Selection Criteria for Cost-Effective Network

Technologies for Rapid Expansion of

Telecommunication Services in Rural Areas of South
Africa
Marcel Ohanga Odhiambo Weston Mwashita
Mangosuthu University of Technology, Durban, South Vaal University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa,
Africa, [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract—Rural South Africa has always been underserved in helping and rebuilding African economies. Small firms who
terms of telecommunications services. For numerous reasons, this use mobile money services save money, are safer from theft
condition has persisted into the era of broadband connectivity. and fraud, and have easier access to other markets.
Market failure, the slow pace of implementing SA Connect (the
national broadband policy adopted by Cabinet in 2013), the splitting II. OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH
of the old Department of Communications, and a period of political
leadership changes may all be blamed for the problem, despite the
National Development Plan's vision of a "dynamic and connected
Due to the high cost of infrastructure and deployment, it is
vibrant information society and a knowledge economy that is more very difficult to provide quick development of
inclusive, equitable, and prosperous." Poverty, inequality, and telecommunication networks in remote rural areas due to the
unemployment continue to be a harsh reality for the rural poor. To present reliance on legacy fixed telecommunications facilities
address all aspects of the digital ecosystem, not only access, decisive and older generation of mobile services for the provision of
and holistic initiatives are required. The scenario necessitates telecommunication services. Alternative technologies must
stakeholders rethinking how the digital divide might be bridged. be explored. Wireless networks may be an alternate
From a policy and regulatory standpoint, it necessitates novel technology for supporting quick telecommunication network
approaches and creative thinking. expansion in rural locations. In terms of network analysis,
Keywords—component; formatting; digital divide,
telecommunications infrastructure, telecommunications deployment,
modeling, routing, and scheduling for the purpose of Quality
online education, 5G rural area deployment. of Service (QoS) provisioning, the usage of new technologies
such as wireless networks present new issues. The research
I. INTRODUCTION will focus on developing selection criteria for
telecommunication networks for target rural populations, with
The government of South Africa recently reaffirmed its a focus on network quality of service. Wireless networks have
goal to economic black empowerment. Given that the majority the advantage of not requiring the large infrastructure
of black South Africans live in rural areas that are often far investments that wired networks need, making the market
removed from the country's economic centers, one of the first more accessible to smaller businesses. Large organizations, as
steps toward black empowerment is to establish the necessary well as customers, will find it easier to migrate to wireless
technological infrastructure to facilitate technological and items because of this. Wireless technologies also make it
economic development, which in turn will bring black easier to extend Internet connectivity to locations where wired
empowerment opportunities to rural areas. In these isolated technology was previously unavailable. Facebook, Google,
rural locations, this technology foundation in the form of and SpaceX have all started attempts to achieve this goal.
telecommunications and energy will also serve the education Facebook is testing the use of high-altitude drones to beam
sector [1]. On the flipside, significant economic expansion in Internet access to people on the ground below. Google used
isolated rural areas may cause congestion in the available weather balloons in a similar way, and SpaceX is working on
telecommunications infrastructure. As a result, it's critical that small, low-orbiting satellites that may form networks. These
telecommunications and computer networks are correctly kinds of approaches could help rural populations, isolated
constructed and have the capacity to support rapid future
communities, and people in underdeveloped countries gain
technological progress in these fields. According to [2] The
access to the Internet. Gaining access to the Internet, as it did
recent Covid-19 outbreak demonstrated that even some of the
world's wealthiest and most technologically advanced countries for individuals living in non-remote portions of the developed
were unprepared and ill-equipped for a true crisis. world, could result in significant changes for these groups of
Telecommunications infrastructure and an increasingly people.
cashless economic life in Somalia, for example, have allowed
society to function essentially as it did prior to the pandemic. III. NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES
Market merchants, for example, have been able to complete
their tasks without difficulty via the Internet. Somalia's Fixed wired networks and wireless networks are the two
example can be followed by other African states. Indeed, once primary groups of communications technologies. A copper,
the crisis is resolved, telecoms can play a critical role in coaxial, or fiber cable is the communication media that
supports information exchange in fixed wired networks and is the received power is generally less than the transmitted
strung between communicative parties. Wireless networks, on power. The loss of the signal power is known as attenuation.
the other hand, use radio waves as a communication medium
to facilitate data exchange between communicating parties.
Radio (cellular), satellite, and infrared systems are the three
types of wireless networks [3].

In the past, radio waves (microwave) were utilized to connect

far-flung locations for information exchange. Direct point-to-
point communication is provided through radio waves.
Satellites serve as a conduit for communication between
parties on the ground. There is no direct contact between
communication parties; instead, an indirect link exists between
the earth station and the satellite, and then back to an earth
Figure 1 Propagation mechanisms
station in another part of the world. Infrared is used in a
variety of household and entertainment products. Nonetheless,
V. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WIRELESS CHANNEL
infrared is emerging as a communication medium for
The wireless channel (transmission medium) is susceptible to
transferring data between devices over short distances.
a variety of transmission impediments such as path loss,
interference, and blockage. These factors restrict the range,
Because of the high costs of deployment, fixed cable
data rate and reliability of the wireless transmission. The
technology, while providing superior performance
extent to which these factors affect the transmission depends
(transmission rates, error rates, capacity, and so on) to wireless
upon the environmental conditions and the mobility of the
technology, is not appropriate for rapid expansion of
transmitter and receiver [4]. Typically, the transmitted signal
communications networks in remote rural areas. On the other
has a direct-path component between transmitter and receiver.
hand, purely wireless technology such as Ad Hoc networks
Other components of the transmitted signal known as
may not be able to provide all of the communication services
multipath components are reflected, diffracted, and scattered
required in a specific rural location. A solid mix of fixed wired
by the environment, and arrive at the receiver shifted in
and wireless technologies could give an alternate solution to
amplitude, frequency, and phase with respect to the direct-path
facilitate quick telecommunication network expansion in
component. These characteristics can be defined as:
remote rural areas.
A. Path Loss
IV. RADIO PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Path loss can be expressed as the ratio of the power of
transmitted signal to the power of the same signal received at
Radio waves are used as the transmission medium in wireless
the receiver, on a given path. It is a function of the
propagation. The three propagation processes for radio waves
propagation distance. Estimation of path loss is very important
are as follows:
for designing and deploying wireless communication
networks. Path loss is also dependent on several factors such
Reflection: When a propagation radio wave meets an object
as the radio frequency used and the nature of the terrain. Since
that is much larger than its wavelength (such as the earth's
several of these factors (in particular, the terrain) cannot be the
surface or tall structures), the wave is reflected to the source.
same everywhere, a single model may not be enough, and
Reflection generates a 180-degree phase shift between the
hence cannot be used to describe the characteristics of every
incident and reflected waves.
transmission. Therefore, in designing a network, several
models are required to describe the variety of transmission
Diffraction: When a wave hits an impenetrable object, it
environments. Free space propagation model is the simplest
undergoes this propagation. The wave bends along the object's
path loss model in which there is a direct-path signal between
borders, causing it to propagate in different directions. The
the transmitter and the receiver, with no atmospheric
wavelength of the wave being diffracted is comparable to the
attenuation or multipath components. In this model, the
diameter of the item causing diffraction. Because of the
relationship between the transmitted power Pt and the received
bending, the wave can reach regions behind the object that are
power Pr is given by
normally inaccessible via line-of-sight transmission. The
  
2
quantity of diffraction depends on the frequency, with lower
frequencies diffracting more. Pr = Pt Gt Gr  
Scattering: Scattering happens when a wave travels through a  4d  [1]
medium that contains several objects with smaller dimensions Where Gt and Gr are the transmitter and receiver antenna
than its wavelength. The wave disperses into several weaker gains, respectively, in the direction from transmitter to the
outward signals. Objects such as street signs, lampposts, and receiver, d is the distance between the transmitter and receiver,
greenery induce scattering in practice.  =c f [2]
Figure 1 depicts the various propagation mechanisms that and is the wavelength of the signal. Realistic path loss models
radio waves encounter during propagation [4]. At the receiver, that consider the propagation effects in specific environments
can be obtained by solving Maxwell’s equations [5].
Another popular path loss model is the two-ray or the two- referred to as narrow-band interference, is due to other nearby
path model. The free space assumes that there is only one systems (say AM/FM broadcasts) using the same frequency.
single path from transmitter to receiver. But the signal reaches
the receiver through multiple paths (because of reflection, Inter-symbol interference is another type of interference where
diffraction or refraction and scattering). The two-way path distortion in the received signal is caused by temporal
model tries to capture this phenomenon. The model assumes spreading and the consequent overlapping of individual pulses
that the signal reaches the receiver through two paths, one a in the signal. When this temporal spreading of individual
line-of-sight path, and the other the path through which pulses (delay spread) goes above a certain limit (symbol
reflected, or refracted or scattered wave is received. detection time), the receiver becomes unable to reliably
distinguish between changes of state in the signal, that is the
B. Fading bit pattern interpreted by the receiver is not the same as that
sent by the sender. Adaptive equalization is the most used
Fading refers to the fluctuations of signal strength when technique for combating inter-symbol interference. Adaptive
received at the receiver. Fading can be classified in two ways: equalization involves mechanisms for gathering the dispersed
fast fading/small-scale fading and slow fading/large-scale symbol energy into its original time interval.
fading
D. Doppler Shift
Fast fading refers to the rapid fluctuations in amplitude, phase,
or multipath delays of the received signal, due to interference The Doppler shift is defined as the change/shift in the
between multiple versions (copies) of the same transmitted frequency of the received signal when the transmitter and
signal arriving at the receiver at slightly different times. The receiver are mobile with respect to each other. if they are
time between the reception of the first version of the signal moving towards each other, then the frequency of the received
and the last echoed signal is called delay spread. The signal will be higher than that of the transmitted signal, and if
multipath propagation of the transmitted signal which causes they are moving away from each other, the frequency of the
fast fading is because of the propagation mechanisms, namely: signal at the receiver will be lower than that at the transmitter.
reflection, diffraction, and scattering. The multiple signal The Doppler shift fd is given by:
paths may sometime add constructively or sometimes v
destructively at the receiver, causing a variation in the power fd = [3]
level of the received signal. The received signal envelope of a 
fast-fading signal is said to follow a Rayleigh distribution if Where v is the relative velocity between the transmitter and
there is no line-of-sight path between transmitter and the receiver, and  is the wavelength of the signal.
receiver (applicable to outdoor environments), and Ricean
distribution if one such path is available (characterizes indoor E. Transmission Rate Constraints
settings).
Two important constraints that determine the maximum rate of
Slow fading occurs when objects that partially absorb the data transmission on a channel are Nyquist’s theorem and
transmission lie between the transmitter and receiver. Slow Shannon’s theorem.
fading is so called because the duration of the fade may last
for multiple seconds or minutes. Slow fading may occur when (i) Nyquist’s Theorem
the receiver is inside a building and the radio waves must pass The signaling speed of a transmitted signal denotes the
through the walls of a building, or when the receiver is number of bits per second the signal changes its value/voltage.
temporarily shielded from the transmitter by a building. The The number of changes per second is measured in terms of
obstructing objects cause a random variation in the received baud. The baud rate is not the same as the bit/data rate of the
signal power. Slow fading may cause the received signal signal since each signal value may be used to convey multiple
power to vary, though the distance between the transmitter and bits. For example, if the voltage values used for transmission
receiver remains the same. Slow fading is also referred to as are 0, 1, 2,, and 3, then each value can be used to convey two
shadow fading since the objects that cause the fade may be bits (00, 01, 10 and 11). Hence the bit rate would be twice the
large buildings or other structures, block the direct baud rate. The Nyquist’s theorem gives the maximum data rate
transmission path from the transmitter to the receiver. possible on a channel. If B is the bandwidth of the channel (in
C. Interference Hz) and L is the number of discrete signal levels/voltages
used, then the maximum channel capacity C according to the
Wireless transmissions counter interference from a wide Nyquist’s theorem is given by:
variety of sources. Two main forms of interference are
adjacent channel interference and co-channel interference. In C = 2 xBx log 2 L bits/sec [4]
the adjacent channel interference case, signals in nearby Equation 4 is valid only for noiseless channel.
frequencies have components outside their allocated ranges,
and these components may interfere with on-going (ii) Shannon’s Theorem
transmissions in the adjacent frequencies. It can be avoided by Noise level in the channel is represented by the SNR. It is the
carefully introducing guard bands between allocated ratio of signal power (S) to noise power (N), specified in
frequency ranges. Co-channel interference, sometimes also decibels, that is SNR = 10log10(S/N). One of the most
important contributions of Shannon was his theorem on Network (PSTN), Mobile Switching Centres, base stations,
maximum data rate on a noisy channel. According to and mobile hosts. Each node in the network has a specified
Shannon’s theorem, the maximum data rate C is given by role to play, and connections follow a rigorous signaling
sequence among the nodes.
C = Bx log 2(1+ ( S / N )) bits/sec [5]
Where B is the bandwidth of the channel (in Hz). B. Infrastructureless (Ad Hoc) Networks
There is no fixed infrastructure required for ad hoc networks.
VI. WIRELESS NETWORKS These networks can be activated at any time and in any
location. Nodes connect with one another directly or send
Wireless networks are computer networks that communicate messages to other nodes that are directly accessible. A
using radio frequency as the physical channel. Each node in
network is built dynamically in this situation by the
the network transmits data that all nodes within its immediate
cooperation of an arbitrary number of independent nodes. The
transmission range can receive. Nodes do not need to be
role that each node should play is not predetermined. Rather
physically attached to any network because they broadcast and
than relying on pre-existing network architecture, each node
receive data over the air. As a result, such networks provide makes its own decisions based on the network condition. Two
data connectivity as well as user mobility. Both portable and PCs with wireless adapter cards, for example, can create their
mobile terminals are used for communication in wireless
own network whenever they are in range of one another.
networks, and while mobile terminals can move from one
Nodes in mobile ad hoc networks are expected to act as
location to another, portable terminals can only be accessed
routers, participating in the discovery and maintenance of
while they are stationary. When mobile terminals are in
routes to other nodes.
motion, they can be accessed. Wireless networks are
characterized by the following differences from the wired VII. WIRELESS IN LOCAL LOOP
networks:
• Address is not equivalent to physical location – in a Mobility was the most essential aspect impacting network
wireless network, the address refers to a particular station architecture in cellular networks. In the case of limited
and this station need not be stationery. Therefore, address mobility, however, Wireless in Local Lop (WLL) technology
may not refer to a particular geographical location. is used. The local loop [4] is the circuit that provides last-hop
• Dynamic topology and restricted connectivity – the mobile connectivity between the subscriber and the PSTN. It has
nodes may often go out of range of each other. This means traditionally been implemented using standard copper wire.
that network connectivity is partial at times Due to the high cost of implementation, optical fibre is not a
• Medium boundaries are not well defined – the exact reach popular local loop technology. The use of wireless
of wireless signals cannot be determined accurately. It connectivity in the last hop between the subscriber and the
depends on various factors such as signal strength and telephone exchange is known as WLL, also known as Fixed
noise levels. This means that the precise boundaries of the Wireless Access (FWA) or Radio in the Local Loop (RLL)
medium cannot be determined easily. (end office). It is a cost-effective way of connecting distant
• Error prone medium – transmission by nodes in the locations. WLL can provide the tools to extend the existing
wireless channel are affected by simultaneous transmission network in metropolitan areas where high capacity is required.
of neighboring nodes that are located within the direct WLL offers numerous benefits to both consumers and service
transmission range of the transmitting node. This means providers. WLL is significantly easier to set up, and it can be
that the error rates are significantly higher in the wireless scaled up to accommodate additional consumers as need
medium. Typical bit error rates (fractions of bits that are grows. WLL is a cost-effective choice for the customer
received in error) are of the order of 10 4 in a wireless because of its lower investment, operations, and maintenance
channel as against 109 in fiber optic cables. costs. WLL provides a wide range of services, including basic
telephony and Internet access. Bandwidth-intensive
Wireless networks can by network formation and architecture applications like video-on-demand can now be enabled thanks
broadly be classified into two types, infrastructure, and ad hoc to the emergence of broadband wireless systems.
networks (infrastructure less) [4]. To compete with more efficient copper wire transmission
A. Infrastructure Networks technologies like integrated digital service network (ISDN)
Access Points (APs) are special nodes in infrastructure-based and Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), WLL must meet QoS
networks that are connected via existing wired networks. In requirements (DSL). Its speech and data quality must be
the sense that they can communicate with both wireless nodes comparable to that of traditional telephone networks. This
and existing wired networks, APs are unique. APs are used to means it uses 64Kbps or 32Kbps transmission channels with a
communicate with the other wireless nodes, also known as blocking probability of less than 10-2 and a basic error rate
Mobile Stations (STAs). The APs can also connect to other (BER) of less than 10-3 for voice and less than 10-6 for data.
networks. Infrastructure-based networking is a network with Because the subscriber units run on batteries and are not
pre-built infrastructure consisting of fixed and wired network powered by the exchange, they must have a low power
nodes and gateways, with network services typically offered consumption. To provide security and data privacy, it must
through these pre-built infrastructures. Cellular networks, for support authentication and encryption. The interface between
example, are infrastructure-based networks made up of the subscribers' wireless wired devices and the WLL network
backbone switches from the Public Switched Telephone
is the Fixed Subscriber Unit (FSU) or Radio Subscriber Unit X. 5G COMING TO THE RESCUE OF SOUTH
(RSU). From the subscriber's perspective, the FSU handles all AFRICAN RURAL AREAS
physical and data-link layer functions. Figure 2 depicts the
basic design of WLL networks. Because 5G uses more radio spectrum than previous
generations, it will be able to deliver broadband to individuals
living in sparsely populated areas. At the upper end of that
spectrum, users will be able to download at least 1 gigabit per
second, which is fast enough to transport a 500-megabyte
video in a matter of seconds. However, because that high-end
signal can only reach short distances, users will need to be less
than a mile away. Carriers would not be able to make such a
large investment in locations where people live far apart.
However, 5G networks can utilise radio waves in the low
band, which were formerly used by TV channels. Customers
can connect to towers thousands of kilometers away using
Figure 2 WLL Architecture low-band 5G, which can't transfer data at the same pace as
high-band airwaves. Data can travel at speeds up to several
VIII. BROADBAND WIRELESS ACCESS times faster than 4G in this frequency range, but it also means
that people in remote areas who previously couldn't get 4G
Fixed wireless access can be point-to-point, with each user may suddenly have access to reliable, fast mobile broadband.
having their own antenna transceiver, or multipoint, with a The low band has the extra benefit of being able to penetrate
single antenna transceiver serving multiple users. The latter is windows and walls, allowing it to reach deeper into structures
the most widely used and beneficial for WLL. A multipoint than ever before.
system is like a cellular system in that it has multiple points. In
a multipoint system, however: Investing in 5G technology for both wireless and fixed
(i) Cells do not overlap networks is necessary to effectively develop a rural network
(ii) The same frequency is reused at each cell and, that allows all individuals to participate in the digital
(iii) No handoff is provided as users are fixed economy. With faster speeds, greater coverage regions, and
improved security over prior 4G networks, the 5G standard
IX. BRIDGING THE DIGITAL DIVIDE enables a broader range of use cases than ever before.

The rural connectivity divide was highlighted when schools However, it is pointless to construct this new network if
were forced to close due to the pandemic. When teaching went people cannot afford it. That's when the clever edge comes
virtual, many children from underserved neighborhoods across into play. It brings real-time processing capability closer to the
the country had no access to broadband at home. Even though point of generation, making deployments easier and operating
both urban and rural districts adopted at-home learning, city costs lower. When 5G and the intelligent edge are combined,
officials were more likely to provide students with Wi-Fi the same workload performance may be achieved with less
hotspots and equipment so they could continue their studies. overhead, resulting in significant cost savings. And, when it
According to one study, such initiatives were less widespread comes to constructing the intelligent rural network, keeping
in rural areas. A lack of digital infrastructure is at least part of prices low will be critical to making it affordable to
the cause. Because of COVID-19, President Ramaphosa everybody.
declared South Africa to be in an alert level 4 in March 2020.
As a result, schools and tertiary institutions were closed for RAN (Radio Network Access) is a network's "last mile," the
most of the year, thus halting all teaching and learning for visible link between the network and a mobile phone.
many youngsters. However, traditionally white, and private Operators are attempting to open up RAN standards and
schools swiftly moved their teaching and learning to an online eliminate reliance on single-vendor systems. Large operators
platform, where pupils learned using cellphones, tablets, and like Orange, Vodafone, and MTN are already intending to
computers connected to the internet. This was simple because deploy virtual (vRAN) and Open RAN to expand their
they had access to the necessary technology as well as the cash coverage into new markets since it gives equipment providers
to put it to use. According to [6], online learning is nearly more options, lowers TCO, and makes it easier to replace
impossible for rural and underprivileged pupils, and it surely portions as needed.
does not achieve educational equality. The impact of COVID- Open RAN allows CSPs to choose the best technical solutions
19 on education, as well as the inability of poor and rural for the scenario rather than being confined to single-vendor
pupils to access online learning, has just confirmed the adage options, which is important in rural networks where cost is a
that the poor get poorer while the wealthy grow [7] big factor in installing new networks or upgrading old ones.
When it comes to rural connectivity, Open RAN and 5G make
for a powerful combination. The costs of setting up networks
over a vast geographic area have been demonstrated in
previous initiatives. To reduce costs, intelligent rural networks
can take advantage of powerful new technology such as [3] Rantec Microwave Systems, The Different Types of
distributed clouds and edge computing. Wireless Communication’, Jan. 2020.
[4] C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S Manoj. Ad Hoc Wireless
Rural networks will also necessitate remote management and Networks, Architectures.
monitoring on a huge scale. As part of the network design and [5] J. Clerk Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and
implementation, end-to-end automation and AI-based Magnetism, 3rd ed., vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon, 1892,
analytics can help to reduce ongoing expenses and keep pp.68-73.
networks up and running efficiently. Because of the enormous [6] I. Pillay, “The impact of inequality and COVID-19 on
geographic areas involved, these management and monitoring education and career planning for South African children
systems must also be able to work remotely so that technical of rural and low-socioeconomic backgrounds.” African
employees can respond swiftly to any difficulties that develop. Journal of Career Development, 3(1), a36. May 2021.
https://doi.org/10.4102/ajcd.v3i1.36
Transmission at long-range, low-bandwidth frequencies, or [7] Dube, B. (2020). Rural Online Learning in the Context
what are known as the low and mid bands, will be a more of COVID-19 in South Africa: Evoking an Inclusive
practical 5G deployment for rural areas (when it happens) Education Approach. Multidisciplinary Journal of
(600 MHz to 900 MHz and 2.5 GHz to 4.2 GHz, respectively). Educational Research, 10(2), 135-157. Jun. 2020. doi:
Because transmissions can travel a few miles, fewer cell 10.4471/remie.2020.5607
towers will be required. Of course, this will result in lesser
data speeds (usually around 250+ Mbps) than the gigabit rates
possible with mmWave in metropolitan areas. Despite this,
speeds will be faster than LTE.
XI. INFRASTRUCTURE SHARING IN THE RURAL AREAS
The government of South Africa could provide subsidies to
operators who build infrastructure in rural areas. These could
take the form of tax breaks to entice operators to expand their
networks into marginally profitable areas. Formulating
national broadband aspirations and developing a national plan
is a key first step for South Africa. After the national
objectives have been established, the government can create a
national roadmap outlining how they plan to achieve their aim.
The government has several levers at its disposal, including
policy, legislation, and regulation, to influence supply and
demand issues.

CONCLUSION
Broadband connectivity is often unavailable for persons living
in rural areas of South Africa. This makes digital
transformation more difficult and may have a negative
influence on local communities' socioeconomic development.
The South African government should make a commitment to
rectifying this situation by ensuring that as many people as
possible in rural areas have access to the Internet and bridging
the digital gap. 5G has the potential to revolutionize a variety
of industries, but there are still a lot of difficulties to be
resolved and significant investments to be required if 5G is to
become widely available. Additional datacenters and Internet
exchange points could be a solution, but such decisions must
be made based on economic viability and customer demand
for such assets.
REFERENCES
[1] S. Pather and C. Rey-Moreno, “Advancing rural
connectivity in South Africa A case for community-
owned networks,” Department of Science and
Technology, South Africa, pp. 1-25, Jun. 2019.
[2] Capacity Daily, “Telecoms is the key to growing African
economies post-Covid,’Aug. 2020.