The Norman Invasion and the Medieval Period

This lesson focuses on the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 and discusses why this event is
considered to be such a significant occurrence in both the history of England and the history of the
English language. We shall see how this invasion of a French-speaking élite led to a rich and complex social and
political reality in England where several languages and cultures coexisted. We shall also see how this new reality
gradually led to the creation of political and administrative institutions which ended up as the foundations of a
modern state.
 Introduction
The Norman Conquest of England in the eleventh century is a landmark event both in the history of
England and that of the English language. It was an occupation of England by the Norman, French and
Breton soldiers led by Duke William II of Normandy, later refered to as William the Conqueror.
William’s hope to ascend the English throne was largely motivated by his relationship with the childless
Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor. However, after his death, the throne was succeeded by
Harold Godwinson, the brother-in-law of Edward. In September 1066 northern England was invaded
by the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada who emerged victorious at the Battle of Fulford. But he was
defeated and killed by Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. After this,
William came to southern England where Harold went to confront him at the Battle of Hastings in
October. Incidentally Harold was killed and William emerged victorious.

Measures Adopted to Gain Control:

Even after the victory William had to face several revolts and rebellions over quite a long time and his
position in the English throne was not secure till 1072. In comparison to the English population, the
Normans were significantly less in number (number of Norman settlers estimated to be nearly eight
thousand). William then possessed de facto control over the land and could dispose of it when he thought
suitable. His followers received titles and lands as a reward for their service in the invasion.
Thus the Norman lords could hold lands in feudal tenure from the king in piecemeal fashion, but not
in any particularly single geographical location. In order to assign lands to the Norman lords, William
took the measure of confiscating the estates of English lords who had fought along with Harold. For the
sake of security of the Normans, castles and fortifications were constructed in huge numbers.
One significant point worth mentioning in this context is that William was an absentee ruler from 1072
till the Capetian Conquest of Normany in 1204. William set up royal administrative structures to rule
England from a distance because he had to be personally present in Normandy to protect it from foreign
attacks.

This is why the Domesday Book plays such an important role: it was the first time that data were
gathered on a massive scale about the country that the new dynasty had to rule. This is a fundamental step
for the construction of the complex administrative structures required for the establishment of proper
political institutions
the feudal system land was held directly or indirectly from the king who stood at the top. He granted
lands to his tenants-in-chief below in return for loyalty and various services usually military, as supplying
the king with a number of men and arms for a period of time to raise an army. The tenants-in-chief
likewise granted lands to their sub-tenants and this process continued with the other lower classes.

Consequences and After-Effects:

i) Emigration of the English People:

The Conquest was followed by immediate emigration of English lords and nobles who fled the country
and escaped to Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia. Family members of Harold’s family sought refuge in
Ireland. The largest emigration occurred in around 1070 when a fleet of 235 ships went to the Byzantine
Empire carrying the Anglo-Saxons. Some of the English migrants who settled in Byzantine frontier
regions on the Black Sea coast established towns with names as New York and New London.

ii) Replacements of the Elites:

The Conquest also meant complete wiping away of the existing English aristocracy. It also meant the
loss of control of the English over the Catholic Church in England. The way in which English landowners
were dispossessed is systematically documented in Domesday Book which records that by 1086 only 5
percent of land in England south of the Tees remained with English hands. Even this negligible number
was gradually reduced in the decades to come. The English were also removed from important positions
like ecclesiastical and governmental portfolios. In fact after 1075 the English people were seldom
appointed as sheriffs while the honour of all earldoms was enjoyed by the Normans. The same scenario
prevailed in the church from where all the senior English office-holders were either thrown away from
their positions or replaced immediately by the Normans after their death.

iii) Changes Governmental Systems:

There is no denial of the fact that the Anglo-Saxon governmental systems were much more
sophisticated than that of the Normans prior to the arrival of the latter. The royal court was the centre of
the government with the whole of England being divided into administrative units called shires. These
shires were run by the reeves or the sheriffs.
There was a permanent treasury at Winchester in England and the prime source of strength of the
English monarchy was its wealth which was based on the system of tax. It should be mentioned here that
it was a royal monopoly to mint coins and the English currency was considered to be superior in
comparison to other currencies of north-western Europe. There was also the system of issuing writs by the
kings to the officials along with the custom of issuing charters. Thus the form of government which the
Normans received was sophisticated enough upon which they could make developments easily.
The Normans were clever enough to retain the basic framework of the government but they changed the
personnel, though initially there was an endeavour to keep some of the natives in official positions. With
the end of the tenure of William as the king, most of the officials of the royal family as well as the
government offices were Normans. Even the official language used in documents was changed from Old
English to Latin.

v) Social Changes:
One of the significant changes in the English society as a result of the Conquest was the radical
decrease of the slavery system in England. Domesday Book records the number of slaves to be twenty-
eight thousand in 1086, a number much lesser than what it was enumerated in 1066. The chief reasons for
the decrease in the practice of slavery were primarily two. One was the factor that the cost of supporting
slaves had to be incurred completely by their owners. Another factor was the disapproval of the Church.
The practice of slave-holding was not considered illegal.
The status of the free peasants of the Anglo-Saxon society underwent a change with the Conquest and
they seemed to have lost their status and became equal to the non-free serfs. The same is true about the
increase in the number and the growth of towns in comparison to the scattered farms after the arrival of
the Normans.
Unfortunately not much is known about the women except those belonging to the landholding class.
Women belonging to the nobility had palpable influence upon political life primarily through their
relationships of kinship. They could hold lands and even had the power to dispose off their property if
they wished to do so.

vi) Influences on the Language and the Trilingual Medieval English:

During the Anglo-Norman period the dialect which was popular in England and in other parts of the
British Isles was Anglo-Norman or Anglo-Norman French. When William invaded England in 1066, he
along with his noble men and followers spoke a variety of Oil dialects which were Norman French
dialects. The amalgamation of these various versions along with the Old English into a particular dialect
is what we call now Anglo-Norman French.
During that time there was no record being kept in vernacular in France since Latin was the language
of the nobility. In every sphere like education, commerce and the Roman Catholic Church, all records
were maintained in Latin. In fact, in England also Latin was used by the royal government, the Church
and many local administrative bodies just as it was used before 1066 as a parallel language along with
Anglo-Saxon. However, English continued to enjoy the status of the vernacular of the common people
during this entire period.
Language of the Royals:
Till the end of the fourteenth century French continued to be the language of the king and his court. It
is noteworthy that even today the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom features the mottos of the
British Monarch- Dieu et mon droit (‘God and my right’) and the Order of the Garter- Honi soit qui mal y
pense (‘Shamed be he who thinks evil of it’) in French. Marriages with people belonging to French royal
families strengthened the French status. However, since the thirteenth century intermarriages with English
people began to be popular and French gradually became the second language amongst the upper classes.
Other important reasons for the decline of the French status were the increasing spirit of English
nationalism and the Hundred Years’ War.

Languages of the Legislation, Charters, Judicial Systems and Courts:

From 1066 till the end of the thirteenth century the language chosen for all official documents in
writing was Latin and Norman French had the status of a spoken language only. There were only a few
important documents which were translated into Norman such as the Magna Carta which was signed in
1215. It was in 1275 that the first official document was written in Anglo-Norman. It was a statute
promoted by the king in 1275. Thus, since the thirteenth century Anglo-Norman started to be used in
official documents as those which were marked by the private seal of the king.
Finally in the fifteenth century English became the language of the legislation and the Parliament,
almost half a century after becoming the language of the royalty and the English aristocracy. Again,
during the twelfth century there was the development of judicial and administrative institutions. Since for
both the King and the lawyers Norman French was the chosen language, it automatically became the
language of both these above-mentioned institutions.
During the span of three centuries, precisely from the twelfth to the fifteenth century, three languages
were used in the courts. Latin was the language used for writing while Norman French was the language
used during the trial procedure orally. English was the language of somewhat less formal communication
amongst the judge, the lawyer, the complainant or the witness. The sentences were delivered orally in
Norman French. However, quite interestingly, it was recorded in the written form in Latin.
Though English became the most prominent spoken language during the fifteenth century, Latin and
French continued to enjoy their status of being the official language in all legal documents till the
beginning of the eighteenth century. Although majority of the common people spoke in Middle English,
French was popular as a second language primarily because of its aristocratic association and prestigious
status. French was the language of business communication, particularly during the trades with the
continent and hence was spoken by the merchants belonging to the middle class. Many of the churches
selected French for communicating with the non-religious people.
Influence of French on English It has to be remembered that French borrowings in English
were not restricted to a particular sphere. A concise list of these borrowings is enlisted below:
i) Words related to administrative and governmental affairs: crown, reign, minister, parliament, nation
ii) Words related to military affairs: peace, army, lieutenant, navy, war
iii) Words related to feudalism: noble, glory, honour, peer, prince
iv) Words related to legal matters: plaintiff, attorney, session, crime, jury
v) Words related to ecclesiastical matters: saint, altar, clergy, trinity, religion
vi) Words related to relationships: nephew, niece, cousin, uncle, aunt
vii) Words related to food: pastry, soup, fry, boil, toast
viii) Words related to morality: charity, virtue, vice, chaste, mercy
ix) Words related to fashion: costume, apparel, garment, dress, fashion
x) Words related to architecture: tower, arch, porch, castle, column
xi) Words related to sports: dice, trump, ace, deuce, cards
xii) Words of exclamation: adieu, alas