THEORIES ON
ERRORS AND
MISTAKES
ERRORS
An error is defined as the difference between the true value
and the measured value of quantity. It is a deviation of an
observation or a calculation from the true value and is
often beyond the control of the one performing the
operation.
E = X - x̄
Where; x – observed value,
x̄ - is the true value
MISTAKES
Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurement which occur
because some aspect of a surveying operation is
performed by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention,
poor judgment and improper execution. It may also root on
the misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience or
indifference of the surveyor. A large mistake is referred to
as a ‘blunder’.
TYPES OF ERRORS
Systematic Errors are type of error which will always have
the same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions
remain constant and unchanged. A systematic error will
repeat itself in other measurements, still maintaining the
same sign and thus will accumulate. They conform to
mathematical and physical laws. This errors can be
computed and their effects eliminated by applying
corrections, employing proper technique in the use of
instruments.
TYPES OF ERRORS
Accidental Errors the occurrences of these error are
matters of chances as they are likely to be positive or
negative and may tend in part to compensate or average
out according to laws of probability. There is no absolute
wat of determining or eliminating them since the error for
an observation of quantity is not likely to be the same as
for a second observation.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
Instrumental Errors these errors are due to imperfections
in the instruments used, either from faults in their
construction or from improper adjustments between
different part prior to their use.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
Natural Errors these errors are caused by variation in the
phenomena of nature such as changes in magnetic
declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction, gravity
and curvature of the earth. This is beyond the control of a
man.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
Personal Errors these errors arise principally from
limitation of the senses of sight, touch and hearing of the
human observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate. This type of fallibility differs from one individual
to another and may vary due to certain circumstances
existing during a measurement.
ACCURACY & PRECISION
Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to
the absolute or true value of the quantity measured. It
implies the closeness between related measurements and
their expectations.
ACCURACY & PRECISION
Precision refers to the degree of refinement and
consistency with which any physical measurement is made.
It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of
repeated measurements of a quantity.
THEORY OF PROBABILITY
Probability is defined as the number of times something
will probably occur over the range of possible occurrences.
THEORY OF PROBABILITY
1. Small errors occur more often than large ones and that
they are more probable.
2. Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less
probable; for normally distributed errors, unusually large
ones may be mistakes rather than accidental errors.
3. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen
with equal frequency; that is, they are equally probable.
4. The mean of an infinite number of observations is the
most probable value.
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
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MOST PROBABLE VALUE
Problem 1:
A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to
measure a distance between two points marked on the ground.
The students came up with the following six different values:
250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50 and 251.22. Determine the
most probable value of the distance measured.
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
Problem 2:
The length of a base line was measured using two different EDM
instruments A and B under identical conditions with the
following results: 1001.68, 1001.42, 1000.97, 997.63, 1001.75,
1001.22. Determine the most probable length of the base line.
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
Problem 3:
The angles about a point Q have the
following observed values: 130°15’20’’,
Q 142°37’30’’ and 87°07’40’’. Determine
the most probable value of each
angle.
RESIDUALS
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STANDARD DEVIATION
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STANDARD DEVIATION
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VARIANCE
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STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN
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PROBABLE ERROR
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PROBABLE ERROR
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WEIGHT
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WEIGHT
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WEIGHT
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WEIGHT
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WEIGHT
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RELATIVE PRECISION
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ADJUSTMENT OF WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS
1. Various Measurement of the same quantity
The most probable value of a quantity for which
measurements of different reliability have been made is
the weighted mean
2. Measurement of related quantities
When the sum of measured values having different weights
most equal a known value are the observed values each
corrected by an appropriate position of the discrepancy or of
the total error. The corrections to be applied are inversely
proportional to the weights
SAME QUANTITIES
Problem 4:
Following is a series of 10 rod readings which were taken with a
wye level under identical conditions. The day was calm or cloudy.
The instrument was set-up and the target rod was held on a
point 600 ft away. Rod readings: 3.365, 3.366, 3.365, 3.363, 3.368,
3.366, 3.367, 3.364, 3.365, 3.364
Determine the following:
a.) Most probable value
b.) Variance
Problem 4:
Determine the following:
a.) Most probable value
b.) Variance
c.) Standard Deviation (Standard Error)
d.) Standard Error of the Mean Measurement
e.) Probable Error of Single Measurement
f.) Probable Error of Single Measurement
g.) Relative Precision
Problem 5:
From the measured values of distance AB, the following trials were
recorded
Trials Distance
1 120.68
2 120.84
3 120.76
4 120.64
a.) Find the probable error
b.) Find the standard deviation
c.) Find the standard error of the mean
Problem 6:
The observed angles of a triangle are as follows:
A = 34°20’ 36’’
B = 49° 16’ 34’’
C = 96° 22’ 41’’
Determine the most probable value of each angle.
Problem 7:
The weight of an angle is assumed to be proportional to the number
of times it has been repeated. Five angles in a five sided figure are
measured with the following results. Compute the adjusted value of
each angle.
Angle Observed Values No. of Repetitions
A 86° 15’ 20’’ 6
B 134° 44’ 35’’ 2
C 75° 48’ 50’’ 2
D 167° 02’ 05’’ 6
E 76° 08’ 50’’ 4
Problem 8:
The following interior angles of a triangle traverse were measured
with the same precision. Determine the most probable value of each
angle.
Angle Observed Values No. of Repetitions
A 41° 5
B 77° 6
C 63° 2
PROPAGATION OF ERROR
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PROPAGATION OF ERROR
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PROPAGATION OF ERROR
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PROPAGATION OF ERROR
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PROPAGATION OF ERRORS
Problem 9:
The sides of a rectangular field are 1193.6 + 0.60 ft. and 582.70 +
0.40 ft. respectively.
Determine the following:
a.) Probable error of the perimeter
b.) Probable error of the area
