Summary of the History of the Early Church

Lessons from the past for present life and future hope

Course 11. Year 1. School of Biblical Leadership

Tracy, California.

Professor: Luis Floriano

Diploma in Biblical Studies, IBLR, 1991
Bachelor's degree (partial) in Psychology, U.de.G,
1996
Bachelor of Theology, SETECA 1999
Magister Artium in Christian Ministry SETECA 2001

Description
Brief overview of the history of Christianity from its birth to the beginning of the Middle Ages (1st
to 6th centuries).

Objectives: That the student…

1. …be aware of some reasons why it is important to study church history.
2. …remember the dates of eight important events in church history.
3. …memorize the general stages of church history.
4. …become familiar with some of the key events and figures of the Early Church.
5. …identify the main heresies that attacked the Ancient Church.
6. …reaffirm your loyalty to evangelical biblical theology by comparing it to the theology the
church held at the end of the sixth century.
7. …learn about the origins of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
8. …be motivated to study church history on your own initiative as you discover the benefit it
brings to your life and ministry.
9. …rejoice in God as he discovers how He has progressed the purposes of His blessed
providence throughout the centuries of history.
(ELBI)
P5 SCHOOL"

Course content

1. Introduction

2. The expansion of the church during the first century.

3. Notable events and causes of expansion

4. Description of the Christian Church at the end of the 1st Century

5. The persecutions

6. The generation of the apostolic fathers

7. The generation of apologists and polemicists

8. The generation of theologians

9. Main problems of the Church in the period of survival

10. Description of the Christian Church at the end of the 3rd Century

11. Emperor Constantine

12. Major theological controversies during the supremacy of the Early Church

13. Emergence of the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Coptic
Church, and their Hierarchies

14. Final Observations on the Period of the Supremacy of the Early Church

15. Conclusion

Chapter 1. Introduction to the Study of Church History What relationship can we find between
the History of the Church and what the Lord says in Luke 20:9; Matt. 25:19, 5; 16:18? What
implications do we find from this relationship?
• Concerning the Lord: Understanding his sovereignty, providence, and wisdom.

• Concerning the believer: The need for trust in God, perseverance in trials, faithfulness
over time, laborious effort for the Lord, and joy in the hope of His coming and reward.

Importance of the study of Church History

Studying Church History clarifies the mind, strengthens our faith, and motivates us to action
in the right direction because…
1) It helps us understand the connection between ourselves and the New Testament church
and sound doctrine.
2) Explains the origin and differences between the various Christian groups and
denominations in the world.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 3) It allows us to understand the emergence and development of the main heresies and
sects in history, as well as the Church's response to such errors, in order to avoid
repeating such mistakes in the present.
4) It motivates us to fulfill the Great Commission by showing us the effort and ingenuity of
those who did it before us.
5) Others.

Outline of Church History

THE ANCIENT CHURCH (CENTURIES 1-6)

1. Expansion of the church (33 - 100)

2. Survival of the Church (100 - 313)
3. Supremacy of the Church (313 - 590)
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH (7TH TO 15TH CENTURIES)

4. The Holy Roman Empire (590 - 800)

5. The struggles between church and state (800 -1517)
THE MODERN CHURCH (16-21 CENTURIES)

6. Reformation and Counter-Reformation (1517-1648)

7. Rationalism and denominations (1648-1789)
8. World Missions (1789-1906)
9. The 20th Century (1906-2000)
10. The Church Today (2000-2020)

Eight important dates to remember from the history of the Church

Year Event

1) 33Birth of the church.

2) 96Canon closure.

3) 313 Edict of Milan. Cessation ofthe persecutions against heChristianity.

4) 600 Gregory I. First Bishop of Romein making official the papacy.

5) 1054 The Great Schism. The division of Christianity between East and West.

6) 1517 Luther and his 95 Theses. Beginning of the Protestant Reformation.

7) 1793 William Carey leaves for India – Beginning of the worldwide missionary movement.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
8) 1906 Pentecostalism. A worldwide revolution within Protestantism.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 THE OLD CHURCH

The first of the three great stages of the Church covers the first six centuries of history. It shows
the progress between the era of the apostles of the Lord Jesus Christ until the beginning of the
Middle Ages with the arrival of Gregory I at the head of the Church in Rome at the beginning of
the 7th century. During those first six centuries Christianity experienced phenomenal growth,
despite persecution. From being an essentially Jewish regional religion, the Christian faith
became in a few centuries the official religion of the Roman Empire. During that time, the Roman
Empire was divided into two, the western one based in Rome and the eastern one based in
Byzantium, also called Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire fell definitively in 476, but
the Church survived and rose stronger than ever.
For study purposes we will divide the stage of the Ancient Church into three periods. The first of
these is the period of the initial expansion of the church during the first century. The second
period, which spans the second and third centuries, is that of survival in the midst of
persecution. The third period is the period of supremacy, which extended from the fourth to the
sixth century.

Period of early church expansion (33-100 AD)

During the period of the initial expansion of the church, which spans the first century of history,
Christianity goes from being the passion of twelve apostles to being a contagious belief in
various parts of the Roman Empire.
After having considered in the first chapter of this study the introduction to the History of the
Church, in addressing the first period of the Ancient Church we will dedicate three chapters to it.
Beginning with chapter two, a description will be given of the expansion of the church during the
first century in light of the earliest records. In the third chapter I will explain eight outstanding
events of the first century and the main causes of the rapid growth of Christianity. Then, in the
fourth chapter we will identify the main distinctive features of the church at the end of the first
century.

Chapter 2. The expansion of the church during the first century

The New Testament Records

In the first seventy years of its existence, Christianity spread phenomenally. Beginning with 120
disciples gathered in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, by the end of the first century
Christianity had spread to almost every corner of the Roman Empire and to regions beyond it.
The early Christians lived up to what is written in Acts 17:6: “Those who have turned the world

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
upside down have come here too.”
1) Acts 2:9-11. The seed potentially planted in 15 different regions.
2) Acts 1-7. In Jerusalem. Acts 1-7. From three to ten years.
3) Acts 8. In Judea and Samaria.
4) Acts 9. In Damascus and Arabia (Galatians 1:17)
5) Acts 10. Among the Romans of Caesarea.
6) Acts 11:19-20. In Phoenicia, Cyprus and among the Greeks of Antioch in Syria.
7) Acts 13:13ff. In Cyprus, Pamphylia and Galatia.
8) Acts 16-17. In Macedonia, Achaia, and Asia Minor.
9) Acts 28; Romans 15:23-24. In Rome and Spain.

Records from other early sources.

There are ancient records other than those in the New Testament that tell us how the early
disciples spread the gospel in the ancient world. Some of the most notable ones are these:
1) James son of Zebedee: He preached only in Jerusalem. He was the first apostle to die as a
martyr (Acts 12:1-2)
2) Paul: He preached throughout Asia Minor and Europe until he was beheaded by order of
Nero in Rome.
3) Simon Peter: He brought the gospel to Antioch, Asia Minor and Rome, where according to
Jerome he remained for 25 years until he died as a martyr in the 14th year of Nero.
4) Andrew: He brought the gospel to Thrace and Byzantium, and to the regions north of the
Black Sea among which is Scythia (Col. 3:10) and what we now call southern Russia,
Ukraine and Romania. He was whipped and crucified for his faith in Patras, Greece.
5) Philip: He preached Christ in Greece, Syria and Phrygia where he died after being whipped
and crucified as a martyr (in Hierapolis, present-day Turkey) in the year 54.
6) Bartholomew: He ventured with the gospel to the north and east of the Black Sea and the
Caspian Sea, reaching, according to tradition, as far as India. He then preached in Armenia
where he was flayed (skinned and cut open alive) for not denying the gospel.
7) Matthew. He preached for fifteen years in Judea where he wrote his gospel and then went to
preach in Ethiopia where, according to some, he died pierced with a lance for his faith,
although others claim that he was martyred in Hierapolis.
8) Thomas: He brought the gospel to Syria, Parthia, Media and northern India where he died as
a martyr in July 72. Some difficult-to-verify accounts insist that Tomás reached the pre-
Hispanic Americas where he proclaimed among the Aztecs, Incas and Guaranis.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
9) Judas Thaddeus (also called Lebbaeus): He brought the gospel to Mesopotamia, Armenia
and Persia where he died as a martyr in the year 62. Others think that he died in Edessa
(today called Beirut, in Lebanon).
10) Simon the Cananist (from Cana) also called “the Zealot”: He brought the gospel to the
Middle East and North Africa. Regarding his death, one tradition says it was in Ethiopia,
another that it was in Samaria, another says he was cut in half in Suanir (Persia), another in
Iberia (Iraq), another in Edessa and another in Britain (England). What they all agree on is
that he died a martyr.
11) John, brother of James. Last of the apostles to die. He preached in Asia Minor, and was
imprisoned in Patmos, from where he wrote the Apocalypse. An ancient tradition says that
he survived being thrown into a cauldron of boiling oil during the time of the Emperor
Domitian. He was the only one of the apostles who did not die as a martyr but of old age.
12) Matthias: He brought the gospel to Cappadocia where he died as a martyr, although some
tradition says he was martyred in Ethiopia and another that he was stoned and beheaded in
Jerusalem.
13) Mark: He took the gospel to Alexandria in Egypt where he was dragged and torn to death by
an idolatrous mob of the god Serapis.
14) Luke: He accompanied Paul on his missionary journeys through Caesarea, Asia,
Macedonia, Achaia and Europe. After Paul's death he returned to preach in Greece where
he died after being hanged from an olive tree by a group of idolatrous priests.
Chapter 3. Notable events and causes of expansion

The first-century church experienced crucial events that marked a milestone in its expansion.
Several factors determined the causes of this expansion. In this chapter we will give attention to
these two issues.
Eight important events for the church in the first century

1) Pentecost (year 33). Acts 2.

Day on which the church is born, with the baptism of the Holy Spirit through Peter's
preaching. God honors His Word and His Son by adding more than three thousand people to
the faith in a single day.
2) The conversion and ministry of Saul of Tarsus (Paul). Acts 9-28
From his conversion (35 AD) until his death (68 AD) Paul became the most effective
disseminator of Christianity throughout the world, and through his writings he ensured what
was necessary to consolidate and multiply the faith of later generations.
3) Peter's preaching and the conversion of Cornelius. Acts 10
This was the formal inauguration of the Gentiles' entry into the kingdom of God through faith

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 in the gospel of Christ.
4) The Council of Jerusalem for the consolidation of the gospel of grace. Acts 15 Decisive
event to assure the whole world that Jews and Gentiles are saved in the same way, only by
faith in Christ.

5) The persecution of Nero (year 64)

Intense persecution in Rome and its surroundings due to Nero's madness and
megalomania, as recorded even by non-Christian historians of his time.
6) The destruction of Jerusalem (year 70)
Tired of the Jewish revolts, the Roman general Titus destroys the city and the temple of
Jerusalem. This had four important results. 1) The nation of Israel disappears as a political
entity until May 15, 1948, 2) The Christian church in Jerusalem (the first in the world and the
cradle of Christianity) ceases to be predominant, 3) Other local churches begin to compete
to be the new world center of Christianity: that of Antioch in Syria, that of Alexandria in
Egypt, that of Ephesus in Asia Minor, and that of Rome, the capital of the empire, and 4) The
Roman authorities realize that Christianity and Judaism are not the same, and begin to view
Christianity with suspicion.
7) The persecution of Domitian (year 95)
Second official persecution against Christianity. Its scope was regional, in Rome and Asia
Minor. It set a precedent against Christianity, as Christians were punished with death, their
property was confiscated, and they were imprisoned. Because of this persecution the
apostle John was imprisoned in Patmos.
8) The closing of the Canon (year 100)
God's special written revelation was completed with the writing of the book of Revelation.

Reasons for the rapid expansion of the early church

1. Historical causes
a. The infrastructure of Roman roads and laws
b. Greek culture: a universal language
c. The Jewish religion: an internationally established religion
d. The persecutions: An automatic propagator
e. The urban priority: preaching in large, influential, busy cities.
2. Spiritual causes
a. The church depended on the Holy Spirit. Acts 13:1-4; 16:1-12

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 b. The church preached the message that satisfied (the forgiveness of sins and hope of
liberation)
c. The church used the effective methodology: everyone bore witness to the gospel.
d. The church had a life of love and holiness. This was a magnet in the midst of a hurt
and corrupt society.

Before closing the first period of the Early Church, it is worthwhile to summarize the conditions of
the church at the end of the first century. That is the topic of the next chapter.
Chapter 4. Description of the Christian Church at the end of the 1st Century

The Christian church at the end of the first century could identify clear distinctive features in its
organization, worship, ordinances, festivals, and doctrine.
1. Your organization. The organization of the church at the end of the first century was simple
but met the needs of the church. Each local church was autonomous (with its own
government). Church officers (leaders) were elected from among its members at two levels.
The title of church leaders at that time was elders, bishops, or pastors. These terms were
interchangeable when referring to men who met NT standards. and whose responsibility was
to watch over the spiritual well-being of the church. Some churches also had deacons, that
is, “servants.” This position was optional depending on the size and logistical needs of the
local churches. Their responsibility was to serve the church in practical areas under the
leadership of the elders – pastors. Deacons could be men and women. At the end of the first
century, the bishop began to be considered the first in authority among the other elders.
2. Their cults. They were ordered, held in all kinds of discreet places because of the risk of
persecution on the first day of the week. Sunday, being the day of the resurrection of the
Lord, begins to replace Saturday as a day of meeting, although there is record that until the
year 135 there were Jewish-Christians who continued to keep the Sabbath.
3. His ordinances. There were only two ordinances: water baptism and the Lord's Supper. As
for water baptism, at first it was celebrated immediately after conversion. But as the first
decades passed, due to increasing persecution and apostasy, it began to be postponed until
the converts had been in the faith for a year and were catechized (instructed). In the
Didache, an early Christian writing, it is mentioned that baptism was by immersion, but if
there was a lack of water (in desert places) baptism by sprinkling was permitted. The Lord's
Supper was restricted to the baptized and was usually followed by "agapes" or fraternal
meals.
4. Their festivities. The only public holiday on the first-century Christian calendar was Easter
Sunday. All other holidays were introduced gradually and regionally by pagan influence,
including Christmas.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
5. Their doctrines. It consisted of a simple and practical transmission of the apostles'
interpretation (following Christ's instructions) of the Old Testament, complemented by their
teachings of Christ and his kingdom, which were gradually recorded in writing until they
became a whole in the New Testament.
Will. One measure of the teaching consisted of defending the truth against multiple heresies
and bad practices infiltrated into the church by false teachers from inside and outside the
churches. Among the most dangerous heresies of that period are Judaizing legalism,
Gnosticism, and worldliness (e.g., Acts 15; Galatians, Colossians, 1 John 2:15-17;
Revelation 2-3).
Thus we have finished studying the summary of the first of the three periods of the Ancient
Church. In the next class we will begin to study a summary of the second period of the Ancient
Church, which is the period of survival, which covers the characters and events of the second
and third centuries.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 Period of Church Survival (100 to 313)
During the period of the Survival of the Church, which spans the second and third centuries of
history, Christianity was subject to the bloodiest persecutions. Despite this, the faith of Christ
managed to survive, grew in number of followers and through its leaders formulated important
responses to both its political aggressors and its theological detractors who postulated different
heresies during that period. In the end, the Church would prevail, earning the respect and
recognition of the Roman Empire.
To learn the details of this period, we will dedicate chapters five to ten of this series. In the fifth
chapter I will describe the persecutions and their effects on the life of the church. In the sixth
chapter I will talk about the apostolic fathers and their writings. They were the men who
assumed leadership of the church when the apostles died. In chapter seven we will deal with the
apologists and polemicists, who were the generation after that of the apostolic fathers. In
chapter eight we will meet the theologians of the ancient church. The ninth chapter will be
dedicated to summarizing the main problems that the church faced during that period. Finally, in
chapter ten we will describe the church at the end of the third century.
Chapter 5. The Persecutions

Beginning in the year 100, the Church began to experience escalating persecutions, first at a
regional level and then throughout the empire. Because of this, there was not much time for
theological reflection, since the priority of Christians at that time was to survive rather than to
write. But the modern Christian will ask, why did they persecute the first century Christians? The
reasons were varied.
Reasons that caused the persecution

1. Political reasons. Christians were accused of being traitors to the government, since they
were the few who refused to worship the emperors who began to consider themselves gods.
2. Economic reasons. The idol makers were greatly affected by the conversion of large
numbers of people to Christianity. An example of this is in Acts 19, among the worshipers of
Diana in Ephesus. Another economic reason was related to slavery. Conversion to Christ
spiritually placed masters and slaves on an equal footing, and Christian love for one another
reduced mistreatment to a level never seen before. This produced great fear in slave
society. If this were not enough, Christians were accused of being the cause of the
calamities with which the gods supposedly plagued the people due to the decrease in
worshipers and offerings.
3. Business reasons. Christians quickly differentiated themselves from pagans in many social
aspects. They stopped participating in many public acts of an idolatrous, immoral or
shameless nature. This brought them resentment from society.
4. Religious reasons. Christians were criticized for being “exclusivist and arrogant” because

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 they said that Christ was the only way. They were also branded as atheists for refusing to
worship the gods and because they did not even have an image for their own. They were
even accused of being immoral because the pagans heard that they met to practice love
with one another. Another accusation was that they practiced cannibalism because the
pagans heard them say that they ate the body and blood of Christ.

Emperors who persecuted the church

The ten emperors who persecuted the church were Nero (64-68); Domitian (89-96); Hadrian
(117-138); Antoninus Pius (138-161); Marcus Aurelius (161-180); Commodus (180-192);
Setimius Severus (193-211); Decius (249-251); Valerian (253-260); and Diocletian (303-313).
The first seven persecuted Christianity regionally and intermittently; the last three intensively
throughout the length and breadth of the empire. During the period of Marcus Aurelius,
Christians began to be thrown to the wild beasts in the Colosseum and many took refuge in the
Catacombs. The year 257 is remembered as the year of intense persecution. After a period of
truce between the years 260 and 303, the “Great Persecution” began, which was the worst of all.
In it Diocletian ordered the destruction of the churches and the Christian Scriptures, the
imprisonment of all bishops and elders, and the making of all Christians between Christ or
death, and the confiscation of the property of those condemned, leaving their families in misery.
The persecution of Christians ended with the arrival of Emperor Constantine after the signing of
the Edict of Milan in 313.

Reactions to persecution

1. Flee. Many saw it as a wise decision (Origen, for example, recommended it), while others
considered it an act of cowardice.
2. Pay with a substitute. The rich could make some of their slaves suffer or die in their place.
3. Sacrifice and then repent. Many chose to worship the emperor in order to save their lives
when confronted, and then repented and continued to practice their faith, but at the cost of
their conscience and the rejection of many of their brothers who preferred to suffer rather
than deny their faith.
4. To apostatize from the faith.
5. Dying for his faith.

Results of the persecutions

Positive results
1. The urgency of defining the Canon of the New Testament became necessary. Nobody
wanted to die preserving an uninspired book.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
2. The purification of the church. Only the faithful persevered at the cost of losing their
possessions, their own lives, and sometimes even that of their families.
3. The spread of Christianity. Christians who chose to flee did so to distant places, taking the
gospel with them everywhere.
4. The good Christian testimony. The integrity, innocence and self-denial of Christians who
preferred to die rather than deny their faith impacted the conscience of thousands of
unbelievers who ended up converting or at least looking favorably on Christianity. So many
died for bearing witness (Greek martyrio) that this term took on a new meaning, the one we
know today.
5. A sense of identity among Christians because of their shared suffering.
Negative results
1. Hagiolatry. The persecution resulted in the cult of many Christian martyrs.
2. Donatism. The persecution produced an internal conflict in the church over what to do with
those who denied their faith. In North Africa, Donatus, bishop of Carthage, opposed re-
accepting as members Christians who had been infidels. This caused the first split in
Christianity.
3. Synergism. Synergism is the idea that salvation depends on the joint works of God and men,
and is opposed to monergism which insists that salvation is the work of one man alone, God.
Persecution began to promote the mistaken idea that salvation depends on the faithfulness
of Christians.
4. Asceticism. The persecution reinforced the idea that it is God's will for Christians to
intentionally seek suffering.
(ELBI)
P5 SCHOOL "

5. Clericalism. The persecution led to the popularity of the idea that the person and position of
the bishop is superior to that of other believers.

The men who assumed the leadership of Christianity in the generations following the apostles
can be classified into four groups, depending more on their writings than on the dates in which
they lived. These groups are the apostolic fathers, the apologists, the polemicists, and the
theologians. We will learn about them in the next three chapters.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
Chapter 6. The generation of the Apostolic Fathers

The apostolic fathers were the disciples of the apostles. They took up the baton of faith from the
same men who walked with the Lord Jesus. Prominent among them were the disciples of the
apostle John, who was the longest-lived of the twelve apostles. The main themes of the writings
of the apostolic fathers were 1) the edification of churches, 2) the instruction of disciples, and 3)
the clarification of common doubts. The increasing persecution in the time period in which they
lived was the main reason why there were not as many heresies infiltrating the church.
The apostolic fathers were not theologians but rather more devotional, simple, biblical and
practical writers. In general they were orthodox, that is, faithful to sound doctrine. In their
writings they quoted extensively from the New Testament. Now let's briefly get to know four of
them.
Principal apostolic fathers.

1. Clement of Rome (100 AD). We don't know much about him. He was a slave, probably born
in Rome, and very intelligent. He gained his freedom and became bishop of the church in
Rome. Some believe he is the man mentioned in Philippians 4:3. He became famous for his
1st letter to the Corinthians, with 65 chapters. One of the oldest writings (95 AD) after the
New Testament by which the authenticity of Paul's letters is verified, since he quotes him
frequently. In that letter, Clement answers questions put to him by the Corinthians and gives
them advice on applying Christian virtues to daily life, submitting to their leaders (elders and
deacons), and confronting some of the same issues that Paul addressed in his letters to
them 40 to 50 years earlier.
2. Ignatius of Antioch (31-107 AD). He was a contemporary and disciple of the apostle John.
He became bishop of Antioch. On the way to martyrdom in Rome, he wrote to the churches
of Ephesus, Magnesia, Thrace, Rome, Philadelphia and Smyrna, consoling the brothers for
the persecution they were experiencing. He also wrote a personal letter to Polycarp for the
same reasons. His letters reveal the life of the churches in the early years and their reaction
to the Docetist heresy.
3. Polycarp of Smyrna (70-155 AD). He was also a disciple of the apostle John. He became
bishop of Smyrna and one of his disciples was Irenaeus of Lyon. I quote the New Testament
a lot, and I wrote to the Philippians. He is credited with the phrase “For eighty-six years I
have served my Lord and he has never done me any harm. How could I blaspheme against
my King who saved me? He was burned alive as a martyr for his faith.
4. Papias of Hierapolis (60-130 AD). Another disciple of John who became bishop in the city of
Hierapolis. His main contribution was the collection of the apostles' traditions about Jesus'
sermons. Papias was one of the earliest witnesses to the formation of the Canon because
he cited Matthew, Mark, John, 1 Peter, and Revelation.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
Some important writings from the time of the apostolic fathers

1. The Didache or The Teaching of the Twelve. Although it is attributed to the apostles, it is
certain that they did not write it. It is a catechistic document, that is, one for instructing
recent converts. It is not known where it was written, but its antiquity is known, at the end of
the first century or beginning of the second. It is currently the oldest known Christian writing
after the New Testament. It consists of sixteen chapters divided into four parts. Chapters 1
to 6 are titled “The Two Paths,” that of Life and that of Death. Chapters 7 through 10 are
called “Practices in Church Worship” and discuss baptism by immersion, fasting, and the
Lord’s Supper. Chapters 11 through 15 are called “Dealing with False Teachers.” Chapter
16 is an exhortation to live worthily while awaiting the imminent coming of Christ.
2. 2 of Clement. It is a letter supposedly written by Clement of Rome, and deals with the
resurrection and purity of Christian life.
3. Epistle of Barnabas. Document written around 130 AD with the idea of helping converts from
paganism who were being persuaded by supposedly Christian Jews to obey the law.
Contains many allegorical interpretations of the Scriptures.
4. Shepherd of Hermas. The only representative writing of Christian literature of an apocalyptic
type in the era of the apostolic fathers. His style is very allegorical, using symbols and
visions for a moral and practical purpose. It could be compared to what John Bunyan wrote
in The Pilgrim's Progress.
5. Epistle to Diognetus. Diognetus was the tutor of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-
180 AD) who persecuted Christians. An anonymous Christian wrote this letter to defend
Christianity by accusing paganism of being vain and idolatrous. It emphasizes the
superiority of Christianity over paganism.
Some negative features of the writings of the apostolic fathers.

1. An unhealthy desire for martyrdom. He popularized the idea that martyrdom precedes the
path to glory.
2. Distortion of the biblical meaning of baptism. They claimed that baptism takes away sin, and
led to the idea that only one act of repentance was necessary, the one that accompanied
baptism.
3. Misplaced emphasis on good works. Good works began to be considered worthy of divine
favor.
4. Discipline as a meritorious act. Repentance must be manifested through acts of public
contrition.
5. Excessive use of the allegorical method to interpret the Scriptures.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
The apostolic fathers were replaced by a new generation of leaders who dedicated themselves
to defending the Christian faith from the attacks it was subjected to. We call that generation the
apologists and polemicists. That will be the subject of study in the next chapter.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
Chapter 7: The Generation of Apologists and Polemicists

The apologists and polemicists were the Christian leaders of the generation that followed the
apostolic fathers. The apologists defended the faith from its external attackers. Polemicists
defended her from her internal attackers.
The Apologists

Apology means “defense.” Apologists were Christian thinkers engaged in defending the faith
from its aggressors (hence the name “apologists”). They are also known as the Antenicenes.
Most of his writings were intended to defend the Christian faith in the face of persecution and
government attacks. His defense followed two trends: 1) Explaining Christianity in order to
dismantle popular misinterpretations and lies, and 2) Calling for the legalization of Christianity by
arguing that its members were the best citizens. That is why almost all the defenses (apologies)
were directed at one of the emperors. Using philosophical methods they tried to protect the
church from the infamies of non-believers. They appealed to Christianity as the “best
philosophy” and to the fulfillment of its prophecies. Notable apologists include Quadratus,
Aristides of Athens, Ariston of Pella, Justin, Tatian the Syrian, Miltiades, Apollinaris of Hierapolis,
Athenagoras of Athens, Theophilus of Antioch, Melito of Sardis, Hippolytus, and Lactantius. Now
let's learn a little more about some of these apologists.
1. Aristides of Athens (140 AD). Athenian philosopher converted to Christianity. His apology
was addressed to the emperor (possibly Hadrian or Antoninus Pius) to demonstrate the
existence of God. He stated that all men are grouped into three categories: pagans
(barbarians and Greeks), Jews and Christians. He concludes after deep philosophical
reflections that Christians are the best group.
2. Justin Martyr (100-159 AD). He was born in Flavia (Samaria) to pagans. After studying
philosophy and becoming disillusioned, he converts to Christ in Ephesus. One of the most
knowledgeable about pagan philosophical systems. He was the most important Greek
apologist and the first to attempt to combine the Christian faith with the best of Greek
philosophy. Some think he was more of a philosopher than a Christian, since he went so far
as to say that “just as the Phoenix (a Greek mythological bird that came back to life after
being killed), so Christ rose again.” He wrote an apology to the Emperor Antoninus Pius and
another to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. He also wrote the “Dialogue with Tryphon,” an
apology addressed to a Jew named Tryphon who attacked Christianity. According to some,
Tryphon was an imaginary character that Justin invented for his apologetic purposes. In this
writing he proves that Jesus is the Messiah and that Christianity came to replace Judaism.
He was beheaded in Rome as a martyr in 165 due to the persecution of Marcus Aurelius.
3. Tatian the Syrian (110-172 AD). Disciple of Justin Martyr. Author of an apology called
“Speeches to the Greeks” and his famous harmony of the gospels called “Diatesaron” which
is the first in history (160-170). He died considered a heretic for espousing Gnostic ideas,
supporting the ideas of Marcion (an anti-Jew who said that only Luke and Paul's writings

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 were inspired), and for insisting that Christianity requires the observance of dietary
restrictions and celibacy.
4. Theophilus of Antioch (115 – 183 AD). From a pagan family, born near the Euphrates River,
he converted to Christ as an adult. He became the sixth bishop of Antioch and the first to
use the word “Trinity.” He wrote an apology called “Three Books to Autolycus,” who was a
pagan friend. In the first book he explains the essence of God, and what it means to be a
Christian. In the second he contrasts pagan myths with the revelation of the Scriptures
concerning the origin of the world and of man. In the third he defends Christianity from the
accusations of the pagans.
5. Athenagoras of Athens (133-190 AD). We know little about him, only that he was from
Athens and that he became a Christian under the influence of the Christianity of Antioch,
having previously been a Platonist philosopher. He earned the title “the Christian
Philosopher of Athens.” In his apology written for Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus
entitled “A Plea for the Christians” he defends Christians from false accusations of atheism
(denying the existence of the gods), anthropophagy (cannibalism – eating the body and
blood of the Lord) and incest (“love between brothers”). His writings are pieces of
remarkable erudition and literary skill.
6. Hippolytus (?-235 AD). Disciple of Irenaeus, disciple of Polycarp. Latin apologist who lived in
Rome. Prolific and influential writer. Considered the first "antipope" because he opposed the
heretical ideas of Bishop Calixto of Rome, being himself a priest of the same church and
ending up establishing a separate church. His denunciation of Calixto was because he
supported monarchianism. Hippolytus wrote a commentary on the book of Daniel,
considered the oldest Christian commentary on this book.
7. Lactantius (240-320). Latin apologist born in North Africa, called the “Christian Cicero.” He
was a historian and teacher of oratory under the orders of the Emperor Diocletian, until his
conversion in 303, for which he was dismissed. After living in poverty for a few years, when
Constantine came to power he called him to be tutor to his son Crispus. Among his writings
are “Divine Institutions,” a magnum opus of seven volumes where he defends Christianity
more with persuasion than with controversy, presenting it as a harmonious and logical
system.
(one of the first “systematic theologies”). He also wrote “On the Work of God” to demonstrate
divine providence using the human body as a basis. In “On the Wrath of God” he explains to
the Stoics and Epicureans why anger is necessary as part of God’s character resulting in the
just punishment of evildoers. In “The Death of the Persecutors” he presents the ends of
some of the emperors who persecuted Christians. Interestingly, Lactantius firmly stated that
the earth was flat.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 Summary of the arguments in favor of Christianity used by apologists.

• All the truths among the pagan philosophers anticipate Christianity, and Christianity
brings together these ideas.

• The miracles performed by Christ and the apostles authenticate the veracity of their
message.

• The development of Christianity permeating different cultures indicates and

vindicates its veracity.

• Only in Christianity can the deepest needs of the human being be met.

The polemicists

The polemicists were not content with defending Christianity, they attacked the heresies that
infiltrated the church (hence the name "polemicists"). The polemicists' target is internal attacks
on the Church. They were experts in refuting heresies by appealing to the Scriptures, mainly to
Gnosticism. They are also known as the Nicenes. The two main polemicists were Irenaeus and
Tertullian.
1. Irenaeus (130-212). Born in Smyrna. He was a disciple of Polycarp from a young age. He
was sent as a missionary to Gaul (France) where he became bishop in the year 180.
Through his ministry all of southern Gaul became Christian. In the year 185 he wrote the
classic Christian work of antiquity entitled “Against Heresies” which consists of five volumes
against the ideas of popular Gnosticism in Gaul. Thanks to his vast knowledge of this
heresy, Irenaeus refuted it thus: Volume 1) Historical Review of Gnosticism. 2) Philosophical
criticism, 3) Scriptural criticism (there is no biblical basis for Gnosticism), 4) Refutation of
Gnosticism with the Word of God, and 5) Defense of the resurrection of Christ against
Gnostic ideas. Irenaeus was the first to recognize and use the New Testament Canon. He
had a lofty view of the three persons of the Trinity, presented an analysis of the work of
salvation, and laid the foundation for orthodox Christology in the West.
2. Tertullian (160-220). He was born, lived and died in Carthage, North Africa (present-day
Tunisia). His father was a Roman centurion. He studied law and was a brilliant lawyer in
Rome for a time. He converted to Christianity between 197 and 198 on the testimony of the
martyrs. He was the most important Latin apologist and theologian of his time, since before
him everyone wrote in Greek. His vast knowledge allowed him to write on practical, doctrinal
and apologetic topics. He wrote more than 30 books, three of them in Greek, and two
dedicated to his wife. His main works were “Apology”, in which he defends Christianity from
Roman attacks; “On the Soul” in which he discusses the origin of the soul; “On Spectacle” in
which he denounces the worldliness of the Church; “Against Marcion” to refute the ideas of
that heretic; “Against Praxeas” to attack modalism and defend the dogma of the Trinity. In
the year 207 (at the age of 47), tired of the worldliness of the Church, he left it and joined

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 Montanism. But at the same time even the Montanists seemed flexible to him, so he
separated from them and founded his own rigorous movement. Tertullian was the first to use
the term “Trinity” to refer to the biblical doctrine of one God in three persons. He believed in
and defended the authority of the Bible. His writings laid the foundation for and helped
develop the orthodox doctrine of Christology (the deity of Christ and the hypostatic union).
He developed the theory that the human soul is transmitted from parents to children.

As persecution abated, Christians had time to reflect more deeply theologically and address
some doctrinal issues that had generated conflict among them. This generation is called the
theologians, and will be the subject of our attention in the next chapter.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
Chapter 8. The Generation of Theologians

Also known as the Post-Nicenes, theologians were Christian leaders who 1) began to
systematize theology, 2) emphasized biblical study from an intellectual perspective, 3)
standardized systems of biblical interpretation, and 4) harmonized theology with philosophy.
Theologians can be classified into two groups: 1) those from the East, who wrote in Greek, and
2) those from the West, who wrote in Latin.
Eastern theologians and their schools of catechumens.

Eastern theologians, during this period, formed several schools of catechumens (new disciples).
These schools exerted a powerful influence on early Christianity. The main ones were 1) the
School of Alexandria, 2) the School of Caesarea, and 3) the School of Antioch.
The School of Alexandria in Egypt or the Didaskálion (School)
This school was the first center of philosophical-theological study in the history of Christianity.
Although its foundation is attributed to Mark the Evangelist, Panteno was its first director in 180
AD. who, influenced by Platonism, proposed the allegorical method to interpret the Bible,
specifically, to include the person of Christ throughout Scripture. The school from the beginning
had as its goal to harmonize Greek philosophy with the Christian faith. There Christianity
reached for the first time intellectual levels never seen before. He also fought against Gnosticism
and insisted on morality. Its main theologians were Clement, Origen, Dionysius, Peter,
Athanasius, Didymus and Cyril. Let's learn a little more about some of them.
1. Pantene. Born in Sicily, he was a Stoic philosopher who converted to Christianity and
founded the School of Alexandria during the time of the Emperor Commodus (180-192). His
disciples were Alexander of Cappadocia and Clement of Alexandria (his successor). He left
school to go and preach the gospel in Arabia, Ethiopia and India. He died in 216.
2. Clement of Alexandria (152-217). He was born in Athens and was the son of pagans. After
his conversion he traveled through Italy, Syria and Palestine learning from renowned
Christian teachers until he reached Alexandria, where he heard Panteno and was impressed
by his knowledge. In 190 he succeeded him as head of the School of Alexandria until 202
when he fled due to persecution. He died in Jerusalem. He was a scholar. He quoted the
Old Testament 1500 times and 2000 the NT in his writings, in addition to citing classical
Greek philosophers more than 300 times. His three most important works were 1)
Protrepticus (Exhortation), 2) Pedagogue (Teacher) and 3)
Stromatas (Tapestries – eight volumes). His priority was to unite the Christian faith with
philosophy. He was imprecise in his doctrine of the Trinity.
3. Origins: (185-253) Born in Alexandria to a Christian home. He was a disciple of Clement. He
was left without a father and without a teacher simultaneously because of the persecution.
This forced him to take over the direction of the School of Alexandria. He studied theology
and philosophy under Ammonius Sacas, founder of Neoplatonism. He fled to Caesarea
because of persecution, where he founded the School of Catechumens of Caesarea, and

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 after a few years he returned to Alexandria. He died in 253 as a result of torture for his faith.
He was a philosophical genius and an incomparable author. Because his ideas were highly
questioned and some of them anathematized, many of his writings were destroyed and only
800 of the more than 2,000 works he wrote remain, among which stand out 1) Hexapla: His
first book, of 3,250 pages. 2) From Principles: First Systematic Theology in history. 3)
Against Celsus: The most important apology of all antiquity. 4) Commentaries and sermons
(homilies): He wrote commentaries on almost the entire Bible, although of little value due to
his allegorical method. Origen's central point was always to discover types of Christ in every
detail of Scripture.
4. Athanasius (295-373). Ordained deacon in 320 in Alexandria, and companion of Alexander,
bishop of that city at the Council of Nicaea (325). From then on he assumed a leading role in
the fight against the Arian heresy.1 Main author of the Trinitarian Creed. In 328 he was
appointed bishop of Alexandria. He was harassed and exiled five times due to political
pressure from the Arians, exiles that he took advantage of to evangelize in southern Egypt.
He inclined the direction of the School of Antioch towards the historical exegetic method.
The School of Caesarea.
The School of Catechumens at Caesarea was founded by Origen in 232, during his stay in the
area because of persecution. It became a kind of extension of that of Alexandria, where the
same method of study and the same objectives were used and promoted: to harmonize Greek
philosophy with Christianity, and to interpret all biblical passages in a symbolic-typological way,
in order to present Christ. Some of its most remembered leaders were Gregory Thaumaturgus,
Eusebius, and the three great Cappadocians.
1. Gregory the Wonderworker. Born in 213 in Pontus, he studied rhetoric and law before
becoming a Christian. Passing through Caesarea he heard Origen and was captivated. After
studying five years with him, he returned to Pontus where he was appointed Bishop. His zeal
in preaching was such that at his death there were few pagans left in the entire region. The
miracles that God performed through him earned him the title of “miracle worker,” which in
Greek means “thaumaturge.” He died in the year 270.
2. Eusebius of Caesarea. Also known as Eusebius Pamphilius (263-339) was bishop of
Caesarea. He stood out for being a scholar, prolific writer, and theologian. His most famous
work is the History of the Church, which covers the history from the days of the apostles to
his own. He played an important role in the Council of Nicaea although his stance against
Arianism was moderate. Since he was an admirer of Origen, and gave some support to
Arius, he earned the reproach of several Christian leaders.
The three great Cappadocians
3. Basil the Great (330-379 – Santa Claus). He was born into a pious and wealthy family. In his

1 The Arian heresy claimed that the Trinity does not exist. According to this belief there is only one God, who created
the Logos. This one when incarnated became known as the Son, Jesus Christ.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 youth he traveled to Athens where he met Gregory of Nazianzus. There they were both
influenced by the works of Origen, and he dedicated himself to the strictest life of an
anchorite. He stood out for his opposition to Arianism. In 365 he was appointed bishop of
Caesarea, and in 370 he replaced Eusebius as head of the church in Caesarea in
Cappadocia. He stood out as a preacher, for his numerous theological writings, for his
compassion for the poor and for his passion for orthodoxy.
4. Gregory Nazianzus (329-389). The son of wealthy Christian parents, he arrived in Athens to
study rhetoric, where he met Basil and Julian (who would become emperor and apostate).
Gregory was baptized in 360 and ordained to the ministry a year later. In 361 Julian, already
emperor, declared himself an enemy of Christianity. Gregory wrote against him, which
brought him persecution. But the death of the emperor saved him from martyrdom. After the
death of his parents, he gave all his inheritance to the needy and lived austerely. Upon
Theodosius' death he was appointed bishop of Constantinople. He suffered persecution from
the Arians for a time. He played an important role in the Council of Constantinople in 381
and throughout his life he was a tireless fighter for orthodoxy.
5. Gregory of Nyssa (335-400). Brother of Basilio and friend of Gregory of Nazianzus.
Appointed bishop of Nyssa in 371, he joined the fight against Arianism. He was also part of
the Council of Constantinople (381) and wrote several theological, exegetical and ascetic
works.
The School of Antioch of Syria.
The School of Antioch was founded by Lucian in 312 as a response to the allegorical abuse in
the hermeneutics of Origen and his schools of Alexandria and Caesarea. The School of Antioch
focused on the exegetical study of the Scriptures and the literal-historical-grammatical method of
interpretation. Unfortunately, over the years the school developed a heretical theological bias
that gave rise to Arianism. Some of the notable students of the School of Antioch were Diodorus
of Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Arius (who was a heretic), but the most notable of all was
John Chrysostom.
1. Theodore of Mopsuestia (350-428). Great biblical exegete and outstanding representative of
the Antioch school. He emphasized the importance of history and grammar in interpretation.
2. John Chrysostom (347-407). John was the son of Christian parents, and was born in
Antioch. He studied philosophy and rhetoric before becoming a minister in the church of that
city. At the age of 23 he was baptized and after meeting Diodorus of Tarsus, one of the
teachers of the School of Antioch, he decided to become a monk with simple customs and
strict discipline. In the year 386 he was ordained a minister, the year in which he began to
care for the poor of the city and to preach. His talent was so remarkable that the Emperor
Arcadius ordered him to be taken to the capital Constantinople to be the patriarch (chief
pastor). John, against his will, was guarded by a military detachment from Antioch, because
of the resistance of the population to let him go. He was appointed Patriarch of
Constantinople in February 398. There John became a prolific writer and one of the greatest

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 preachers in history. More than 650 of his sermons still survive. John publicly denounced the
extravagances of Aelia Eudoxia, the emperor's wife, and the abuses, corruption and
immorality of politicians and religious figures, which resulted in his exile. But by popular
acclamation he was brought back. However, when he again denounced the powerful class,
he was exiled to Armenia. From there he continued to impact the city through letters in which
he denounced sin and taught the truth. For this reason, it was ordered that he be sent to a
more distant exile, but on the way he died while saying "To God be the glory in everything."
Thirty years after his death, it was ordered that his remains be brought and buried in the
church of Constantinople, paradoxically, near those of the Empress Eudoxia. Years after his
death he received the title of “Chrysostom” which means “golden beak”, alluding to his
extraordinary eloquence.
Western theologians and other prominent ones

1. Jerome (340-420). He was born in northern Italy to Christian parents. From a young age he
demonstrated an ability to learn languages. Baptized at age 25. He traveled through Trier in
Gaul where he met people with an ascetic attitude. Near the Syrian desert he studied
Hebrew and perfected his Greek. Damasus, bishop of Rome, commissioned him to translate
the Bible into Latin. He was forced to go to Bethlehem where he spent the rest of his life
dedicated to the translation of the Vulgate. He organized a monastery for men and women.
He was one of the strictest monks in history. He supported the theology of Augustine and
opposed that of Pelagius.
2. Ambrose of Milan (340-397). Great politician and administrator who became bishop of Milan.
Advisor to emperors and even a reprimand. Internationally renowned preacher whose
preaching brought about the conversion and baptism of Augustine. He is also remembered
for having temporarily excommunicated Emperor Theodosius I and not having readmitted
him until he showed public repentance. He was the first person in history that the Roman
Catholic Church (RCC) called a “Doctor of the Church.”2
3. Augustine (354-420). The greatest of the early church fathers. He is considered the most
important theologian between Paul and Luther, especially for his doctrine of justification. In
his lifetime he brought about a revival in the church that was unmatched until the days of
Luther and Calvin. He was born in Tagaste, North Africa, the son of a mixed marriage. His
mother Monica raised him as a Christian but he abandoned the path when he went to
Carthage to study philosophy and Manichaeism. He traveled to Rome and Milan where he
heard Ambrose and was converted. He returned to North Africa and was appointed bishop
of Hippo. His most notable works include: 1) Confessions, which was his autobiography; 2)
On Christian Doctrine, which was a manual of hermeneutics; 3) On the Trinity, where he
sets forth this doctrine; 4) The City of God, which was the first philosophy in history; and 5)

2 2 The title “doctor” in the ICR is awarded by the pope in honor of merit for scholarship, literary production, and
theological influence. Throughout its history, the ICR has recognized 36 doctors. For a complete list of them, visit
https://uscatholic.org/articles/200807/chronological-list-of-the- doctors-of-the-church/

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 Against Academics and Against Manicheans, polemical works. He emphasized original sin,
salvation by grace alone, and the sovereignty of God. In honor of his theological merit,
Augustine was the second person in history to be recognized by the ICR as a “Doctor of the
Church.”
The generation of theologians reveals to us the brilliant minds of great thinkers and writers
whose influence is still felt today. But not everything in this period was positive for the
church. This period was marred by the emergence of some of the most dangerous heresies
in the history of the Church. We will talk about this in the next chapter.
Chapter 9. Main problems of the Church in the period of survival

In 377, Epiphanius of Salamis wrote a treatise listing 80 well-identified heresies in the early
church. Some of them were external attacks on the church; others were movements that arose
from within. Below are the nine main attacks against the Christian faith, the first four were
internal attacks, and the last five were external attacks.
Four heresies internal to Christianity.

1. Marcionism. Marcion gave rise to this movement in Pontus, Asia Minor in the year 140. He
separated Christianity from all its Jewish ties. He said that the true God was opposed by an
inferior being called the demiurge, and that the Jews named him Jehovah. Because the
entire AT It was the revelation of Jehovah, he discontinued it as truth, as well as the books
of the NT with strong OT theology or vocabulary He claimed that the Gospel of Luke and ten
letters of Paul were the only inspired Scriptures (omitting direct quotes from the OT). in
them). He denied the Genesis creation account, saying that material things and the body are
essentially evil. According to him, Jesus was never incarnated, and the resurrection is a
myth. The movement was declared heresy and Marcion was excommunicated in 144.
Tertullian wrote that Marcion repented of his mistakes before he died.
2. Mountaineering. Movement started by the recently converted pagan ex-priest named
Montanus in Phrygia around the year 160 who prophesied that a new era of the church, the
“Age of the Spirit,” would begin with him. Abandoning their husbands, two women named
Prisca and Maximila join as leaders of the movement. They claimed to have mystical and
prophetic experiences announcing the imminent end of the world, calling their followers to
gather and await the descent of the New Jerusalem. His followers practiced rigorous
asceticism, ecstasies and visions, and the search for martyrdom. Prisca said that Christ was
a woman, and claimed to be “the word, spirit and power of God” and Montano claimed “I am
the Father, the Word and the Holy Spirit” when he was in a trance. For them, baptized
Christians who denied their faith in order to escape martyrdom lost their salvation, and even
if they repented later, there was no forgiveness for them. In 179, Maximilla died and the end
of the world that she prophesied never came. Despite this, the movement endured and
managed to attract Tertullian.
3. Novatianism. Movement started in 251 in Phrygia by Novatian that denied forgiveness to

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 baptized Christians who had renounced their faith under pressure during the persecution of
the Emperor Decius, and opposed the hegemony of the Bishop of Rome over other
churches (antipope). It was condemned as heresy the same year and despite this, it spread
widely, but with the passage of time, like Montanism, it died out.
4. Donatism. Movement initiated in 313 by Donatus, bishop of Carthage (now Algeria), who
insisted that any minister suspected of having denied his faith during the persecution of the
Emperor Diocletian in order to avoid martyrdom would not be reinstated or granted the
privilege of officiating at the sacraments. It was sanctioned as heresy in 314 and persecuted.
Despite this, it survived until the arrival of Islam.
Five movements external to Christianity.

1. Ebionism. Ebionism (from the Hebrew evyonim, poor) was a Jewish-legalist sect originating
in Palestine, which isolated itself from the church after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70
AD, settling east of the Jordan and keeping the Sabbath until 135 AD. They emphasized the
unity of God (denying the Trinity), denied Christ's pre-existence, his virgin birth, his vicarious
death, and his deity. They insisted on keeping the law of Moses, only accepting the
inspiration of the strongly Jewish writings of the NT, rejecting all of Paul's. For them, Jesus
was the seventh reincarnation of Adam whose mission was to bring humanity to the
knowledge of the law as the only means of salvation.
2. Gnosticism. Gnosticism was a group of religious-philosophical ideas that reached its
maximum popularity between the 2nd and 3rd centuries, managing to infiltrate the church.
He replaced biblical revelation with esoteric and philosophical knowledge. Its adherents
called this knowledge gnosis. Gnosticism taught dualism between the material (which for
them was evil) and the spiritual (which was the only good thing). The goal of man according
to them was to acquire gnosis and thus be liberated (saved) from material bondage. That
movement had initiation rites and several levels. They said that God had emanations. The
lowest of all of them was responsible for the creation of the material world. They called this
emanation Demiurge, and claimed that it was the Jewish God “Jehovah.” Some Gnostics
said that Jesus had been only a spirit with a material appearance (Docetism); other Gnostics
proposed that Jesus had been a simple man whom God had adopted as Son from his
baptism until before his crucifixion (Adoptionism). According to them, Jesus' mission was to
transmit to the human spirit the path to knowledge (gnosis). Gnostic dualism led to two
attitudes among its followers regarding the treatment of the body: 1) those who thought that
it had to be punished and deprived of all pleasure; and 2) those who thought that one had to
free oneself by indulging all one's sexual desires and avoiding procreation. Paul combated
incipient Gnosticism in the letter of
Colossians, and John in his first letter attacked it already at its peak. Irenaeus of Lyons
succeeded in having Gnosticism declared a heresy in Christianity in 180 AD.
3. Manichaeism. Mani was a Persian philosopher who lived between 215-276 AD. He also
proposed dualism (the eternal conflict between good and evil, light and darkness). They said

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 that the human body was from the devil and his spirit from God. They claimed that through
asceticism, the spirit was freed from the prison of the body. Their goal was successive
reincarnation until they were freed from matter. For them Jesus was a simple teacher inferior
to Mani. Augustine of Hippo before becoming a Christian was a Manichean for 10 years. The
Manicheans were divided into two groups, the chosen ones who were vegetarians and
abstained from alcohol, and the listeners.
4. Monarchianism. Heretical doctrine that emphasized the oneness of God as Monarch (hence
its name). They were staunch opponents of the dogma of the Trinity. They were divided into
two groups: 1) dynamic monarchianism or adoptionism (Paul of Samosata was a main
promoter). Similar to what certain Gnostics argued, this group insisted that Jesus was a
mere man who was possessed by the eternal Logos to be adopted by God as His own from
his baptism until before his crucifixion. 2) Modalistic monarchianism, Sabellianism or
patripassionism (taught by Sabellius and promoted by Noetus). According to this group, the
eternal God has manifested himself in three different ways (hence its name) throughout
history: as Father in the time of the Old Testament, as Son in the days of Jesus' public
ministry, and as the Spirit since Pentecost. Since the Father was the same one who suffered
on the cross, they were nicknamed “Patripasionists.”
5. Neoplatonism. Philosophical movement that sought to reinterpret Plato's thought.
Neoplatonism identified the One or supreme reality with the God of Christianity. According to
them, the first great emanation of God was the Logos. The founder of this movement was
Ammonius Sacas (174-242), teacher of Origen. The greatest disseminators of Neoplatonism
were Plotinus (205-270) and Porphyry (233-304).
After having listed the main attacks on the Church during the period of its survival, we will end
this period by summarizing in the next chapter the state of the Church at the end of the third
century.
Chapter 10. Description of the Christian Church at the End of the Third Century

The turbulent changes during the second and third centuries left the church with a different face
than it had at the end of the first century. The effects of these changes were reflected in its
organization, doctrine, and practice, as well as in the recognition of the New Testament Canon
as we know it today.
1. Your organization
a. In every church there is a ruling bishop, in contrast to the first century church where
there were several bishops in the same church sharing the same authority. This
change was due to two reasons: 1) the bishop was considered the link between the
churches, and 2) the bishop was the one who watched over and determined the
sound doctrine of the church.
b. The idea of apostolic succession is already in place. Most accepted the idea that a
bishop's authority came directly from the apostles, and in particular from Peter.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 c. By the year 313 the bishop of the church in Rome already had special respect among
the other bishops of the empire. This happened because Rome was for a long time
the imperial capital and because the apostle Paul and possibly Peter were also in
that church.
2. His doctrine
a. Expressed in established, accepted and publicly used creeds. There was little
doctrinal controversy thanks to the unified teaching.
b. The oldest apostolic creed (340 AD) was the baptismal creed, so called because it
contained the doctrine of the apostles. All the creeds of that time were Trinitarian.
3. His practice
a. During this period, the division between the clergy and the laity arose, unlike in the
first century.
b. The only ordinances were baptism and the Lord's Supper, but these were
administered only by ordained (recognized) bishops. Baptism by immersion was
granted after a period of probation to new converts, and the practice of infant baptism
also began.
c. The celebration of Lent and Christmas was added, for the West on December 25 and
for the East on January 3.
4. The Canon of the New Testament
a. The Canon is the list of divinely inspired books. The reasons for the identification of
the Canon were several: persecution, heresies, the lack of apostles, and the
insufficiency of oral tradition were some of the main ones.
b. Important dates in the development of the Canon. By the year 175 AD Most of the
twenty-seven books of the New Testament were already accepted or better
recognized. In 395-397 the Council of Carthage determined the Biblical Canon as we
have it today.
c. The books that were difficult to accept into the Canon were: James, Hebrews, 2
Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation.
d. Tests used to recognize (not form) the canonicity of a New Testament writing.
i. Its author: Was he an apostle or someone supervised by an apostle?
ii. Language: Was it originally written in Greek?
iii. Content: Does it claim and reflect being inspired by God?
iv. Consensus: Is it received as an authoritative writing by the universal church?
v. Can. Does writing change lives through its message?

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
Thus we have finished briefly studying the second of the three periods of the Ancient Church. In
the next class we will begin to study the third period of the Ancient Church, which is the period of
the supremacy of the church that extends from the fourth to the sixth century.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 Period of Church Supremacy (313-590)
The period of Church Supremacy spans the third to sixth centuries. At this stage the church
went from being persecuted to being official. A combination of historical, political and religious
circumstances provided the fertile ground in which the universal leadership of the Church of
Rome over Western Christianity germinated, giving rise to the papacy. All of this will be
addressed in the next chapters of this series. Chapter eleven will be devoted entirely to the
Emperor Constantine and his influence on the early church. Chapter twelve will serve to present
the main theological controversies of this turbulent period. Chapter thirteen deals with explaining
the emergence of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the clerical hierarchy,
especially the papacy. In chapter fourteen we will make some final observations regarding the
state of the church at the end of the fourth century. The final chapter, the fifteenth, will be a
conclusion to the summary study of the History of the Ancient Church.

Chapter 11. The Emperor Constantine

Constantine played a decisive role in the changes that the church experienced after the survival
period. That is why in this chapter we will focus on learning a little about his life, the results of his
actions in favor of Christianity, and the reactions generated after his death and its effects on the
life of the church.
Life of Constantine

Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantine, remembered as Constantine the Great, was born in a city
called Nis, in present-day Serbia. He came to power of the western part of the Roman Empire in
305 while the rest of the empire was dominated by Magentius, Licinius and Maximinus.
Constantine finally prevailed over them, reuniting the empire in 326, and moved the capital from
Rome to Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople, a city that was called the queen of cities for
over a thousand years. A legend says that during his fight against Licinius at the Milvian Bridge
(28 Oct. In the year 312, Constantine had a vision of a cross in the sky while he heard a voice
telling him, “In this sign you will conquer.” He ordered a banner to be raised with that symbol as
a sign of battle, and after obtaining victory, he assumed that it was a sign of protection from the
Christian God, to whom he felt indebted from then on. Although Eusebius of Caesarea wrote
that Constantine was a Christian from that day on, the truth is that throughout his life he was
only a sympathetic benefactor of Christianity. It was not until 337, shortly before his death, that
he was baptized into the Christian faith. Constantine is currently considered a saint by the
Orthodox churches and is venerated every May 21.

Results of Constantine's actions in religious matters.

Constantine played an important role in the history of early Christianity for several reasons,

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
some favorable and some unfavorable.
Favorable actions for Christianity.
1. The persecution ended. He promulgated the Edict of Milan in 313, ending the persecutions
and returning the property expropriated from the Christians.
2. He abolished paganism. In 319 he prohibited pagan worship and the construction of idol
statues and in 326 he ordered the destruction of those that remained and the confiscation of
the property of pagan temples.
3. He privileged Christianity. Although he did not make Christianity the official religion of the empire
(Theodosius did so in 380), he did grant powers and donations to the church for the construction of
large temples and to combat heresies with the help of the state, and he preferred Christian
collaborators in his government.

4. He established Christian holidays. On March 7, 321, he made Sunday an official day of rest
throughout the empire, and supported the decision of the Council of Nicaea in 325 to celebrate the
passion, death, and resurrection of Christ throughout the empire on the weekend following the full
moon following the spring equinox, and replaced crucifixion with hanging as the capital
punishment for Christian reasons.
Actions unfavorable to Christianity.
Constantine is not only credited with favoring Christianity after centuries of public hostility. His
measures also had negative impacts.
1. Secularization of the church. Constantine's measures accelerated syncretism3 and
nominalism4 within the Christian church.
2. Mariology. A specific example of syncretism was the worship of Mary, as a Christian
expression of pagan cults of mother goddesses that were adapted within Christianity.
3. Veneration of images. With state funding, statues were made in honor of Christian apostles,
heroes and martyrs, which ended in Christianized idolatry.
4. Consolidation of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The governmental model strengthened the
hierarchy within the church, making the separation between clergy and laity irreversible.
5. Imposition of Christianity. The church quickly went from being persecuted to being the
persecutor. Many pagans were victims of persecution, plundering and martyrdom.
6. Asceticism. The increasing secularization of the Church provoked an extreme reaction to the
ascetic ideal, according to which it was assumed that withdrawing from the world and
depriving oneself of all pleasures was the only way to purify the soul and please God.

Reactions to Constantine's measures after his death

After Constantine's death in 337, rule of the empire was divided among his three sons,
3 Mixture of pagan customs with Christian customs.
4 Being a Christian in name but not in conviction.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans. After several political and military conflicts,
Constantius II became the sole head of the empire in 353. He was an avowed Christian,
although semi-Arian,5 who prohibited offering sacrifices to idols, consulting fortune tellers and
magicians, and ordered many pagan temples to be closed. He also freed Christian ministers and
their families from military service, paying taxes, and being tried in secular courts.
Upon his death, Constantius II was succeeded as emperor by his cousin Julian, who had been
raised a Christian, but upon coming to power, he publicly renounced Christianity, embraced
paganism, and declared freedom of worship in the empire. This earned him the nickname “The
Apostate.” He financed the reorganization of paganism in every major city, and granted the
return to their cities to all those exiled for heresy. He died in 373 before achieving his plan to
overthrow Christianity.
After Julian's death, conditions favorable to Christianity and hostile to paganism returned with
the Emperor Jovian (363-364), and the following co-regent emperors of the West and East:
Valentinian (364-375) and Valens (364-378); Gratian (375-383) and Valentinian II (378-392);
and Magnus Maximus (383-388) and Theodotius (392-395). It was the latter, with the powers
conferred by Gratian, who instituted Christianity as the official religion of the empire on February
27, 380, definitively prohibiting all pagan worship.
(ELBI)
P5 SCHOOL "

While political events led by Constantine affected the Church from without, a series of doctrinal
issues generated turbulence within it. We will deal with them in the next chapter.

5 Arianism held that there is only one eternal God. The Son was God's first creation, which made him the Father.
Semi-Arianism, taking up what Origen had taught, held that the Son was eternal, uncreated, a divine and glorious
person, but was not God in the same sense as the Father, and that the Holy Spirit, although also God, was so in a
lesser sense than the Son.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
Chapter 12. Major Theological Controversies of the Period of the Supremacy of the Early
Church

As I noted earlier, once the persecutions ceased, the church had time to engage in deeper
theological reflection and to confront the heresies of its day. Great Christian thinkers dedicated
themselves to the definition, discussion and defense of the great doctrines of the faith. They met
at state-funded councils in order to preserve the unity of the church and consequently social
stability. At the councils various heresies were denounced, different dogmas were discussed,
and they arrived at unanimous criteria regarding the orthodox faith. As a result, the church
formulated creeds that served to spread sound doctrine rapidly among the growing Christian
population. The main controversies discussed during that period were Arianism, the
Pneumatomatic controversy, Priscillianism, Apollinarianism, Nestorianism, Eutychism and
Pelagianism.
1. Arianism: denial of the deity of Christ.

a. The origin of Arianism. Early in the history of the church arose a heresy that denied the
equality of the Son and the Holy Spirit with the Father in substance and eternity. It is not
known when or how the heresy arose, although some think that the person responsible
could have been Paul of Samosata or his disciple, Lucian of Antioch. What we do know
for sure is who popularized it: Arius.
b. Arius, its main promoter. Arius was born in Libya in 250, and converted to Christianity in
Antioch under the leadership of Lucian, where he quickly distinguished himself as an
avid student. Years later, he moved to Alexandria where he was appointed presbyter
over one of the districts of the church. There he became known for his radical
convictions, his pure morals, his good manners, his ascetic conduct, his keen
intelligence, and above all, for his teachings against the Trinity.
c. The essence of heresy. In essence, Arius taught that the eternal God is one. The Son,
as the firstborn, had to have a beginning, and consequently, he had to have been
created, and he could not be eternal, nor equal to the Father in power or knowledge.
According to Arius, God became the Father only when he created the Son. The Son,
although he is God, Arius affirmed, is not equal to the Father, but only to the extent of the
power that the Father conferred upon him. The Son by nature could not be immutable,
nor perfectly know the Father.
d. The beginning and development of the controversy. Socrates of Constantinople was the
first to report this heresy in writing as “Arianism.” By the time the Bishop of Alexandria,
Alexander, took action, exiling Arius from the city, his teaching had already spread and
become popular in various parts of the empire, counting among his followers Eusebius of
Nicomedia, who at that time was the Bishop of Constantinople, the capital of the empire.
Eusebius, thanks to his political power, became the protector of Arius, but as the
controversy became more acute, the emperor ordered it to be resolved by calling a

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 council of bishops from all over the empire in the city of Nicaea in the year 325.
Hundreds of them gathered there, as well as Arius, Alexander and one of their deacons,
Athanasius, who became the greatest enemy of Arianism. For over two months using
logic and Scripture Arius and his followers debated Alexander and Athanasius, but in the
end Arius and his heresy were condemned. The Church affirmed the truth that the Son is
equal to the Father in eternity and divine substance and expressed it in the form of a
Creed.
e. Aftereffects of the Council of Nicaea. After the council, Arius was exiled and his
teachings condemned. However, two years later Alexander died and Arius's defenders
convinced the emperor to allow him to return, which gave rise to his heresy gaining
strength again. Arius died in 336 in Constantinople under strange circumstances. Some
said it was divine punishment for his heresies, and his defenders said he was poisoned.
The truth is that after his death five emperors were Arians, which prolonged the duration
of the heresy. It was not until 381 at the Council of Constantinople that the Nicene Creed
and the condemnation of Arianism were reaffirmed. But their presence lasted until the
8th century in different parts of the empire.6
2. The Pneumatomachus: the denial of the deity of the Holy Spirit.

Macedonian of Constantinople (?-362) took advantage of the Arian controversy to affirm that
Christ was God but not the Holy Spirit. According to him, the Holy Spirit was a creation of the
Son, and therefore inferior to Him. Those who followed their theology, who were not many,
were called Macedonians or Pneumatomachians (enemies of the Spirit) and were punished
as heretics at the Council of Constantinople in 381 along with the Arians.
3. Priscillianism: the idealization of the ascetic life.

a. The originator. Priscillian of Ávila (Spain) lived from 340 to 385. Before his conversion he
practiced Gnosticism, astronomy, Manichaeism, and magic. Little is known about the
details of his conversion, but we do know that he became a preacher of a rigorist
Christianity that gained popularity because it granted recognition to women within the
church, advocated the abolition of slavery, rejected the union between the state and the
church, and denounced corruption and illicit enrichment within the church, insisted on
abandoning opulence and wealth, and the consumption of alcohol, recommended
celibacy (although he was married), and promoted dance within the church worship.
b. His teachings. Priscillianism, in addition to its revolutionary ideas, adopted a mixture of
several heresies, such as 1) the approval of some apocrypha within the canon, 2) the
denial of the trinity and defense of Sabellian modalism, 3) denial of the incarnation of
Christ (Docetism), 4) celebrating the Lord's Supper with milk instead of wine and grapes
instead of bread, 4) insistence that all spirits, angelic and human, share the same

6 It is known that during the Reformation a sect in Poland confessed to being Arian, and in 2006 the existence of the
Sacred and Apostolic Church of Arian Catholicism was published. The group that currently shows the most similarity
to the ancient Arian heresy is the Jehovah's Witnesses.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 substance of God, and 5) a developed extrabiblical-gnostic demonology.
c. His sentence. Priscillian and his followers were condemned at the regional synod of
Caesaraugusta (present-day Zaragoza, Spain) in 380. Not content, Priscillian traveled to
Rome with the intention of defending his beliefs before Damasus and other prominent
bishops but was not received, but instead sanctioned by Ambrose of Milan. On the
contrary, the Councils of Bordeaux and Trier accused him of witchcraft and as a result
the Emperor Theodosius ordered his torture and execution. Priscillian was beheaded
(385) with his followers and the others were banished and their property confiscated. He
was the first heretic to be executed by the Roman state. The brutal treatment they
received was a scandal denounced by men such as Ambrose of Milan, John
Chrysostom, Jerome and Martin of Tours. Despite this, the doctrine persisted, but its
condemnation was reaffirmed at the Council of Toledo in the year 400.
4. Apollinarianism: denial of the humanity of Christ.

Apollinaris of Laodicea (310-390) was a friend of Athanasius and joined in the fight against
Arianism. But by defending the deity of Christ, Apollinaris went to the opposite extreme of
denying the humanity of Christ. He claimed that the eternal Word took on human flesh, but
not complete humanity, that is, the divine Logos replaced the human soul within the physical
body of Jesus. The implication of this is that Jesus' sacrifice would not have been effective
for sinners, for He did not fully assume their place. This earned him condemnation as a
heretic at the Council of Constantinople in 381, and his exile in 388 by order of the Emperor
Theodosius.
5. Nestorianism: denial that Christ had a single personality.

Nestorius (386-451) was born in Alexandria where he became bishop. He said that Jesus
was a man in whom the divine Christ came to dwell, so that in Jesus Christ lived two
persons, one divine and the other human, who agreed to function as one. As a result of this,
Nestorius and his followers claimed that Mary was only the mother of the (human) Jesus,
while his opponents said that Mary was the mother of God. The controversy was not about
Mary but about the nature of Christ. Nestorius was condemned as a heretic at the Council of
Ephesus in 431 and exiled, but his followers went on to establish a church that survives to
this day in parts of Iran, Iraq, India, China, and Russia.
6. Eutychism or Monophysitism: denial of the two natures of Christ.

Eutyches (378-455) was the founder of Eutychism or Monophysitism which affirmed that the
two natures of Christ were merged into one that was neither divine nor human. Eutyches
was declared a heretic at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. This condemnation gave rise to
the Coptic Church, which we will discuss later.
7. Pelagianism: denial of salvation by grace alone.

The Pelagian controversy was the only one that took place in the Western Church. The first
sprouts of this discussion arise between Augustine and Pelagius. Augustine has already

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 been discussed before, let us consider Pelagius and the different opinions between the two.
a. The originator. Pelagius (IV-V) was an Irish monk who moved to England and then to
Rome in the late 4th century where he gained renown for his discipline and for his
commentaries on Pauline writings. In 405 he read Augustine's Confessions and was
shocked by his anthropology, and began to refute him. Its greatest spokesman was
Celestius, but his teaching was finally condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431.
b. The points of controversy between Augustine and Pelagius were the following.

i. As for man, Augustine said that he is a sinner from birth, while Pelagius said that
man is born good, and becomes a sinner when he sins.
ii. Regarding the fall, Augustine said that it affected everyone, and Pelagius said that
the fall affected only Adam.
iii. Regarding sin, Augustine said that it is a nature in man, but Pelagius said that it is
an act of the will.
iv. Regarding freedom, Augustine said that man is a slave to sin and needs to be freed,
while Pelagius affirmed that man is free to choose good and evil.
v. As for grace, Augustine said that it is completely necessary and irresistible, but
Pelagius said that it was not indispensable.
vi. As for election, Augustine said that if it exists, it is eternal, sovereign and
unconditional. Pelagius, for his part, denied the existence of sovereign choice
because it would imply that there is no human freedom.
The great controversies came hand in hand with a growing hierarchical structuring within the
church, which ended up consolidating the papacy that we now know. The details of this will be
addressed in the next chapter.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
Chapter 13. Emergence of the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the
Coptic Church, and their Hierarchies.

Christianity was born in the Middle East, and gradually gained ground throughout the Roman
Empire, whose headquarters were in the West. Eventually there was a differentiation between
both sectors of the church, and finally the balance tipped towards the West due to several
factors. The peak of the rise of the Western Church is linked to papal power. In this chapter we
will understand where the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church come
from, as well as their hierarchies.
Where do the Roman Catholic Church (RCC), the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Coptic Church
come from?

The Christian church of the Roman Empire would end up divided into several branches, the
Eastern, the Western and the Coptic, each of them led by a single man. This was the result of
several factors. These are three of the main ones.
1. Some early ideas of the church fathers. Irenaeus, in his work “Against Heresies” (180),
stated that Clement of Rome was the successor of the apostles Peter and Paul. Clement of
Rome knew Paul personally and wrote a letter to the Corinthians that already revealed his
influence beyond the boundaries of his region. Stephen I (254-257) was the 23rd bishop of
Rome, and the first to assert that the Church of Rome had authority over the other Christian
churches both in a moral sense and in legal authority. Cyprian of Carthage (250), a disciple
of Tertullian, was the first to expound some of the key doctrines of Roman Catholicism, such
as that there is no salvation outside the Church, and that he who does not have the Church
as his mother cannot have God as his Father.
2. The transfer of the capital of the empire from Rome to Byzantium. The political division of the
empire into eastern and western regions laid the groundwork for the polarization of the
church in both regions. When Constantine rose to power, he granted property and favors to
the bishop of Rome. Upon being crowned emperor, he moved the capital of the empire from
Rome to Byzantium, and there he granted special favors to the bishop of the new capital. As
a result, both bishops, the one in Rome and the one in Constantinople, demanded respect
from the others, and tension began to build between them.
3. Administrative reasons. As the number of Christian churches grew throughout the empire,
the need arose for more complex organization and more defined lines of authority.
4. The Monophysite controversy. Christianity in Egypt and the countries south of it accepted the
doctrine of Eutyches, who affirmed that Christ had only one nature, the divine one deposited
in the human body of Jesus. When this was condemned at the Council of Chalcedon, the
Church in Egypt and its environs separated from the Eastern and Western churches, giving
rise to what was called the Coptic Church.7 That church uses the complete Septuagint
Canon for the OT (with all its apocryphal additions), celebrates the birth of Christ on January

7 The word Coptic is an abbreviation of “Egyptian” in Arabic phonology.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 7, uses its own calendar (which begins on August 29, and has only three seasons a year),
has its own leader and its own traditions. That church continues to operate to this day in the
countries of Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan with over 65 million followers and in its
cathedral in Axum (Ethiopia) they claim to guard the original ark of the covenant built by
Moses, and the tomb of Balthazar, who, according to an early tradition, was one of the kings
who visited the Lord Jesus as a child.
How did the hierarchy arise within the Christian church?

Before the year 100, churches were governed by a plurality of leaders, but gradually they came
to be led by a single leader (the bishop) and then archbishops, cardinals, popes and patriarchs
emerged. How do they differ from each other?
1. The bishop. Ignatius of Antioch in his letter to the Ephesians 4:1 written before the year 110
already mentions that the churches were led by a single bishop or presbyter. With the
cessation of persecution during the time of Constantine, the churches and their bishops
were organized into zones. Each area was called a diocese. The bishop of each diocese
appointed priests and deacons to help him care for the local churches.
2. The archbishop. Athanasius of Alexandria was the first to use the title of archbishop to refer
to the bishop of a prestigious and influential diocese. The archbishop's territory was called
an archdiocese.8
3. The Pope. Papa means “father.” It was initially used to designate any archbishop. Finally, it was used
in the West to describe the “head of the universal church,” the bishop of Rome.
4. The patriarch. Term synonymous with “Pope” (universal head of the church) applied since
the 5th century to the bishop of Constantinople as head of the Eastern Church, and to the
bishop of Alexandria as head of the Coptic Church.
5. The cardinal. At the beginning of the 6th century, the Bishop of Rome, due to the size of his
diocese, established and appointed the first cardinals, who were men appointed to help him
in his pastoral tasks.9 The group of cardinals was called a consistory. Eventually, the
cardinals became the group responsible for electing new popes by vote.10

8 Currently, September 25, 2020, the ICR has 5,377 bishops in the world.
https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican/news/2020-03/the-number-of-catholics-in-the-world-is-growing-to-1.3-billion-in-
2020.html
9 Cardinal meant “hinge.” That term was used to illustrate the primary purpose of that office, which was to serve as a
“hinge” between the different areas of ministry of the church. Some Catholics say that Evaristus, the fifth bishop of
Rome (97-105) was the one who instituted the college of cardinals, but what he actually instituted was a group of "lay"
elders who would help him care for the flock, who are called presbyters or parish priests.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/cardinal-Roman-Catholicism
10 The group of cardinals was called a consistory. At first a layman could be named cardinal, but now only bishops
can be. Bishops in the consistory who are 80 years old or older are non-electors, meaning they cannot vote to elect a
new pope. The group of cardinal electors who meet to vote for the new pope is called a conclave. There are currently
219 cardinals, 121 electors and 98 non-electors.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
Why did the Christian church in Rome gain a more important place than the Christian church in
the East?

We can mention eight factors that contributed to the Church in Rome gaining preeminence over
the other Christian churches of the ancient world.
1. The ICR had an apostolic background. According to tradition, the church in Rome could
trace its history back to at least two apostles, Peter and Paul. According to the ICR, Peter
founded the church in Rome and was its first pope. According to them, Christ gave Peter the
keys to his kingdom, thus establishing the beginning of apostolic succession, whereas the
church of Constantinople had been founded by an emperor.
2. The Bishop of Rome in the West never had competition. No other place, after the destruction
of Jerusalem in 70 AD, could have claimed to be the center of world Christianity. In the East,
several churches had prominence due to their apostolic connections: Alexandria, Antioch
and Ephesus, but none claimed primacy, and Constantinople, which did claim it, had no
apostolic connections.
3. The bishop of Rome eventually came to have more power than the emperor. Gradually, the
bishop of Rome came to have more power than the emperor himself. He became one of the
most respected and influential men in the western part of the empire. Instead, many of the
eastern bishops became puppets of the emperor.
4. The ICR was more orthodox in matters of doctrine than the Church in the East. The Church
of Rome retained the orthodox view in many of the theological controversies, many of which
had arisen in the East. So the mentality was created that the Church of Rome was always
right. The question that Christendom began to ask itself in any doctrinal dispute was, “What
do they teach in Rome?” What is the opinion of the Bishop of Rome on this matter?
5. Many bishops of Rome stood out for their leadership and administrative skills. Many of the
bishops of Rome were able to assert themselves. They took the initiative to do things that
were necessary for the good of the church and for the good of the city of Rome. And when
the city of Rome fell to the barbarians, the bishop of Rome achieved what no Roman soldier
was able to do: negotiate a treaty so that the city would not be totally looted and destroyed.
No bishop in the East ever became so strong.
6. The Church of Rome was distinguished in the first centuries by its charitable works. The city
of Rome came to, and then depended on, the church and the bishop for its subsistence and
provision in times of crisis. In times of pandemic, the Church was the only one that showed
mercy and love for those sick with the plague. The sacrificial and generous spirit of the
Church of Rome was known beyond its borders.
7. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Bishop of Rome became one of the main
leaders of the Western world. In 496, through the influence of his wife, Clovis converted to
Christianity. He was a Frank who had great victories in Europe and who ended up giving all
his military support to the Bishop of Rome. From him to the last of his dynasty,

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 Charlemagne, the bishop of Rome was a leader of incomparable respect.
8. The Latin language prevailed over Greek from the 4th century onwards.

First bishops to demand papal recognition

1. Damasus (366-384): He claimed that the bishop of Rome was superior. He commissioned
Jerome to write the Latin Vulgate.
2. Siricius (384-399): He had influence on the churches of Spain. He was the first to use the
word “pope” in its current sense, that is, as head of the church.
3. Innocent I (401-417): The bishop who was able to contain some of the damage that Alaric,
king of the Visigoths, inflicted on Rome during his fall, invasion and sack in 410.
4. Leo I (440-461): He faced Attila the Hun and saved Rome from massive destruction. He
wrote a Christologically orthodox letter for the First Council of Chalcedon. In 455,
Gensenric's plundering of Rome was reduced, saving its literary treasures and saving it from
being burned. He was the first to formally function as “pope” in the sense we know today.
5. Gelasius (492-496): He postulated that the ecclesiastical power of the bishop is superior to
the political power of the emperor.
6. Gregory I (590-604): We will study him in detail later.
7. Gregory XI (1370-1378): He was the one who finally limited the use of the title “pope” to
bishop of Rome.11
Chapter 14. Final Observations on the Period of the Supremacy of the Early Church.

To finish studying the main characters and events of the Ancient Church, we will recount the
main ecumenical councils of that period, the missionary progress of its last three centuries, and
some additional observations.
Summary of the Ecumenical Councils of the Ancient Church

1. First Council of Nicaea (325): Formulated the Nicene Creed and rejected Arianism in support
of the doctrine of the Trinity. Note: The Council of Tyre (335) was a reaction against the
decision made at Nicaea in favor of Arianism, but historically it is not considered one of the
great ecumenical councils.
2. First Council of Constantinople (381): Confirmed the Nicene Creed, condemned Arianism,
Apollinarianism, and the Macedonians who denied the deity of the Holy Spirit.
3. Council of Ephesus (431): Condemned Nestorianism, which claimed that Mary was only the
mother of Jesus' human nature, implicitly minimizing his divine nature. Pelagianism was

11 The CRC now insists that the Bishop of Rome is the “Supreme Pontiff” because he alone enjoys the authority that
Christ conferred on Peter, and which according to tradition, he in turn conferred on his successor Linus, and so on to
every subsequent Bishop of Rome until the present day.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 condemned.
4. First Council of Chalcedon (451): Condemned the Monophysitism of Eutyches which
affirmed that Christ had only one nature.
5. Second Council of Constantinople (553): Ratified the condemnation of Monophysitism which
was still widely accepted in Egypt among Coptic Christians.

Missionary progress during the last three centuries of the Ancient Church.

1. Ulfilas (311-388) was a convert to Arian Christianity and became bishop while in Nicomedia.
He went as a missionary to the tribes of the Ostrogoths (northern Italy) and the Visigoths
(southern France and northern Spain), converting many. He is credited with translating the
Bible into Gothic, which was the language of those people.
2. Patrick (389-461). Born in Britain into a Christian home. At the age of 16 he was captured
and taken as a slave to Ireland. Five years later he escaped and returned home where he
dedicated himself to deepening his Christian faith. After having a vision he decided to return
to Ireland to preach the gospel, which he did successfully. He managed to establish several
churches and local leadership.
3. Columba (521-597). He was born in Ireland and became a Christian at an unknown date. He
became a priest and in 563 he traveled to Scotland to preach Christ.
He was allowed to settle on the island of Iona where he founded a monastery that became a
missionary center to reach the Scottish Pictish tribes. He wrote at least 300 books and is
remembered as a heroic evangelist, and is credited with performing exploits in the name of
God among pagans.
4. Columbanus (540-615). Born in Ireland, Columbanus was an active missionary, founding
many monasteries in France, Switzerland and Italy, and zealously evangelizing the Franks.

Final remarks

1. Church buildings. When Christianity was legalized, it began to acquire land, obtain wealth,
and build temples and cathedrals. Sometimes their buildings were intentionally built on sites
that had previously been pagan sanctuaries (syncretism).
2. A new calendar. Dionysius Exiguus (460-544) was a monk and mathematical scholar born in
the region of present-day Romania. He designed a new dating system that was more
accurate than the previous one (Julian calendar), to date the date of the birth and death of
the Lord Jesus Christ. It was later discovered to have failed within a few years.
Nevertheless, his work served as the basis for the modern Gregorian calendar for dating
events.
3. Progress of Christianity towards the end of this stage. As the year 600 AD approaches 24%

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
 of the world's population was already Christian. Of them, 59% had dark skin and 41% had
white skin. The Bible had been translated into 14 languages and more than 2,700,000
Christians had died as martyrs.12
Chapter 15. Conclusion

In this course we have learned how the church expanded during the first six centuries of its
history. Far from extinguishing it, persecutions purified and multiplied it. “Christian blood,
Christian seed” became a popular slogan at the end of the third century. The most horrible
torments were applied to the followers of the Nazarene but none managed to stifle their faith. On
the contrary, external pressure caused giants of faith to rise up with the banner of truth held
high. The changes that occurred from the fourth century onwards were the opposite of the
previous ones. The Church gradually but rapidly gained status, influence and power in the
Roman Empire. They were times of reflection, theological formulation, councils and heroic acts.
Philosophy walked hand in hand with theology, and the weight of the church shifted from East to
West.
At the end of this era, as a result of the collapse of accumulated circumstances and ideas, what
is to this day the most popular Christian version of history was born, which we call Roman
Catholicism. Biblical Christianity was submerged in the ocean of a Christianity mixed of truth
with paganism, of piety with power. The pendulum swung from the desert to the capitals, from
monasteries to palaces, from emperors to bishops, and from the Bible to tradition.
Everything was ready to enter the longest and darkest period in the history of Christianity, the
Middle Ages, which will be the subject of our next study.
Let us end here by remembering the words of our Lord Jesus Christ in Matthew 16:18b
“…I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it.”

Next course: Summary of Medieval Church History

12 Barrett, David B., ed. World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Survey of Churches and Religions in the
Modern World, AD 1900–2000. Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1982.

Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano
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Summary of the History of the Ancient Church. Lessons from the past for present life and future hope. Luis Floriano