek for ways to protect their territories. From the 1980s however, there were renewed

efforts to encourage globalisation. These involved targeted moves by the well-

established nations of the world to support developing countries through

interdependence of economies, cultures and populations (Guttal, 2007). These

increasing movement of people and interactions are mainly conducted through

communication and lead to language contact. One of the languages that have been

affected by human mobility and nations’ quest for exploration of new territories is the

English language. This is because the idea of globalisation implicates the use of a

language of wider communication, for example English to represent new realities in

the modern world (Fairclough, 2006).

The English language which was initially used by about 5 to 7 million people as a

regional dialect in Anglo-Saxon England (Crystal, 2003) is today spoken by more than

1.5 billion people all over the world. The use of English as a first, second and foreign

language in many countries of the world has earned it the status of a global language.

One of the factors which has earned English the global language status is the number

of people who speak the language. It has however been argued that this factor is not

solely responsible for the global nature of English. Crystal notes that the political,

military, economic, religious and technological power of the users of English are also

germane. More importantly, the emergence of the United Nations in 1945 and other

64
bodies such as World Health Organisation, World Bank, UNESCO and UNICEF

among others have made the need for a lingua franca more pressing as participants

from different parts of the world converge now and then for meetings. Communication

through the Internet has also narrowed down the distance that once existed among

citizens of different nations, making interactions practicable. These and other factors

which placed a demand on the need for a common language among citizens of the

world have aided the emergence of English as a world language.

Areas of sociolinguistic research which focus on English language and globalisation

include language variation, the proliferation of linguistic varieties, patterns of

multilingualism, endangered languages, relations of language and identity, language

and power among others (Blommaert & Dong, 2010). Other areas of sociolinguistic

enquiry include those of the political contention in several countries on the role of

English in the different speech communities. An area that also calls for sociolinguistic

attention is that of the possibility of English language sustaining its global status. The

question is, is the rise of English as a world language unstoppable? To find answers

to this question, sociolinguists will have to investigate factors that could sustain or

impede the expansion of English language as a world language in future research.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Explain why you think English is a global language.

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2.6 Language and Identity

As members of society, we use language all the time to communicate with others. In

fact, it has been noted that most human activities in society are discursively enacted.

The centrality of language to human life has been identified as the reason why homo

sapiens are rated higher as rational beings than other animals. So what is language?

From a formal perspective, language has been described as a system of arbitrary

vocal symbols used for human communication. Verderber (1999) describes language

as the body of words and the system for their use which people of the same

community, geographical area, nation or cultural tradition employ in different

communicative situation. Some have argued that this perspective on language

represent it as somewhat homogenous. However, scholars (e.g. Berger & Luckman,

1991; Wodak, 2011) have noted that language is not a neutral medium of

communication but can only be understood in relation to its social meaning. One of

the ways this manifest in communication is in identity of people in society.

The term identity has been described by Oyibor (2016) and Georgalou (2017) as

people’s conscious or unconscious portrayal of themselves, their ethnic, social,

geographical or ethical affiliations. Oyibor explained further that individual identity

refers to the identifying characteristics that are unique to an individual while social

identity is linked to group behaviour influenced by sources such as nationality, class,

ethnicity, sexuality, etc. Some other scholars have described identity as the way

people understand their relationship with the world. Bucholtz and Hall (2005: 586)

define identity as “the social positioning of self and other”. Thus, identity is perceived

as being social in nature because it is about meaning, and meaning is context

dependent. This view is corroborated by Blommaert (2005) who, drawing from

submissions from research in the broad field of identity studies, posits that people do

66
not necessarily have identity but rather, that identities are outcomes of socially

conditioned forms of significations such as textual genres, symbols and narratives.

Language is seen as sharing a dialectical relationship with identity because language

or users’ linguistic behaviour is the major tool that people use to define reality and this

includes the expression of who we are. In other words, the languages that people use

divide them into binary oppositions and thus function as identity markers. Therefore,

ethnic, political, gender, professional markings among others form the basis for

constructing identities for language users.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Explain the connection between language and identity.

5.4 Linguistic Identities in a Globalised World

As we mentioned in 5.3, globalisation has a unifying effect so much so that the space

between nations and people has become narrower with time. One major outcome of

the world’s continuous shrinkage is the need for a homogenous language that could

serve as a lingua franca to facilitate communication and bridge the gap between

people of different tongues and cultures. This need has invariably resulted in language

shift as many more people are faced with the need to use languages other than their

Mother Tongue for inter border communication. Therefore, a few languages such as

English, French, Chinese- Mandarin, Spanish, German, Hindi, Portuguese among

others have gradually emerged as privileged world languages that are not only used

as first language and second language but also as lingua franca for international

communication. English is reported to be at the top of the list of these languages. This

development come with some challenges as English is sometimes perceived as a

67
threat to the survival of some languages in the world. For instance, Dixon (1997 cited

in Nimbalwar, 2015) has projected that due to the increasing use of some languages

(particularly English), half of the approximately 5000-6000 living world languages will

vanish before the end of the century. However, some scholars have also queried this

position, noting that language loss and death are not peculiar to the modern age but

rather date back to ancient times. Those who belong to this school of thought therefore

support the homogenization of world languages and support the idea of a global

language. Nonetheless, the concern about the survival of world languages is germane

and there are arguments in support of the need to preserve them. First, people’s

identities are linked to their languages. Second, people tend to have sentimental

attachment to their indigenous language(s) and seem to prefer the use of their Mother

Tongues when conveying the richness of their cultural values and heritage. Third,

languages lend diversity to the world’s culture and offer knowledge unique to the

culture to which a particular language belongs. The diversity of the world’s culture

therefore opens people up to new ways of thinking and doing things. Thus, while most

people in the contemporary world see the need to learn and use languages that have

attained global status, for example, English, they also see the need to prevent the

attrition of their indigenous language(s). One major way that countries have tried to

achieve this is by developing language policies that promote the use of the indigenous

languages and increase their prestige and value. In Nigeria, for instance, the language

clause in the National Policy on Education pronounced in 1977 (revised in 1981) seeks

to promote proficiency in the use of indigenous languages among primary and

secondary school students through formal learning. The language policy states with

regards to pre-primary and primary education that:

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 The medium of instruction will be principally the mother-tongue or the language of

the immediate community The medium of instruction is initially the mother tongue

or the language of the immediate community, and at a later stage English.

However, we need to critically assess the success or otherwise of the language policy

so far. Years after its enactment, can we really say it has been effective in helping

Nigerian children learn the indigenous languages? For one, the impact of the policy

has been undermined by challenges of dearth of textbooks, lack of trained personnel

to teach indigenous languages and delayed development of orthography for many of

the Nigerian languages. In addition, because the policy does not categorically state at

what stage of the primary school education that English is expected to be used as the

medium of instruction, education practitioners sometimes default so that the

indigenous languages are neglected as the medium of instruction, particularly at the

early stage of primary education.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Explain the nexus between globalisation and linguistic identity.

5.5 Multilingualism and National Identity in a Globalised World

In 5.3, we noted that globalisation has accelerated language contact among people of

the world. This is to be expected because human activities are mostly enacted

discursively. In contact situation, English is adjudged to be the most frequently used

among the world languages. For example, English is the second most widely spoken

language in India, rated only behind Hindi. Almost 130 million Indians are believed to

speak Standard Indian English despite that the country has more than 600 indigenous

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languages (Olaizola, 2019). In addition, it is reported that 53% out of Nigeria’s more

than 200 million population have some knowledge of English (Olatoye, 2022). China

is also reported to have the world’s largest population of English language learners

(Pan et al, 2021). This goes to show that many nations of the world have embraced

the use of English for varied communication purposes as a result of globalisation.

It should be noted that some form of additive bilingualism could develop in speech

communities where a global language is used for different communicative purposes.

Government, scholars, policy makers and speakers in this environment focus on how

instrumentally the foreign language could be learned by members of the society in

order to achieve career and social mobility. In this case, people invest mental,

monetary and physical efforts into gaining linguistic skills in the privileged language.

One other type of bilingualism that could develop as a result of globalisation is

subtractive bilingualism in which case, a foreign language is introduced into a speech

community and with time it dominates the native language(s) and in some cases, this

could lead to the extinction of the indigenous/native language(s). This is particularly

the case when the native language is the language of immigrant minority communities.

This is observed among the third generation of Nigerians or Ghanaians, living in

Europe or America for example whose Mother Tongue is English and are not able to

speak the native languages of their parents. Subtractive bilingualism could also occur

among members of an indigenous community in which case the speakers shift from

the use of the MT to a foreign language. This usually occurs where the foreign

language is considered to be prestigious and powerful while the MT is perceived as

having low status and thus given restricted roles in the speech communities.

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Nevertheless, language is a marker of distinctiveness. It is symbolic and could signal

the users’ ethnic attachment, beliefs, and image. In most of the bilingual/multilingual

speech communities in the world where English is also used, indigenous languages

are still retained. However, it is important that we examine the attitudes of speakers to

the indigenous languages and English as the foreign language. In India’s multilingual

and multicultural society, for example, there exists a linguistic schism in which case,

English is predominantly the language of the elite while the vernacular languages are

mostly used by the masses. However, with globalisation and modernity, English and

not Hindi (which are the two official languages of India) is considered as the privileged

language needed for trans-regional, trans-religious, international communication.

English is also the language used for varied purposes in the parliament, civil service,

English medium schools, etc. (Montaut, 2010). It may then not be surprising that within

India’s speech community, 197 languages have been reported by UNESCO to be

endangered and five of them are already extinct (Rajendra, 2022). In Africa’s

multilingual environment, the categorization and place of different languages that are

used generate a lot of debate. Nachum et al (2023) note that over 2000 languages are

spoken in Africa. Ethnologue: Languages of the World (cited in Gordon, 2005) is more

specific and notes that 2,092 languages are spoken in the continent. In addition,

hierarchically, indigenous languages which are used for intra-ethnic communication

are at the bottom. On the next level are some indigenous languages that are used for

inter-regional communication and lingua franca. Some of these languages include

Kiswahili in East and Central Africa and Hausa in West Africa. At the top of the

hierarchy are European languages that are perceived as prestigious and function as

the means of communication in the official and professional domains of the continent.

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Africa’s linguistic diversity has been described as a blessing on the one hand and a

curse on the other hand. While the ability to use two or more languages helps Africans

to connect with individuals, communities and even nations of the world, it also gives

rise to language shift and in some cases, language extinction. Efforts have been made

to preserve African native languages. First, the suggestion to choose an indigenous

language rather than English to serve as a lingua franca for the continent was offered

in the past. The propagators who include Professor Wole Soyinka, Ayi Kwei Armah

and Dr Kwame Nkrumah among other African leaders suggested in the mid-1950s

that Swahili be adopted as the lingua franca. The argument they proffered in support

of this suggestion was that Swahili was the most widely-spoken African language at

that time. The suggestion was however not adopted. It has also been suggested that

there is the possibility of Swahili attaining a global language status in the future which

would then ensure its adoption as a lingua franca in the continent (Dzahene-Quarshie,

2009). This however may be difficult due to the fact that language users in the African

continent still struggle with the idea of adopting one of the native languages as a

common tool of communication. In addition, we need to critically examine how easily

adaptable any of the African languages is particularly with regards to its use in the

digital world.

Within different African multilingual nations, the effects of globalisation have also

deepened the challenge of national identity. Since its introduction to Nigeria in the 16th

century by British merchants and missionaries, English has been used as the

language of communication in different domains of the country. It is used as the official

language of government, education, media, commerce, etc. The increasing rate of

reliance on English for communication at the inter-ethnic and national levels has

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generated concerns among scholars who argue that this may lead to the

endangerment of indigenous languages in the country. One of the solutions that has

been proffered is the adoption of a major Nigerian language as the national language

and lingua franca for the nation. However, the immediate challenge that confronts this

proposal is the covert struggle for and against linguistic domination which exist among

different ethnic groups in Nigeria. This is because ethnic identity in the country is tied

to land and language and so the choice of one language out of more than 500

indigenous languages spoken in the country may be perceived as a form of ethnic

dominance. This challenge has been identified as the major reason why none of the

indigenous languages has been chosen to serve as the language of national

communication, national identity and the symbol of nationhood. Rather, English which

is a neutral language is preferred as the linguistic tool of inter-ethnic communication

in the country. However, it has been noted that English cannot be said to be Nigeria’s

national language because it is not indigenous to any of the groups in the country.

Attempts have also been made in the past to develop and adopt WAZOBIA, an artificial

language made up of lexis from Nigeria’s three major languages – Yoruba/Hausa/Igbo

as the lingua franca of the country. The project however did not record much success.

A major reason attributed to the failure of the project is the huge financial commitment

that was required to execute it. The case of Ghana is similar to that of Nigeria. Although

the government encourages the use of indigenous languages like Ewe, Akan, Ga, and

Dagbani in media communication, government statements, announcements, laws,

etc. yet Ghana’s language policy recognizes English as the language of government

communication (Dzameshie, 1988). Thus, the search for a national language and by

implication, national identity of nationhood continues for countries like Nigeria and

Ghana and perhaps many other African countries is still ongoing.

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The challenge of language extinction is also real in most of these countries. This is

due mainly to speakers’ attitude to different languages used in the speech

communities. First, most elites prefer to have their children educated in English rather

than the indigenous languages. Second, speakers of minority languages sometimes

prefer the use of the major indigenous languages or English rather than their minority

languages. For example, people from different communities in Ghana who live in

Accra may prefer to speak Akan rather than their rural community languages.

Similarly, in Nigeria, children born to Ibibio, Ishan, Igbira, etc. minority groups may end

up acquiring only Yoruba/Hausa/Igbo if they are live in any of the metropolis of regions

where these languages are used as the lingua franca. This presents the possibility of

endangerment for the minority languages in the long run. Thirdly, the underdeveloped

state of some Nigerian languages and by extension, African languages presents yet

another challenge with regards to their adaptability for intra-national and international

communication in the fast converging contemporary world. Mbena (2014) attributes

the underdeveloped state of African languages to the use of European languages in

the formal domains. He notes that this denies the native languages the opportunity to

be modernized for the contemporary technological world. This observation however

could be subjected to scholarly enquiry to ascertain its validity or otherwise.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Explain the roles that languages play in the construction of national identity in

multilingual societies.

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5.5 Summary

In this Unit, we discussed the concepts of globalisation and identity. We also examined

the link between language and identity. In addition, we explained the notion of linguistic

identities in a globalized world. Finally, we critically assessed multilingualism and

national identity in a globalized world.

5.6 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Blommaert, J. (2005). Discourse: A critical introduction. Cambridge University Press.

Georgalou, M. (2017). Identity, discourse and Facebook. In Mariza Georgalou (ed.)
Discourse and Identity on Facebook, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. 9-22.

Montaut, A. (2010). English in India. In Hasnain, S.I. & Chaudhary, S. (Eds.)

Problematizing Language Studies, Cultural, Theoretical and Applied
Perspectives, Essays, in Honor of Rama Kant Agnihotri, Delhi: Akar, 83-116.
Rajendra, K.D. (2022). Revitalizing endangered languages in India: Can public-private
partnership (PPP) work? 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences in the
21st Century, 27-29, 2020.
Wey, R. Reynolds, B.L., Kong, M. & Liu, Z. (2022). Is bilingualism linked to national
identity? Evidence from a big data survey. Journal of Multilingualism and
Multicultural Development, 29, 1-15

5.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

Answers to SAEs 1

1. The political, military, economic, religious and technological power of the users of

English.

2. English is the major language used on the Internet.

3. English is used by the United Nations, World Bank, UNESCO and UNICEF among

others.

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Answers to SAEs 2

1. Language is not neutral and thus best it is best understood in relation to social

meaning.

2. Linguistic behaviour is the major tool that people use to define reality and express

identity.

3. Language serves as an identity marker for its users.

Answers to SAEs 3

1. An effect of globalisation is linguistic shift because many more people in the world

today see the need to connect with others.

2. English, French, Chinese- Mandarin, Spanish, German, Hindi, Portuguese among

others have gradually emerged as privileged world languages.

3. There are projections that half of the world languages may disappear in the years

to come due to globalisation.

4. In order to prevent attrition of languages, countries are developing language policies

that promote the use of the indigenous languages and increase their prestige and

value.

Answers to SAEs 4

1. Most African languages are still underdeveloped.

2. In most African countries, foreign languages, particularly English are considered as

prestigious and used as official languages.

3. Professor Wole Soyinka, Ayi Kwei Amah and some other African scholars

suggested the use of Swahili as the lingua franca of Africa. However, the idea was not

adopted by African nations.

4. Attempts were made to develop WAZOBIA as the lingua franca for Nigeria.

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5. The search for a national language and by implication, national identity of

nationhood for most African countries is still ongoing.

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MODULE 2 BILINGUALISM

UNIT 1: Definitions and Theories of Bilingualism

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Bilingualism
1. 3.1 What is Bilingualism?
1.3.2 Theories of Bilingualism
1.4 Linguistic Interdependence Theory
1.5. Language Contact and Bilingualism
1.6 Summary
1.7 References / Further Reading/ Web Resources
1.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

1.1 Introduction
In this Unit, we shall explore the various shades of meaning to the term
bilingualism. Many definitions have been given depending on the perspectives
of the scholars. We will however be able to appreciate that the possession of
two languages has become a global trend as new frontiers begin to emerge
due to the expansion in trade, commerce and technology. The Unit will
examine the various theories on bilingualism and how they can foster inter-
cultural and information understanding of the various speech communities.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
 critically assess the various definitions of bilingualism
 identify how bilingualism foster cultural understanding
 discuss types of bilingualism
 distinguish between bilingualism and monolingualism

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1.3 Bilingualism

1.3.1 What Is Bilingualism?

Imagine finding yourself in a situation where people speak different languages and

you are shut out of the discussion. Again reverse the situation and think of where you

can access their discourse because you understand at least one of their languages

apart from your own mother tongue (M. T.) Which scenario would appeal more to

you? Many people will prefer the latter. This underscores the bilingual experience the

world over where many speech communities now interact in more than one language.

Many scholars have defined bilingualism in many ways based on the perceptions and

background of those scholars. There is a general consensus however that

bilingualism takes place where there is language contact. There must be as least two

languages for interaction.

Romaine (2009) lends credence to the fact that bilingualism has become a fact of life.
The study shows that bilingualism is a normal and unremarkable necessity of everyday
life for the majority of the world’s population. Bilingualism becomes more attractive as
the average global citizen endeavors to add another language to his or her verbal
repertoire. Crystal (2008) sees bilingualism as a term used to describe either an
individual or a society that possesses the ability to use two or more languages. This
is contrasted with monolingualism where only one language is used. Hoffman (1997)
argues that bilingualism is the ability to switch from one code to another and that
bilinguals have a wider range of experience than monolinguals. Bilingualism enables
them to be more capable of flexible thinking and each language may provide the
speaker with a distinct perspective. Bloomfield (1933) says bilingualism is the native
control of two languages while the term could also defined as the complete mastery of
two languages. According to Haugen (1956) bilingualism begins at the point where
the speaker can produce complete meaningful utterances in the other language. It
could also be said to be the alternate use of two or more languages by same individual.

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Bilingualism is a relative concept which involves the question of ‘Degree’, ‘Function’,
‘Alternation’ and ‘Interference’. Degree could be in terms of how well the individual
knows the language or how bilingual they are. Function could be in terms of what
individual uses their language for or the role their language played in their total pattern
of behavior. The question of alternation is in terms of the extent to which they alternate
between one language and the other and under what condition while interference is in
terms of how well the bilingual keeps their languages apart, the extent to which they
fuse them together and how one of the languages influences the use of the other.
Therefore, bilingualism is a behavior pattern of mutually modifying linguistic practices
varying in degree, function, alternation and interference.

Bilingual: The Encyclopedia Lexicon Webster Dictionary (Vol. 1) explains a bilingual

as a person capable of speaking two languages often with equal proficiency. A
bilingual may be able to understand both languages equally well but they may be
unable to speak both of them with equal proficiency facility. They may not have equal
mastery of all the four basic skills in both languages.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Evaluate the definitions of bilingualism you have encountered in your

study?

2. Discuss the nature of bilingualism in view of the common position in

the literature.

1.3.2 Theories of Bilingualism

It will be helpful to explain the term ‘theory’ for us to appreciate what is involved in
discussing the theories of bilingualism. We can describe a theory as a plausible and
acceptable general principles used to explain a phenomenon. In other words, it is a
proposition that gives rational explanation of an idea or a concept. Theories of
bilingualism are as varied as its definitions. According to Madrid and Hughes (2012)
there are two theories we can examine to explain the phenomenon of bilingualism.
These are:

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 1. The Balance Theory- This presupposes that the two languages co-exist in equal
measure and the second language will tend to overshadow the first language
thus gaining dominance while the second one suffers attrition. The balance
theory holds that a bilingual pays for their second language (L2) skills by losing
some competence in their first language (L1). This theory has not been popular
among many linguists who often argued that many research findings reveal that
linguistic competence in the first language is transferable and interactive.
Scholars who accepted this theory paint a picture of two linguistic balloons
inside the head of the learner. See Figure 1 below:

Monolingual Individual Bilingual Individual

Image Credit: Madrid and Hughes (2012)

2 Common Underlying Proficiency Theory

The theory explains that a bilingual with two or more languages has a repository where
ideas could come from a common source. It is assumed that the language learning
process could be likened to the image of an iceberg joined at the base thus creating a
Siamese relationship. This will allow the individual to operate with relative ease as the
cognitive functioning will be fed by multiple linguistic channels. This is because the
four language skills – Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing- in both languages will
help in the development of the cognitive system as a whole. See Figure. 2 below:

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Image Credit: Madrid and Hughes (2012)

1.4 Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis

The assumption was proposed as a hypothesis that there exists a relationship

between the development of a first language (L1) and second language (L2).
Cummings (1979) submits that the first language linguistic knowledge that the bilingual
possesses can be extremely instrumental for the development of corresponding
abilities in the second language. Similar studies in support of this theory have labelled
it as ‘threshold hypothesis’ but explains the view that there is relationship between
bilingualism and cognition. In other words, the level of cognitive competence a
bilingual child attains is a function of the competence they possess in the first language
but with adequate exposure to the second language.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1Critically assess the various theories of bilingualism.

2. Explain the Balance Theory of Bilingualism.

1.5 Language Contact and Bilingualism

Bilingualism has been portrayed as a way of life in this modern day of advanced
economic, social and technological feats. Though contact between people speaking
different language has been with us for a long time, it is now more prevalent in many

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countries of the world. It is therefore important to familiarise ourselves with the various
definitions and theories that underlie the term ‘bilingualism’. This will enable us to
appreciate that even if one is born as a monolingual, it is better and more cognitively
rewarding to be bilingual.

1.6 Summary

In this Unit, we have discussed the various definitions of bilingualism bringing to the
fore that the term is varied and complex depending on the focus and the intervening
considerations. The Unit goes further to talk about the various theories of bilingualism
and how the bilingual can acquire/learn a language as expounded by the different
theoretical approaches

1.7 References/Further Reading/ Web resources

Bloomfield, L. (1957). Language and linguistics. George, Allen and Unwin.

Cummings, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of
bilingual child. Review of Educational Research .Spring 1979.Vol.499 No 2 pp
222-251
Crystal, D (2008). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Blackwell.
Haugen, E. (1956) Bilingualism in the Americas. Montgomery: University of
Alabama press.
Hoffmann, C. (1991). An introduction to bilingualism. : Longman.
Madrid, D. & Hughes, S. (2012). Studies in bilingualism. Linguistic Insight Series.Vol.1
Pp.20-28.
Romaine, S. (2009). “Language policy in multinational educational contexts in
Concise Encyclopedia of Pragmatics. Oxford University Press.
Wei, L. (ed.) (2000). The bilingualism reader. Routeledge.

1.8 Possible Answers to SAEs

Answers to SAEs 1
1. A one-fit-all definition of the term ‘Bilingualism’ is not feasible. Many scholars
have tried to look at the term from different perspectives.

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 2. The degree of exposure has much to do with the nature of the bilingual
experience. Such an exposure will determine whether a bilingual is co-ordinate
or balanced.

Answers to SAEs 2
1. The various theories are assumptions to explain how speech communities
interact through the use of more than one language. Many factors are
responsible.
2. The Balance Theory presupposes that the two languages co-exist in equal
measure and the second language will tend to overshadow the first language
thus gaining dominance while the second one suffers attrition.

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UNIT 2: Individual or Societal Measurement of Bilingualism

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Individual or Societal Measurement of Bilingualism
1. 3.1 Code-Switching and Code-Mixing
1.3.2 Societal Bilingualism
2.4 Domains of Language Use
2.5. Speech Community
2.6 Summary
2.7 References/Further Reading/Web Resources
2.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

2.0 Introduction

This Unit will examine individual or societal bilingualism and the factors that
characterize each of them. As the world continues to move more towards
bilingual/multilingual settings, there is a need to determine the extent to which
individuals in any speech community can become bilingual. The indices that mark
a society as bilinguals too should be assessed to appreciate the bilingual profile of
an individual as distinct from that of the society. This Unit will investigate the
marked features that are indicative of an individual as opposed to societal
bilingualism.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
 Explain individual bilingualism
 State some qualities of a bilingual.
 Distinguish between individual and societal bilingualism
 Discuss the role of English in Nigeria’s bilingual society

2.3 Individual or Societal Measurement of Bilingualism

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The need to distinguish between individual and societal bilingualism was anchored by
Fishman (1991) when he identified that an individual acquiring or learning another
language aside from the first language will undergo series of experience which are
distinct from that of a bilingual society. While his/her bilingual experience enables him
to able to communicate in more than one language during childhood or at adult life the
same could not be said of societal bilingualism. The individual many find some
language difficult or easy to learn. The circumstances of a acquisition and the
variables involved in leasing new languages are issues of individual phenomenon.
There are many factors that determine the language choice of an individual when they
alternate between the use of one language to another.

Osoba and Alebiosu (2016) explain that when a bilingual engages in a discourse we
can infer what type of individual he/she is and even his preferences and attitudes.
Their speech will give a clue as to their language preference and attitudes. The social
significance between the choice of words and language choice when one linguistic
code is preferred to another in formal or informal domain tends to be determined by
its appropriate context. For example, Anthony, an undergraduate who speaks copious
Nigerian Pidgin while in the hostel with his friends from different parts of Nigeria, who
are all proficient in English, but discusses in flawless English with his professor when
talking about his long essay. He, however, speaks Yoruba when he is among his
friends who share his linguistic background.

2.3.1 Code-Switching and Code-Mixing

Individual bilingualism is also characterized by the sociolinguistic phenomena of code-

switching and code-mixing in semi-formal contexts. Code-switching is a phenomenon
of making one utterance in one language and another in a different language within
the same discourse e.g., eyin akeeko o ya. Let us go ‘Students, its time, let us go’
(code-switching involving Yoruba and English). On the other hand, code-mixing is a
phenomenon of making use of elements of two languages in the same utterance e.g.,
Awon foot-ballers yen perform well ‘Those footballers perform well’: or O sure ju ‘It’s
certain’ (English code-mixed with Yoruba).

Wei and Moyer (2008) report that an individual bilingual child goes through three
stages of acquisition of linguistic knowledge. These are:

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 1. One-code stage: The Bilingual child Possessed are lexical item comprised of
words from both languages.
2. Code –Differentiation: The bilingual distinguishes two different lexicons but
applies the same syntactic rules to both languages.
3. Code- competence: The bilingual speaks two languages differentiated both in
lexicon and syntax, but each language is associated.

With the person who uses that language. Individual bilingualism has also been
show to vary according to the peculiarities of the person. Pertinent questions such
as the following have arisen:

1. Why do some individual acquire a second languages made easily than others
2. What factors facilitates or inhibits the acquisition/learning of a language from
one person to another?
3. How has age related affected the learning of another language in what has
been labeled as threshold hypothesis. This stipulates that language learning
ability diminishes once the individual bilingual increases the age of 5.

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. Describe the indices of individual bilingualism.

2.3.2 Societal Bilingualism

According to Wei and Moyer (2008), the phenomenon of societal bilingualism could
be appreciated when we appreciate how the bilingual functions with the language on
the context of the society and as a social actor. This is because sociolinguistic see
bilingualism as a socially constructed phenomenon. The bilingual speaker must seek
identity in the speech – community he belongs to end language choice will come into
play. He therefore operates along the societal linguistic parameters whereby all the
formal and informal domains to which the linguistic codes of the society are manifested
will be complied with. For example, the Nigerian sociolinguistic profile has over 500
languages without a single national language. The country still uses a foreign

87
language English as its second language (L2) which is san official language used in
all facets of life

The English Language in Nigeria has become more dominant than our indigenous
languages. Osoba and Alebiosu (2016) identify the societal status of the English
language in Nigeria as follows:

1) As a Lingua Franca:

Nigeria’s multilingual nature has propelled English to enjoy unrivalled

dominance as a neutral language or no man’s language. Major ethnic groups
competing for national identity and survival feel at home in a common tongue
that belongs to none. Not surprisingly, Bamgbose (1991) submits that of all
the heritage left behind in Nigeria by the British … none is more important
than the English language. English is the only effective medium of
communication between Nigerians from different linguistic backgrounds.
When parties and social gatherings like house warming, naming ceremonies
and church programs are organized English is invariably the medium of
communication because of the diverse nature of the audience. The English
language is therefore regarded as the language of national unity.
2) Official language:
All government affairs in Nigeria are conducted in English. These are official
memos, gazettes, edicts, law reports, and Hansards. The national anthem
and the pledge are worded in English. English is the language of presidential
address and transactions. The constitution of Nigeria is fashioned in English
and only feeble attempts are made to translate it into indigenous languages.
The coat of arms, the national flag, motions for bills in state houses of
assembly, and the national assembly are couched in English.
3) Language of the Mass media:
Almost all the media use English to transmit information to the masses. All
the national newspapers like The Guardian press, The punch, The Tribune
are all published in English. Radio and television programmes are broadcast
in English. News reports and analyses are conducted in English. Magazines,
sports, tabloid, and gossip periodicals are all written in the English language.
4) Language of Education:

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 English enjoys more prominence over the local languages. Wole Soyinka’s
plays, Chinua Achebe novels, Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, and reference
sources in the library are accessed in English. All courses in our higher
institutions including law, medicine, engineering, etc. have their curriculum
content fashioned in English. Admission to higher institutions depends on a
credit level pass in English. Proficiency courses in English like TOEFL, TESL,
and SAT are run to enable Nigerians get overseas education. This is to
prepare them for educational advancement and prestigious employment.
5) Language of Business and Commerce:
English is used for trading transactions among the various ethnic groups in
the country. Industrial advertisements like Life is Good for L.G. products, Rule
your world by GLO, Happy customer, happy banking by some commercial
banks are common in the business world. Cheques, tellers, invoices, and
proposals are prepared in English. Business records and contracts are
similarly drawn in the English language.

6) Language of External Affairs:

The international status of English requires Nigeria to adopt it for external
affairs. Organs like United Nations (UNO), African Union (AU), World Health
Organization (WHO), Economic Community for West African States
(ECOWAS) are a comity of nations which uses English as a global language.

7) Language of Information and Communication Technology (ICT):

With the coming of the internet, English has been given higher
responsibilities. Known as the information super highway, web surfing, cyber
spacing, chartroom, face booking, e-mailing, and text messaging have
rubbed off on Nigeria as a result of globalization. Computer experts have
argued that the computer speaks English. If any global citizen wishes to
engage in a digital discourse, the common currency required is the use of
English through the internet. Some 80% of the on-line contents are in English.
Many Nigerians are now getting internet compliant as upward mobility and
international exposure are now becoming increasingly digitalized. Our
professors hitherto known as eggheads are now referred to as net-heads.
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2.4 Domains of Language Use

Labov (1972) also suggests that societal bilingualism should now emphasize the
actual language use and their domains of operations and sociolinguists should pay
more attention to social nature of languages apart from its individual considerations.

Fresh attentions are now given to dialectal and socio-lectal variations in language use
and we should look at the study of the interdependence of linguistic forms and social
categories such as situation, institution, age genders, status and role of group
membership. Societal bilingualism also attempts to answer some questions
confronting the language used in education, polities, the media and international
communication.

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

Assess the status of the English language in Nigeria’s

multilingualism

2.5 Speech Community

Individual and societal bilingualism have been shown to be an integral part of a speech
community. At the individual level, acquiring learning a new language apart from the
mother tongue (M.I) seems to be a totally different experience from what it takes to
describe a society as being bilingual. The stage of acquisition from the trial and error
stage to linguistic competence exhibits distinct characteristics compared to the
phenomenon of societal bilingualism where all the linguistic parameters are weighed
at the societal rather than at individual level.

2.6 Summary

In this Unit we dealt with the issues involved in individual societal bilingualism and the
features that characterized both. You also learnt that the circumstance of acquisition
vary from one individual to another especially the three stages process of linguistic
knowledge. The Unit taught you how you can appreciate the role of English language

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in the Nigerian context of societal bilingualism and concludes that language use in the
society is now a matter of global importance.

2.7 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Osoba, J.B. & Alebiosu, A.T.(2016) Language preference as a precursor to
displacement and extinction in Nigeria: the roles of English language and
Nigerian Pidgin in .Journal of Universal Language 17-2. 1-33
Bamgbose, A. 1991. Language and the nation: the language question in sub-Saharan
Africa. Edinburgh University Press.

Fishman, J. (1991). Reversing language shift. Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Labov, W. (1972) Sociolinguistic patterns. University of Philadephia Press.

Wei, L & Moyer,,M.(2008).ed. The blackwell guide to research methods in

bilingualism and multilingualism. Blackwell Publishing Ltd

2.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

Answers to SAE 1
Indices to individual bilingualism include: Age, code switching and code –mixing.

Answers to SAE 2
The English language has retained its dominant status in Nigeria’s multilingual setting.
These include:
Language of business and commerce
Language of education
Official language

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UNIT 3 How is Bilingualism Acquired, Learnt and Used?

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Outcomes
3.3 Acquisition and Learning of Bilingualism
3. 3.1 Language Processing in Bilingualism
3.3.2 Sentence Context
3.4 Contrastive Analysis
3.5. Error Analysis
3.6 Summary
3.7 References / Further Reading/ Web Resources
3.8Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

3.1 Introduction

In our previous discussion, you were informed that where there is language contact
there is bilingualism. This Unit will now explore how bilingualism is acquired, learnt
and used so that the linguistic competence of the bilingual from the monolingual stage
can be appreciated. The Unit will explain how the process of acquiring and learning
the second language could be remarkably different from the first language. This is
because of the threat-free and natural environment that characterizes the acquisition
of the first language as against the rather artificial and anxiety induced situation of the
second language.

3.2. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit you should be able to:

 Explain how bilingualism could be acquired

 Discuss the role of environment in language learning.
 State the four identifiable abilities of the bilingual
 Appreciate the bilingual learning problems.
 Classify intra-lingual and inter-lingual errors of the bilingual

3.3 Acquisition and Learning of Bilingualism

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Many linguists believe that learning a second language is a world of its own, totally
different from acquiring the first language. Language acquisition refers to the way
linguistics abilities are internalized naturally. In other words, there would be no
conscious focus on linguistic forms. It is a subconscious process. Language learning
however, is a conscious process and is the result of either a formal language learning
situation or a self-study programmes. Formal language situation are characterized by
the presence of feedback and error-correction, largely absent from acquisition
environment and rule-isolation, the presentation of artificial linguistic environments
that introduce just an aspect of grammar at a time. The teacher in the classroom who
realizes this distinction needs therefore to consider the factors affecting ease of
learning in the second (L2) environment as well as the learnability of the language.
Williams, (1998) says the teacher should let the characteristics of the learner
determines the method to be used. He believes that language learning is a function
of factors residing inside and outside of the learner. The learner’s intelligence, aptitude
and motivation are some of the essential personal factors which the teacher in a
bilingual class must take note of. The learner’s age is a particularly important factor
influencing language teaching method in Nigeria. For example, the technique of
mimicry-memorization is more appropriate for the child than for the adult whose
inhibition would make him unwilling to expose himself to error and perhaps ridicule in
the presence of his classmates

3.3.1 Language Processing in Bilingualism

Aronin, L. and Singleton, D (2012) strongly believe that bilingualism becomes more
attractive as the average global citizen endeavour to add another language to his
verbal repertoire. As you are aware, Nigeria is a multilingual society where ability to
speak more than one or two languages will give you an added advantage in an
increasing competitive speech commonly. In the acquisition and learning of another
language that qualifies an individual to become bilingual, some psychological,
sociological and educational factors are brought to play as we shall see in the following
discussion. According to Williams and Burden (1998), the learner in a bilingual
situation would be subjected to four tasks in second language learning. The first one
is phonetic coding:

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The learner has to hear some words before producing them. He thus needs to develop
the ability to ‘code’ auditory phonetic material so as to recognize and identify them
latter. A Yoruba child learning English will have problems with ‘coding’ the phonemes
(t) and (θ) because in the Yoruba language these sounds are absent. The tendency
is to say (saild) instead of ‘child’ /tʃaild/, (dat) for ‘that’ / ðæt) and (tink) for think (θik)
respectively. Also consonant clusters either initial or final in a syllable are difficult for
Yoruba speakers, and there is a tendency to drop one of the consonants as in (srendʒ)
for ‘strange’ (stretndʒ). Moreover, English alphabets contain more vowels than most
Nigeria languages. The long vowels are not distinct in Yoruba so that the learner may
not distinguish seat/sl:t/from sit/sit/. The Yoruba language phonic form is consonant
vowel consonant CVCV as in ‘futubolu’ and vowel consonant VCV as in ‘aja’ (dog)
omo (child). Whereas in English the phonic form might consist of consonant clusters
CCCV as in ‘street’ and other varied forms.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Describe the process of bilingualism

2. Explain Phonetic coding

3.3.2 Sentence Context

The teacher should help the learner to develop his ability in grammatical sensitivity
which is the capacity to recognize the grammatical functions of words in sentence
contexts. An example is that of a boy who lives in the rural area being asked to write
a composition on “Journey by Air” or being taught same in the controlled composition
method and free writing; the learning experience is almost meaningless to the child
who might not even have seen an airplane. Also the teaching of grammatical items
like the verb ‘is’ should be related to the child’s linguistics environment. For example,
a boy whose father is a farmer should be taught “My father is a farmer” and not “My
father is a doctor”. Since the language learners’ ages fall between six years and eleven
years, their rote memorization ability could be developed. This is the ability to learn a
large number of associations in a relatively short time. The idea here is to stamp in
the audio-lingual approach which holds that language is a set of habit and perfection

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in a language can only be gained through intensive practice especially for young
learners who are found to be better language imitators than are adults.
The fourth is the inductive language learning ability which is the ability to infer linguistic
form, rules and patterns from one linguistic context itself with a minimum of supervision
or guidance. The teacher must endeavour to provide a perfect or near perfect model
for the bilingual child to imitate. He could design a situational drill like:
Ade comes to school everyday
Ojo comes to the market everyday
John takes his bath everyday …
and so on in his teaching of present perfect (tense of habitual occurrence). He drills
the learners to the point of automatic reproduction and leaves them to generalize.
However, audio-lingual drill is in disrepute among some linguists who are stressing the
return to a rational or meta-linguistic approach. People use language because they
are rational. The mimicry-memorization process attempts to underrate the capacity of
human intellect.

3.4 Contrastive Analysis

Researches on bilingualism have revealed that it is natural for the learner to transfer
the speech patterns of his first language (L1) to the target language. We call this
transfer a linguistic accent. The teacher needs to employ the contrastive analysis
procedure to bring out the difference between long / i: / and short / i / as follows:
A B
/ i: / /i/
Feet fit
Lead lid
Feel fill
Keel kill

Having highlighted the contrast in the sounds above the learners would assimilate the
correct pronunciation thus overcoming their errors.

3.5 Error Analysis

However, some L2 errors are intra-lingual as the rationalist school contends. Here the
teacher will do error analysis to help the learner surmount his problem. The English
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language irregular verb system is a veritable spot for L2 learning errors. A child who
is taught to add the morphemes ‘ad’ to get the past tense of many words finds it highly
inconsistent and indefensible to have the past tense of ‘go’ as ‘went’ (when it could as
well be ‘good’). He could not understand why the pronunciation of ‘knife’ should have
a silent k when it could be discarded altogether or why the word ‘case’ should be
pronounced /keiz/ when the spelling begins with alphabet ‘C’.
Having been taught that ‘er’ is a doer morpheme as in ‘teacher’, ‘seller’, he is later told
that a person who cheats cannot be called a ‘cheater’. The teacher should find out
what underlies the errors of L2 learning and design appropriate methods and means
of helping the learner. For example he needs to inform the students that the English
Language is not an alphabetical language like Yoruba which parades a one to one
correspondence between sounds and spellings. The teacher should also teach the
‘exceptions’ after the ‘general’ so that learners could avoid over generalizations and
drawing of misleading analogy. Needless to say, the teacher in the bilingual education
system must be a bilingual. It is also very important that he should acquire a sound
and ready demand of the language he has elected to teach. His teaching should be
based on a good analysis of the language and possibly to some extent on a
comparison of the language being taught with the L1. Specifically, the teacher of
bilinguals must be able to feel two cultures with a good contrastive analysis of the two
languages in mind.
Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. Distinguish between Contrastive Analysis and Error

Analysis

2. Explain associative learning of the bilingual.

3.6 Summary

In this Unit, we have attempted to explain how Bilingualism is acquired learnt and used
in any plural society with two or more languages. The Unit discussed the acquisition
and learning processes of the bilingual. You also learnt about the peculiarities of how
the knowledge of the first language can facilitate or inhibit the acquisition or learning
of the second language. Most importantly, you were able to appreciate that the
bilingual is not a passive recipient of a new language but a participant who is eager to

96
improve as he attains better proficiency in the acquisition of another language.
Bilingualism has been explained to be a complex and varied phenomenon in any
speech community where it is manifested. You can see that there is a world of
difference between acquiring a language in a natural setting during the early stage of
life and learning a language in a formal setting with the intervening variables that will
impinge on the learner’s linguistic competence. As the bilingual child acquires/ learns
a new language, intralingual and Inter-lingual errors confront him but if these are
handled very well by the teacher the bilingual gains both cognitively and
psychologically.

3.7 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Aronin, L. & Singleton, D. (2012). Multilingualism. John Benjamins Co.

Adeyanju, T. K. (1980) Educational language policy in Africa – problems and

prospects: paper presented at the Institute of African Studies Seminar,
Columbia University,
Dunstan, E. (1969). Twelve Nigerian languages: A handbook on the sound system
for teachers of English. Longmans.
Jakobovits, L. A. (1970) Foreign language learning: Rowley, Newbury House
Plalorssi, F. (1974). Teaching the Bilingual. The University of Arizona Press.

Ubahakwe, E. (ed) (1969) The Teaching of English Studies. University

Press Ltd.
Wilkins, D. A. (1972). Linguistics for Language Teaching. Edward Arnold Publishers.

Williams, M. & Burden, R. (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge

University Press.

3.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

Answers to SAE 1
1. Language acquisition refers to the way linguistics abilities are internalized
naturally. In other words, there would be no conscious focus on linguistic forms
while second language learning is a conscious process of formal learning.
2. This involves the learner hearing some words before producing them. He needs
to develop the ability to ‘code’ auditory phonetic material so as to recognize and
identify them latter.
Answers to SAE 2

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1. Contrastive analysis is done to bring out the contrast between the first language
and the second language especially during transfer of linguistic accent.
2. Associative learning is to assist the bilingual to behave with the language
because language is a set of habit and perfection in a language can only be
gained through intensive practice especially for young learners

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UNIT 5: Examples of Bilingualism

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Learning Outcomes
5.3 Examples of Bilingualism
5. 3.1 Degree of Bilingualism
5.3.2 Variables in Bilingualism
5.4 Categories of Bilingualism
5.5. Other Types of Bilingualism
5.6 Summary
5.7 References/Further Reading/Web Resources
5.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

5.1 Introduction

In this Unit, you will be learning about examples of bilingualism. Having learnt that
bilingualism involves the ability to speak two or more languages, we shall now identify
the degree of bilingualism and gives some examples of what it takes to be bilingual.
We shall also examine the various indices of bilingualism to enable us classify
bilingualism appropriately.

5.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the Unit, you should be able to:

 Explain bilingualism as a phenomenon

 State some indices to determine bilingualism
 Discuss some examples of bilingualism
 Describe language proficiency of a bilingual
 Appreciate bilingualism as an advantage over monolingualism

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5.3 Degree of Bilingualism

5.3.1 Measurement of Bilingualism

Many people all over the world are now convinced that bilingualism is a fact of life.
Where you see any monolingual, it would be assured that he will have a restricted
outlook as majority of people now prefer the bilingual orientation. According to
Edwards (2009) everyone could even be said to be bilingual because it is hard to find
an adult who does not know at least a few words in language other than their maternal
variety. In Nigeria for example many Hausas interrelate with Yoruba people to the
level of describing them as ‘omo Awolowo’ ( Awolowo children) the Igbo people call
them ‘Ngbati people’ and even describe their several party sessions as ‘Owambe
parties’. This simply means they have an inkling of what a foreign language could look
like, though this does not actually mean they are bilingual. However, possessing
native-like control of two languages too will be an impossible gauge to determine
bilingualism.

The examples of bilingualism we are concerned with here have to do with the degree
of competence in more than one language. Consider a situation where you can speak
Yoruba even though you are Igbo; but can you read or write in Yoruba language? Will
you then say you are bilingual (Igbo –Yoruba)? These are the difficulties researchers
face when they attempt to measure bilingualism. Edward (2009) explains that there
are at least twenty dimensions of language which could be assessed to determine
bilingual proficiency but many variables are involved therefore conclusions have
always been controversial. Researchers often use many tests such as rating scale,
fluency, flexibility and dominance tests to measure bilingualism but there are
challenges to be faced because the strength and validity of these tests rest on the
capacity of individuals to give accurate reports. These tests measuring bilingualism
should not be taken for granted to determine accuracy and reliability. For example, if
you ask a bilingual to self-report on how often he reads we in Yoruba, he might say
‘very often’ when he does so ‘rarely’ Again, in testing for pronunciation an Igbo person
may say ‘lice’ instead of ‘rice’ because the consonant ‘l’ and ‘r’ may not be as distinct
in his language as in English. Will you now conclude that he is not bilingual; (Igbo-
English)? The results of all these types of tests may correlate yet they are clearly far
from perfect.
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5.3.2 Variables in Bilingualism

Other variables that could affect the measurement of bilingualism are: age, sex,
attitude, intelligence and linguistic distance between the two languages. Edwards
(1988) submits that even if we were able to gauge with some accuracy there would
remain problems of adequate labeling such that it is difficult to categorize one
individual neatly into: perfect, near perfect, average or lesser bilingual than another.
Besides what term would you apply to those whose bilingual; abilities are great? Will
they be balance bilingual, ambi-bilinguals, or equilingual. It is therefore sufficient to
understand that a vast number of those to whom the term bilingual can be reasonably
applied will fall under the category of partial bilingualism. There is no single definition
of individual bilingualism but it is seen as a continuum where a monolingual speaker
with language X and then moves to acquire another language Y in a naturalistic
context with equal and native like fluency. Many linguists have described such a
description as theoretical and rare in practice.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Explain the problems of measurement of bilingualism

2. Who is a perfect bilingual?

5.4 Categories of Bilingualism

1. Early and Late Bilingualism

This relates to the age at which the bilinguals are exposed to the second language. In
the pre-adolescent phase of life, Beardsmore (1986) describes contact with another
language as early bilingualism while late Bilingualism is defined as the acquisition of
one language before and the other language after the age of 8 years. What
distinguishes early and late bilinguals however is their level of linguistic competence.
While early bilingualism is characterized by native-like linguistic competence in both
languages most late bilinguals are regarded as non-native speakers of the second
language. In early bilingualism the variable of age where the child learns the two

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languages at the same time produces strong bilingualism but late bilingualism occurs
after the critical period when the second language is learnt in adolescent or adulthood.
2. Balanced and Dominant Bilingualism
This is a type of bilingualism where the relationship between the two languages
centres on the fluency and proficiency of the two languages and how the bilingual
attains mastery over the respective languages. Peal and Labert (1962) assert that
those who acquire similar degrees of proficiency and mastery in both languages are
regarded as balanced bilingual while dominant or unbalanced bilinguals could be used
to describe those individuals whom their proficiency in one language is higher than in
the other languages. In many cases, we have the first language gaining ascendency
over the other because it has been acquired in the natural setting and the second
language L2 which is acquired later in life seems over shadowed by the first one.

3. Compound and Coordinate Bilingualism

This describes a form of bilingualism where the linguistic codes of two or more
languages are organized by the bilingual. In compound bilingualism two sets of codes
are stored in one unit or semantic: map- dog (English) chien (French). Here, there is
one system of meaning for the word which is used for both languages in English and
French respectively. In case of co-ordinate bilingualism, each linguistic code is stored
and organized separately in two meaning units and the bilingual has two system to
draw from. He has a store for the first language and another for the second language.
Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. Distinguish between Balanced and Unbalanced

Bilingualism
2. How does one acquire coordinate bilingualism?

5.5 Other Types of Bilingualism

Fishman (1977) identified the social status of a language as an example of

bilingualism. He believes that folk bilingualism is concerned with the minority
community whose own language does not have a high status in the predominant
language of the society in which the minority one dwells. In contrast, we have elite
bilingualism where the dominate language is spoken by the educated upper class

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known as the elite. This language gives them an edge by providing for them better
opportunities in terms of political, social and economic advantages. Among the elite,
there is what is termed linguistic code of power and solidarity. They associate with
themselves in a language that brands them as totally different from the folk community.
Elite bilingualism is also referred to as institutional bilingualism whereby individuals,
who in addition to their mother tongue are highly proficient in a foreign language.

Additive and subtractive Bilingualism

This form of bilingualism shows that the acquisition of a new language does not
necessarily diminish competency of the first language. In other words, there is an
additional benefit to derive from learning another language while retaining proficiency
of the L1. On the other hand, when the new language affects the proficiency of the first
language already acquired, then we talk of subtractive bilingualism. Here, the bilingual
pays for his L1 skills by his learning of L2. Many educated Nigerians nowadays suffer
a lot from subtractive bilingualism where some of them can hardly engage in
meaningful discourse in their first language without a resort to the English language to
bail them out!

5.6 Summary

In this Unit, you learn about the examples of bilingualism and the indices that typify
them. We also discussed that proficiency in any language is affected by many
variables. Researchers do not agree on labeling such as perfect or near perfect as it
could be very subjective to characterize the different examples of bilingualism being
examined. The discussion has shown that it is difficult to have a perfect bilingual.
Researchers agree that there are many indices to determine conditions of acquiring a
first language. These differ considerably from one individual to another because
bilingual abilities are not the same.

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5.7 References / Further Reading/Web Resources

Edwards, J. (2009). Language and identity. An introduction. Cambridge

University Press
Fishman, J. (1977). The social science perspective in bilingual education: current
perspectives in social sciences. Centre for Applied Linguistics.
Mordadi, H. (2014). An investigation through different types of bilingualism.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Studies 1, (11).
Peal, E & Lambert W. (1962). The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological
Monographs, 76, 1-23
Beardsmore, H. B. (1986). Bilingualism: basic principles 1(1) Multilingual matters.

5.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

Answers to SAEs 1

1. It is difficult to measure because of the fluid nature affecting age, intelligence

and attitude.
2. There is no perfect bilingualism because it is not possible to possess proficiency
with equal measure
Answers to SAEs 2

1. Balanced bilingualism presupposes that one acquires mastery in fluency of the

two languages while unbalanced refers to a situation where mastery of one
language supersedes the other.
2. Acquisition of coordinate bilingualism involves the storage of linguistic codes
stored separately for retrieval.

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MODULE 3 MULTILINGUALISM
UNIT 1: Definitions and Theories of Multilingualism

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Multilingualism
1.3.1 What is Multilingualism?
1.3.2 Multilingualism as a Global Phenomenon
1.4 Theories of Multilingualism
1.5 Variables Involved in Multilingualism
1.6 Summary
1.7 References / Further Reading/ Web Resources
1.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

1.1 Introduction
In the previous module, you were exposed to what bilingualism entails. Its definition
and types were introduced to you. This Unit will give you an overview of the definitions
of multilingualism and its theories. During the discussion, you will be given an insight
that the term multilingualism has become a very broad phenomenon in today’s society.
The Unit will explain to you the complex nature of multilingual societies in Nigeria and
other parts of the world. It will also highlight the fact that multilingualism derives its
vibrant nature from multidisciplinary fields such as sociology, psychology, linguistics
anthropology, etc.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
 Define multilingualism
 Explain language contact as a precursor of multilingualism
 Describe the Nigerian context of multilingualism
 Distinguish between bilingualism and multilingualism
 Discuss multilingualism as a global phenomenon

1.3 Multilingualism

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1.3.1 What Is Multilingualism?
Multilingualism is a phenomenon which could be described as an inter-
disciplinary field of study that is of great interest to linguists, psychologists,
sociologists, anthropologists and educationists. With modern globalization
enveloping the world, there is an increasing need for travelling, immigration,
trade and eco-tourism. Where there is language contact, there must be
multilingualism. Let us consider the following scenario:
Three persons from the three major languages in Nigeria were travelling to a
distant place. They found a single piece of money and decided to buy an item
with it. This argument ensued:
Hausa I want to buy goro
Igbo I want to buy oji
Yoruba I want to buy obi
Another traveller multilingual, decided to settle the matter, by buying kolanut
and giving each of them saying:
“This is your goro, your oji, your obi respectively” and all were pleased. The
message tells you that the multilingual was able to avert misunderstanding
because all of them were saying the same thing without realizing it due to lack
of understanding of one another’s languages.

The two components of the term are of Latin origin ‘multi’ and ‘lingua’ which
literally translated mean ‘many languages’. However, the term multilingualism
refers to a global phenomenon that describes both the individual and the
society. With the current trend where globalization is enveloping the world,
multilingualism refers to a sociolinguistic phenomenon resulting from contact
with two or more languages. In many Nigerian societies, we can easily identify
a bilingual/multilingual setting such as the following:

1. Ability to speak a first language – possession of mother tongue.

2. Ability to speak the language of wider community
3. Ability to speak the second language/foreign language (English, French,
Arabic)

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Okal (2014) refers to multilingualism as the ability of a speaker to express
themselves in several languages, with equal and near native-like proficiency.
This could not be achieved in all aspects of multilingualism as some linguists
will accept you as a multilingual even when you can speak the languages
minimally. Societal multilingualism can also occur where there is the co-
existence of several languages within a society such as the Nigerian situation
mentioned above. These several languages may be official or unofficial, native
or foreign, national or international. Crystal (2008) argues that multilingualism
may subsume bilingualism where a speech community makes use of two or
more languages and the individuals who have this ability. Specifically,
multilingualism is sometimes contrasted with bilingualism because it describes
a community or individuals in command of more than two languages. Please
note that these terms sometimes overlap, depending on the perspectives of
experts interpreting the intervening factors and sociolinguistic factors of a given
speech community. However, we can safely argue that multilingualism occurs
where many languages are used by an individual or a speech community for a
variety of purposes. These include the distinctions that are internal such as
routine domestic communicative purposes as opposed to external such as
language of international communication, technology and tourism.

Many sociolinguists have also explained that multilingualism is a complex

phenomenon because there are very few speech communities that are totally
monolingual and that minority languages are always rearing their heads within
a dominant one. Therefore, there are differing multilingual abilities
demonstrated by many multilinguals depending on their political, social and
educational imperatives. Moore and Gajo (2009) believe that multilingual
speakers use different languages, either in isolation or mixed, according to their
communicative needs and their interlocutors. While monolingual speakers use
one single language in all situations, multilingual speakers navigate among
languages and do not use each of their languages for the same purposes in all
communicative situations, in the same domains, or with the same people. A
multilingual person may read the newspaper in one language but a technical
report in another language. The same multilingual person may chat on the

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Internet in two languages depending on their interlocutors but watch movies in
only one of those languages.

In Nigeria, the University of Lagos makes it mandatory for students to study

French during their PhD programme. In such a circumstance, you will hear
such students speak, sing and even write in French. Usages such as:
‘monsieur’, ‘bonjour’, ‘mon cher ami’, ‘merci beacoup’ (Mr., good morning, my
dear friend, thank you) respectively, fill the linguistic repertoire of such students.
However, immediately they pass ENG 952, proficiency in the French language
diminishes. Crystal (2008) further explains that multilingualism now embraces
other realms of language study termed ‘peace linguistics’. As languages come
into contact with one another, linguists of the 1990’s decided to promote
method, findings and applications where human rights are respected at the
global level. The approach advocates the value of language diversity and
multilingualism, both internationally and intra-nationally. It also asserts the
need to foster positive language attitudes, which respect the dignity of individual
speakers and speech communities.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Explain the complex nature of Multilingualism

2. Distinguish between Bilingualism and
Multilingualism

1.3.2 Multilingualism as a Global Phenomenon

Multilingualism is practiced all over the world and Africa is not an exception.
Okal (2014) reports that: “it has it has been realized in both the written and
verbal communicative practices that proficiency in one language usually tends
to dominate in a multilingual set up as compared to the others.” Multilingualism
can also be regarded as the co-existence of several languages within a society.
These several languages can be official or unofficial, native or foreign and
national or international. Dorney (1998) argues on the multi-dimensional levels
from which we can appreciate multilingualism. These include the ability to
speak more languages that will help us to understand other peoples’ culture
better. At the level of an individual, multilingualism lets one discover their own
skills and raises the awareness towards better consciousness. It should

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 therefore be encouraged from sociological, psychological and linguistic
viewpoints. This informs the perceptions of many studies in the field of
multilingualism, which hold that language diversity is an asset to mankind. We
can juxtapose diversity of languages with that of ecology, where a tropical rain
forest could contain the solution to future medical problem. Language diversity
may contain a source of alternative philosophical, scientific and technological
innovations. According to Ahukanna (1986), the language problem in Nigeria is
a function of her multilingualism, which in turn is a product of Nigeria’s multi-
ethnicity. In the Nigerian context multilingualism should be understood as a
linguistic situation where a large number of indigenous languages spoken by a
correspondingly large number of ethnic groups compete for national recognition
and survival. However, Nigeria’s multi-ethnicity and the attendant
multilingualism and multi-culturalism are potent educational and political tools
that we can use to forge national unity and identity.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

Examine the language repertoire of two of your colleagues and identify

some features of multilingualism.

1.4 Theories of Multilingualism

The learning of one language is a universal trait of human behavior and the mastery
of two or more languages respectively called bilingualism and multilingualism – is a
special skill. What makes a person bilingual/multilingual? It is usually regular contact
with people who speak another language. Such contact may come from intermarriage,
immigration, trade, colonization, religious conversion, military conquest, travels, or
residence in a foreign or bilingual community, or through deliberate learning.

Degree of multilingualism: Multilinguals differ in the skill with which they use their
languages in the environments in which they use them; in their ability to switch from
one language to another; in the age they learn them; in the order in which they learnt

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them; and in their ability to keep both languages apart. Between the language of the
home and the language of the school, there is often a difference, which may force a
bilingual child for the rest of their life to pray in one language and to count in another.
Multilinguals generally experience phases during which one language becomes more
prominent than the other. When this process continues in one direction, it may
eliminate one of the languages – even when that language is the child’s mother
tongue.

1.5 Variables Involved in Multilingualism

Arsenian (1937) identifies some variables for theories on multilingualism. The first
variable is the degree of competence. It is argued that rarely do we find bilinguals or
multilinguals who have equal mastery of the languages, in terms of proficiency. One
is likely to gain ascendancy over the others. The degree of difference between the
two languages of multilingual children not only influences the learning mechanism, but
also the thinking process. This is attributed to the differences in culture and civilization
of the people who use these languages. The second variable is that the characteristics
of the languages differ in terms of vocabulary syntax, phonology, morphology and
intonation. The understanding here is that languages differ. The third variable is the
method of learning or acquiring the languages. There are two systems of
multilingualism. These are:
(a) The Compound or Fused system – whereby the languages are learnt at the
same time in similar or the same contexts. The theory in this form of
multilingualism asserts that an individual learns the languages in the same
environment so that they acquire one notion with two or more verbal
expressions.
(b) The Co-ordinate or Separated system – whereby both languages are learnt at
different times and in different contexts. The theory here argues that co-ordinate
learners are those who learn the languages with two independent grammars
for the languages.

The Compound or Fused system is used in homes where two languages, say English
and Hausa or English and Yoruba, are used interchangeably to refer to the
environmental events. Children in these types of homes would learn a second
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language in fused contexts. The two systems of learning the languages have different
psychological effects on a child’s ability to speak and understand the languages.
Lambert (1967), who investigated these two theories of multilingualism, found that
those who acquired their languages in separated contexts showed a significantly
greater difference in meanings of translated equivalents than did those who acquired
their two languages in fused contexts. He also noted that the coordinate bilinguals in
contrast to the compound bilinguals, appear to have more functionally independent
language systems. From instructional point of view, it is contended that the direct
method of teaching a foreign language, which established the association between a
word and experience, is better than the indirect method which associates the word
with an equivalent word in the native language.

The fourth variable is children’s attitudes towards the second language. It is believed
that favorable attitude has facilitative effects on learning while unfavorable attitude has
inhibitory effects. The successful acquisition of a second language is not only
dependent on the general and linguistic but is also profoundly influenced by the
individual’s attitude to this form of learning, which in turn will tend to be influenced by
the wishes of their parents, and the supporting linguistic background. The fifth
condition is the chronological age – the speech areas of the human brain have
maximum sensitivity from Nursery School age up to 10 years of age, and after that
sensitivity starts to decline. During this period – i. e. Nursery School age to 10 years
– the brain has more plasticity and flexibility, and is therefore highly receptive, but after
this age the receptivity power progressively fades and, eventually, at the age of 14
years, the human brain is senescent as regards the learning of new languages.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. What are the possible challenges facing a multilingual?

2. Distinguish between Fused and coordinate multilingualism

1.6 Summary

In this Unit, we examined the definitions and theories of multilingualism. We learnt

that with globalization many people all over the world are becoming multilingual

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because of trade, immigration and tourism. We also mentioned that Nigeria is a
multilingual society and explained the challenges of multilingualism. The Unit identified
Arsenian variables for theories of multilingualism and the processes in acquiring more
than two languages. We concluded that multilingualism is now a global phenomenon
that has permeated the realities of many speech communities. It is now generally
agreed that modern societies need to interact more with one another due to
globalization and other imperatives of modernization. The Nigerian society a is part
of the global community and the plural nature of our society places the onus on us to
encourage multilingualism for better understanding and mutual benefit in what Crystal
(2008) called ‘peace linguistics’.

1.7 References/ Further Reading /Web Resources

Ahukanna, J.(1986).Official bilingualism or multilingualism: whither bound?

Educational Studies Journal.Vol.1 pp106-109
Arsenian,S. (1937). Bilingualism and mental development. Hollingworth
Publishers.
Crystal, D. (2008). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Blackwell.

Dorney, Z. (1998). motivation in second language learning. Thames Valley University

Cambridge University Press.
Lambert, W. (1967). A social psychology of bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues. Vol.
23. pp. 91-109
Madrid, D. & Hughes, S. (2012). Studies in bilingualism. Linguistic Insight Series.Vol.1
Pp.20-28.
Okal, B. (2014). Benefits of Multilingualism in education.Universal Journal of
Educational Research 2(3): 223-229,

1.8 Possible Answers to SAEs

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Complex because many speakers use different languages in different

situations because of sundry communicative needs.
2. Multilingualism may subsume bilingualism. Sometimes the two terms are
used interchangeably
Answers to SAEs 2

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 1. Students are to collect TEN speech items and analyse.
Answers to SAEs 3

1. It’s rare to find a person with equal mastery of all languages

2. There could be mental confusion in retrieving one linguistic code against
another

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UNIT 2: Individual or Societal Measurement of Multilingualism

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Measurement of Multilingualism
2.3.1 Individual or Societal Multilingualism?
2.3.2 Benefits of Multilingualism
2.4 Societal Multilingualism
2.5 Fishman’s Blueprint on Societal Multilingualism
2.6 Summary
2.7 References / Further Reading/ Web Resources
2.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

2.1 Introduction

In the previous Unit, you learnt about definitions and theories of multilingualism and
you are now conversant with some features of a multilingual speech community. This
Unit will be concerned with individual or societal multilingualism and its measurement.
Our discussion will state the clear importance of Multilingualism in the global space
and how society should promote intercultural awareness and diversity as the whole
world moves towards unity in diversity. In an increasingly diversified and multilingual
world, many people find it more rewarding to operate in an environment where more
than one language is used. The unit will also explore some features of multilingual
society such as code switching and code mixing and the need to develop our
indigenous languages including Fishman’s 8 stages regarding the goals of societal
multilingualism.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

 Explain individual and societal multilingualism
 Distinguish between code-switching and code-mixing
 discuss the impact of these on the Nigerian indigenous languages

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  Discuss Fishman’s eight stage goals of societal multilingualism
 Explain high and low language use in the Nigerian society

2.3 Measurement of Multilingualism

2.3.1 Individual or Societal Multilingualism

Stockwell (2007) asserts that modern societies are often proud to have individuals with
multilingual abilities, which is seen as something of a remarkable achievement. Some
employers often expect multilingual skills of their applicants to be of added advantage.
It is reported that over 70% of the earth’s population are thought to be
bilingual/Multilingual and there is good reason to believe that bilingual/ multilingualism
has been the norm for most human beings in the past millennia. In Nigeria, many
people are multilingual because they speak their Mother Tongue (MT), speak another
language of the wider community (LWC) and thereafter speak English, which is the
official language. In the Muslim north, some people speak Arabic, having learn the
holy Quran, which is the language of their religion. Therefore, an individual may furnish
himself/herself with the necessary multilingual skills to enable him/her function in the
fields suitable for his/her social, economic, religious or political advantages.

According to Dorney (1998), the multilingual needs of the modern day individual
makes it imperative for them to function with more than one or two languages because
multilingualism has become a very broad phenomenon to today’s society. With the
advent of globalization and the possibilities of travelling, migration, trade and the
media, it has become much easier to interact with a vast majority of local and foreign
personalities with different cultures and languages because inter cultural relationships
has reshaped the realities of modern societies.

2.3.2 Benefits of Multilingualism

According to Baker (2010), an individual who is multilingual stands the chance to

benefit maximally from the experience because of the following:

 Speaking two or more languages does not create unnecessary strain. There may
be very obvious surface differences between languages, but cognitive skills like

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 reading for information do not have to be relearned. They are simply transferred
from one language to another.

 There are social and personal benefits: a sound foundation in the home
language(s) can increase children’s self-esteem; it is also important for good
relations within a family; it can increase the range of job possibilities.

 In school contexts, multilingualism can help to combat racism by raising awareness

of diversity and can foster communication between speakers of different
languages.

 Multilingualism is the basis for democracy: if you cannot operate in your own
language, you are not fully empowered.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Distinguish between individual and societal multilingualism.

2. How can you encourage the speaking of more than two languages in your
community?

2.4 Societal Multilingualism

The nature of Nigeria’s plural society is an evidence of its multilingualism. The
convergence of various ethnic and foreign groups all over the country has undergone
a sociolinguistic process where one can observe socio-cultural integration, ethnic
diffusion, trade and commerce and linguistic assimilation. Asher (2007) avers that
Nigeria is the largest nation in sub-Saharan Africa, with approximately 25% of the
population of the sub-continent. His assessment confirms that linguistically speaking,
it is one of the most complex countries in the world, with approximately 440 languages
comprising over 20% of Africa’s 2000 plus languages. He cited the most widely
accepted classification of African languages by Greenberg (1963), and subsequent
modifications which postulated four major phyla for the continent: Niger–Congo, Afro–
Asiatic, Nilo–Saharan, and Khoisan; all but the last of these are well represented in
Nigeria. Nigeria’s linguistic complexity is manifested first, in the existence of such a
large number of languages within one nation’s borders and second, in the attendant

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situation of multilingualism and its implications for development and education (See
map).
Principal Linguistic Groups in Nigeria

Source: Danladi,S. (2013).

Swigart (1992) has argued that one of the features of societal multilingualism is the
phenomenon of code switching. In his study, he explores the use of the local language,
which marks the speaker as educated and of high socio-economic status. Code-mixing
refers to any admixture of linguistic elements of two or more language systems in the
same utterance at various levels: phonological, lexical, grammatical and
orthographical. In essence, code-mixing may be more adequately seen as occurring
as a kind of intra-sentential switching, where code-switching more readily describes
the phenomenon that occurs at the inter-sentential level of linguistic usage. Linguists
often refer to code-switching as the use of more than one language or variety in
conversation. Bilinguals, who can speak at least two languages, have the ability to use

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elements of both languages when conversing with another bilingual. Code-switching
is the syntactically and phonologically appropriate use of multiple varieties. Code-
switching can occur between sentences (inter-sentential) or within a single sentence
(intra-sentential). Although some commentators have seen code-switching as
reflecting a lack of language ability, most contemporary scholars consider code-
switching to be a normal and natural product of interaction between the bilingual (or
multilingual) speakers’ languages. Code-switching can be distinguished from other
language contact phenomena such as loan translation (calques), borrowing, pidgins
and creoles, and transfer or interference.

Adedun and Shodipe’s (2011) study of central Lagos reveals that in many communities
of the world, a case of diglossia is inevitable in societal multilingualism. The
coexistence of Yoruba and English in this community can also be described as
diglossic. Diglossic languages and diglossic language situations are usually described
as consisting of two (or more) varieties that coexist in a speech community, where
domains of linguistic behaviour are parcelled out in a kind of complementary
distribution. These domains are usually ranked in a kind of hierarchy from high valued
(H) to less valued (L). A diglossic situation involving two different (i.e. genetically
unrelated) linguistic codes such as Yoruba and English is sometimes referred to as
‘extended’ diglossia. In this case, the dominant language, the ‘H’ code, has the greater
prestige and international status, or is the language of the local elite or dominant
group(s). The ‘L’ code on the other hand is the language of informal communication
and domestic interaction. This situation is otherwise known as non-genetic diglossia.
It is important to see language switch in societal multilingualism as a function of the
audience, topic and setting of the communicative situation, including the felicity
conditions of the interlocutors. These involve the socio-cultural and cognitive factors
that signal whether one language is dominating other languages and the domain of
usage. Among the Yoruba, for example, it is acceptable to say ‘e ku imura sile’, ‘e ku
oju lona’, (Kudos for preparing ahead). While the English speaker projects the
Westernized worldview the Yoruba speaker projects the African indigenous worldview.
Such post-dated greetings that characterize the Yoruba language are largely absent
in the English language. Anjola (2010) observes that if societal multilingualism is

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expected to fulfill its desired role, the language policy should be implemented in a
manner that would put in place the following:

1. The indigenous languages should be developed, modernized and standardized so

as to widen their cognitive frames.2. Language switch should be seen and treated as
rich and a veritable communicative tool because of its role in the process of commun
ication.
3. The status of the indigenous language should be brought at par with English so tha
t it will no longer be seen as the language of the less educated.
4. Each language should be seen as completely rich and capable of presenting realiti
es not viewed or experienced in other languages.
5. Borrowing should be encouraged as a means of preserving cultural items missing i
n other languages.
Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. Examine the following sentences and explain the code-switching

features involved:
‘Na wah ni rice madam?’ ‘Nibo lo ti ra textbook yen’
2. Explain the features of diglossia

2.5 Fishman’s Blueprint on Societal Multilingualism

Fishman’s (1991) investigation into societal multilingualism has given a blueprint that
the preservation and strengthening of a language cannot be left to language planners,
government leaders and linguists. The whole speech community must contribute to
the patterns of language use in the society because societal multilingualism deal
largely with people’s values and attitudes to their languages and those of other
people’s cultures and languages. The following stages were advocated to achieve the
general goals of societal multilingualism:

Stage 8

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The language has only a few older people who still speak the language, and who are
isolated from one another. The role of linguists is critical at this stage to re-establish
community norms of grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary.
Stage 7
Those who speak the language regularly are all beyond child-bearing age and have
not taught the language to their children. It is close to extinction because there is no
intergenerational continuity. There are no young speakers even though there is a
large, active, elderly population that is involved in cultural events and ceremonies.
While cultural events are important at this stage, they must be transcended and
extended to daily living activities of the home.
Stage 6
This is an important stage where most efforts should focus. Here the language is still
used in the home, from parents to children, and the home is surrounded by a
community that speaks the language. This is where most of language learning, identity
formation, and establishment of social bonds takes place for children, early in life,
through interactions with parents and grandparents. Although it is not easy to plan
language efforts that focus directly on home-family-neighborhood-community building,
efforts should be intensified to preserve and promote the use of the language.
Stage 5 Local languages have some literacy in the community, neighborhood, family,
and home. The availability of the language in written form broadens its range and use.
This stage must entail after-school programs for adults and children, to promote
reading and writing in the native language.
Stage 4The language is used in the schools. It is crucial for the positive development
of the language that the schools value and support the cultures of language groups
and that they share authority for curriculum and staffing with the language groups.
.Stage 3 The language pertains to the work sphere. With the dominance of English as
the language of commerce and world affairs, Fishman admits that this domain is
particularly difficult for local languages to penetrate. Although there are possible tactics
to introduce and maintain local languages in the workplace, it is the positive link
between work and home/community that must constantly be nurtured.
Stage 2
The language involves local/regional governmental services, i.e., those that have
direct, daily contact with the people, including the local mass media. Because of the
reach of the media and government agencies into the lives and homes of people, it is
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important to strengthen language at this stage. However, government services and
mass media in local languages alone will not strengthen the language of the home.
Home language between generations must be strong before governmental services
and local mass media can make real contributions to reverse language shift.
Stage 1

This stage pertains to language in higher education, work sphere, national mass
media, and national government. Language use at this level of societal multilingualism
will make a definite contribution to the vitality of a language. However, Fishman urges
continued attention and nurturing of language use in the home/community sphere
before it will have more than just the passing attention being given to it by many
multilingual nations of the global community.

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. Discuss multilingualism as a feature of languages in contact

2. Evaluate Nigerian multilingualism using Fishman’s blueprint

2.6 Summary

In this Unit, you learnt the possible ways of measuring individual/societal

multilingualism. You learnt that at the individual level, many people all over the
world appreciate speaking more than one language to enable them reach out more
readily and interact with others from different parts of the global community. You
also learnt about the imperatives of language use in the society and the dynamics
of inter-cultural relationship. It was shown that the multilingual ability of many
individuals in modern day society could be seen as an asset rather than a
hindrance. Due to urbanization and the need for trade, travelling and migration,
many societies now maximize the benefits of multilingualism. Such linguistic
diffusion is seen to manifest in forms of diglossia and code-switching which occur
at varying levels.

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2.7. References/Further Reading/Web Resources

Asher, R (ed) (2007). Encyclopaedia of language and linguistics. Pergamon.

Adedun, E.& Shodipe, M. (2011). Yoruba English bilingualism in central Lagos.
Journal
of African cultural studies.23:2.121-132
Anjola, R. (2010). Language switch and cognitive dissonance: The example of
Yoruba-English bilinguals. Ife Studies in English Language Vol.8, No1

Baker, C. (2004) "Bilingualism and multilingualism." The Linguistics Encyclopedia,

2nd
ed., edited by Kirsten Malmkjaer. Routledge.
Danladi, S. (2013). Language policy: Nigeria and the role of English language in the
21st Century. European Scientific JournalVol.9, No.17.
Dorney, Z. (1998). Motivation in second language learning. Thames Valley University
Cambridge University Press.
Fishman, J. (1991). Reversing language shift. Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Swigart, L. 1992. Two codes or one? Code-switching in Dakar. Journal of Multilingual
and Multicultural Development 13: 83–102.

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2.8 Possible Answers to SAEs

Answers to SAEs 1

1. When an individual furnish themselves with the required multilingual skills to

function in social, economic, religious and political fields. Societal multilingualism
emanates from the advent of globalization due to travelling, trade and migration.
2. Multilingualism could be encouraged by creating a conducive atmosphere for the
languages to thrive through interpersonal socialization. The indigenous languages
should be developed, modernized and standardized so as to widen their cognitive
frames.
Answers to SAEs 2

1 Hausa generated code-switching and Yoruba code-switching

2 Features of diglossia occur when two or more varieties of languages exist in
complementary distribution but are different in hierarchy.
Answers to SAEs 3

1. Multilingualism is a feature of languages in contact because it occurs in a

society that has undergone a sociolinguistic process where one can observe
socio-cultural integration, ethnic diffusion, trade and commerce and linguistic
assimilation.
2. Many Nigerian languages are still inadequate when measured in the Fishman’s
blueprint. There is a need for more promotion in formal and informal domains.

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UNIT 5: EXAMPLES OF MULTILINGUALISM

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Learning Outcomes
5.3 Multilingualism as a Global Phenomenon
5.3.1 The Multilingual Nature of our World
5.3.2 Major Categorizations of Multilingualism
5.4 Nigeria’s Multilingual Configuration
5.5 Roles and functions of languages in Nigeria’s multilingualism
5.6 Summary
5.7 References / Further Reading/ Web Resources
5.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

5.1 Introduction

In the previous Unit, we learnt about the values of multilingualism. You were able to
appreciate that ability to speak two or more languages exposes one to a better
understanding of the world around us. In this Unit we shall exemplify that language
contact is brought about in many different ways depending on prevailing
circumstances with the resultant multilingualism.

5.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit you should be able to:
 Explain language contact and multilingualism
 Mention the categories of multilingualism
 Describe the roles and functions of some languages in Nigeria
 Evaluate the status of some Nigerian languages

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5.3 Multilingualism as a Global Phenomenon

5.3.1 The Multilingual Nature of our World

Wei and Moyer.(2008) report that a quick look at the world’s multilingual statistics will
tell us that most of the countries in the world are multilingual. They assert there are
193 countries and over 6,000 different languages. This does not mean, however, that
the individual citizens of multilingual countries are necessarily multilingual themselves.
In fact, countries which are officially multilingual, such as Belgium and Switzerland,
may have many monolinguals in their population, while officially monolingual
countries, such as France and Germany, have sizeable multilingual populations.
Multilingualism is a sociolinguistic phenomenon that arises as a result of language
contact. Such a situation is engendered by the coming into contact of two or more
languages. Factors such as political annexation, marital relation, economic
transaction, cultural association, educational acquisition and religious affiliation bring
about multilingualism.

Lewis (2009) asserts that multilingualism is now a very common phenomenon all over
the world as there are over 7000 languages in the world and about 200 independent
countries. This implies that there are speakers of smaller languages who must speak
other languages in their daily life. Many people are expected to learn the dominant
language in their countries even though they still speak their various indigenous
languages. This is the case with immigrants who for economic, social and political
considerations must speak the language of the host communities. Cenoz (2013)
exemplifies with the case of Navajo in the United States and Maori in New Zealand.
We also have the case of Welsh in the United Kingdom.You will realize that the global
spread of the English language has attracted many people all over the world to speak
the language because they consider it as a prestige language which could open the
doors of better economic, educational and social opportunities for them. In Nigeria for
example English, apart from being an official language, is the language of higher
education, the mass media and Information and Computer Technology (ICT). It is
seen as a window to the modern world without which not much could be achieved.

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Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Examine the role of language contact in

multilingualism
2. Are multiplicity of languages and multilingualism
coterminous?

5.3.2 Major Categorizations of Multilingualism

According to Aronin and Singleton (2008) the following major categorizations best
describe the prevailing examples of multilingualism:

1. Geographical: In comparison with the past, multilingualism is not limited to

geographically close languages or to specific border areas or trade routes .It is a more
global phenomenon spread over different parts of the world.
2. Social: Multilingualism is no longer associated with specific social strata,
professions, or rituals. It is increasingly spread across different social classes,
professions, and socio-cultural activities.
3. Medium: In the past, multilingual communication was often limited to writing, and
mail was slow. In the 21st century, because of the Internet, multilingual communication
is multimodal and instantaneous.

Sociologists have also described globalization as a catalyst engendering some form

of multilingualism. This is because there is an increasing value of being multilingual
in a competitive world. It is true that speaking English confers a prestige status on
many people but it is incontrovertible that proficiency in speaking other languages
ensures better advantage over the monolingual. For example, multilingual abilities are
required by diplomats and other professionals in foreign relations and even business
concerns will be better served if individuals could communicate with their clients
across the globe in more languages other than English and their native tongues.

Cenoz (1013) asserts that the need for other languages is obvious because
multilingual speakers use different languages, either in isolation or mixed, according
to their communicative needs and their interlocutors. While monolingual speakers use
one single language in all situations, multilingual speakers navigate among languages
and do not use each of their languages for the same purposes in all communicative
situations, in the same domains, or with the same people A multilingual person may
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read the newspaper in one language but a technical report in another language. The
same multilingual person may chat on the Internet in two languages depending on
their interlocutors but watch movies in only one of those languages. There is also the
need to exemplify multilingualism with as an individual and a social phenomenon.
While it refers to an individual’s ability to use multiple languages, it also refers to the
use of languages in society. It should however bee noted that individual and societal
multilingualism are not completely separated.

De Caroot (2011) explains that within individual multilingualism there can be important
differences in the experience of acquiring and using languages. An individual can
acquire the different languages simultaneously by being exposed to two or more
languages from birth or successively by being exposed to second or additional
languages later in life. These experiences are related to the different possibilities in
the organization of bilingual memory and the distinctions between compound,
coordinate and subordinate multilinguals. However, with societal multilingualism, there
could be additive and subtractive multilingualism. In the former, a language is added
to the linguistic repertoire of the speaker as the first language continues to be
developed while in the latter the new language tends to supplant the first language.
Kramsch (2010) exemplified that additive multilingualism occurs when speakers of a
majority language acquire other languages.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. To what extent is Aronin and Singleton’s categorization

of multilingualism true of Nigeria?

2. Assess the possible merits of multilingualism

5.4 Nigeria’s Multilingual Configuration

Like many countries in the world, Nigeria is a heterogeneous society reputed to

possess many languages in Africa. The Nigerian multilingual status can be classified
into four. These include.

1. Intra-Ethnic Languages: The task of determining the number of language s in a

country like Nigeria requires the collaboration of several fields such as

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 linguistics, sociology psychology, ethno linguistic and demography. The three
major languages in Nigeria multilingual landscape are Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba.
Ahukanna (1986) observes that Hausa could be described as the Lingua franca
of the northern states comprising the North Central, North East, and North West
Geo-political zones. The states are:

 NORTH CENTRAL -----Kwara, Kogi, Plateau, Nassarawa, Benue, Niger and F.C.T
 NORTH EAST -----------Taraba, Adamawa, Borno, Yobe, Bauchi and Gombe states
 NORTH WEST ----Sokoto, Zamfara, Kebbi, Kaduna, Katsina, Kano and Jigawa states

Hausa is not the mother Tongue (MT) of a good number of many northern
Nigerians. However, it is the Language of Wider Community (LWC) because it
is used extensively due to historical geographical and political reasons. Also, it
is acceptable widely in the north as language capable of expressing socio-
cultural values of many Nigerians of northern extraction. In the Eastern Nigeria,
Igbo is spoken extensively in South South and South East geo-political zones
complaining Enugu Abia, Eboyin, Ananbra, Imo and Delta states. It is also the
language of the wider community even though there are other minority
languages used for socio cultural activities in the various ethnic communities.
In the South West geo-political zone, Yoruba is the language of wider
communication (LWC) spoken as a lingua franca in states like, Lagos, Oyo,
Ondo, Ogun, Osun and Ekiti. It should be noted that the so-called minority
indigenous languages aside from the BIG THREE mentioned above “represent
about 80% of the total number of languages spoken in the country because
most of them even though are without official recognition are still spoken widely
and are regarded as important languages at the local governmental area levels
such languages include, Idoma, Efik, Urhobo, Khana, Boki and Angas .
Adekunle M (1976). National Language Planning and Policy in West Africa in
West African Journal of Modern Languages No. 1 pp.23-29.

2. Inter –Ethnic Languages:-Many of Nigerian Languages which are suitable for

Intra ethnic communication are not adequate for inter-ethnic communication for
example, an attempt to speak Yoruba to an Igbo person is sometimes met with
disdain and contempt such as ‘you ngbati people’. In the same vein Yoruba

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 speaking individuals often taunt Igbo speakers by saying ‘Nyamrin people’,
‘Igbo Kwenu’ will not let us hear word’. An average Hausa speaker is often
heard saying ‘Yourba Banza or ‘ba Yariba’ (useless Yoruba or no Yoruba
respectively). Such negative attitudes by different ethnocentric individuals have
affected the nature of Multilingualism in the Nigerian society and efforts are
ongoing to see the need for a more positive attitude towards other peoples’
languages not only in Nigeria but across the world.

3. International Language: the global status of the English language as the

language of commerce, education, science and technology in Nigerian
Multilingual setting is indisputable. Many Nigerians now regard English as the
passport to national prestige and international relevance. English is required for
upward mobility and social recognition in all facets of life. Other Nigerians have
even added an impetus to the languages of international status in the country
by patronizing language such as French and German. Many Nigeria were not
amused when during the Abacha regime in 19977, French was proclaimed as
Nigeria additional official language.

4. Language of Special Status:-The multilingual situation often require some

language to features as enjoying special position. The inclusion of languages
of special status is very relevant in that Nigeria now offers scholarship to
students in higher institutions to study French, and the language is seen as a
dynamic world language making it expedient to produce people who can speak
French and help to facilitate international contact between English speaking
and French speaking countries. Arabic is encouraged because it fulfills the
indigenous needs of many Nigerian citizens. Ability to read classical Arabic
(Quran) is a requirement for Islamic spiritual sanctity, since the medium of
worship is in Arabic.

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5.5 Roles and functions of languages in Nigeria’s multilingualism

Adekunle assigns roles and functions to the various languages operating in Nigeria as
summarized in the table below.

Table 1: Roles and functions of languages

Language Cultural Inter- Science & Education Official Use National Inter-
Categories Identify ethnic Technology Literature and Mass Identity national
Commun and Arts Media Commun
ication ication

English - ** ** ** ** - ***

Indigenous *** ** - ** ** _ *
Languages

Pidgin English - *** - ** ** - *

French - - - * * - **

Arabic - - * - * * - *

*** = Very high frequency use ** = High frequency use * = Not so frequent use

Adekunle, 1995 p 58

While the above raises some questions, it has helped to classify, to some extent,
language use into roles and functions. For example, the use of English maintains its
dominant position featuring prominently in international communication, official use
and mass media, education, science and technology and inter-ethnic communication.
However, it is surprising why the study rated nothing for the use of indigenous
languages in the domain of science and technology despite the technicalization of
some Nigerian languages and even with the “looking inwards” campaigns that have
led to local inventions and crafts based on strictly indigenous materials. Obinabo, D.
(1980) has formulated technical terms and written Science Texts in Nigerian
Languages, used in Igbo environment.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. Analyse some of the problems of the multilingual

configuration of Nigerian languages
2. Assess the functional roles of two languages in Nigeria

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5.6 Summary

The discussion above centers on examples of multilingualism which falls into the realm
of sociolinguistics that deals with the study of language as a social and cultural
phenomenon. In a multilingual community the sociolinguists will be much more
interested in the relationship of the various language groups, the use and functions of
languages in the community We explained that multilingualism is now a global
phenomenon and many citizens are taking the advantage that possessing more than
one language would open a vista of opportunities to them with the reality of
globalization. Depending on the social, economic and political considerations of the
individual and the society, studies have shown that multilingualism will dominate the
larger segments of the global community in our highly competitive world.

5.7 References / Further Reading/Web Resources

Adekunle, M.A. (1976). National language policy and planning in West African Journal
of Modern Languages No1: pp 23-29.
Aronin, L., & Singleton, D. (2008).Multilingualism as a new linguistic dispensation.
International Journal of Multilingualism, 5, 1–16.
Cenoz, J. (2013). Defining Multilingualism. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics
33, 3–18. Cambridge University Press.
De Groot, A. M. B. (2011). Language and Cognition in Bilinguals and Multilinguals: An
Introduction. Psychology Press.

Lewis, M. P. (Ed.). (2009). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (16th ed.). Dallas,
TX: SIL International. Retrieved from http://www.ethnologue.com/

Obinabo, D. (1980). Science texts in Nigerian languages. Nigerian Languages

Centre.

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 5.8 Possible Answers to SAEs
Answers to SAEs 1

1. Language contact influences multilingualism in form of political annexation,

marital and cultural annexation, trade and religious affiliations among others.
2. Individual citizens of many countries are not necessarily multilingual.
Answers to SAEs 2

1 In Nigeria, Linguistic contiguity does not guarantee intelligibility. Many

languages close to one another in many Nigerian states are not understood
by their neighbours. The class distinction is not remarkably reflected and e-
communication has open up more access to better multi-lingual engagement.
2 Multilingual speakers enjoy the advantages of navigating in more than one
language thus relating more in many communicative situations.
Answers to SAEs 3

1 Some intra-ethnic languages cannot carry the weight of modern experience,

while those of inter-ethnic languages are treated with disdain and contempt.
The English language still enjoys a dominant status and language policy
implementation is treated with levity.

2 Indigenous languages are majorly used in informal domains while English is

used in Formal domains.

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MODULE 4 BILINGUALISM/MULTILINGUALISM IN A GLOBALISED WORLD
UNIT 1: Bilingualism/Multilingualism and National Development

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Learning Outcomes

1.3 Goals of National Development

1.3.1 Nigeria’s Philosophy of Education
1.3.2 Language Policy and National Development
1.4 The Politics of Language policy
1.5 Towards Achieving a Realistic National Development
1.6 Summary
1.7 References / Further Reading/ Web Resources
1.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

1.1 introduction

In this Unit, we shall be concerned with Bilingualism/ Multilingualism and national

development. You will learn that Nigeria as a plural society stands to gain a lot if it can
harness the socio-cultural diversity of the people towards achieving national goals and
objectives. This Unit will highlight the five national goals which aim to achieve over
national development but which are devilled by lack of political will. It is therefore
suggested, through proper annexation and implementation of the gains of Multilingual,
Nigeria‘s goals for national development are realizable.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the Unit you should be able to

 State the goals of national development

 Explain the problems of a multilingual nation
 Discuss the step to achieve national development
 Appreciate the role of language policy in National development

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  Suggest ways to overcome the challenges confronting multilingualism in
Nigeria

1.3 Goals of National Development

1.3.1 Nigeria’s Philosophy of Education

In the light of modern experience, we can say that the gains of bilingualism and
multilingualism are not properly annexed in the country for national development. It is
generally believed that the goals and objectives of any great nation are encapsulated
in its national philosophy of education. Many researchers agree that no nation can rise
above its education. Nigeria possesses one of best national objectives in the world.
A cursory look at Nigeria’s National Policy on Education will reveal a document that is
couched in glowing terms. Like our annual budget and other policies of governance,
the problem is never lack of ideas but that of implementation. Even where there are
committed educationists and sociologists who try to put their feet down to have some
positive impact and implement those policies they are handicapped by lack of
resources and institutional bottlenecks. The confusion being created here is that the
federal government itself which proclaims in the National Policy on Education that the
five main national goals of Nigeria could be achieved through education has been
playing the ostrich. Section 1 paragraph 3 states these goals are the building of:

 A Free and democratic society

 A just and egalitarian society

 A united, strong and self–reliant nation

 A great and dynamic economy

 A land full of bright opportunities for all citizens.

You can see that these goals are parameters for national development which can be
achieved through the promotion and encouragement of our indigenous languages
engendered by bilingualism and multilingualism. It is curious to note that education
which is seen as an instrument for national development and a catalyst to actualize all

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the above is being stifled with the needed oxygen for survival. In a bilingual and
multilingual society like ours, the country just needs to create an enabling environment
for Nigeria’s cultural diversity for national development to be realizable. Presently in
Nigeria, we still live in utter ignorance of the exact number and character of the
language we speak. Adegbija (1991) considers this as an embarrassing enigma to all
linguists and anyone that has to do with language planning. Bamgbose (1971) reports
over 400 languages as other linguists quoted between 200, 300 and over. The
guesswork still goes on. These plural languages have however generated some
problems for language planning and administration; prominent among these problems
are:

1. Communication gap between the various people, each seeing his own
language as important thus creating an impediment to commerce and industry.
2. A warped sense of nationhood where genuine unity becomes difficult due to
suspicion as various ethnic groups pursue selfish sectional interests. In their
attempts to dominate the nation, they are busy looking for how to share the
national cake rather than how to bake one.
3. Picking a national language that will be acceptable to the generality of the
populace.
4. The conflict between language loyalty and language shift as the minority
languages risk the danger of being swallowed up by the languages of wider
community whereby allegiance would be shifted to the later at the expense of
the former.
On a more profound note, multilingual problems presents themselves in Nigeria more
pungently as notable citizens tend to sound warnings to government when the peculiar
nature of every linguistic group is ignored. Awolowo (1966), argued succinctly that
multilingual states should have a federal political structure. He states inter-alia that :
(a) In a unilingual country the constitution must be unitary
(b) A unilingual, bilingual or multilingual country with divergent communities and
nationalities must have a federal constitution.
(c) A bilingual or Multilingual country must have a federal constitution and the
constituent states must be organized on a linguistic base
(d) Any experiment with a unitary constitution in a bilingual or multilingual country
must fail in the long run

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 Such views clearly expressed are pace-setting and informative to early efforts
in language planning and policy formulation in post-independence Nigeria.

Self -Assessment Exercise 1.

1. Do you think the goals of national development are attainable?

2. Evaluate some of the challenges facing Nigerian multilingualism.

1.3.2 Language Policy and National Development

In the National policy on Education (1977), the Federal Government made some
pronouncement on the state of languages in Nigeria education. The government
advocates for the promotion of Nigerian languages for nation building and that
effective education should be carried out in three ways. The medium of instruction at
the pre-primary level shall be principally the mother tongue or the language of the
immediate community. The same thing applies to the first three years of primary
education. The second language policy is that each child should be encouraged to
learn one of the three major Nigerian languages. The third language prescription is on
adult education programme. The provision is that Nigerian languages should be part
of the languages curriculum. To make sure that these prescriptions are properly
implemented, the policy stipulates that the orthography of many more Nigerian
languages should be developed and appropriate textbook in Nigeria languages
produced. At the secondary school level, the policy states that the broad aims within
the overall national objectives should be among others to:

Develop and project Nigerian culture, art and languages, as well as the
world’s cultural heritages and foster Nigerian unity with an emphasis on
the common ties that unite us in our diversity.
It is imperative at this juncture to briefly examine how Nigeria’s national philosophy

and objectives impinge on national development. While they extol the virtues of

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multiculturalism and diversity of languages, the process of implementation remains

largely unfulfilled. These objectives are carefully worded as follows:

1. The inculcation of national consciousness and national unity.

2. The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the

individual and Nigerian society.

3. The training of the mind in the understanding of the world around us.

4. The acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competences both mental and

physical as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the

development of his society (N.P.E. p 4) italics mine.

A close look at the above will show that these goals and national objectives remain

just statements of intention without much conscious effort on the part of government

to achieve them. A nation that wants these goals reasonably achieved will not toy with

her multilingual and multicultural resources the way Nigeria presently does. While the

language policy extols a foreign language (English), and advocates the use of

indigenous languages to a limited extent in the primary education system (which is the

terminal point for most Nigerians), it is doubtful how the laudable goals of national

consciousness, national unity right, values and attitudes and understanding of the

world around one’s society could be realized. Adekunle (1995:57) gives a succinct

inter-relationship between a realistic language policy and a nation’s philosophy of

Education:

Every generation in every society or nation through its educational

system tries to inculcate in the young generation its traditional values, its

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 cultures and its philosophy. One of the major problems of young multi-

ethnic nations is the integration of their various groups. Language is a

potent factor for achieving national integration. The indigenous language

of internal communication should be linked in developing National goals

that a nation needs for uniting its people. A sound national language

policy should make sure that there is an available resource to every

citizen that serves as adequate vehicle for national philosophy, a

national culture and as a popular symbol of national unity.

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. How realistic are Nigeria’s philosophy and objectives?

2. Suggest a more feasible goals and objectives for
national development.

1.4 The Politics of Language policy

Although the mechanism for implementing this policy are sound, the measures or
steps towards implementation are inadequate as media of instruction is not total but
will feature only at the first three years of education. One can see here that the
government’s attempt at language planning is a weak one as it prescribes the use of
Nigerian languages in some classes and up to a certain level while the English
language will feature beyond the same period and continue to enjoy prominence as
medium of instruction. Such a limitation on our indigenous languages is arbitrary and
implies that we want to develop and revolutionize our languages, only to a certain
extent. In section 3, paragraph 15(4) the Nigerian language policy stipulates that:
Government will see to it that the medium of instruction in the primary
school is initially the mother tongue as the language of the immediate
community, and at a later stage English.

It is observable here that the nature and feature of the language treatment process is
steeped in inconsistency. The language implementation stage is initiated through
fiats, legislation and policy statements like the above but at this level; the government

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needs to influence language use through educational institutions, the media and
various organizations through proper application of the decisions on language
determination and development. We should be conscious of the lack of specificity in
the above pronouncement. Terms like ‘initially’, ‘at a later stage’, are too weak and
diffident to attract any seriousness on the part of the citizenry. The government’s
hesitant attitude has provoked comments from scholars and linguists ranging from
slight rebuke to out-right condemnation. Bamgbose, A. (1995:67) remarks that:

Going by the various antecedents and requirements for the successful

formulation and implementation of language policies, there is no doubt
that Nigeria is yet to have a de-facto national language policy. This is a
very serious omission considering the significance of proper language
treatment in our socio-cultural, economic, educational, scientific and
technological endeavours as a developing nation.

It is worthwhile that if the government wants Nigeria’s present level of backwardness

to be removed, it must put in place a viable and virile national language policy that
should revolutionize the indigenous language so that our educational attainments,
national aspiration and cultural awareness are promoted and given their pride of place.
Alebiosu (2021) strongly believes that with the increasing multilingual demands of the
world, the Nigerian situation which encompasses a linguistic diversity in a federation
deserves better attention. There is hardly any part of the world today in which
multilingualism does not exist. It has become a global phenomenon. However, the
nature of multilingualism in Nigeria where English enjoys an almost unrivalled
dominance over the indigenous languages that are as rich and varied poses a serious
challenge because of its implications for the socio-economic, educational, cultural and
political development of the country.

1.5 Towards Achieving a Realistic National Development

Our discussion in the foregoing has clearly revealed that bilingualism/ multilingualism
for national development is a complex and knotty issue. It is hereby suggested that
only carefully mapped out strategies with a resolve that linguistic and sociological
factors rather than base sentiments and prejudices would guide the execution of
language polices that would make national development realizable . These include:

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1. The government should encourage the learning, teaching development of all
minority languages. This is plausible because of the multi-ethnic nature of
Nigeria. The pluralistic approach to bilingual education which considers the
various languages and cultures found in a country to be a natural resource that
must be conserved should be adopted. This is in agreement with the ‘Salad
Bowl Theory’ of Cohen (1972), which states that ‘tomatoes, cucumber, radishes
and carrots can all be in the bowl together without losing their identities. The
‘Melting Pot Theory’ which gives prominence to some languages as we have in
Nigeria now has met with considerable failure in America. The ‘melting pot
theory’ assumes that ‘major’ languages could take care of the linguistic needs
of minor languages through assimilation. This will be divisive and create tension
that could hinder genuine aspirations towards nationhood.
2. Identifying the language problems with specific reference to Nigerian languages
and the study of English and other languages.
3. Giving overall directions and professional impetus to efforts which improve the
reaching and learning of languages within the country.
4. Promoting the development of materials for teaching Nigeria languages.
5. Liaising with some international bodies concerned with languages planning
programme in African countries. An example is Language in Conflict and
Consensus (LICCA) research and development programmes whose goals
include determining the status of indigenous languages through its involvement
in language development programmes, LICCA could assist in developing our
indigenous language by (a) modernizing and technicalizing the lexicon (b)
Functional expansion of minority languages. (c) Revalorization of local
languages (d) formulating proposals for language policies.
6. For any reasonable progress to be made on the objectives set above, plans
must be made by the government to establish institutes, committees and
commissions, governmental and extra governmental to engage inconsiderable
contractive, historical and dialectological work on various Nigerian languages
with the ultimate objectives of evolving a lingua franca. Otherwise, the English
language for a long time to come, will still ride roughshod and reap bountiful
harvest while indigenous languages quarrel with one another. We must realize
now that the continued use of English as the official language constitutes a
stumbling block to national development in Nigeria. Moreover, it is a dangerous
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 thing for us to be educated in a foreign language, which we speak so
inaccurately. However, for Nigeria to attain nationhood, a virile and dynamic
national language planning is a desideratum. Adegbija (1989) has rightly
observed that:

Language is the skin in which aspirations are couched; it is the tool

of thought, the flesh of the mind. To effectively establish and
perpetuate a sense of nationhood, a languages policy must be readily
susceptible to the fulfilling of the functions inherent in a nation’s
aspirations.

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. Evaluate the politics of the language policy

2 What are the possible intervention strategies the

government can adopt?

1.6 Summary.

In this Unit, we focused on Bilingualism/multilingualism and national development. We

examined the national goals of Nigeria and discuss the challenges confronting the
nation in realizing these goals. The Unit goals further to talk about our language policy
and the mechanism for implementing the policy which are grossly inadequate if
national development will be achieved. Lastly we give suggestion on how to overcome
some of the obstacles confronting a successful nationhood. The Unit highlighted that
bilingualism/ multilingualism and national development could be seen as an important
feature towards realizing national goals and aspirations. Though there are challenges
to be surmounted, it is imperative for governments, educationists, linguists and
administrators to rise above base sentiments if the gains of a plural society like Nigeria
would be harnessed for national development.

1.7 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Adedun, E.&Shodipe, M. (2011) Yoruba-English bilingualism In central Lagos –

Nigeria. Journal of African Cultural Studies, 23:2, 121-132,

Adegbija, E. E. (1992). Language Attitudes in Nigeria: A Panoramic View by Adegbija.

Germany: University of Duisburg.

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Adegbija, E. E. (1991). The Context of Language Planning in Africa: An Illustration
with
Nigeria. Duisburg, (LAUD) No 288(Monograph)

Adegbija, E.E (1989).The Implication of the language of instruction for nationhood: an

illustration with nigeria. in IRAL: ATL pp25-50

Alebiosu, A. T. (2021). Multilingualism as a catalyst for the revalorization of Indigenous

languages in Nigeria in Language and Literary Studies in Society: A Festschrift
for Professor Eno Grace Nta. University of Lagos Press
Bamgbose, A.(1991). Language and the Nation: The Language Question in Sub-
Saharan Africa. Edinburgh University Press
Cohen, A. (1972). A Sociological approach to bilingual education. Newbury House:

Nigerian National Policy on Education (2005 revised). Federal Government Press.

1.8 Possible Answers to SAEs

Answers to SAEs 1

1. The goals are achievable but more attention should be paid to proper
implementation such as more finance and removal of administrative
bottlenecks.
2. Challenges facing Nigeria’s multilingualism include the difficulties to determine
the number of languages in Nigeria, inability to resolve the national language
question and absence of a viable language policy.
Answers to SAEs 2

1. It is difficult to realize the national philosophy objectives because of the ethnic

and plural nature of the society. There is also lack of sincerity of the ruling class
and negative attitude of the citizenry.

2. Feasible goals/objectives should reflect unity in diversity and improve mutual

understanding and respect for others’ viewpoint. Emphasis should be on
linguistic diversity and appreciation of multilingualism.

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3. Answers to SAEs 3
1. There is a mismatch between policy and practice. Prescriptions are spelt out
in feeble manners and no penalty for infractions. There is no commitment and
language treatment is inconsistent.

2. Intervention strategies should be all encompassing. It should involve

professionals such as linguists, administrators, national and international
bodies who are in position of language development.

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UNIT 2 LANGUAGE POLICY AND PLANNING IN A BILINGUAL/MULTILINGUAL
COMMUNITY

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Language Policy and Planning
2.3.1 Language Planning Options
2.3.2 First Phase in Language Planning and the Nigerian Situation
2.4 Second Phase in Language Planning and the Nigerian Situation
2.5 Final Phase in Language Planning and the Nigerian Situation
2.6 Summary
2.7References / Further Reading/ Web Resources
2.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In this Unit, you will learn about language policy and planning in a bilingual/multilingual
community and the daunting tasks before successive government all over the world in
forming a realistic language policy initiative. Our discussion will address the sensitive
and explosive nature of the options available and why it has been so difficult to
formulate and implement the language policy as enshrined in the National Policy in
Education (NPE). The stages of language planning and the processes involved will
be studied in detail.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the Unit, you should be able to:
 Explain language policy and planning
 Evaluate the options involved in language policy
 Describe the stages of language planning
 Discuss some political considerations in language planning
 State some challenges confronting language standardization

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2.3 Language Policy and Planning

2. 3.1 Language Planning Options

Apel and Muysken (2005) define language planning as the factual realization of
language policy where a government adopts a certain policy with regard to the
language spoken in the nation. This implies that language planning (LP) should take
the form of a social programme in which an account of the social status and political
context of the various groups of speakers will play an important role. Adegbija (1991:2)
sees issues relating to language planning and policies as political time bombs, capable
of threatening the unity and wellbeing of many nations. It is against this background
that we shall see that issues of language planning are very sensitive and explosive
especially in a bilingual/multilingual community like Nigeria where the vices of
prejudice, mistrust and ethnicity still hold a way. Being a politico- linguistic affair, every
segment of the society will be affected by it. It involves the questions of a national
language, the place, functions and development of minority language and the adoption
of a lingua franca. People tend to ask whether the national language should be
endoglossic (to be picked from inside the nation) or exoglossic (to be picked from
outside the nation)? Which language has a full systematically developed meta-
language and vocabulary to cope with the increasing multilingual demands of the
modern age? Etc.

Researchers on language planning policy and development have suggested that a

viable language planning initiative should be adopted. It involves a comprehensive
approach which must examine the context of language planning in Africa. This
requires considerations of the linguistic, socio-political, administrative and educational
factors among others. If African countries consider these factors dispassionately, the
problems involved in functional language planning will be solved remarkably. A nation
must take into account a language policy whereby the majority of the people are
mobilized for the general progress of the nation. Language planning will be involved
in providing adequate linguistic, social and educational information to guide in the
formulation of a variable language policy. In language planning we are concerned with
the development of a language and if need be making it suitable for area in which it
has not been used before, for example, education, economics and science.
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Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Distinguish between Language Planning and language policy.

2. Explain the political factors affecting language planning in
Nigeria.

2.3.2 First Phase in Language Planning and the Nigerian Situation

Nigeria could be said to have made little progress in her efforts to meet up the standard
set in language planning administration. The stages involved in Language Planning
(L.P) have on the average proved quite difficult for Nigeria especially those with
serious political consequences. Appel and Muysken (2005) in a model cross-national
study of language planning process identified some stages of language planning.
These will be discussed in phases in the order of importance as follows:
i. Policy formulation
ii. Codification

Policy Formulation: This is the first stage which has been met by Nigeria
because it has formulated a form of language policy, though there is a
mismatch between practice and what the policy stipulates. The language
policy reiterates the importance of language when it states that:
“In addition to appreciating the importance of language in the
educational process and as a means of preserving the people’s
culture, the government considered it to the in the interest of
national unity that each child should be encouraged to learn one of
the three major languages other than his own mother tongue. In
this connection, the government considers the three major
languages to be Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba”
The policy here remains just a statement of intention since very few schools and
colleges have made a move in this direction to teach these languages to their students.
(I know of no secondary school in Lagos state where they teach either Hausa or Igbo

146
to their students). Even where English is to be used at the earlier part of primary
school, most teachers who are not competent in English find it very natural to continue
offering explanations in their mother tongue medium when, according to laid down
policy, such a medium should have ceased being used. Similarly, a teacher who is
conscious of the deficiency of his pupils in English has no qualms about abandoning
the English medium in favour of the mother tongue medium, where English is the
required medium. In the case of those languages in which there are no adequate
materials, a policy of using them as media of instructions becomes a sham. The
teachers are left to their own devices and quite often they simply abandon the policy.
The problem of mother tongue policy is that many if our languages are not adequately
developed as media of instructions and the teachers are not trained to use the
language as such. As a result, practice varies widely from school to school and even
within the school. Moreover, there is no authority to compel anybody to conform to the
policy. By leaving the practice of the policy to the discretion of the teacher and the
absence of check by the inspectors, conceal the difficulties facing the use of these
languages as media of instruction.

Codification: This is an all involving stage in the language planning process. It implies
the provision of an orthography for as many languages as possible within the country.
Orthography in general is a conventional system for writing. This system however, has
to be within the framework that makes it compatible with intuition of the speakers of
the language for which it is designed, as well as the prosody of the languages. The
Nigerian language policy promises, “to develop the orthography for many more
Nigerian languages”. Some progress has been made along this line. For example, the
project on the orthography of Nupe is well advanced, the orthography of Kanuri has
been published and the University of Jos in collaboration with the Ministry of
Education, Benue State is working on the TIV orthography.
Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. What does language policy formulation entail?

2. ‘Codification has been described as more than reducing

a language to writing’ Discuss

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2.4 Second Phase in Language Planning and the Nigerian Situation
Elaboration:
This involve an expansion of the language being developed to accommodate the new
demands that will be made on them. The languages are enlarged to accommodate
new forms in terms of syntax, morphemes and semantics. The enormity of the task
involved in elaboration makes it very difficult to manifest itself concretely in the
Nigerian sense. Government institutions often get or take on the task of language
planning but individual can be active in it as well, for instance by creating and
consistently using a new word’ Appel and Muysken (2005). This is being exemplified
in Nigeria by the efforts of some notable Nigerians who have advocated for the
development of science texts in Nigeria languages. For example, Obinabo of the
department of Physics, University of Nigeria Nsuka has ‘elaborated the Igbo
Language to cope with scientific imperatives, as could be seen in the following:
Mberede nyri dike - inertia and Newtons’ Law of inertia
Ochu Okuku nwe da- Centre of gravity and stability
Diimgbgwo Mashini-Nkpo- Simple machine wedge.
Standardization: This involves the attempt to make the language regular in its general
acceptability by making a synthesis of the language in focus. This stage of language
planning has proved quite difficult in Nigeria even for the so-called three major
languages, Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba or example, The Yoruba language operates at
varying levels of acceptance both in spoken and written form. Some people speak of
(Sola) while others speak (Shola) referring to person’s name. Different spellings are
given when it comes to words like ‘eniyan (enia)’, Ofa (Offa). ‘Osogbo’ (Oshogbo, ‘aye’
(aiye), ‘eye’ (eiye) and so on. Efforts are being made to harmonize existing syllabuses
for teaching of Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba as first languages, but the impact has not been
felt.

2.5 Final Phase in Language Planning and the Nigerian Situation

Implementation: This is the most difficult phase to realize in Nigeria. Being a politico-
linguistic issue, every successive government always avoid the issue. A way should
be found where professional sociolinguists should evolve a disinterested and objective
format which would consider the linguistic rather than selfish factors affecting effective
policy implementation. It is obvious therefore that language policy and planning in a

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bilingual/multilingual community such as Nigeria and other developing countries in
Africa is an explosive issue that requires a lot of caution and political will from all the
stakeholders including linguists, educationists, administrators and the citizenry. When
all hands are on deck we can then begin to think of a viable national language policy
that can stand the test of time. At present, what we have is a glossy piece of language
document or guidelines couched in flowery terms which have remained stagnated and
cannot be easily implemented. Bamgbose (1983) was rather too optimistic when he
thought that because the government had promulgated a language policy it would be
faithfully implemented:

The recent language policy decision in respect of the use of Nigerian

languages in the national and state assemblies and their use as media of
instruction from the earliest years of formal education will in time lead to an
enhanced status for Yoruba as well as several other Nigerian Languages.

This is not presently the case because over twenty years after such optimism many of
our indigenous languages are still restricted or excluded in major aspects of lives of
the citizenry. None of the Houses of Assembly conducts its session in the three major
languages designated as national languages. Attempts to encourage such usage are
met with undisguised hostility. For example, the Lagos State House of Assembly was
reported to have rejected the use of Yoruba in its deliberation because “it will demean
our intellectual capacity”. This is an all-Yoruba legislative chamber, making laws for
a population consisting of 75% Yoruba speakers. Many people have wondered why
Nigeria cannot evolve a virile policy that will allow those indigenous languages and the
English language to be used as languages in contact and cooperation. Laws and fiats
that have been promulgated in the past are mere paper tigers full of contradictions and
escape clauses.

What is the value of using English as our official language when 80% of Nigerians do
not speak it? One can infer that our present political, social, cultural and educational
inadequacies could be traceable to our inept language policies because it is a
dangerous thing to be governed in a language the citizenry does not speak efficiently.
Nigerians find it difficult to reap the dividends of democracy as access to government
and governance is denied millions of them.

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In a democracy using English in 36 states of the Federation including the Federal
Capital territory Abuja, and jettisoning the use of national languages as enshrined in
our constitution, little could be achieved. Instability and insecurity have characterized
many of our legislative deliberations where assemblymen misrepresent concepts and
ideas when bills are debated. An example is the Child Rights’ Bill being given religious,
ethnic and cultural colorations because it was improperly discussed by the legislature.
While some sections of the country see the harsh treatments meted out to children as
Child Abuse, some see it as ‘toughning the child for the challenges of life’. The use of
a foreign language to fine tune the shades of opinion in the correct interpretations of
the two concepts cannot be adequately expressed in an alien tongue. Right now the
fate of such many bills hang on the balance.

Nigeria will do well to borrow a leaf from South Africa, which recently introduced the
Telephone Interpretation Service for South Africa (TISSA scheme. The intention is to
involve all citizens in the governance of the State. Anybody can call a government
office and speak in his or her language, which is automatically translated into any of
the country’s languages. The Minister for Arts and Culture remarked on the occasion
that, “government must provide services and information in the languages spoken by
the citizens” When the Nigeria government makes laws, programmes and activities,
the citizens do not carry out such to a reasonable extent because you cannot abide
with what you do not know. Even civil servants who are not properly grounded in the
use of the English language submit badly written official reports, minutes of meetings
and execute government policy haphazardly on accounts of linguistic and
communicative incompetence.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. What are the problems of implementation of the language policy

in Nigeria?
2. Suggest possible ways of ameliorating such problems.

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 2.6 Summary

In this Unit, you learnt about language policy and planning as an important topic in
studying multilingualism in a plural society like Nigeria. You were taught about the
various challenges facing multilingual nations in formulating viable language planning
policies. Several factors that should be considered were discussed including the
stages and process of policy formulation and implementation. Our discussion also
demonstrated that more than linguistic considerations are involved in language policy
and planning all over the world. Other factors such as social, political, educational and
administrative should be taken into account for any language policy and planning to
be viable. It was also noted that the major stages of language planning must be
carefully carried out by committed nationalists rather than politicians with primordial
sentiments if the goals and objectives of the language policy will be realized.

2.7 References / Further Reading/Web Resources

Adegbija , E.(1992). The context of language planning in Africa: An Illustration with

Nigeria. Series B: Applied & Interdisciplinary Papers Essen: LAUD Universität
Duisburg-Essen
Bamgbose, A. (1983). Education in indigenous languages. Journal of Negro
Education, 52(1), 57-64.

Appel, R, and P. Muysken. 1987. Language contact and bilingualism. Edward

Arnold.

Grosjean, F. 1982. Life with two languages. Harvard University Press.

Hamers, J. F., and M. H. A. Blanc. 1989. Bilinguality and bilingualism.

Cambridge University Press.

Linton, A. (2006). Language politics and policy in the United States: Implications For
The Immigration Debate .San Diego University of California.
Romaine, S. (1989). Bilingualism. Basil Blackwell

Weinreich, U. 1974. Languages in Contact. Mouton.

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1.8 Possible Answers to SAEs
Answers to SAEs 1

1.Lanuage planning could be describe as the sociolinguistic programme that take into
consideration the status and political context of various speakers in the society while
language policy is the official position of the government on language related issues
and efforts towards implementation.

2. Important considerations should be given to national language question and the

issue of a lingua-franca. Other factors include social, political, administrative and
educational concerns.

Answers to SAEs 2

1 Language policy involves the promulgation of the law or statute that gives legal
backing to the operation of the languages in the society. The process and
implementation strategies must be clearly spelt out.
2 The orthography of the codified languages must be developed and concerted efforts
should be made towards standardisation.

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Answers to SAEs 3

1. A lot of problems has beset the implementation such as the politics of language
policy where no specific penalty is stated for violating the letters of the policy. Lack of
funds to carry out codification and standardisation programme. We also have poor
implementation strategies.

2. There is need for political will by the government to rise above primordial
sentiment. This involves an all-encompassing approach where all hand must be on
deck.

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Unit 4: Consequences of Bilingualism/Multilingualism on a Society: Hybridisation,
Modernisation and Possible Linguicide

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Learning Outcomes

4.3 The Global Nature of Multilingualism

4. 3.1 Hybridisation

4.3.2 The So-called Modernisation

4.4 Language Endangerment and Linguicide

4.5 Causes of Linguicide and Possible Solutions

4.6 Summary

4.7 References / Further Reading/ Web Resources

4.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

4.1 Introduction

The consequences of bilingualism and multilingualism in the modern age is all

encompassing with the resultant effect that acquisition and learning of two or more
languages have become a global reality. Dorney (1998) reveals that Multilingualism
has become a very broad phenomenon in today’s society. Through globalization and
the possibilities of travelling, migration, trade and the media, it has become much
easier to get in touch with other people, cultures and, of course, languages. The
situation, especially in multilingual societies, has changed over the last decades.
Intercultural contact has shaped up to a very steady component of everyday life. The
former Secretary General of the United Nations Ban Ki Moon asserts that
multilingualism is an essential factor in harmonious communication among peoples.
By promoting tolerance, it thus ensures effective and increased participation of all in
its work, as well as greater effectiveness, better outcomes and more involvement.

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Multilingualism should be preserved and encouraged by all and sundry in a spirit of
partnership and communication. In an attempt to promote multilingualism and cultural
diversity, United Nations (2013) recommends the equal use of its six official languages
and the celebration Language days in UN offices around the world in the following
days: : French (March 20), Chinese (April 20), English (April 23), Russian (June 6),
Spanish (October 12), Arabic (December 18). The general view is that as the world
progresses towards an inclusive society and respect for diversity, we need to also
appreciate variation of languages. If we accept that a language reflects a specific
worldview, a single language represents an obstacle to experiencing cultural diversity
and varied viewpoints and limits citizens’ access to information that concerns them.
Respect for multilingualism is a bulwark against one-way thinking. It helps to
democratise international relations. Many diplomats have argued that bilingualism and
multilingualism are a normal and unremarkable necessity of everyday life for the
majority of the world’s population. In an increasingly diversified and multilingual world,
more and more young children find themselves in an environment where more than
one language is used. Similarly, with job changes that involve moving to different parts
of the world, parents can feel overwhelmed by the linguistic demands on them and
their children.

4.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

 Critically assess the consequences of bilingualism/multilingualism

 Explain the global nature of bilingualism
 Distinguish between Hybridisation and modernisation
 Discuss the reasons for linguicide
 Examine possible language maintenance strategy
4.3 The Global Nature of Multilingualism

According to Stockwel (2007) the ability to speak two languages in modern Western
society, is often seen as something of a remarkable achievement, particularly in the
English-speaking countries. However, over 70 percent of the Earth’s population are

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thought to be bilingual or multilingual (able to speak three or more languages), and
there is good reason to believe that bilingualism or multilingualism has been the norm
for most human beings at least for the past few millennia. There is evidence that
children raised bilingually tend to be more expressive, more original and better
communicators than children raised with only one language. Even today, many
millions of Europeans are at least bilingual, speaking both their own mother tongue
and the national language of the country they live in, and many of them can additionally
speak a global language or world language like English or French. Bilingualism can
be the property of an individual, but equally it can be the property of an entire speech
community in which two or more languages are routinely used. Alebiosu (2019) posits
that given the plethora of languages in our country, Nigeria is a quintessential
multilingual society. In the Nigerian context, multilingualism should be taken to mean
a situation where there are many indigenous languages spoken by a correspondingly
large number of ethnic groups competing for national identity and survival. Added to
this is the existence of a foreign language (English) used as an official language. This
pluralistic setting and the attendant multilingualism and multiculturalism are potent
educational tools for forging national unity and identity. However, the realization of
such a laudable goal would require a bold and dynamic language policy, which
respects the socio-linguistic profile of Nigeria.

Llamas et al (2007) assert that modern societies are often proud to have individuals
with multilingual abilities, which is seen as something of a remarkable achievement.
Some employers often expect multilingual skills of their applicants to be of added
advantage. It is reported that over 70% of the earth’s population are thought to be
bilingual/Multilingual and there is good reason to believe that bilingual/ multilingualism
has been the norm for most human beings in the past millennia. In Nigeria, many
people are multilingual because they speak their Mother Tongue (M. T.), speak
another language of the wider community (LWC) and thereafter speak English which
is the official language. In the Muslim north, some people speak Arabic having learn
the holy Quran which is the language of their religion. Therefore, an individual may
furnish himself/herself with the necessary multilingual skills to enable him/her function
in the fields suitable for his/her social, economic, religious or political advantages.

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The tables below capture the multilingual situation in Nigeria, although not all the
minor-minority languages are mentioned.

1. Principal/ Main Indigenous Languages

S/N Languages Region Users Percentage

1 Hausa North 56%
2 Igbo East 32%
3 Yoruba West 41%

Source: Eka, D. Multilingualism and National Unity: The Situation in Nigeria.

Journal of Nigerian English and Literature. 6(1), 2000.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Evaluate the role of multilingualism for world peace and cultural

diversity.

2. Discuss the global nature of multilingualism

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4.3.1 Hybridisation

However, many societies where bilingualism/multilingualism has taken root now suffer
a decline of their heritage languages in form of hybridisation, modernisation and
possible linguicide. This is due to the fact that where two languages are in contact,
there are bound to be conflicts. Christopher (2014) observes that Nigeria is yet to pay
attention to the need to kick-start a national culture that embodies the peoples’ beliefs
and other various cultural heritages, which are rapidly slipping away through
urbanization and urban migration. Struggles for economic and political control in a
nascent democracy by different interest/ethnic groups without any national creeds
have been inimical to the development and maintenance of a national identity. There
is no collective identity for the people to defend, and the languages are slipping away
as well. Linguistic pride and strategic preservation of native languages as elements of
cultural consciousness are yet trivial in the national development question. If cultural
identity is essential in personal and national development, the language that houses
and preserves culture should not be ignored. According to Coulmas (2005), people in
language contact situations communicate by choosing languages from their linguistic
repertoire constrained by political situations, social systems, and collective as well as
individual psychological needs. They may be found to exercise their choice differently
in different contexts of interaction. Such an exercise of language choice has
engendered the notion of hybridisation which Rahman and Rahman (2021) describe
as a fusion of multilingual features which seems to be a natural language behaviour
of the people in a multilingual ecology where languages remain in contact. In language
contact situations, languages borrow and share linguistic features as a consequence
of interaction with each other. Oha (2013) proposes region, education, subject matter,
media and attitude as possible bases of language variety classification of English in
particular. This variation in language usage sometimes engender hybridisation. He
recognises dialects as varieties distinguished according to geographical dispersion,
and standard and substandard English as varieties within different ranges of education
and social position. Linguistic interference is also used to distinguish a variety as when
a foreign speaker imposes a grammatical usage of his native tongue upon the
language, which he is using. For example, a Frenchman might say “I am here since
Friday.” This is lexically English, but grammatically French. This is also noticeable in

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the case of a Yoruba-English bilingual who says “let me land” when interrupted in the
course of making a speech. Takashi (1990) identifies five reasons for linguistic
hybridization. First, mixed foreign words fill the lexical gap because there is no native
equivalent. Second, they are technical terms that are used in similar circumstances,
but they are more technical and special than the native equivalents. Third, because of
euphemism, the mixed foreign words avoid direct expressions in some topics such as
sex. Fourth, mixed foreign words provide special effects that convey modernity and
sophistication about the subject under discussion. Fifth, they are trade names that are
used directly without translation. Adegbija (2004) recognises some lexico-semantic
expressions in the speech repertoire of educated Nigerians. These varieties are as a
result of interference from the corresponding mother tongues in what is termed as the
domestication of English in Nigeria. There is the day-to-day contact of English with
many indigenous languages. This has created the need for new breed of ideas and
modes of thought to be expressed in new ways that are not available in the native
variety of English (p22). These occur at several levels of domestication such as:

Cash madam (a wealthy woman)

Go slow (traffic jam)

Bukateria (cafeteria)

Kiakia bus (fast moving bus)

Arrangee (somebody involves in forex dealing)

Decampee (a turncoat from one party to another)

Bushmeat (wild animal dressed for eating), Long leg (undue influence),

Awoism and Zikism) (belief in the doctrines of Awolowo and Azikwe).

The above are used to exemplify the resultant process of code-mixing the grammatical
structure of one language which is applied to the vocabulary of another leading to
hybridisation.

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Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. Explain hybridisation and its causes.

2. Supply 5 words to exemplify hybrid expressions

4.3.2 The So-called Modernisation

In Nigeria, we also face a critical situation whereby speakers of our indigenous

languages who have been exposed to the use of the English language as a second
language because of its dominance in the social, political, educational and economic
lives of the people have lost much of their linguistic and communicative competence
in their native languages such as Hausa Igbo and Yoruba. Nigeria is a multilingual
society having over 500 languages and many of them teetering on the brink of
extinction. In my interaction with some proprietors of some of our primary and
secondary schools they claim that parents are happy to see their children speak
English in the first day of school. In the first place, many educated Nigerians speak
English to their children even before school age. It will be to the chagrin of such
parents seeing their children using indigenous languages in a school setting. Some
schools, including government-owned ones, even label their classes with ‘DO NOT
SPEAK VERNACULAR’ tags. They go to the extent of imposing fines on recalcitrant
pupils who want to speak their local languages. This smacks of the colonial language
policy, which elevated English to the detriment of our indigenous languages. It is
unfortunate that decades after independence, educated Nigerians still glamorise the
use of a foreign language far above their indigenous languages. Adegbija (1992:20)
expressed our frustration by revealing that -

It is an open secret that many highly placed and wealthy Nigerians

including presidents, governors, ministers, commissioners and business
men who can afford it usually prefer to train their children abroad where

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 the standard of English and education are considered very good than in
Nigerian institutions where the standard of English is considered poor and
failing.

Professor Olaniran’s chilling account in Sunday Tribune of 25th December 2005

captures the grim extent the English Language predominates over our indigenous
languages, in education. He mentioned that in any English assignment, “the teacher
gives a number of strokes for all the questions missed. He gave me 21 lashes and
when I reported to my father he endorsed the action. Ironically, the use of a foreign
language rather than enhancing academic performance actually contributes to its
decline. Researchers like Fafunwa (1975) and UNESCO (1953) have established that
it is axiomatic for a child to be educated in his mother tongue. It is said to note
however, that the Nigerian education system flagrantly disregard these lofty
postulations. High failure rate now dogged our students’ performance now only in the
English Language examination but also in other examinations where instructions is
given in English. Many Nigerian universities do not offer admission to prospective
undergraduates without a credit in Senior Certificate Examination English. A case was
reported of a candidate who applied for a degree programme in Yoruba but was denied
admission because he does not have a credit in English. This is somebody with seven
credits including a distinction in Yoruba. Bamgbose (2005) attempts to explain the
undue emphasis placed on the use of English in the educational, political and
administrative domains by many African countries. These countries first designed
imported European languages as the official language and made it to permeate all
facets of lives of the people. It was revealed that out of 65 languages designated as
official in 53 countries, French is 21 while English is 19. Only 3 countries have an
African language as the sole official language. A new trend has even emerged in
Nigeria where some aspects of our cultural domain have been infested by our contact
with English. Our music, food dressing and postures are being increasingly
Anglicized. A visit to any of our University campuses will show that foreign jazz music
is preferred to the local ‘Fuji’ and ‘Apala’. Our local delicacies like ‘amala’ and ‘gbegiri’
are losing grip to fried rice, salad and toast bread. Youths find it difficult to greet their
elders traditionally and a prospective bride does not see anything bad in extending
handshake to her future in–laws!
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Many culturologists and concerned citizens are now getting worried about the
predominant non-use of our indigenous languages in many domains, particularly in
education. We may sooner or later find ourselves in a linguistic cul–de–sac whereby
Nigerians would have sacrificed their heritage on the altar of globalization. Mamman’s
article of March 3, 1985 in Sunday New Nigerian advises that -

For the survival of their languages, Nigerians should forget their differences
and unite for the common goal, a goal of waging war against English
Language, a war of decolonizing our languages before our next generation
will one day wake up to find themselves speaking English as their only
language. It would be unfortunate and shameful if the situation go to that
stage for the generation to come will have no cultural heritage (linguistically)
to hand over to their own children except the foreign one.

Akinkurolere and Akinfenwa (2018) argue that Yoruba culture (beliefs, ideologies,
customs and norms) is deteriorating in recent times. Cultures such as greetings
(kneeling down and prostrating for elders), chastity (virginity), dressing (traditional
attires such as Aso Oke, Dansiki and others), moonlight folktales and traditional
hairstyles for females are now considered outdated. The fear of endangerment was
also echoed by Oke (2013:90) in a study with the following Yoruba names that have
been deprived of their language heritage on the social media platform:

Original Yoruba Names Anglicized Version

Ayomide Haryurmideh
Oyindamola Hoyindarmorlah
Adedoyin Ardeydhoyin
Abisola Harbeesorlah
Femi Phemmy

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Some educated Nigerians who have attempted to imitate the so-called modern accent
often make a mockery of themselves by approximating towards Anglicising of
Americanising some expressions. These include T-Tapping whereby words like
‘better’, ‘party’ and ‘daughter’ are realised as /bera/, /pari/ and /dↄ:ra/ respectively. It
is therefore apposite to be mindful that although, multilingualism is clearly important in
the global economy, we should not underestimate the force of language and
intercultural awareness in promoting global understanding and security. (Rosemary
Salomone, "Why English Is Not Enough." University World News, January 30, 2015)

4.4 Language Endangerment and Linguicide

Colls (2009) argues that an estimated half of the present languages being spoken in
the world will go extinct in the next century. Nigeria is a multilingual society having
over 500 languages and many of them teetering on the brink of extinction. The
alarming possibility of losing such a great member of languages in the world must be
worrisome to sociolinguists who are concerned with language preservation and
development. He argued that without practice even a native language would begin to
deteriorate. Linguists should therefore begin to document, support, preserve and
revitalize endangered languages and the communities where they are spoken.
According to the President of the Linguistic Association of Nigeria (LAN), Prof.
Chinyere Ohiri-Aniche, Nigerian languages are endangered due to past neglect and
denigration, noting that some had already become extinct, while 152 others were on
the verge of extinction. The Guardian of 16th February 2016 reported that the
association is worried that Nigerian languages are not being handed over to children
in homes and schools. She further revealed that researches show that on average,
25 percent of children below 11 years are unable to speak their parents’ indigenous
languages. If this trend is not checked, then Nigerian languages will be in extinction in
two to three generations, which is in 50 to 75 years.

Akinbiyi and Connell’s (2013) study of two Nigerian dying tongues, Defaka and Nkoroo
portrays an unsettling picture of the nature of endangerment of some Nigerian
languages. They report that every 14 days, a language dies and soon, the Nigerian

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language of Defaka, now spoken by only 50 people, could be one of them. Many
endangered languages are spoken by fewer than 5,000 people and have fallen out of
public circulation. They aren’t used in the marketplace, in the schools, or in radio
broadcasts. Some have no alphabet, and for most, the rules that govern grammar and
syntax have never been written down. The greatest threat to a language is when
parents are no longer speaking it with their children, often because it can’t help them
get jobs or an education. In their study titled: “ Documenting Defaka and Nkroo”,
sponsored by National Science Foundation under the Linguistic Collaborative
Research grant, it was revealed that over 200 West African languages are currently
identified as being severely endangered. Most of the Ijoid languages, a branch of the
Niger-Congo family found in the Niger Delta in southern Nigeria, are in danger of
disappearing. The aim of this project is to document in detail, following currently
established best practice, two severely endangered languages of the Niger Delta
region of Nigeria, Defaka and Nkoroo. Population estimates for one of these
languages, Defaka, range from 1,000 or fewer. Essien (2013) corroborates the Defaka
dismal situation when he submits that when the speakers of a language evaluate their
language negatively in response to the socio-economic value placed on their language
by their supposed superior neighbors, the speakers of the language develop low self-
esteem, inferiority complex and consequently, the language is stigmatized. Due to the
negative value attached to their traditional language, many parents cease to transmit
the language to their children and the language begins to die. This is not far from being
one the major causes of the dying state of Defaka.

4.5 Causes of Linguicide and Possible Solutions

Brenzinger (1998), in his study of the endangerment of African languages, reveals that
language death has always been taking place in Middle Belt Nigeria. He gave an
example of the sociolinguistic situation regarding major expansions of languages that
led to turmoil in the area because many languages have disappeared due to language
displacement and assimilation. Hausa, Kanuri and Tiv enjoy a lot of patronage but
often Hausa is always overriding other languages. The Basawa people who once had
Bassa as their major language now speak only Hausa. A language moves from
endangerment to death when:

1. It is assimilated to larger, more powerful groups nearby

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 2. It is assimilated to smaller but culturally dominant groups
3. It is assimilated to English as an official language
4. It is assimilated to demographic crises caused by labour migration and
urbanization

Much of the social, political, social, spiritual and cultural life of any speech community
is experienced through language. The people express their mores, myths, songs,
poetry and ceremonies through their indigenous language. When a language dies, all
these worldview and sensibilities are buried in it. It is therefore important that we
protect our languages from extinction, if we are to retain our humanity. Osoba and
Alebiosu (2016) strongly believe that language displacement usually precipitates
language extinction or death. When the population of the speakers of a language
begins to decline rather than grow, it may lead to the extinction of that language.
Language displacement which occurs in a community because of specific social
environments as well as preference for a particular language or dialect in a multilingual
speech community may also result in language extinction. This is perhaps why
language displacement and preference usually underlie language endangerment
which may later metamorphosed into language extinction. Crystal (2000) affirms that
“a language dies when nobody speaks it anymore” A language thrives and survives
as long as someone speaks it and has someone to speak it to. United Kingdom
Foundation for Endangered Languages (FEL) reported the Mambilla case in Adamawa
province in Nigeria where Kasabe language died when Boyon the last speaker died
just before the researcher could complete an attempt to rescue the language from
going into extinction. Alebiosu (2017) exemplifies the extent of the threat to the Yoruba
language in a mini-language survey carried out in Southwest Nigeria among the elite
comprising 50 respondents. The study was to examine their language behaviour in
terms of understanding indigenous idiomatic expressions in their Mother Tongue
(M.T.) Yoruba. The questionnaire was drawn to cut across professionals who are
Yoruba–English bilinguals to ensure a good representation. These include teachers,
lawyers, doctors, students and bankers. The gender factor though very crucial in a
survey like this was not taken into consideration here because our focus is to elicit
correct interpretations of these expressions irrespective of the sex of the respondents.
However they were all above age 25 years to enable us to confirm that they have been
sufficiently exposed to the usage and nuances of the Yoruba language. Findings

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reveal that many of the items such as the following could not be correctly interpreted.

IDIOM LITERAL MEANING CORRECT

INTERPRETATION
1.‘Eja Mbakan’ Fish or Crab? Was it a success or a
2. Akara tu sepo Frying bean cake gone failure?
bad Confusion has set in

Language heritage resources such as the works of D. O. Fagunwa and J. F. Odunjo

need to be resuscitated to rescue further endangerment to our indigenous languages.
While D. O. Fagunwa is celebrated for masterpieces such as Igbo Olodumare, Ireke
Onibudo and Ogboju Ode Ninu Igbo Irunmale (The Forest of a Thousand Daemons)
as translated by Wole Soyinka, Odunjo is revered for Ise Logun Ise (Work Ethics),
Toju Iwa re (Character is beauty ) and Omo Beere, Osi Beere ( Family planning). It
is therefore apposite here to exemplify the need to promote our languages by
reproducing excerpts from Ise logun Ise to bring out the poetry and nuances of the
Yoruba language.

WORK ETHICS
Isé Ni Òògùn Ìsé Work Is The Antidote For Poverty.
Múra Sí Isé Re, Òréè Mi Work Hard, My Friend.
Isé Ni A Fi Í Di Eni Giga Hard Work Will Elevate Us
Bí A Kò Bá Réni Fèyìn Tì If No One Supports Us
Bí Òle Là Á Rí it’s As If One Is Lazy.
Bí A Ko Réni Gbékèlé If None Could Be Trusted
À A Tera Mó Isé Eni We Simply Work Harder.
Ìyá Re Lè Lówó Lówó Mother May Be Wealthy.

Bàbá Sì Lè Lésin Léèkàn Father May Have A Ranch Full Of Horses.

Bí O Bá Gbójú Lé Won If You Depend on Them
O Té Tán Ni Mo So Fún O You May End Up In Disgrace
Ohun Tí A Kò Ba Jìyà Fún Whatever Is Not Justly Earn
Kì Í Lè Tójó Usually Does Not Last.
Ohun Tí A Bá Fara Sisé Fún Whatever One Works Hard To Earn.
Ní Í Pé Lówó Eni Lasts Longer In One's Hands.

Credit: http://www.goodbooksafrica.com/2014/08/ise-ni-ogun-se-alawiye-by-j-f-
odunjo.html

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Yeye Olaide of African Heritage Research Library, Ibadan, urged the government and
language bodies to put in place measures that will boost the status of our indigenous
languages. An African American who returned to Nigeria for language and cultural
rejuvenation, she pioneered a sociolinguistic experiment, which recognizes pure
Yorùbá as the preferred form of communication. In an article in The Guardian of
August 3, 2005, she describes expressions like ‘Kilon happen?,’ (What’s happening)
‘kosi problem,’ (No problem) ‘Keni nice day,’ (Have a nice day), etc. as an attempt to
give prominence to English, which is a ready-made weapon of British-American
cultural imperialism that tends to destroy, not only African languages but also attacking
other languages worldwide. To curtail the erosion of our indigenous languages, she
recommended the French government measures, which threatened to sack French
broadcasters who pollute French with English in general French conversation. She
advocates a ‘War against English Words Entering Yorùbá’ and enjoins clubs and
organizations to float ‘Best Yorùbá Speaker Award’, which must be sponsored at local
and national levels. She opines that notable writers like Nobel Laureate Wole Soyinka
should have bilingual publications of their works. Crystal (2000) mentioned the two
judgements from the Foundation for Endangered Languages, which state that:
1. The majority of the world's languages are vulnerable not just to decline but to
extinction.
2. Over half the world’s languages are moribund, that is, not effectively being
passed on to the next generation.
He suggested that some crucial steps should be taken to prevent languages from
going into extinction. These include:

1. Increasing their prestige within the dominant community. Nigerian indigenous

languages for example should not be restricted to only the informal domain of cultural
settings, homes families and socials.

2. Increase their wealth. Language should be used for economic activities for wealth
creation.

3. Increase their legitimate power in the eye of the dominant community.

4. Have a strong presence in the educational system.

5. People can write down their language

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6. Language should be adaptable for electronic technology.

It is considered therefore that to prevent linguicide, there is need for concerted efforts
on the part of Nigerian scholars, governments and professional bodies to safe our
threatened and endangered languages from extinction.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. Distinguish between language endangerment and linguicide.

2. Discuss some factors to prevent linguicide

4.6 Summary

In this Unit we examined the consequences of bilingualism and multilingualism in a

society with particular emphasis on hybridisation, modernization and linguicide. The
Unit explores the global nature of multilingualism and how an attempt to domesticate
the English language has caused hybridisation due to languages in contact. We also
discussed language endangerment and the causes of linguicide as the English
language continues to dominate our indigenous languages. However, suggestions are
preferred on how the society can embark on language maintenance policy I have given
as to how to prevent further erosion of the various indigenous languages and
accelerate the promotion of heritage languages.

4.7 References/Further Reading/ Web resources

Adegbija, E. E. (1992). Language attitudes in Nigeria: A Panoramic View by Adegbija.

University of Duisburg.

Adegbija, E. E. (2004). The domestication of English in Nigeria. University of

Lagos Press

Akinkurolere, S. and Akinfenwa, M. (2018). A Study on the extinction of indigenous

languages in nigeria: causes and possible solutions. Annals of Language and

Literature. Vol. 2.
Akinlabi, A. & Connell, B. (2013). Documenting Defaka [afn] and Nkoroo [nkx]
Rutgers University.
Alebiosu, A. (2017. Language Preference Consideration as a Desideratum towards

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 Saving Nigerian Dying Tongues. Conference Paper Presented At International
Free Linguistic Conference, University Of Lagos on September 30, 2017

Alebiosu, A. T. (2021). Multilingualism as a catalyst for the revalorization of

indigenous languages in Nigeria in Language and Literary Studies in Society:

A Festschrift for Professor Eno Grace Nta. University of Lagos Press

Brenzinger, M. (1998).ed. Endangered languages in Africa. Koppe.

Christopher, N (2014). Linguistic diversity, Code-switching and language Shift in

Nigeria. Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 3

p 381-393

Colls, T. (2009). The death of language? BBC Today.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_8311000/8311069.stm

Coulmas, F. (2005). Sociolinguistics: The Study of Speakers’ Choices.

Cambridge University Press.

Crystal, D. (2000). What is Language Death? Cambridge University Press

Eka, D. (2000). Multilingualism and national unity: The situation in Nigeria. Journal of

Nigerian English and Literature. 6(1),

Essien, N.G. (2013) Language endangerment: The Case of Defaka. Journal of the

Linguistic Association of Nigeria. Vol.16 Nos. 1 & 2 (pp. 127-137).

Http://www.un.org/fr/events/observances/days.shtml

Llamas, C. Mullany, L. & Stockwell, P. (2007).The Routledge Companion To

Sociolinguistics. Routledge.

Oha, A. (2013) Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Lagos: National Open University

Oke, R. (2013). Sociolinguistic dimension to globalisation: gradual shift in Yoruba

Personal names among Youths in South western Nigeria. The African

symposium: an online journal of the African educational research network.
Volume 13, no 1. Pp. 93.

Osoba, J & Alebiosu,A.(2016).Language preference as a precursor to displacement

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 and extinction in nigeria: the roles of english language and nigerian pidgin.
Journal of Universal Language 17-2 pp.111-143

Rahman, A.R.M.M., & Rahman, A.R.M.M. (2021). Linguistic hybridization in a

television talk show: A sociolinguistic analysis. Journal of Language and
Linguistic Studies, 17(2), 767-782. Doi: 10.52462/jlls.54

Stockwel, P. (2007) Language and linguistics: The key concepts

Routledge

4.8 Possible Answers to SAEs

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Multilingualism enables the global citizen to navigate through the modern day
complex demands of travelling, migration, trade, employment and social interaction. It
makes for harmonious communication and intercultural understanding.

2. Millions of people all over the world now speak their mother tongue, a national
language and an international language. In an increasingly pluralistic global setting,
speaking two or more languages have become a global reality.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. Conflict between two or more languages will result in the approximation of the
grammar of the first language with the contact language. Speakers often use language
depending on the psychological needs of different contexts. These variations in
language use engender the starting of a sentence in the deep structure of one
language but imposing the surface structure of another thus creating a Hybrid. Causes
include lexical fixing, technicalisation of the lexicon and modernisation of terms among
others.

2. Examples of hybridisation include terms such as: arrangee, returnees, famimorous.

Cash madam, pregnate instead of (impregnate)

Answers to SAEs 3

1. Language endangerment occurs when a language falls into disuse and people
exhibit negative attitude of low self-esteem towards their language. Linguicide occurs

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as a result of displacement and assimilation by a dominant language especially when
the population of the speakers decline and no effort to reclaim the language.

2 Linguicide can be prevented when local languages are given more prominence and
strong presence in the educational domain. The language should be standardised
including the technicalisation of its lexicon.

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UNIT 5: The Global Village: Is There Any Advantage?

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Learning Outcomes

5.3 The Global Village Phenomenon

5. 3.1 Major Perspectives on Global Village

5.3.2 Threat to Language Diversity

5.4 Language Maintenance

5.5 A Babel City of English?

5.6 Summary

5.7 References / Further Reading/ Web Resources

5.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the Content

5.1 Introduction

The question posed by this topic is germane for a detailed study of this course. Being
a sociolinguistic discourse, scholars are now more concerned about the social and
cultural circumstances which govern language status and change. Crystal (2003)
submits that the role of English has become politically contentious and nationalists are
apprehensive about the dominant status of English wondering how matters developed
to the point where the rise of English as a world language appears unstoppable. The
world appears to be going back to Babel. This is the biblical example of a global village
with one people and one language. In an attempt to determine whether the reality of
a global village leave us with an advantage or not, a balanced argument must be
advanced. We have argued in a previous module about the benefits of multilingualism
and how change has permeated the social, cultural and political fortunes of many
speech communities. The attendant multilingual needs of our societies require that
only a tolerant individual who respect the language and ways of life of other people

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can easily adapt to communal relationships. However, with the large number of
speakers rooting for English as a global language, the argument ensues that if the
English language can meet all their linguistic needs why bother to speak another
language?

5.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

 Evaluate the multilingual needs of the global community

 Assess the merits and drawbacks of globalisation
 Describe possible language treatment initiatives
 Discuss the reasons for linguicide
 Examine possible language maintenance strategy

5.3 The Global Village Phenomenon

5.3.1 Major Perspectives on Global Village

When we consider the idea of any advantage on the issue of global village, it is
relevant to review the position of some researchers on the field. Crystal (2003)
balances the perspective thus:

I firmly believe in two linguistic principles, which some people see as

contradictory, but which for me are two sides of the same coin. I believe
in the fundamental value of multilingualism, as an amazing world
resource which presents us with different perspectives and insights, and
thus enables us to reach a more profound understanding of the nature
of the human mind and spirit. In my ideal world, everyone would be at
least bi-lingual. I myself live in a community where two languages –
Welsh and English – exist side by side, and I have cause to reflect every
day on the benefits which come from being part of two cultures (page
number?).

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It is observable here that possessing more than one language is an asset and both
could be kept to navigate through social, economic and political imperatives not
restricted to any one code because of globalization. On the other hand, where an
individual reaches out because English is required for instrumental purposes nothing
stops them from interacting in such a language as far as they can still operate in
another language for integrative purposes. This is aptly summed up again by Crystal
(2003) when he posits that there is a fundamental value of a common language which
is an amazing world resource that presents the speaker with unprecedented
possibilities for mutual understanding, and thus enables him to find fresh opportunities
for international cooperation. Crystal’s idea of an ideal world is where everyone would
have a fluent command of a single world language due to globalisation.

A cursory look at the idea of the global village connotes the term ‘globalisation’ which
according to Goldstein and Pavehouse (2011) refers to trends that encompasses
expansion in international trade, movement of multinational corporations (MNCs)
telecommunications, monetary cooperation and integration, cultural exchanges and
technical co-operation, migration and refugee flows, including relations among the
world’s rich and poor countries. Globalisation processes are today, being promoted by
quick transportation, communication, knowledge-sharing , exchange among
academics and researcher in institutions and businesses. But globalisation has a lot
of distortion in maximising the gains it ought to bequeath to the global community.
Globalisation is intended to enable communities share world resources, break-up
barriers between nations, between cultures and among individual cooperate citizens
in order to facilitate economic, political and social intercourse within the global
community. By that very fact, countries can take advantage of harnessing the gains it
offers and minimise the complexities and challenges that it throws up.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Justify Crystal’s (2003) linguistic principles of multilingualism.

2. ‘The global village is necessarily multilingual’ Discuss.

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5.3.2 Threat to Language Diversity

Concerned sociolinguists are however wary about the inherent dangers of

globalization where some interest are better served at the detriment of others. Wei
and Moyer (2008) observe that today’s media has made the global, international, and
multilingual seem local, regional, and familiar. In other words, events which from one
point of view might seem distant are, because of television, radio, the Internet, and
mobile technologies, immediate and instantaneous. They referred to how the reports
of war and conflict, religious spectacles, Olympic sporting moments, or natural
disasters can become media events. The experience of television’s liveliness, its
sense of now-ness, means that the media are able to exercise and command
considerable power. Globalization is thought to be transforming how the world is
understood. The mass media, central to the processes of globalization, can appear to
make the “globe” seem smaller, and quicker and easier to traverse, where multicultural
subjects are thought to inhabit a world without linguistic, cultural, or national
boundaries. Of concern to many for its adverse impact on global linguistic diversity is
the predicted loss of up to 90 percent of the world’s ‘small’ indigenous languages, most
of which are unwritten and spoken by poor marginalised communities (Romaine 2000;
Crystal 2003). Their demise can be linked to globalisation in so far as they have been
hitherto sustained by geographical isolation, socio-economic marginalisation and the
perceived absence of opportunities for joining the mainstream, all of which traits tend
to be undone by the increased interconnectedness, urbanisation and time-space
compression associated with globalisation.

5. 4 Language Maintenance

Many linguists have also seen the idea of a global village as idealistic as more people
are protecting their linguistic identities. Bamgbose (1994) also suggests that we should
be flexible when considering issues of globalization:

In Africa, we are obsessed with number one. Not only must we have one
national language, we must also have one-party system. The mistaken
belief is that in such oneness of language and party, we would achieve

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 sociolinguistic cohesion and political unity in our multi-ethnic, multi-
lingual and multi-cultural society (page number?).

In spite of the need to reach towards the global community efforts should still be made
to give impetus to our indigenous languages as we strive for national progress. More
research is needed to sensitize individuals and corporate entities to optimize the use
of our national languages as enshrined in the constitution. A more positive attitude
should be cultivated by our elite towards the functional expansion of our languages.
Bamgbose (2005) opines that:

There is nothing sacrosanct about our use of English for governance. But for
the fact that we do not have a language in common to all the ethnic groups that
make up the Nigerian federation, we would have been better off carrying on the
business of governance in a language that we know best and share with the
majority of our people who are not able to read or write (page number?).

The federal government and organized bodies should revive the moribund language
centres and encourage language development activities. There should be some
enforcement of the language policy that each state assembly should conduct debates
and deliberations in the constitutionally recognized national languages apart from
English. Orthographies of many local languages should be developed and more
terminologies should evolve to carry the weight of modern experience. With the advent
of information technology, indigenous languages should be given their right of place.
Apart from the fact that Google has listed Yoruba in its search machine, a pioneering
initiative known as the Kamusi project has been launched by Yale University in
America proving that technology is not the preserve of just the English Language. This
enterprise is aimed at translating African Languages and learning/teaching Kiswahili
on the Internet. Websites on local language centres and relevant information are now
accessible in the interest of making the web a new space for African languages. Other
languages listed to benefit from the Yale Experiment are Nigeria’s Hausa, Uganda’s
Luganda, Kenya’s Kikuyu, Burundi’s Kirundi and Somalia’s Somali. The Internet now
serves as a platform for Africans to communicate with friends and relatives in their
indigenous languages now being given a new breath of life and a safety net from the
brink of extinction. Ajulo (2000) has given some insight into the possibility of the

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empowerment of African languages following the European experience. He submits
that:

The Europeans had been compelled by their historical circumstances to

master the ancient languages like Greek and Latin in which the best
thoughts of the age were expressed. That includes fields like literature,
philosophy, politics mathematics and natural science. The extant books in
the two languages were enthusiastically translated into the emergent
European national languages. That led to the enrichment of the modern
European languages, inherited by contemporary Africans. It is now
incumbent on African themselves to translate the extant European books
in all fields of African languages in order to enrich their own languages (p.
232).

It is my belief that the indigenous languages should be saved from the edge of the
precipice into which globalization is pushing them. The challenges of promoting
national languages should be the concern of all and may take a long time to fully yield
desirable outcomes. Nigerians should not be daunted in their efforts to rejuvenate their
own languages. Achebe (1986) exemplifies this with the report of a Japanese
professor who recalled that:

My grandfather graduated from the University of Tokyo at the beginning

of the 1880s. His notebooks were full of English. My father graduated from
the same University in 1920 and half of his notes were filled with English.
When I graduated a generation later my notes were all in Japanese. So it
took three generations for us to consume Western civilization totally via
the means of our own language (p.6).

The clarion call is that we should take the bull by the horns and put in place a robust
and enduring language treatment programme that can stand the test of time. Such an
intervention is being spearheaded by Professor Ronald P. Schaefer of Southern
IIllinois University in Edwardsville, USA who has tried to save Emai, a 2000-year old
Nigerian Edoid Language from extinction. The professor of English has recorded about
70 oral tradition stories by village elders and storytellers in the community. Though
about 30,000 people in South Central Nigeria speak Emai, it never had a written
grammar. Professor Schaefer affirms that: ‘we transcribe the stories in a phonetic form

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and tried to develop a writing system. We are now in the final stage of compiling a
10,000-word dictionary. We hope to have it done by next fall’. (The Guardian, 1st April
1997). As a mark of accomplishment, he won the Year 2000 Paul Simon Outstanding
Scholar Award. Manning (2000:8) acknowledges that Professor Schaefer has been
able to document Emai with a range of descriptive and interpretive linguistic studies.
He has accomplished this work in cooperation with a colleague from the University of
Ibadan, Nigeria, Professor Francis O. Egbokhare, a former undergraduate student of
Professor Schaefer’s at the University of Benin, Nigeria.
Self-Assessment Exercises 2
1. ‘The idea of a global village is a threat to language diversity.’ Do
you agree?
2. Discuss some factors towards language maintenance

5.5 A Babel City of English?

Our discussion so far has revealed the unprecedented level to which the English
language has permeated the educational, socio–economic and political facets of
Nigeria. Being a part of the global community, we cannot be alienated in what is
increasingly becoming a Babel city of English. Globalization has come to reinforce the
paramount role of English in the world’s heritage. All major goods and services across
the globe are accessed in English even in countries that do not use English as an
official language. The notion is that if you want to have a greater number of consumers,
you must speak the world’s language of commerce and technology, which is English.
The biblical account of the tower of Babel is being replayed as the global community
inches towards that of one language and one speech. With the Internet e-commerce,
mass tourism, telecommunication technology and multinational corporations
conducting all their transactions in English it will not be far for our shrinking world to
be living in a Babel City of English. Meanwhile, the British Council continues its
globalization efforts and the marketing of the English Language (Phillipson, 1994:16).
The situation gets more compounded when we realize that distressed languages are
disappearing at an alarming rate. A look at the World’s top ten languages shows that
English occupies the first position (See figure 2).

Figure 1.

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We can deduce here that the undisputable dominant role of English as a global
language is confirmed. Again, it is estimated that a quarter of the world’s
population presently speak English because it is essential in their profession
and their personal lives, while three quarters of the world’s mail is carried out in
English, 80% of cyber communication on the Internet is in English. Crystal
(2003) says that:

A language becomes powerful when a nation becomes powerful...there

has never been a language spoken by so many people in so many
places. Wave dollar bills in front of someone and they will learn
complicated spellings and grammar (page number?).

The historical, socio-economic and political fortunes of Britain and the United
States are so greatly intertwined that the United States is seen as the arbiter of
world English. Dogged by the survival of the fittest aura whereby linguistic
natural selection takes place due to economic superiority, military might and
social importance, many indigenous languages all over the world are becoming
increasingly endangered. Concerned citizens are advocating that we should
further encourage the use of the local languages. The Guardian newspaper of
23rd December, 2005 reported that during the National Festival for the Arts and

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Culture (NAFEST) held in Ogun State, Nigeria, UNESCO scholar, Professor
Akinwumi Ishola submits that:

Globalization from the Western point of view is just creating market for
their products. What we should do therefore is to make our own culture
attractive to the younger generation. We should encourage the children
to speak their own local languages like Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa, Urhobo
and others (p. 36).

Other parts of the world also pursue indigenous language revival with fervent fervour
stressing that when a language is lost, a people’s identity is lost. In what is similar to
‘tiwantiwa’ (ours is ours) initiative in Yorubaland in Nigeria, where cultural excellence
is accorded everything Yoruba, TIME magazine of July 7, 1997 reported that Northern
Ireland has launched a resilient language policy tagged ‘Sinn Fein’ (Irish for Ourselves
Alone) which instills in the people a gesture of self-esteem and national identity. This
bold attempt has led to a resurgence of the Irish prestige and cultural awareness with
the establishment of the first Irish language television channel Teilivisna Gaeilge
(TnaG) running popular programmes in music, drama, sports and documentation in
Irish. TnaG spokesman remarks, “We’ve been able to prove that something
indigenous doesn’t have to be backward-looking” (p.44). While we acknowledge the
important roles English plays in our personal and national aspirations, we reiterate that
our indigenous languages should not be left to perish on the altar of globalization.

With the present stable democratic setting, Nigerians should optimize the dividends
thereof and make concerted efforts at individual and corporate levels to allocate more
roles to our local languages. The military era of haphazard language policies that
create escape routes for implementers should be consigned to history. Our people
should not be governed solely in a minority language, which the English language
represents. When linguists quip that language is a city to which everybody brings a
stone, Nigeria should be able to identify a stone that belongs to it. We can keep our
indigenous languages and still use English for global acceptability as the global village
requires. Just like Crystal (2003) argues we need to take both principles on board if
we are to make any progress towards the kind of peaceful and tolerant global society
which most people dream about. The first principle fosters historical identity and
promotes a climate of mutual respect. The second principle fosters cultural opportunity

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and promotes a climate of international intelligibility. I hate it when people turn these
principles against each other, seeing them as contradictory rather than
complementary. It is however left to conjecture how seamlessly any society can realise
such a complex sociolinguistic configuration.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. Examine the global dominance of English as an only language.

2. What are the causes of language shift in a multilingual society?

5.6 Summary

In this Unit we looked at the global village phenomenon and possible advantages.
Researchers on multilingualism and globalisation have argued that it is possible to
harness the benefits of multilingualism in a global village to enable citizens navigate
through social, economic and political imperatives of modernisation. The Unit
explained that globalisation has further reinforced the dominant status nature of the
English language given its spread and acceptance as the language of power, science
and technology. However, arguments are made for possible language maintenance
strategies for the revalorisation of the indigenous languages.

5.7 References/Further Reading/ Web resources

Achebe, C. (1986). What has literature got to do with it? Federal Government Press.

Ajulo,S. B. (2000). Language, Education and Society. University of Lagos Press

Bamgbose (2005). Language and good governance. A paper presented at the

convocation ceremony of the Nigerian Academy of Letters, Lagos cited in The

Guardian Newspaper of August 25, 2005.

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Bamgbose, A. (1994). Pride and prejudice in multilingualism in Fardon, R. & G.

Furniss (Eds.), African Languages, Development and the State, pp. 33-43,
Routledge.

Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language. Cambridge University Press

Goldstein, J. & Pavehouse, J. (2011). International Relations. Pearson.

Manning, Lil. (2000) Professor Ron Schaefer receives year 2000 Paul Simon
Outstanding Scholar Award. In Linda Skelton (Ed.). Lessons learned, 17(3), 8
&9.

Phillipson, R. (1999). English language spread policy. International Journal of the

Sociology of Language (vol.107 pp7-24) Mouton.

Romaine, S. (2000). Bilingualism. Basil Blackwell

Wei, L & Moyer, M. (Ed.). (2008) The Blackwell Guide to Research Methods

in Bilingualism and Multilingualism. Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Campbell, P. MacKinnon, P. & Stevens, R. (2010). An Introduction to Global Studies.

Wiley-Blackwell.

5.8 Possible Answers to SAEs

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Proficiency in more than one language should be seen as an asset. It is getting the
best of two worlds and like having two sides of the same coin. There is the instrumental
use of one language for upward mobility while another language/languages could be
for integrative purpose for interaction with a larger community.

2. In the light of modern experience and eco-tourism, displacement, migration, trade

and commerce, the global community has become multilingual.

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Answers to SAEs 2

1 A balance argument is required stating the threat posed due to the dominant status
of the English language but are being made by many nations to preserve their
indigenous languages. International agencies such as the United Nations advocate
the diversity of languages and accord them recognition.

2 An attempt towards language maintenance involves research institutes and the

global community who give support to language centres in the development of many
language maintenance strategies.

Answers to SAEs 3

1The English language has become a behemoth because it is the global currency of
power, science and technology. It leads the top ten languages in the world and a
quarter of the world speak English.

2 Language shift occurs where there are sociolinguistic factors such as: assimilation
and displacement, higher prestige status of the contact language, economic
domination and low self-esteem of the speakers of the local languages.

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