GRINDING MANUAL

Comminution Engineering

Stéphane Ortega

PT 00/14675/E (Replacement for VA 89/5589/E)

Holcim Group Support Ltd / Corporate Technical Services

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 Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................3

2. COMMINUTION PROCESSES...........................................................................................3

3. COMMINUTION METHODS ...............................................................................................7

4. MATERIAL FINENESS AND PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION .......................................8

5. COMMINUTION THEORIES...............................................................................................9

6. COMMINUTION EFFICIENCY..........................................................................................11

6.1 Comminution efficiency............................................................................................11

6.2 Energy utilization ......................................................................................................11

7. LABORATORY TEST.......................................................................................................12

7.1 Fineness.....................................................................................................................13

7.2 Grindability test .........................................................................................................15

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1. INTRODUCTION

Comminution engineering, also known as size – reduction engineering, is defined as

the designing and analyzing of processes for the breakdown of bulk solids into
smaller (finer) particles without changing their state of aggregation.
Comminution is a major operation unit in a cement manufacturing plant, accounting
for about 50 [%] to 75 [%] of the plant electrical energy consumption.
The comminution processes are divided, depending on the feed material size, into
crushing (breaking) and grinding (pulverizing) processes.
In the following pages the processes, the theories and the relevant laboratory tests
are dealt with. The crushing aspect will only briefly be mentioned.

2. COMMINUTION PROCESSES

The comminution processes in a cement production line are divided into the
following main groups depending on the kind and / or the feed size of material to be
processed (see fig. 1).
¾ Crushing of rocks from the quarry, size 1 – 1.5 [m], in one to two steps to an
intermediate raw material state, which size is below 100 [mm], used as feed
for the raw meal grinding process.
¾ Grinding of the intermediate material to raw meal which degree of fineness is
defined by the kiln – firing process and use to be < 2 [%] R 200 [ m].
¾ Grinding and mixing of clinker and additives, size < 30 [mm], to the
cement which degree of fineness is defined by standards or customer
requirements.
¾ Grinding of fuel mix from the size of about 20 [mm] down to powder used for
kiln firing.

It is obvious that the great differences between these comminution processes will
affect the machinery design, the electrical energy consumption, the grinding tools
wear rate and the heat consumption.
Here after are given typical ranges of electrical energy consumption per ton of
clinker, for each of the above mentioned processes:

Raw material crushing 1 – 2 [kWh/t clinker]

Raw material grinding 5 – 15 [kWh/t clinker]
Coal grinding 2 – 4 [kWh/t clinker]
Cement grinding 30 – 60 [kWh/t clinker]
Total cement plant 90 – 130 [kWh/t clinker]

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Fig 2 : Comminution Methods

Impact
Crusher

Jaw
Crusher

Roller Mill

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Fig 3 : Material Sieving Coarse Material
Residue [g]

Fig 4 : Dry Laser Analysis very fine Material

with Sympatec

Fig 5 :

Grain Size Distribution According

Rosin-Rammler-Sperling

Screening Method: Laser Granulometrie

715 CILAS

Slope n : 0.74 [-]

Grain Size d' 19.8 [um]

1 2 3 4 6 8 12 16 24 32 32 64 96 128 200

Grain Size [um]

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3. COMMINUTION METHODS

The most known comminution forces are (see fig. 2):

¾ Impact forces.
¾ Compression forces,
¾ Inter – particle contact forces,
¾ Friction / shear forces,

A crushing process is often characterized by the application of a single type of

comminution force, whereas a grinding process is mostly characterized by the
application of a combination of the above comminution forces. For instance, a roller
mill combines compression and friction / shear forces, while ball mill combines
impact and friction forces.
The selection of the adequate grinding machinery depends principally on three
parameters:
¾ Material parameters:
x Chemical composition (SiO2 content of the feed),
x Mineralogical composition,
x Physical properties (strength, abrasiveness),
x Moisture content,
x Time – dependent variation of the above parameters,
x Particle shape (only for crushing).
¾ Process parameters:
x Comminution, drying, handling and wear behavior of fed material,
x Requirements on fineness and homogeneity of processed material for
further processing.
¾ Environmental parameters:
x Specific energy consumption ([kWh/t] of processed material),
x Noise level, space requirements,
x Life cycle (investment, operation and maintenance),

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4. MATERIAL FINENESS AND PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

The target of any comminution process is to break the processed material into
smaller particles, or increase the material fineness, to a level that suits the next step
of the cement manufacturing process.
According to the material size there are different ways to measure the material
fineness and its particle size distribution:
¾ For very coarse material (> 150 [mm]), as the resulting rocks from a quarry
blasting. In this case, due to the material size, the photo analysis of blasted
material while transported by trucks can allow a rough determination of the
material size.
¾ For coarse material (< 150 [mm]),
x A size analyze can be done through a sieving of a sampled material
on a set of sieves. The retained weight of material in each sieve,
expressed weight percentage in relation to the sample weight, will give
the material fineness for each sieve (fig 3).
x The plotting in a diagram of the above-cumulated sieving results
will represent the relation between the particle size and its statistical
distribution in the sample also called particle size distribution (PSD).
¾ For very fine material, like cement products, the PSD can be measured
through the diffraction of a laser beam as represented in fig. 4.
In this case the most common way to plot the PSD is with a Rosin –
Rammler – Sperling diagram (RRSB) from the fig 5. In this diagram the PSD
tend to correlate with a straight line due to the logarithmic axis. This allows
deeper analysis of the material after linear regression of its PSD. Values like
the slope of the line, n, and the grain size that gives 36.8 [%] residue, d’, are
important PSD definition parameters.
The following formula establish the relation between “n” and “d’”:

⎡ ⎛ 100 ⎞⎤
Ln ⎢ Ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥ = n • [Ln (d ) − Ln (d ')]
⎣ ⎝ d ⎠⎦R

Rd [ m]: % of residue on the d [ m] sieve

d ‘ [ m]: particle size for which there is 36.8 [%] cumulated residue’
n [--]: slope of the PSD linear correlation straight line.

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5. COMMINUTION THEORIES

Based on approximations and empirical findings the comminution theories are trying
to explain / describe the relationship between the process energy input and
the increase in material fineness. There are three theories that ended in the three,
incorrectly called, “Comminution Laws” (see fig. 6).
¾ The first one is from Rittinger, which postulates that the new material created
surface by the comminution process is directly proportional to the energy
input. This means that the energy input “WR” is inversely proportional to the
decrease in particle size:

⎡1 1⎤
`WR ~ ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ d 2 d1 ⎦
d1: particle initial size
d2: particle final size
¾ The second one is from Kick, which postulates that the energy input, WK, is
proportional to the particle volume reduction during the comminution process:

⎡d ⎤
`WR ~ Ln ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ d2 ⎦
¾ Finally Bond developed a formula, widely applied in the cement industry, that
establish that the energy input, WB, is proportional to the new crack length
developed by the comminution process.

⎡ 10 ⎤ ⎡ 10 ⎤
`WB = E B ⎢ ⎥−⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ d 2 80 ⎥
⎦ ⎣⎢ d 1 ⎥
80 ⎦

EB: Bond ‘s work index,

d180: fresh feed particle size for which there is 80 [%] of passing,
d280: final product particle size for which there is 80 [%] of passing,
WB: specific energy consumption [kWh/t].

The Bond work index EB is derived from the Bond grindability test, which
simulates on laboratory scale, a closed grinding circuit.
For calculation with this formula EB should only be used with the same type
and within the same size reduction as the material from the Bond grindability
test.
See next page for typical Bond work index values (table 1).

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Fig 6 :

Pigment RITTINGER

Clinker

Raw Meal

Sugar
KICK

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COMMINUTION EFFICIENCY

5.1 Comminution efficiency

In comminution processes the energy is utilized with a rather low efficiency. This
is due mainly to the following reasons:
¾ Poor distribution of comminution forces to every single particle in the
particle bed,
¾ Noise emission,
¾ Mechanical losses (gears transmission, etc),
¾ Material handling, drying and de – dusting.

Due to these energy looses the concept of efficiency can be introduced as the
relationship between the theoretically required energy divided by the really
required.
The theoretically required energy is defined as the energy required to over –
come a single particles strength and break it into smaller pieces.
The really required energy is the one measured at the comminution machine shaft.
Based on a single particle test an efficiency classification of the comminution
machines can be established as follow (see fig. 7):
¾ Jaw and roller crusher: 70 – 90 [%]
¾ Impact crusher: 30 – 40 [%]
¾ Hammer crusher: 15 – 25 [%]
¾ Roller press: 10 – 20 [%]
¾ Vertical and horizontal roller mills: 7 – 15 [%]
¾ Tube mills: 6 – 9 [%]

5.2 Energy utilization

To compare comminution process, where material with the same chemical /

mineralogical composition is ground the energy utilization, Eu, can be used. Eu
is the quotient of the new created specific surface and the specific energy used
hereof.

Eu =
ΔS
W s • 3 .6
[
cm 2 / J ]
Since there are a lot of different methods to measure the specific surface value, the
one used must be specified. The most efficient comminution process is the one with
the highest energy utilization (see fig. 8).

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 Fig 7 : Comminution Machines Efficiency

6.

Roller Roller Hammer Impact Jaw Crusher

Mill Press Crusher Crusher Roller Crusher

Fig 8 : Energy Utilization, Limestone

(Single Particle Comminution)

Compression

Impacting

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 LABORATORY TEST

The laboratory tests are a very useful tool to develop through testing a vital “base
of knowledge”, that together with practical comminution experience and the theories
dealt with before will help in the design and improvement of comminution machines
and processes.
The laboratory test here after described can be performed at the HMC laboratory.

6.1 Fineness

¾ Particle size distribution PSD

As already mentioned the PSD is determined by sieving the sampled material
on several sieves, each one with a different mesh size, and recording the
retaining weight (or the passing weight) on each sieve.
Plotting the cumulated percentage on weight retained in each sieve gives the
PSD of the sampled product.
Table 2 gives some common sieving methods.
¾ Specific surface
x Specific surface according to Blaine (SSB) is the most common
parameter for characterization of a cement and its behavior.
The SSB is obtained by measuring the powder air permeability with the
equipment shown in fig 9. The time that a specified amount of air needs
to pass through the test sample is indirectly proportional to the powder
specific air surface.
x Calculated specific surface (SSC)
The specific surface of a material can also be calculated form its PSD.
At the HMC laboratory the SSC is calculated from the PSD according to
the following presumptions:
1. The particles have a spherical shape (shape factor = 1)
2. For cement, the powder has a standard density of 3.1 [g/cm3]
with the formula here below

6f 16 R1 − Ri + 1
SSC =
ρ
∑1
i =1
(di + di + 1)
2
f: shape factor
 specific density of cement [g/cm3]
Ri: [%] of particles with a diameter greater than di
di: particle size [ m] / I = {1, 2, … , 16} and covers the interval 1 – 200 [ m]

The SSC, because of the calculation presumptions, indicates

usually a greater total specific surface than the SSB.

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 6.2

Fig 9 : Specific Surface according to BLAINE:

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Grindability test

The grindability is defined as “the resistance behavior against size reduction

of a material in a grinding process” and it is expressed, as the energy
consumption required for the size reduction of one mass unit of material.
The grindability test has been developed to simulate, on laboratory scale, the
performance of an industrial machine (tube mill, vertical and horizontal roller mill,
roller press) in the comminution of fine to very fine products like raw meal, ground
coal and cement.
The laboratory test gives the grindability of the tested material at the mill shaft
and a scale up factor must be applied to obtain the grindability at the industrial mill
shaft.
¾ Holderbank grindability test (see fig. 10)
x Material requirement
A 10 [kg] representative sample of each one of the product (cement,
raw meal) components.
x Test equipment (fig 10):
1. Test mill: ∅ 0.5 x 0.5 [m]
2. Mill speed: 37.8 [rpm]
3. Ball charge: 100 [kg]
4. Sample weight: 10 [kg], 100[%] passing on the 12 [mm] sieve.
x Test procedure
In a first step the material is ground with a 40 [%] 70 [mm] balls and 60
[%] 40 [mm] balls to a fineness of about 60 [%] R90 [ m].
In the second and subsequent steps the material is further ground with
17 [mm] cubes as grinding media. In each one of these steps the mill is
sampled after 200 – 300 revolutions. The sample is analyzed through
SSB and PSD characterization.
x Test evaluation
The mill shaft torque is measured during the whole test. The material
grindability, or specific energy consumption, Es, at the mill shaft can be
calculated from the following formula:

Md • Δu
Es =
59.6
Md: torque at the mill shaft
Δn: number of revolutions of the mill in one grinding step
For each test the specific energy consumption versus the material
fineness evolution can be plotted. The figure 11 shows the grindability
interval for all the grindability test of clinker and slag carried out at the
HMC laboratory.

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Fig 10 : "HOLDERBANK" Grindability Test
For grinding of raw material and clinker

Fig 11 : Grindability of slag (gbfs) and OPC

(grinding tests

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Hardgrove grindability test
This test is based on the comminution theory developed by Rittinger. It is
widely used for the characterization of the grindability of coals.
x Material requirement
50 [g] sample with particle size within 590 to 1’190 [ m]
x Test equipment (see fig 12)
1. Grinding bowl with eight ∅ 25. 4 [mm] balls
2. Grinding ring driven by a 0.2 [kW] motor
3. +/- 29 [kg] load of the grinding ring on the grinding bowl
x Test procedure
The material sample is fed to the mill bowl. After 60 revolutions the
sample has to be removed and sieved on the 74 [ m] sieve.
x Test evaluation
The Hardgrove index H (HGI) can be calculated from the weight D of the
tested sample passing on the 74 [ m] sieve.
H = 13 + 6.93 x D
The HGI can be converted into the work index EH:
EH = 435 / (H x 82) [kWh/t]
The specific energy consumption Es can be calculated from:

⎛ 10 10 ⎞⎟
Es = EH • ⎜
⎜ d
−
⎟
[kWh / t ]
⎝ 2 d 1 ⎠

d1: material particle before the test for which %P = 80

d2: material particle after the test for which %P = 80

The graphic from fig. 3 gives an approximate correlation between the

HGI and the specific mill energy consumption as a function of the [%] R
90 [ m] for coal grinding with balls mill.

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Fig 12 :

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