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ABORIGINAL KNOWLEDGE.
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HISTORY CONDITION AND PROSPECTS

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CAP? S.EASTMAX, Tl. S.A.AXn (JTHEH EMINENT ARTISTS.

.^ Published \\\r aulluJiilv ol' ('oii<iicsj

PHILADELPHIA:
J B LIPPINCOTT & CO
•%
 THIRD REPORT.

Washington, August 30, 1852.

To the Hon. Commissioner of Indian Affairs,

Department of the Interior.

Sir:

I have the honor to report to you the Third Part of my investigations respect-

ing the Indians — their history, numbers, condition, and prospects.

As a general fact, the American Indians, however they may differ in some of their

unimportant tribal peculiarities, fulfil, in a striking manner, the philosophic requisites

of being a distinctive homogeneous variety of the human race. Both physically and
mentally, there is a general resemblance, if not alwaj's a close identity, in all the

tribes of the continent. Cranial development, as shown by the late Dr. Samuel George

Morton, (vide Part II.,) denotes a considerable range between the highest and lowest

grades, and also a striking modification of the crania from artificial compression, in

some of the tribes, as in the ancient Peruvians of Atacama, and the various flat-headed

groups of North and South America. But these developments did not indicate the
degree of civilization to which the tribes reached ; nor did the compressions, in the

opinion of that eminent observer, at all interfere with, or limit their powers of intel-

lectualization.

By a re-examination of his large collection of crania in the Academy of Natural

Sciences, at Philadelphia, which I caused to be made, the results of which are published
in my last Report, (Part II., p. 335,) it is shown that, while, as we should, a priori,

suppose, the OregoniaABhoshonee, and other savage groups of the West, are generally

inferior to the stocks of the Mississippi Valley and Atlantic borders ;

yet the cranial

dimensions of some members of those groups exceed a little, by admeasurement, the

vi THIRD REPORT.
more advanced and Avoll-known tribes of our history. Thus the Dacotas, who, in the

ethnological chain of these examinations, stand as the type of the great prairie group

of ti'ibes east of the Rocky Mountains and west of the Mississippi, reaching from the
Arkansas to the Athabasca lake, disclose an average internal volume of brain some-
what exceeding the Algonquin and Apalachian groups respectively — two primary
stocks, who formerly filled up nine-tenths of the whole geographical superficies of the

original thirteen States, and who have, in all periods of our history, evinced a general

character of superiority in their habits, manners, and policy.

In this result the average cranial admeasurements are expressed on the number of
skulls actually examined. Individuals and whole tribes of the Algonquin and Apala^

chian groups compared, indicate a high intellectual capacity. Thus, two crania of the

Chippewa and Sauk tribes, respectively, denote 91 ; being 7i above the average of the

group. Four crania of the Outagami, or Fox, and two of the Potawatomie, respect-

ively, reach still higher, being 92. The Miamis, whose history is identified with the

Wabash valley, stand at 89 ; the Natic, a tribe so long and successfully (in the seven-

teenth century) under the teaching of Mr. Eliot, at 85 ; and the Menomonees, decidedly
the most erratic of the home tribes, at 84.

In the Apalachian group, which is not well represented in the collection, three Mus-

cogee crania give an average of 90. An Utchee and Miccosaukie, respectively, indi-

cated 84 and 74 ; and five Seminoles average 88 i. But of all the stocks who have
figured in our history, none have equalled, in their cranial capacity, the Iroquois
which includes the celebrated Five Nations and Six Nations of Indian history. They
rise, in cranial volume, to an average of 3i above the most advanced groups east of
the Mississippi, and 5i above the highest of the bold prairie-tribe west of it, and, in

a single instance, 12 J. Of these tribes, an Oneida and a Cayuga, respectively, measure

95. Two Hurous, or Wyandots, denote 81 ; three Mohawks 84, and the lowest in the

collection, labelled " Mingo," SO. An intellectual pre-eminence is given in these indi-
cations to which this genera of tribes appear to be most fully entitled by their energy
and superiority in war, oratory, civil policy, and a high thirst tor military glory, which
places them far above the oppressed and down-trodden nations of ancient Mexico and
Peru.

The Indian tribes of this continent are manifestly of oriental origin. Their mental
and psychological, and their physical traits, abundantly denote this. But it is worthy
of remark, that, while other races, who have exercised great and controlling influence,
and attained a high rank in Europe — as nil the trilx's speaking the Indo-Germanic
 THIRD REPORT. vii

type of languages, together with tlie Schxvonii, Magyars, and various Celts — are also

of Oriental origin, the area of territory occupied by the American tribes should have

been so immeasurably greater than that of the wiiite-skinued races of all central Eu-

rope combined. The latter races, who, however variant, were all characterized in the

scale of colors above brown, developed a high state of civilization in arts, letters,

industry, and Christianity ; while these red-skinned forest tribes, coming, as in all

probability they did, in small parties, at successive eras, found a stimulus to tlieir

barbarism in this very immensity of area. They wandered over the entire continent,

from one end to the other, from sea to sea, in the most profound state of moral degra-
dation, and without having reached, by any monuments traceable to them, a state of

much civilization in the highest instances noticed, or giving proofs of much apparent
intellectuality.

The examinations made of their cranial volume by eminent physiologists, although

these inquiries have not been carried as far as is desirable, denote no impediment to

such rise in arts and improvements. Nor, since there is great evidence of antiquity,

should the latent existence of such mental traits, it would seem, have led to the long-

continued moral darkness which has marked their history and natural development.

And this fact alone, setting aside all other evidence which is merely theoretical, and
of little apparent value, presupposes a marked ejTOch, if not something like a national
ostracism, in their history. But it at the same time gives full encouragement to the

efforts making for their education and moral advancement. More than one-fourth of

the geographical area of the globe was involved in the events of the discovery and

settlement of America. The Indian population at the earliest known period is not
given; but it probably never reached, in the most favorable state, five millions; of

which the present area of the United States and of British America yielded not over
seven hundred thousand, or one million, at farthest. They declined, and lost by death,
in the scale of population, about the same numbers that they reproduced annually, the
tendency being, for a long period before the discovery, to depopulation. If half a

million be assumed to be the present aboriginal population of the Union, agreeably to

its recently expanded limits —which is as large a proportion as the present state of the

census returns appears at all to justify — it would assign an enormous area to each soid

within the present acknowledged Indian territories and hunting-grounds; an arcM,

indeed, which, in no probable or imaginable state of their affairs, could they till,

improve, or profitably and permanently occupy, to the end of time.

This problem is merely thrown out as a theoretical question. However it may be
viii THIRD REPORT.
decided, it cannot alter the class of duties we owe to the race. Whatever defects may,
in the eyes of the most ardent philanthropist, have at any time marked our system of

Indian poUcy, nothing should, for a moment, divert the government or people, in their
appropriate spheres, from offering to these wandering and benighted branches of the

Imman race, however often rejected by them, the gifts of education, agriculture, and

the gospel. There is one boon, beside, which their ignorance and instability, and

want of business and legal foresight, requires, in their present and future state — it is

protection.

The actual existing population of the whole number of tribes will be given in

revised and perfected tables at the close of these investigations. In the mean time,

data will be placed on record, from which definitive results on the entire topic are to

be drawn. To these attention is invited. The progress which has been made since

my last report in collecting and preparing facts and materials, is shown in the accom-

panying papers.
I am, sir, very respectfully.
Your obedient servant,

HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
 PART THIRD.

DIVISION OF THE SUBJEOT.

I.GENERAL HISTORY C.

n. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS B.

m. ANTIQUITIES OF THE UNITED STATES C.

IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE INDIAN COUNTRY. C.

V. TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, HISTORY, AND GOVERN-

MENT C.

VI. INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND CHARACTER . . C.

Vn. TOPICAL HISTORY B.

Vin. PHYSICAL TYPE OP THE INDLA.N RACE B.

IX. LANGUAGE B.

X. STATE OF INDIAN ART B.

XI. PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS. . B.

Xn. D^MONOLOGY, WITCHCRAFT, AND MAGIC ... A.

Xm. MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE A.
XIV. LITERATURE OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGES ... A.

XV. POPULATION AND STATISTICS C.

Pt. in.— (ix)

 CONTENTS.

I. GENERAL HISTORY.
synopsis.

Generic View op the Indian Race 21

II. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

A. Generic Traits of Mind Page 54

1. Dignity of Indian Thought 64

2. The Indian pronounced very low in the Scale by Philosophers 55
3. Testimony of the French Missionary Authors 55
4. American Testimony on this Topic 56
5. True State of the Hunter-man 57
6. Basis of Character. On what Founded 58
7. Imperturbability 58
8. Taciturnity 59

B. Traces of Foreign Origin. (1 Plate.) 59

9. Scarifications on the Loss of Friends. Scalping 59

10. Immortality in a Future State 60
11. Primary Duality of the Deity 60
12. A Persic Trait 60
13. Not Buddhists 61
14. Hebrew Customs 61

C. Distisctite Phases of the Hunter State. (3 Plates.) 62

15. Government Patriarchal 62

16. Gathering Wild Rice 62
17. Watching the Corn-fields 63
18. Woman in the Savage State 63

19. Striking the War Post 64

D. Costume. (7 Plates.) 65

20. General State of Indian Costume 65

21. Moccasin 65
22. Esquimaux Boot 66
xii CONTENTS.
23. Leggin — Male and Female 66
24. Characteristic Remarks , 67
25. War Coat 67
26. Head Dress 67
27. Winter Caps 68
28. Agim, or Snow-shoe 68
29. Azian, or Breech-cloth 68
30. Necklace 68
31. Ornaments from Oregon and California 69

E. ACCOUTREMEKTS : (3 Plates.) 69
32. Quiver 69
33. Shield 69
34. War Flag 69
35. Tobacco Pouch 69
36. Navoho Wigwams: (1 Plate.) 70

III. ANTIQUITIES.
1. Antique Indian Pictographic Inscription on the Banks of the Hudson : (with 2 Plates.)
By H. R. S :
73
2. Antique Pottery from the Minor Mounds occupied by the Indians in Feasts to the Dead, on
the Sea-coasts of Florida and Georgia: (1 Plate.) By H. R. S 75
3. Antique Colored Earthen-ware, from the Rio Gila, New Mexico : (1 Plate.) By II. R. S. .. 83
4. Erie Inscription in the Indian Character of the Kekeewin : (2 Plates.) By H. R. S 85
5. Notices of some Metallic Plates exhibited in annual Dances among the Muscogees : (1 Cut.)
By II. R. S 87

ly. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. Inquiries respecting the Character and Value of the Indian Country 93
2. Indian Territories of the United States: (2 Plates.) 94
3. Series of Saline Strata in the Onondaga Country 97
4. Journal of the Expedition of Colonel Redick M'Kee, United States Indian Agent, through
North-western California. Performed in the Summer and Fall of 1851. By George
Gibbs: (1 Plate.) 99

V. TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT.

1. History of the Iroquois Republic; its Government, Power, &c. : (1 Plate.) By 11. R. S.... 181~^
2. Indian Tribes of Oregon and California. By G. F. Emmons, U. S. N 200
3. Sioux, or Dacotah Proper. (Second Paper.) By P. Prescott, U. S. Indian Interpreter. 225
4. Origin of the Mandan Tribe, and its Stock of Affiliation. By H. R. S 247
5 Migrations of the lowas. (With a Mnp.) By II. R. S 256
G History of the Iowa and Sac Tribes. By Rev. S. M. Irvin, and Rev. William Hamilton 259
 CONTENTS. xiii

7. Hochungara Family of the Dacotah Group. By H. R. S 277

8. Winnebagoes. By J. E. Fletcher, Esq., United States Indian Agent 284
9. Ancient Fries. By H. R. S 288
10. Carolina Manuscript respecting the Origin of the Catawbas. Office of the Secretary of

State of South Carolina 293

11. History, Language, and Archaeology of the Pimos of the River Gila, New Mexico. By
H. R. S 296
12. Moqui Tribe of New Mexico. By H. R. S 306

VI. INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND CHARACTER.

A. Oral Fictions 313

1. Hiawatha; an Iroquois Tradition. By Abraham Le Fort 314

2. The Little Monedo, or Boy-man an Ojibwa Tale. By Ba-bahm-wa-wa-gezhig-equa
; 318
3. Trapping in Heaven; a Wyandot Tradition of 1637. By Paul Le Jeune 320
4. The Great Snake of Canandaigua Lake an Iroquois Tradition. By John M. Brad-
;

ford, Esq 322

5. Shingebiss; a Chippewa Allegory 324

B. Poetic Development of The Indian Mind 326

6. Song of the Okogis. By Ba-bahm-wa-wa-gezhig-equa 329

7. Hawk Chant. By James Riley 329

VII. TOPICAL HISTORY.

1. Upper Posts of Canada in 1778. By James Madison 333
2. Western America beyond the Alleghanies, in 1785. Memoranda of a Journey in the
Western Parts of the United States of America. By Lewis Brantz 335
3. Indian Life in the North-western Regions of the United States, in 1783 ; with an Introduc-
tion by H. R. S. Being the Relation of the Voyages and Adventures of a Merchant-
Voyager, &c. By John Baptiste Perrault 351
4. Personal Narrative of a Journey in the Semi-Alpine Area of the Ozark Mountains of Mis-
souri and Arkansas, which were first traversed by De Soto in 1541. By H. R. S 369

VIII. PHYSICAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE.

1. Unity of the Human Race 373
2. Examination and Description of the Hair of the Head of the North American Indians, and
its Comparison with that of other Varieties of Men : with Diagrams of the Structure

of the Hair. By P. A. Browne, LL.D 375

IX. LANGUAGE.
A. Classification of the Indian Languages 397
1. A Letter enclosing a Table of Generic Indian Families of Languages. By the late

Hon. Albert Gallatin 397

xiv CONTENTS.
2. A Reply to some of the Historical and Philological Topics of Investigation brought for-

ward in the foregoing Letter of Mr. Gallatin. By H. R. S 403

B. Principles of the Indian Languages 407

3. An Analysis of the Pronominal and Verbal Forms of the Indian Languages ; proposed
by a distinguished Foreigner. Anonymous 407

4. Grammatical Comments on the preceding Queries. By H. R. S 417

5. Observations on some of the Indian Dialects of Northern California. By Q. Gibbs .. 420

6. New Vocabularies of various Dialects and Languages 424

X. STATE OF INDIAN ART.

1. Making Fire by Percussion 465
2. Trituration of Maize 466
3. Preparation of Flints for Arrow and Spear Heads 467
4. Handicraft of the Oregon Indians 468

XI. PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS.

Education, Christianity, and the Arts. By Rev. D. Lowry 471

XII. D^MONOLOGY, WITCHCRAFT, AND MAGIC.

1. Introductory Remarks on Magic, "Witchcraft, and Dsemonology of the American Indians.
By H. R. S 483
2. Gods of the Dacotahs. By Captain S. Eastman, United States Army 485
3. The Giant's Feast and Dance. By Captain S. Eastman, United States Army 487
4. Magical Dances of the Ontonagons. With an original Pictograph of Oskabaiwis. By
H. R. S 488
5. Invulnerability and Invisibility from Magic Influences: a Tradition. By H. R. S 491
6. Genii Worship. By H. R. S 492
7. Pictographs from the Rocky Mountains. Figures by Lieutenant Gunnison, United States
Army 493

XIII. MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE INDIAN.

Practice of Medicine among the Winnebagoes 497

XIV. LITERATURE OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGES.

1. Plan of a System of Geographical Names for the United States, founded on the Aboriginal
Languages. By H. R. S 501
2. A Description of the Aboriginal American Nomenclature. By H. R. S 509
 CONTENTS.

XV. STATISTICS AND POPULATION.

A. A Comparison of the number of Fighting Men in the Northern and Western Tribes of
Indians in the United States and Canada, as estimated at various Periods from 1736
to 1812 653
B. Estimate of Colonel Boquet. Indians in the English Colonies in 1764 559
C. Indian Force on the breaking out of the American Revolution, in 1778. By James
Madison 560
D. Indian Population of the Upper Mississippi in 1806. By Lieutenant Z. M. Pike, U. S. A. 562
E. Indian Population of the Columbia Valley in 1806. By Lewis and Clark 570
F. Plan of Indian Colonization West of the Mississippi in 1825. By James Monroe. With
a Statement of the different Tribes of Indians then within the limits of the United
States, and the Quantity of Land claimed by them 573
G. Tabular Statement, exhibiting the Names and Situations of the Indian Tribes in 1829.
Communicated by General Peter B. Porter, Secretary of War 587
H. Statistical Tables, showing the Position and Population of the Indian Tribes on Lakes
Huron and Superior, and the Upper Mississippi, in 1832 599
I. Tribes West of the Mississippi under Treaty Stipulations, and also those with whom the
United States have no Relations. By GeneralLewis Cass 608
K. Official Estimates of the Indian Population of the United States in 1836 610
L. Sioux Population in 1836 612
M. Indian Population of Michigan in 1840 615
N. Census and Statistics of the several Indian Tribes in 1846 617
0. Estimate of the Indian Population of the Missouri Valley in 1850 629
P. Indian Population of Western Oregon in 1851. By Anson Dart 632
Q. Population of the Pueblos of New Mexico. By Gov. J. S. Calhoun 633
R. Indian Population of North-western California. By Redick M'Kee 634
S. Indian Population of Texas in 1851. By Jesse Stem 635
 LIST OF PLATES.

1. Defeat of Vasquez D'Ayllon by the Chicoreans, 1518 Page 27

2. De Soto, Tampa Bay, Florida, 1539 35
3. Beggars' Dance 62
4. Gathering Wild Rice 63
5. Guarding the Corn-fields 63
6. Striking the Post 64
7. Costume 65
8. Costume 66
9. Costume 67
10. Costume 68
11. Costume 68
12. Snow-shoes 68
13. Costume 68
14. Ornaments worn by the Indians of California and Oregon 69
15. Quivers 69
16. Gushkepetagons, or Tobacco-sacks 69
17. Navaho Wigwams 70
18. Inscription on Rock at Esopus, New York 74
19. Esopus Landing, Hudson River 75
20. Antique Pottery from the Gila River 83
41. Inscription on Rock, south Side of Cunningham's Island 85
40. Inscription on Rock, north Side of Cunningham's Island 87
21. Map showing the Location of the Indian Tribes of the United States 96
22. Porcupine Mountains, Lake Superior Vol. IY.
23. Falls of Montreal River Yol. IY.
24. Chicago in 1820. Old Fort Dearborn Yol. B'.
25. Red-Jacket 198
Pt. III.— (svii)
XVIU LIST OF PLATES.
26. Map of the Tribes in Oregon 200

27. Worship of the Sun 227

28. Modes of obtaining Fire from Percussion 228

29. Female Mode of Sitting 236

30. Map of the Country formerly occupied by the lovras 256

31. Medicine Dance of the Winnebagoes 286

32. View of Pittsburg, 1790 336

33. Antiquities from Massachusetts 467

34. Bows and Arrows from Oregon 468

35. Indian Implements 468

36. Gods of the Dacotahs 485

37. Dance to the Giant 487

38. Dance to the Giant (Indian Sketch) 488

39. Magic Dances of the Ontonagons 489

42. Rock Inscription in Utah Territory 493
43. Humboldt Bay, California 131

44. Map of De Soto's Route in 1541-42 50

45. Ornamented Pottery from Florida 80

I. GENERAL HISTORY. C.

(i»)
 I. GENERAL HISTORY. C.

GENERIC VIEW OF THE INDIAN RACE.

The Indian empire of the bow and arrow, in America, was not disturbed by
Europe tiU the close of the 15th century. How many centuries it had existed
previously, the pen of history has not told us. To the mind that regards the moral
development and progress of mankind, the event seems to have been slow. Why, it

is asked with more boldness perhaps than wisdom, should fifteen centuries of dark
barbarism have been allowed to pass over America after the opening of the Christian
era, before the lights of civilization and knowledge began to reach its shores ? The
answer is, that time is estimated by a different standard in the councils of omnipotence,
from that usually applied by human scales, and that God is more tolerant of man's
idiosyncracies than man.
But however tliis be determined, the problem of the existence of a new continent
had no sooner been solved, and the singular manners and condition of the aboriginal
tribes been discovered, than the deepest interest was felt in their historj^ How the
old world should regard them, and with what measure of fellowship they should be
treated, puzzled ecclesiastics, it seems, as well as statesmen. Commercial men had
less scruples about the matter, and merely considered them a new element of traffic,

and put them on the credit side of the ledger. In an age of great commercial enter-
prise, they did not trouble themselves to think whether man had first received his
charter to run wild, and set up the hunter era on the summit of mount Ararat, or
dated the causes of his dispersion in the fruitful plains of the Euphrates, a century-
later. All that was left to researches in history and philosophy. But he would try
to turn the Indian to some account. And as these Indian hunting-grounds embowelled
shining treasures of the precious metals, it may be well conceived how the account
was kept. In proportion as time advanced — as the hunter man was seen in geographi-
cal positions farther north, where no gold or silver appeared, beaver-skins were seized
(21)
22 GENERAL HISTORY.
on, as the ready means of producing that treasure and the ; intercourse with the tribes

went on with as much and sharpness of purpose, and with quite as effectual
avidity

apphcations to kill, conquer, and destroy, as it did in the golden valley of Anahuac, or
on the silver eminences of Potosi.
It is not proposed, in continuing these historical sketches, to narrate scenes of

conquest, which lend such a charm to the Indian history of the South ; a topic which

is scarcely inferior, in the rapidity and splendor of its events, to the transforming

power of the lamp of Aladdin. The scenes before us are far more commonplace and
frigid in their character, spreading, as they do, from the northern shores of the Gulf
of Mexico over colder latitudes, where the wants of life are harder to be supphed.

And even here, it is only proposed to notice events as they brought to light new
tribes, or new modes of policy and dealing, which served to show characteristic traits,

or turning points, from which a coup d'oeil of the Indian history may be seen. As a
race, the Indian tribes of the United States appeal from the severe judgments of

their conquerors. They do not admit that the acquisition of wealth and power was
a good or wise reason for their overthrow and destruction, or to use their own figure,

" that the light of their council-fires should have been put out." Of the great and
momentous truths which hinge upon the introduction of ci^^lization and Christianity,
they have been utterly incompetent to judge. The voice of the few Indian sages

who have at various periods of our history survived the shock of the conflict of races,

and the triumph of civilization over barbarism, does not affirm the judgments which
the warlike leaders of the mass have pronounced. An Occum, an Uncas, and a
Skenandoah, have seen this matter in a higher light. And while history has shown
them instances of severity and injustice in the settlement of the continent, these men
have perceived the great causes of the decline of the race to exist in their inferiority
of induction and forecast, want of industry, temperance, and arts and above all, in ;

the great principle of civilization and revealed truth. Few, solitary, and far apart,

have been such voices in the land, it is true, while the popular and poetic views of
a Garangula, a Logan, a Pontiac, and a Sagoyawdtha, or Red Jacket, resound.

Would not the same means, it may be inquired, which have led these wise men to

the expression of such opinions, have been as efficacious in bringing the entire mass
of aboriginal America to these just conclusions? It is believed they would. The
great error of the discoverers and conquerors has been, from the first, to regard the

Indians as wild men, devoid of reason, and without the pale of international rights,
as they were of civilization and Christianity. No terms, it was contended, need
therefore be kept with them. The first mariners who anchored on the coasts

considered the natives as little less them on board

than wild beasts. They enticed

vessels, and carried them ofi" to work in the mines, or to be sold as slaves. They were
abused and deceived in various ways by the commercial class, who suppUed them
with a deleterious liquor, in the shape of ardent spirits, which crazed their brains.
 GENERAL HISTORY. 28

paralysed tlioir exertions, and led them to commit crimes. Yet a people so low in

their moral attributes, and so gross in their conceptions, appear to have been dealt
with as if they were of a much higlier mental type, and held strictly accountaljle to

the most stringent laws of ratiocination and induction, when they had, in fiict, but
little claim to either of these qualities. Worst of all, it was the mistaken jwlicy
of the times to attempt to driee them, instead of persuading them into the principles
of Christianity.

§. Spain led the way in this blind and erroneous system of treating the natives.
Las Casas, the eminent historian of a wrong-headed system of dealings with the Indians,
may be appealed to, for the truth of these assertions. His denunciations were so unpa-
latable, that the largest part of his writings on the subject have never been peimitted to
see the light. He expatiates on the cruelty of the system of " repartimentos " by which
they were conveyed as serfs, with the soil. He finally procured the abolition of this

system by Charles V. ; but it produced a rebellion in Peru, and that monarch was
compelled to revoke the decree.' Whether iKonacje is of this era, or dates from a
more ancient form of vassalage, is doubtful.
The national tone of Spain was high and chivalric. It gloried in a fixed belief

of the irrefragable truth and excellence of the public state system of treating the
Indians economically and ecclesiastically. And in this belief it had been recently
confirmed and strengthened by the doctrines of Loyola, who, at the sound of Luther's
voice, had started up as a new light in guiding nations in the conversion of barbarians.
It never entered into the conceptions of Cortez and Pizarro, and their cotemporaries
and successors in the conquest of the new world, that they were not pursuing the
very highest and noblest policy that had ever been exhibited for the subjugation of
a heathen people. But whatever merits it really possessed, we cannot read the
events of those days, without admitting that it lacked kindness, patience, justice, and
forgiveness — that it placed too much stress on the importance and value of a
submission to certain external rites — that it denied the natural possessory right
to the soil, and that it transferred their li1)erties with it. They remained dogged,
stoUd, reserved, perfidious. Their hearts were little touched by a Christianity which
permitted these things. The Caribs were the first to experience the Spanish policy.
They were a gentle race, living with little labor, in a tropical climate. A few years
served to sweep them away. The cruelty and vices of Ovando, and the harsh and
unjust execution of their Queen Anacoana,^ revealed a system that was to prevail
wherever the conquerors spread. The seizure of Montezuma, and the disgraceful
execution of Guatemozin by Cortez — the horrid and foolish massacre ordered by
Alvarado ^- the butchery by Pizarro of the attendants of the Inca Atahualpa, in
violation of the hospitalities of a public visit — the solemn mockery of his subsequent

'Prescott's Conquest of Peru. 'Washington Irving's Columbus, quoted Vol. II., p. 300.
24 GENERAL HISTORY.
trial and execution — such were the fruits of a conquest of which the end was
constantly asserted to justify the means.
True, these things were done by invaders who were engaged in carrying the lights

of rehgion, letters, and arts, to an idolatrous and bloody nation. They were carrying
blessings under the Christian dispensation. But did they not confound eras of
progress in the human race of a widely different kind? Had the principles of the
dispensation, and the imperative mandate indeed which guided Joshua on marching
into Canaan, still existed in A. D. 1500 to guide the march of civilization, such a
course might have been commended. Happily it had been succeeded by a milder or
less summary system. If the heathen were still " to be dashed to pieces as a potter's

vessel," wherever found, it admits of critical comment, whether it was not the princi-

ples, errors, and vices of heathendom that were prophetically inveighed against by the
jDsalmist, rather than their persons. History demonstrates that all forms of religion
that have been propagated by the sword, of a date subsequent to the wars of Palestine,
were false, and the Christian church itself became tainted with errors at the precise

point where it laid dowTi the word of God as the sole arbiter, and grasped the sword
of the conqueror. At any rate, examples of kindness, justice, mercy, benevolence,
and humanity, have ever been found the most efficacious handmaids of truth.

It is impossible to take the aboriginal view of the question, and to judge calmly
of the conduct of the discoverers of America, without making these prehminary
concessions. Ignorant and degraded as the Indian was, from the Straits of Magellan
to the Arctic Ocean, he had his natural conceptions of justice and elevation of
character, and was in a remarkable degree sensitive to kind acts and humane
treatment ; and whoever has found the secret of swaying his opinions and feehngs,
has been most observant of these traits of his mind. Were they respected by the
early discoverers ? Let history answer this inquiry.

§. We pass over, as foreign to these local investigations, the history of the transference
of civilization to South America. The two most striking and complete instances of
it, have been narrated in a manner that does not require the thrilling and instructive

tale' to be repeated were it appropriate to the present plan.

The first attempt to found a government and plant a colony in North America,
within the present territorial area of the United States, was in South Carolina. This
^va3 about six }-ears before Cortez set sail for Mexico, some fifteen }ears prior to the

descent of Narvaez on the Gulf coasts of Florida, and just a quarter of a century
before the celebrated and well-known expedition of De Soto.

In 1512, Ponce de Leon, the governor of Porto Eico, sailed on a cruise among the
northern group of the Caribbean islands. Robertson^ informs us, that he was led by

the tale of a miraculous spring, which the natives represented to have such wonderful

Prcscott's Mexico, :iud Peru. 'History of America.

 GENERAL HISTORY. 25

virtues, that it would restore the youth of whoever bathed in the renovating fountain.
Had wc not such testimony, the incident might be doubted. In this voyage he fell in
with the main land, on which he bestowed the name of Florida. In a second trip to
this land of tropical plants and fancied wonders, he encountered the hostility of the
natives. He roamed over the interior in search of the fabled spring, and lost his life

in the attempt. Soon after, a Spanish sea-captain of St. Domingo, of the name of
Miruelo, was driven on the Atlantic coasts of Florida, and in his traffic with the
Indians received a small quantity of silver and gold, with Avhich he returned to the
then capital of the new world. The sight of this, and the reports brought with it,
stimulated new adventure. A company of wealthy men was formed to traffic on that
coast, and to obtain natives to work their mines in St. Domingo. Two vessels were
dispatched on this errand, which steered for the same coasts. They made land at a
point called St. Helena, and came to anchor at the mouth of a large river called
Combahee.' The coimtry was called Chicorea, and the inhabitants Chicoreans. The
Indians are described as kind, gentle, and hospitable. They fled away affi-ighted, but
were soon induced to return and engage in traffic. Among the articles bartered by
them, were some small quantities of gold and silver. When the trade was finished,
the Indians were invited on board to view the vessels, and to go down to see their
interior : as soon as the holds were well crowded, the hatches were closed, and the
vessel weighed anchor and sailed away. One of them foundered on the return
passage, but the other safely reached her port.
There was at this time living at St. Domingo a gentleman of some note and wealth,
named Lucas Vasquez d'Ayllon, who exercised the functions of an auditor and judge.
He was one of the company who had fitted out the vessels for kidnapping the Indians
and filled with the idea that the newly discovered province of Chicorea abounded in
the precious metals, he visited the court of Spain, and solicited pennission to conquer
and govern it. Charles V. granted him the office of Adelantado, with the usual
privileges and immunities pertaining to that office.

D'Ayllon, on reaching St. Domingo, fitted out three vessels, with men and supplies,
going himself in the quahty of governor, and placing Miruelo in command of one of
the vessels. This person affected to be conversant with the coasts, and was intrusted
with the post of pilot; but on reaching the land he was utterly at a loss for his true

position, having in his prior voyage made no observations for latitude, which being
thrown in his teeth, so mortified him that he became dispirited — sunk in deep
despondency, and died.
The squadron, however, made St. Helena, and, entering the Sound of South Edisto
mouth
Island, safely reached the of the Combahee — the scene of the prior traffic and
perfidy, where the largest of the three vessels was stranded. With the other two, and

'
Both these names are still retained in the Geography of South Carolina.
Pt. III. —
26 GENERAL HISTORY.
all the men, lie proceeded to sail a little farther, where, finding the aspect of the

country delightful, easy of access, and a harhour defended from the sea, he
determined to found the capitol of the government of Chicorea, and took possession
of the country for his sovereign, with the usual formalities. The Chicorean Indians,

who had been treated with such cruelty on the prior voyage, dissembled their
resentment, and acted towards D'Ayllon with marked kindness. It is believed he
was now near the present site of Beaufort. He was so completely lulled and
flattered by the kind appearance of the Indians, that he permitted his men to accept

an invitation to visit their village, about six miles distant. Two hundred men were
permitted to go on this visit. The Lidians feasted them for three days. On the
night of the third day, when they were drowned in sleep, they secretly arose, and
massacred them to a man. They then pushed for the main station near the ships,
where D'Ayllon remained, which they reached at daylight. The credulous Adelantado,
who had expected his men back in raptures, was suddenly alarmed with shrill yells
and before he was well aware of his position, the savage band was upon him. The
strife was sanguinary. It is uncertain whether he fell ou the spot, or succeeded with
his wounds, in gaining his ships, with the rest of liis men. But the discomfited
squadron fled, and this terminated the first attempt to plant a colony in North
America. The facts are well attested, but as they could not be heralded among the
brilliant triumphs of the Spanish arms in the New World, they have not been
prominently recorded, and rather dropt out of sight.'

The unjust and perfidious treatment of the Indians, on the seaboard of Carolina,

was doubtless one cause of the determined hostility with which the Spaniards were
afterwards received on the Florida coasts. Verbal information by their nimble
runners, Avas communicated by the Indians with great celerity. And when people
of the same nation reappeared at subsequent and separate periods, under the banners
of Narvaez and De Soto, they encountered the most determined and unflinching
hostility.

§. The Chicorean Indians, who thus defended their coasts from invasion, appear to
have been the ancient Ucheos, who are now merged as an inconsiderable clement
in the great Muscogee family ; but who still preserve proud notions of their ancient
courage, fame, and glory. This is the testimony of competent observers, and among
them, tlic late Andrew Jackson, President of the United States, who was familiar with

the Indian international affairs of the South, having in earlier life held public treaties
with the tribes, and faced the most determined of them in battle.

We are informed by Col. Benjamin Hawkins," Creek Agent, that the lichees
formerly dwelt at Ponpon, Saltketchers, and Silver Bluffs, in the belt of country
which is now partly in Georgia and partly in South Carolina; and that they were

'
Herrera. '"Sketch of the Creek Country in 179S-1709."
 GENERAL HISTORY. 27

continually at war with the Muscogees, Cherokees, and Catawbas. By the fonner
nation they were vanquished and nearly annihilated, and the remainder of them
Avere carried away and incorporated with themselves, where the name and a few of the
people still remain. When De Soto in 1539 reached Silver Bluff on the Savanna,
the ancient Cofotchique, the Indians of that place exhibited to him pieces of armour
and arms, which the Spaniards determined to have belonged to D'Ayllon.' That the
Muscogees prevailed oAcr the lichees, is shoAvn by the Muscogee words which are
found in the names of the streams and places of the southern part of the sear
coast of South Carolina.^

§. The defeat of Yalasquez D'Ajllon (Plate 1) appears to have been about 1515 or
151G. It operated to discourage the Spanish from attempting further conquests in
that quarter for many years, where, however, it appears from the map in the third
volume of Navarette, tliat the limits of the discoveries of De Soto extended much
further to the north than others have allowed him to have reached. Peter Martyr
observes that the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico had been run in the year
1516.^ In 1521, the year of the final fall of Mexico, Francis Gara}- received a royal
patent to colonize the region, which appears to have stretched north of the Panuco
or Rio Grande on the Gulf ''
But it was not till six years afterwards that anything
of note was done in the conquest of Florida proper. It is evident from several
sources, that the Gulf coasts of Mexico at this time had been pretty well ranged by
mariners, and began to furnish adventurers with an intense theme of excitement.
In 1517, Francisco Hernandez de Cordova had discovered Yucatan, and the next
year Juan de Grizalba began the discovery of the great Indian -Mexican empire,
which was continued by Cortez in 1519, and finished with such fame and glory to
himself in 1521. The very spirit of chivalry seemed to have broken loose anew; led,

not by the righting of wrongs which Cervantes has so happily satirized, or by tlie

example of the crusaders wresting Palestine from the hands of the Infidels, but for
the purpose of snatching the bow and sceptre from the idolatrous Indian tribes and
filling the pockets of the conquerors with gold and jewels. In 1525 and 1526
Pizarro, fired by the successes of Cortez, began those discoveries which led to the
conquest of Peru, which he with such perfidy and cruelty completed in 1535.'
This may serve to show the perfect furor of the glory of discovery, which filled

the Spanish court and nation at this era, and will denote with what ideas the
chivalric discoverers landed among the athletic Appalachian tribes of the northern
coasts of Mexico. These tribes had no mines — no cities — no aqueducts — no
palaces — no emperors — scarcely a road, or a path that could be traversed, without

'
Garcilaso de la Vega.
^Such is CoosahafcJiie, from Coosa, the name of a band of Creeks, and Hatchec, a creek or river.

'Buckingham Smith's Cabaca de Vaca, p. 128. 'Navarette.

*D'Alcedo's Geographical Dictionary of America.
28 GENERAL HISTORY.
the cunning of a fox. But they were brave and proud. They were democrats,
having a simple government of chiefs and councils. Each warrior had his voice in

pubhc afiairs. They had a high sense of natural right and tribal independence.
They deemed the lands not only their own, but affirmed and thought that they had
been given to them by the Great Spirit — thus creating a right that could not, they

deemed, be disputed. And when they were recklessly invaded and treated with the
harshness and inhumanity which marks the course of De Leon and Vasquez
D'Ayllon on their eastern borders, they stood manfully by their forest arms. That
these atrocities were known, and the details circulated among them, prior to the

respective descents of Narvaez and De Soto, cannot be doubted. For fifteen years

before this event, the waters of the Gulf and Caribbean seas had been traversed by the
vessels of Spain, and wherever they landed, they created the impression among the
natives, whether and pirates, than anything else.
falsely or not, rather of freebooters

§. Pamphilio de Narvaez had been defeated by Cortez at Zempoala, in 1520.' He was

a man of wealth, of a tall and muscular form, commanding appearance, a red beard,
fine, full voice —a graceful horseman, and a brave man.^ He went to Spain to
complain of his rival in the conquest of Mexico, and after seven years spent at the
court of Charles V., was appointed Adelantado of Florida, with full powers to
conquer and govern the country. In the preparations for this, he invested, it seems,

the greater part of his fortune. De Vaca affirms that he left Spain, on the 17th of

July, 1527, with six hundred men, including cavaliers and gentlemen. But, owing
to desertions of his men at St. Domingo — to incidental delays — and to storms and
shipwreck, on the coasts of Cuba, his forces had been greatly reduced, and nine
months had passed away.
It was not till the 13th of April, 1528, that he landed in Florida, with a force
diminished to less than 400 men and 42 horses. The latter were lean and fatigued,
and not fitted for The Indians who had been descried from the ships' decks
a campaign.
the day before, had fled, and left their wigwams in haste. As soon as his followers came
ashore he raised the ensigns of Spain, and took possession of the country in the name
of Charles V. His officers then presented him their commissions, and had them
recognized, and thus off'ered a species of fealty to their civil and military governor.
The next day the Indians who had fled came in, and made many signs, Init as there

was no interpreter, there could be but little exact information. This landing was
made in a Ijay which they called La Cruz —being the west side of the modern Tampa
Bay. The searcoast of Florida was then, as it is at this day, a low alluvial tract,

intersected with large indentations, bays, ponds, thickets, and streams, which oftered

the greatest impediments to the march of the troops. To avoid these, he kept inland,
directing his naval forces to continue their explorations by water, and to meet him at

'
Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, Vol. 11., p. 241. 'Bcrnal Diaz.
 GENERAL HISTORY. 29

a more Avesterly polut. He was employed from the 1st of May to the 17th of June,
in reaching the main channel of the Suwanee river, which he crossed high up.' He
found its current very strong and deep, and lost a horse and horseman in crossing it,

who were carried down the stream and drowned. Nai^vaez was now among the
Appalachians — an important group of tribes, who spread from the present area of
Georgia, Florida, and the southern part of South Carolina, to the banks of the
Mississippi. Its chief members were the Muscogees or Creeks, Choctaws '^
or Alabamas,
and Chickasaws.^ It is clear from tradition * and philology,'' that Florida, at that time,

also contained a member of the Algonquin group, in the tribe of the Shawnees, who
lived on friendly terms with the Creeks.^
It would appear ° that the Indians on the banks of Suwanee represented themselves
as " enemies" of the Appalachians of " Apalachia," against whom Narvaez was march-
ing ; but if so, he soon found that the general enmity of races, as existing against

Europeans, was such as to overcome local strifes among the Indian group ; for they
had no sooner crossed the Suwanee, than they found a determined foe before them
and around them. These were all expert bow-men ; and although they would not
stand their ground in bodies, they kept up a harassing war of details, wounding and
killing men and horses at every opportunity ; a trait in which they strikingly resemble
their descendants of modern times. The whole history of the Floiida war of 1836
bears witness to this.
§. The great error of Narvaez was the want of competent interpreters, or any
interpreters at all. In consequence, he could open no negotiations with the Indians,
who fled before him, or turned aside to let him advance. He appears to have been a
man deficient in a knowledge of the Indian character, and wholly underrated the
eflects of kindness and a sense of justice on their minds. His barbarous mutilation
of the chief of Hirrihigua, and his shocking cruelty to his mother, soon after entering
the country, produced a feeling of deep-rooted hostility, and was well calculated to
make him and his nation abhorred, wherever the story spread. It is related^ that

Hirrihigua had offered a determined resistance to Narvaez, but afterwards formed a

treaty of friendship with him. Becoming enraged for some subsequent conduct of the
chief, which is unexplained, he directed his nose to be cut off, and caused his mother

'
Suwanee is derived probably from San Jobn, or Shawnee. The term " Mucoso," in the narrative of
Grarcilaso de la Vega (preserved in Theodore Irving's Translation, p. CO, &c.), is nearly the accusative of the
phrase Little Bear, in the Chippewa dialect of the Algonquin. ^ Called Mobilians by Du Pratz.
' The fierceness of their attacks — firing a village of which he had possessed himself, and then repeating the
successful stratagem of Mauvila, may be said to have driven De Soto across the Jlississippi.
* ArchsDologia Americae, Vol. I., article Shawnee. See also, Sketch of the Creeks and Creek Country, in 1798
and 1799, by Col. Benjamin Hawkins. * Hawkins.
^ Narrative of Cabaca de Vaca, translated by Buckingham Smith, Washington, D. C, 1851.
' De la Vega.
30 GENERAL HISTORY.
to be toi'ii to pieces by dogs. Eleven j^ears afterwards De Soto encountered the deepest
hostility from this chief, whom he used every means, in vain, to conciliate.

The march of Narvaez from the scene of these atrocities was one series of unbroken
hostilities from the Indians. Some captives whom he took west of the Suwanee,
were compelled to act as guides : they led him through vast forests encumbered with
fallen timber, which imposed the greatest toils. Through these his army struggled
heroicallj^ Not only were they wandering they knew not whither among solitudes

and morasses, but they suffered for the want of food and forage. To such a degree
was this pressure felt, that they were often, when a horse gave out, compelled to kill

him and feast on his carcase. Narvaez was only provisioned, on leaving Cuba, to
reach the coasts. He su^jposed he was about to enter a country ample in resources,
and promised himself to quarter on the enemy, as Cortez had done. He had but
t^\•o days' provision when he left the waters of Tampa. He and his followers had
landed with their imaginations highly excited by the golden provinces they supposed
they were about to enter. Cities and towns flitted before tlieir minds sparkling with
the wealth of those of Mexico and Peru, and they expected to conquer lords and
caciques Avho would supply them food and auxiliaries. Disappointed as they were
at every stej), hope still led them on. Their horses were mere skeletons when they
landed, and were jaded by long and harassing marches, during which they had no
time to recruit. The men fared little better. They marched fifteen days at the
start with "two pounds of biscuit and half a pound of bacon" to a man; and there
was no regular commissariat afterwards. They eat the soft exfoliation or cabbage
of the palmetto, and were relieved at several points by fields of corn, a grain which
was mature about the middle of June. The magic word which led them on was
" Apalache," the name of an Indian town. Here they expected to find a solace for

all their toils, and a reward for all their losses, struggles, and afflictions. It was, to

their heated imaginations, the town of "food and gold."'

§. In sight of Apalache at last they came, but it proved a damper to all their

sanguine hopes. There were forty'^ small Indian abodes of humble dimensions
in sheltered situations, covered with thatch. They were surrounded by dense
-woods, and gro\es of tall trees, -with large bodies of fresh water, the country being

without roads, bridges, or any other proofs of civilization. They found indeed
fields of maize fit for plucking, also some dried or ripe maize and mortars of stone
for i)oundiiig it. The houses contained also dressed deer-skins, and coarse "mantelets
of thread." The men had all precipitately fled, but they soon returned in peace for

their women and children. This request was granted, but Narvaez detained a
cazique, intending to make use of his autlun-ity as another Montezuma for swaying
the Indians ; but this step had a contrary effect. They were a more spirited people

'
Cubaca do Yacn, p. 24. '^
Tlicodure Irving says "two hundroJ and forty." Coiiq. of Florida, p. 30.
 GENERAL HISTORY. 31

than the Aztecs, find became much incensed l)y it, and returning the next day,
attacked the Spaniards witli great fury, and after firing the houses, fled to the lakes
and corn-fields with the loss of but one man.
Having beat them off, Narvaez and his army remained masters of the town
twenty-five days, in order to recruit themselves. He was now evidently on
the waters of the Appalachicola. The detained chief of the Apalaches, and the
captives before made, were inquired of respecting the country and its resources.

They replied that the surrounding country was full of great lakes and solitudes
— that the land was little occupied — the people few and scattered — and that
there was no place at all equal in population and resources to Apalache itself.

But that south of them it was only nine days' journey to the sea and that there ;

was a town in that direction called Ante, and the Indians there had " much maize,
beans, pumpkins, and fish."
For Ante, therefore, Narvaez directed his march. His course was obstructed by
large bodies of water, through which they had to wade. Here the Indians attacked
them, captured their guide, and shot at them with their arrows, from behind logs and
trees, sorely wounding the men and horses. The Lidians are sj^oken of as men of
fine stature, great activity, very expert and determined bowmen, and most excellent
and unerring marksmen, who could hit their mark at the distance of two hundred
yards. One of these difficult defiles of water and woods followed another. For nine
days the Indians hung around their skirts, and harassed them, killing some of their
men, wounding many more, and losing but two themselves. At the end of this time,
they reached Aute, from which all the inhabitants had fled ; but they found an
abundance of maize, pumpkins and beans, ready for picking. By this time, all hopes
of gold and dominion had fled. To add to their distress, disease now attacked the
men, and it became a struggle for existence.

§. Narvaez now determined to search for the sea, which was near at hand ; and
having discovered it, without finding his fleet or hearing any tidings of it, he resolved
to build boats, and continue his explorations along the shore. He was now at the
extremity of his affairs. Unwell himself, and his men and animals wounded and
exhausted ; in an impassable country, with fierce enemies all around him ; deserted by
J.
his fleet, and finding a conspiracy forming among his men, he was called to exercise
some strong decisive act. To build boats, and embark with his miserable followers,
seemed the best choice. But he was Avholly without means for such a work. He had
The next day, while he pondered iu
neither mechanics, tools, iron, pitch, or rigging.
perplexity, one of his men came and said he could make pipes out of Avood, which
could be converted into bellows, by means of deer-skins. This idea was at once
caught at. Stirrups, spurs, crossbows, &c. Avere converted into nails, saws, axes, and
other tools. Pitch was obtained from the pine ; a kind of oakum was made from the
bark or fibre of the palmetto ; the tails and manes of the horses served for ropes,
32
*
GENERAL HISTORY.
shirts for sails. They killed their horses for food. Such a heroic devotion, and
adaptation of means to ends, should redeem the name of Narvaez and his misguided

followers from all reproach. In sixteen days, by hard work, they had five boats

ready, each of twenty cubits length. They were provisioned with oysters and maize,

for which the men searched daily ; and as the Indians laid in wait, ten of them lost

their lives in this hazardous search. Water was provided by filling the skins of
horses, flayed entire and partially tanned.

They had now marched about two hundred and eighty leagues.^ They had lost
on the march forty men, and all of their horses but one. With the 281 men, the
remains of that anny which had landed at La Cruz, he embarked on the bay of
Cavallos, at the mouth of a large river, which he had called Magdalena, and which
is believed to be the Appalachicola. When all the men and lading was on board the

boats, the gunwales were but " a span" above the water. It seemed impossible that
they should not have been drowned, in such a trim. For seven days the men
conducted these fragile vessels ; sometimes wading through sounds, and shallow bays,
which protected them from the surf, before they put out in the open sea.

They captured five canoes from the Indians, which enabled them to lighten the

boats. They made " waist-boards" to the boats, which raised the gunwales. Often
they entered and traversed shallow bays. Provisions and water having failed, they
suffered incredible hardships. For thirty days, they proceeded westward towards the
Mississippi;^ but their only safety was by creeping along the coast near the land.
They encountered a double danger. The frailty and inadequacy of their boats would
not permit them to hold out boldly. If they landed unwarily, they were in danger
of being massacred by the Indians ; wlio, with " bended bow," skirted all this coast,

and manifested the most determined hostility. No intelligence was received by

Narvaez of his fleet, nor any trace of it found. Some of the men became dehrious
from drinking sea-water, and four of theiii died from this cause. One night they were
attacked in an Indian village, where they had been entertained on one of the islands,
and Narvaez received a blow in the face from a stone. The Indians had but few
arrows, and they beat them off. Their miseries were every day accumulating.
Stormy weather succeeded, and they experienced hunger and thirst in their worst

forms. They kept on in company till the 1st of November, when the boats parted
company. One of them foundered, it is believed, at Pensacola. It appears to have
been near the bay of Perdido that Narvaez was last seen. A storm was blowing
ofi" the land, and he told his officers and men that the time had arrived when each
one must take care of himself. Many of the men were too weak to lift an oar. A
'Buckingham Smith, the translator of De Vaea, thinlis only 280 miles: Page 32. This would give a
fraction over four miles per day, from Tampa Bay.
'It has been stated by Mr. Gallatin, vide Am. Eth. Trans., Vol. II., p. — , that he discovered the mouth of
the Mississippi; but this i.s not sustained by De Vaca, and there is no other authority.
 GENERAL HISTORY. 33

storm was gathering. This appears to have been the announcement of the dispersion
and destruction of the flotilla. The wind increased, blowing off shore, — night came
on. He was not afterwards seen by any person who survived to tell the story. The
boat of De Vaca was cast by the waves on an island, a little to the west of this ba}^,

where, famished and nearly lifeless, they were kindly received by the Indians ; for

the latter were no longer hostile, when their enemies were overthrown, and their
humanities were appealed to. Thus terminated the expedition of Narvaez.'
One remark occurs on the fate of this twice unsuccessful commander. The geography
of Florida fought against him.
Cortez, in the worst state of his affairs, after the "noehe iriste," without food,
defeated, and with fierce enemies around him and before him, was marching over
lands elevated seven thousand feet above the sea. Pizarro had the Andes beneath
him ; but Narvaez was never a hundred feet probably above tide-water, and was most
of the time wading his way through swamps and morasses, beneath the level of the
sea. This fact should be remembered, in estimating toils and sufferings of so striking

and melancholy a character. We derive these details from the narrative of De Vaca
— the treasurer and high sheriff of the contemplated government of Florida, and tlie

only surviving officer of the expedition, who, after eight 3"ears of captivity among
the Indians, with three companions, passed on from one tribe to another, crossing the
Mississippi, and the Rio Grande del Norte, till he traversed the coterminous parts of the
continent, and arrived at Compostella, on the Gulf of California, and finally returned
to Spain.

§. It was not till De Vaca appeared at the court

1537, that of Spain. He was hailed
as one risen from the dead ; rumor had long consigned
for the whole expedition of
Narvaez to destruction, and almost to oblivion. The tale of disastrous adventures De
Vaca had to tell, one would have thought sufficient to deter any one from new expeditions
into Florida. But it was far otherwise. The determined resistance of the Appalachians

was but another incentive to Spanish chivalry. Their successes against the Indian
race in America had been such, that nothing was deemed a task too hard or incredible

to accomplish. The very extent and geographical magnificence of the regions De Vaca
revealed, raised expectations of wealth and resources, which fired the imagination.

Other Indian empires, doubtless, extended in the then unbounded precincts of Florida
at any rate, there were heathens and infidels to conquer and bring to the light of
Christianity. Such were the anticipations which appeared to have brought Hernando
de Soto to his resolution. He had been the right-hand man of Pizarro in the conquest
of Peru. His share of the spoils of Atahualpa is stated to have been " a hundred and

'
By the bones and cooking utensils found on Massacre Island, at the mouth of -Mobile bay, by De Iberville,

in 1699, a part of Narvaez's men appear to have met their fate at this spot.

^Tho :i.irnitivo of Alva Cabaca de Vaca, translated by Buckingham Smith, Washington D. C, 1851. ISh
pages folio, with maps and notes.

Pt. III. —5
34 GENERAL HISTORY.
eighty thousand crowns of gold." He was one of the wealthiest men in Sjjain —a
Hidalgo bj- birth, a man of pre-eminent courage and conduct, an elegant horseman, a
soldier without his peer. He had passed several years in Spain, after the conquest of
Peru, in inglorious ease and elegant hospitahty and refinement ; celebrated and envied,
in court and out of court. There was none equal to him and
for his gallant reputation

achievements ; for other heroes and conquerors in the new world had mostly risen from
low stations ; but De Soto, it was affirmed, was doubly entitled to his honors, by the
claims of gentle birth. He little dreamed that he was going to invade a people who
paid small respect to hereditar}^ descent ; who lived in frail wigwams of reeds or bark
— who were exclusively hunters and warriors — who raised no cotton, had no large
towns, no j^nblic roads, no mines whatever; but who, at the same time, chei'ished
a high spirit of bravery and independence, which had been goaded to great activity
by the reckless, cruel, and perfidious deeds of such men as Vasquez and Narvaez.
These tribes, too, possessed great cunning, secrecy of purpose, and stoical command of
nerve. It was their darling policy to carry on their wars by ambuscades and guerilla
parties ; to destroy their foes in detail, and by no means to concentrate into columns,
and stand the brunt of an open battle. They were not the subjects and slaves of a
despotic ruler, like the trembling and taxed vassals of Montezuma, whose power Avas
backed by the dreadful and sanguine rights of a horrid religious tyranny which held
them to a double obedience. But they were free, bold, and unconsolidated Indian
democracies, where every wan-ior's voice was heard, and where every one set the high-
est possible value on tribal freedom. They were, in fact, too poor to conquer in the
sense of that age. The true wealth of the territory wliich they possessed consisted in
the inherent fertility of its soil, its crystal streams, its fine climate, and its adaptation
to all the solid and growing purposes of an agriculture and commerce, such as, under
the Anglo-Saxons, the world has probably never seen. All this could not enter into the
views of De Soto. It was, in fact, of greater intrinsic value than if the Appalachian
chain had been a lump of unbroken gold, and the channel of the Mississippi river,
Avhich was destined to serve as his resting-place, had poured down a flood of liquid
silver. Such were the Appalachians whom De Soto, with his share of the wealth of
Peru, purposed to overthrow. He oflfered to conquer the country at his own cost.

The Emperor readily granted his request, and conferred on him the title of Adelantado,
with the usual powers and immunities. His standard at Seville was flocked to by the
brave and amljitious from all quarters. Portugal, as well as Spain, sent her volunteers.
In little more than a twelve-month his forces amounted to nine hundred and fifty men,
including some of the choicest cavaliers, with twelve priests, eight inferior clergymen,
and four monks ; who embarked in seven large, and three small vessels, at San Lucas
de Barrameda, on the Gth of April, 15-38; being a little less than eleven years after
Narvaez had embarked on his ill-starred expedition, from the same port, against the
same people.
 GENERAL UISTORY. 35

§. Everytliing favored liis voyage to Cuba and liis sojourn there, Avliere he received
a new accession of followers, and procured an ample recruit of the noblest horses.
More than a year elapsed before he was ready to proceed hence on his conquest. lu
the meanwhile, he passed his time in entertainments, tournaments, and rejoicings,
more befitting a conqueror before his entrance on some grand triumphal display than
a descent among the hammocks and lagoons of Florida, where every thicket concealed
vengeful bowmen, and the whole body of the irritated tribes were prepared to assail an
invader Avith the direst hostility. Four Indians had been kidnapped on the coasts and
brought to Cuba to serve as guides and interpreters prior to his embarkation ; a point
of great importance certainly, but the manner of obtaining which served further to
irritate the Indians, and oifend their natural sense of justice and fair dealing. He
embarked all his forces about the middle of May, and after twelve or thirteen days
spent on the transit, entered the waters of Tampa Bay — being the same body of water
that Narvaez' had entered and named La Cruz, but which De Soto now called Esjnritu

&rnto. He remained in his vessels six days. Everytliing betokened a hostile reception
from the Indians. They had abandoned the coast, along which bale-fires were left

burning and sending up their columns of smoke to advise the distant bands of the
arrival of their old enemy. On the last day of May, three hundred men were landed
on arid ground, to take possession of the country for the crown, in the customary form.
(Plate 2.) Not an Indian was in sight. But they were not long in showing their
hostility. During the night, near dawn of day, while the men were bivouacked,
the Indians rushed upon them with horrid yells, armed with bows and cluljs.

Several of the Spaniards were wounded, notwithstanding their armor, and the
whole body rushed to the shore under a panic in the utmost confusion, where they
were reinforced from the ships. The enemy were then dispersed with the loss
of a single horse, which was shot Avith an arrow that had been driven with such
force as to pass through the saddle and housings and pierce one-third of its

length into the body. The whole army now debarked; and during several days

which the}- reposed here after their sea-voyage, nothing more was seen of the
Indians.
There was now something to be done besides tournaments and boasting. An
army of more splendid equipments and appointments had never before landed in
America. It was led by the most brilliant and chivalrous cavaliers. It glittered in

the splendor of fresh-burnished armor. Its trumpets and drums wakened new echoes
in the solitudes of Florida. Its horses, of Arabic blood, decorated with gaudy housings,
presented an object to the natives before which they fled. The spear was a new
and dreaded weapon in the hands of the horsemen; and they quailed before the
deadly aim of the matchlock. But they were inferior to the Indians in the use of the

'
Narvaez had landed on the west shore of the Bay, according to the map of Smith s De Vaca.
3C GENERAL HISTORY.
Ijow. The latter were relieved from the eucumhrance of Ijaggage. They were superior
woodsmen, superior iu minute geographical knowledge, and of the natural resources
of the country. They were better enured to the fatigues and hardships of
forest life. They imitated the sagacity of a fox iu threading a forest, and the
ferocity of a panther in pouncing on their pi'ey. It was their policy not to meet their
invaders in battle in concentrated bodies, but to fall on them unawares at night, or
iu difficult defiles. They sought to conquer by delay, and to enfeeble by a strict war
of details. When consulted, they often gave vague answers. They were adepts at
concealment. It is believed that they often led De Soto from place to place, to
entangle him deeper in the forest. They perceived that he sought, above all other
objects, gold and gold mines. Of these they had none ; but ignorant them-
selves of metallic minerals, they might often deceive and mislead, when they
did not intend it. To ignorant men, silvery and yellow mica, and pyrites of irou,
have often appeared to be gold and silver. The Indians were deceived in the
same way. Their attention was so perpetually called to these subjects, that they
could not mistake the object of the invasion. Besides, it was never concealed by De
Soto. He came as a conqueror. His monarch was boldly avowed as their monarch.
It is left to the narrators who described this expedition, to represent it, as they
chose to proclaim it, with a very pardonable national vanity, as a conquest. It is

not my purpose to follow the march, were that practicable, in all its minute details.

Extraordinary as it was, and fruitful as it proved in scenes of high heroic daring and
prowess, on the part of De Soto and his devoted followers, it is not without violence
that it is pronounced " a conquest." A military reconnoissance, with battles, it

certainly was. It was not possible, in so extended a hue, to keep communications

open with his initial point of landing ; and although attempted, it was abandoned, and
the Indians, with a sound policy and just judgment on their mode of warfare, parted
before him, and immediately closed up behind him. The particular districts were
no longer conquered, than during the time he actually remained on them. He made
immense strides : at first towards the north-east, and north, and then the west, south-
west, and south, and finally towards the north, till he reached the indomitable
Chickasaws, and crossed the Mississippi. By marching so far inland from his starting
point at Tampa Bay, and crossing the Withlacooclie, and the lakes and lagoons at
the sources of the St. John, where Ave must locate his Vitachucco, he avoided
the difficulties that continually beset Narvaez on the Gulf coasts. The movements
of his cavalry were irresistible ; the Indians alvrays quailed before it : but it

appears evident that his infantry lacked drill, discipline, and order. He was a man
as noted for his resource and policy, as for his bravery and personal presence in the
field and council. He took great pains, on reaching the village of Hirrihigua, but two
leagues from his point of debarkation, to appease the feelings of that chief, for the
outrages perpetrated by Narvaez — most cruel and foolish act — which, if there was
 GENERAL HISTORY. 37

no other, tshows Narvaez to have been unfit for command ; for cruelty such as this
was like sowing dragons' teeth, and must ever yield a bitter crop. How successful

these eflforts were, is doubtful. But while negotiating with this chief, he heard of a
Spaniard who was held in captivity by a neighbouring chief called Mucoso. This
was Juan Ortez, a man who had been furtively landed from one of the ships
of Narvaez. Ortez, who had learned the language, was, in his influence on the tribes,
another Marie Marina, and was of the greatest use to De Soto in all his future
negotiations. These two steps were auspicious, and denoted capacity for command.
His first line of march, from Tampa Baj- to Cofatcliique on the Savannah river, Avhich is

in the territory of South Carolina, is a military and exploratory achievement of a sin-

gular and unique character. He was now near to the northern limits of the Creeks or
Muscogees, as the names sufficiently denote. While at Cofatchique, he identifies,

as Ave have before intimated, a dagger and certain articles of armor, which were
determined to have been captured about twenty-four or five years previously from
the ill-fated Vasquez D'Ayllon. Struck with the obedience yielded to a female ruler
of that place whom he is pleased to call " queen," he thought he would facilitate
his march westward, by carrying her along in a sort of state captivity. The idea
is a repetition of that of Cortez when he carried Montezuma a captive to his quarters,
and of Pizarro when he seized Atahualpa. This device seemed to have answered
very well till the queen found herself getting beyond her proper bounds, or territorial
influence, when she managed to escape.

§. De Soto's obser\'ation and experience of the Indian character had been founded
altogether on the south and central American tribes. He had, during the conquest of
Peru, witnessed their implicit obedience to Incas, by whom they had been subjected,
and to whom they yielded both a feudal and hieratic submission. It was impossible
for him to conceive of the spirit of independence of the free chieftaindoms and
republican councils of the bold Appalachian tribes, who.se territories he now invaded.
But if he mistook their true character on landing in Florida, he was not long permitted
to mistake their determined hostility and intense hatred. Having, as the Indians
supposed, received their lands from the Great Spirit, of whom the sun and moon were
only symbols, they could not conceive ho-w their title could be bettered by acknow-
ledging the gift from Charles V. It was not only Hirrihigua, who was still smarting
under the atrocities of Narvaez, who refused every overture of peace, but the same
spirit, although often concealed under deep guises, animated every tribe from the
Gulf to the Mississippi. Hear what Acuera, a Muscogee chief, said, in reply to the

messengers of De Soto, who had invited him to a friendly interview. "Others of j-our
accursed race have, in years past, poisoned our peaceful shores. They have taught me
what you are. "What is your employment ? to wander about, like vagabonds, from land
to land — to rob the poor — to betray the confiding — to murder, in cold blood, the
38 GENERAL HISTORY.
defenceless. No ! with such a people I want no peace — no friendship. War — never-
ending war — exterminating war, is all the boon I ask.
" You boast yourselves valiant, and so you may be ; but my faithful warriors are not

less brave, and this too you shall one day prove — for I have sworn to maintain an
unsparing conflict, while one white man remains in my borders. Not only in

battle, though even thus we fear not to meet you, but by stratagem, ambush, and
midnight surprisal.
" I am king' in my own land, and will never become the vassal of a mortal like
myself Vile and pusillanimous is he who will submit to the yoke of another, when he
may be free. As for me and my people, Ave choose death — yes ! a hundred deaths
— before the loss of our liberty, and the subjugation of our country.
" Keep on, robbers and traitors — in Acuera and Apalachee we will treat you as you
deserve. Every captive will we quarter and hang up to the highest tree along the
^
road."
This was the spirit in which De Soto w^as everywhere met, with the single exception
of Mucoso, the protector of Juan Ortez. It was either suppressed for the moment,
or openly manifested wherever the invaders could be attacked at disadvantage
to his peculiar force. And consistently Avith savage warfare, it was carried
out. During the twenty days that his army abode in Acuera to refresh them-
selves, fourteen Spaniards Avere picked off and slain, as they ventin-ed from camp,
and a great many Avounded, Avithout the possibility of the Spanish seeing or finding an
enemy. Every close thicket and iuipenetrable hammock seemed armed with Indian
vengeance, Avhich it Avas impossible to retort. The bodies of the slain Spaniards, Avho
Avere almost daily buried, Avere dug up the foUoAving night, cut to pieces, and hung
upon trees. The Indians laid in Avait in their canoes in every deep and winding
stream, and let fly their deadly arroAvs Avhenever the invader attempted to cross.
Such determined resistance the Spaniards had not met in Mexico or Peru ; and
the noble sentiments uttered by Acuera should have taught them that there was a
difl'erent class of Indians, hai'dy, athletic, and free, Avho had never yet been brought
into subjection to any yoke, native or foreign.

De Soto Avas not insensible to the noble fire of these sentiments, but Avas not for a
moment to be diA'crted from his task ; unfortunately, as Ave think, he determined to
strike terror into tlieir liearts, by adopting the i^olicy of "an eye for an eye, and a
tooth for a tooth." Em-aged by the j^eculiar kind of petty opposition he found at
crossing the streams, and around his encampments, he let loose a noted blood-hound
as the minister of his vengeance, Avho, in a few da3s, tore to pieces four of the
offending Indians. This cruelty to tlie living exceeded all Indian notions of torture,
and inflamed their rage to desperation. It Avas a similar cruelty that had rendered

'
Micco means king, in Muscogee. ' Irving'.s Conquest of Florida, page 90-97.
 GENERAL HISTORY. 39

Narvaoz odious, and by repeating it, he made himself and his nation to be hated
and abhorred.
What the twelve priests and four monks were doing at this time, we are not
informed but it was hard to teach the doctrines of Christianity,
; which are so full of
promises and mercies, while principles were daily contradicted by such inhuman
its

practices. We adduce
what Vitachucco, another Creek Indian, at a more
also
advanced point on his march, said to his two brothers who had been
taken captive by
De Soto, and who had sent messages to him advising submission.
He was their elder
brother, and the ruling chief.
"It evident \jnough," he replies, "that you are young, and have
is
neither judgment
nor experience, or you would never have spoken as you
have done, of these lated
white men. You extol them greatly, as virtuous men, who injure
no one. You say
that they are valiant —
that they are children of the sun, and merit all our
reverence
and service. The vile chains which they have hung upon you, and the mean and
dastardly spirit which you have acquired during the short period you have been
their slaves, have caused you to sjieak like women, lauding what you should censure
and abhor.
" You remember not that these strangers can be no better than those who
formerly
committed so many cruelties in our country." Are they not the same nation, and
subject to the same laws ? Do not their manners of life and actions prove them to be
children of the Evil Spirit, and not of the sun and moon — our gods? Go they not
from land to land, plundering and destroying — taking the wives and daughters of
others instead of bringing their own with them, and likemere vagabonds, maintaining
themselves by the labors of others? Were they virtuous as you represent, they
would never have left their o^ti country, since there they might have practised their
virtues, instead of roving about the worid committing robberies and murders, having
neither the shame of men nor the fear of God before them.
"Warn them not to enter my lines; for I vow that, as valiant as they may be, if
they dare to put foot upon my soil they shall never go out
of my land alive ; the
whole race will I exterminate."^
" If you want to add to your favors," said four Muscogee captives taken south
of the Suwanee, " take our lives after surviving the defeat and capture of our
:
^ chieftain,
we are not worthy to appear before him. nor to live in the worid."^
Such were the feelings and temper of the whole body of
the Indian tribes,
who, in 1540, occupied the wide area from the Atlantic shores
of Florida and

'Namely, the men-stealers of the Carolina Coast, and the employers

of blood-hounds and Coast-plunderers.
These eventsall happened within twenty-five
years of this time.
^^In-ing's Conquest of Florida. I omit some passages of this speech, in which Garcikso de la Vega has
mingled, it appears to me, European ideas.
'La Vega. Theodore Irving, p. IIP.
40 GENERAL HISTORY.
Geoi'gia, to the banks of the Mississippi. Separated as theii* tribes -were into

difl'erent commnnities, they sank all tribal diflferences, and luiited in a general
opposition to the invaders. Fear of the common enemy drove them into a virtual
union. They never omitted a good opportunity to strike ; but they often concealed
their hatred under the deepest secrecy and the profoundest motives of policy,
which lulled the conqueror into partial security. The geographical terms which
are employed, though obscured in false and imperfect forms of notation, show
that there Avere seven different tongues spoken by the tribes in their circuitous
line of march, from Tampa Bay to the banks of the Mississippi, at the lower
Chickasaw bluffs, where the army crossed.

The ancient Creeks or Muscogees appear at that era to have occupied the entii-e

territory of East Florida and Georgia, extending to the Appalachicola, and reaching
eventually to the Coosahatchie river, in South Carolina.
§. De Soto passed his first winter in the vicinity of Tallahassee." The next year,

he reached Cofaqui, which is believed to have been near the present site of Macon.

The Creeks, who found him pushing under false expectations towards the north-
east, where they had bitter enemies, were glad to facilitate his movements
furnished him with provisions, and took advantage of his marching across the
elevated war-grounds at the extreme sources of the Altamaha, Oconee, and SaA^annah
rivers, to send the war-chief Patofa, with a large body of warriors, under the idea
of escorting him, but really to fall upon their enemies. These enemies were the
ancient, proud, and high-spirited lichees,^ who had defeated the Spaniards on the
Georgia and South Carolina coasts. So soon as they reached the waters of the
Savannah river, they secretly left De Soto's camp at night, and fell with the
utmost cruelty on their unsuspecting enenues. This act was laid to the Span-
iards. De Soto, finding himself compromitted and deceived by this perfidy,

dismissed Patofa and his followers back to Cofaqui. They returned with their rich
trophy of scalps. He then continued his march down the south banks of the
river, and crossed over to the will-o'-the-wisp of his hopes ever since quitting Apa-
lache, in the long-anticipated Cofiitchique,^ where he expected to find mines of gold
and silver. This is a Creek name, which was mentioned to them the year before
at their winter-quarters near Tallahassee, by an Indian boy named Pedro, who, the
narrator reports, De Soto had " proved to be a most elaborate liar, on various
occasions."'' That the Creeks followed up the blow when De Soto had left the
country, and finally conquered the lichees, and brought off the remnant, whom they
incorporated into their confederacy, is denoted by their traditions.*
§. Disappointed in his hopes of finding the precious metals at Cofatchique, and
of opening a communication with the "Queen-mother" of the Uchee tribe/ he carried

'
Pickett. ^ Ilawkiiip. ' Silvor "Bluffs, Barnwell District, Soutli Carolina.
* Theodore Irving, p. -00. '
Iliwkins. ^ The Muscogees had a Salic law.
 GENERAL HISTORY. 41

a young sachemcs.^, who then ruled the village, captive with him on his march from
tills point towards the Appalachian mountains. But she managed to escape on the
way towards the country of her enemies. The Spanish and Portuguese narrators
of this expedition are constantly on stilts. The words "king, queen, prince, and
province," are continually misapplied to bold and free hunter tribes, who were ruled
by simple democratic councils of chiefs and warriors, Avho lived in bark wigwams
more or less substantial, and had no exact boundaries to their territories, but generally
left a strip of hunting and war ground undisturbed between the tribes, as at this
day.
Reports carried De Soto north and north-west towards the Appalachian mountains,
where he passed through a part of the territory occupied by a tribewho are called
" Achalaques," the modern Cherokees. This is the first notice we have of this
tribe. While encamped among the barren eminences at Ichiaha, the Cherokees told

him that about thirty miles north there was gold. He sent two men into the spurs
of the mountam to search for this metal, avIio, after an absence of ten days, reported
the discovery of a country of grain and pasturage ;
" the appearance of the soil

indicated the probable presence of gold and silver in the neighborhood."

§It is remarkable that in this part of his march De Soto should have passed over
the region of Dalilonega, where gold has been recently found in such quantities
in the detritus of the mountains, that the United States Government has located a
mint at that place. It proves that the reports of the Indians, if often vague, were
sometimes reliable.

He now marched south and re-entered the country of the Creeks, following down
the fertile and beautiful banks of the Coosa. The spirit of Hirrihigua, Acuera, and
Vitachucco, appeared to have died away ; and, notwithstanding some difficulties, they
were received with general friendliness, being heralded from one Indian village to
another, as far at least as Coosa, their principal town. De Soto now approached the

borders of the Choctaws and Chickasaws. In his triumphal march down the banks
of the Coosa, the Creeks accompanied him, with hidden motives. They carefully

concealed the plot which was revealed at Mauvila. The practice of making the
ruling chief captive, and taking him along to secure the obedience of his warriors,

who were compelled to carry the baggage of the army, was always grating to the
natural feeling of independence of the aborigines. Yet no outbreaking opposition
was made. The Spaniards regarded the tribes as conquered. They certainly

relaxed their mihtary diligence and discipline. They marched along, spreading out

over large spaces. Their encampments were loosely guarded. It is evident that
they often neglected to post sentinels. The "camp-master" was very remiss — so

much so, that he was finally displaced.

'
Theodore Irving, p. 244.

Pt. III. —6
42 GENERAL HISTORY.
There was, at that time, a noted chief living on the Coosa, of gigantic frame, and
great courage and vigor of intellect, called Tuscaloosa, or the Black Warrior. He
had been carried along by De Soto, a captive like the preceding chiefs, on their niarcli

down this magnificent valley. But he bore the indignity with a degree of impatience
that nothing short of his Indian stoicism could control. As De Soto marched down
the river towards the principal village, at Mauvila, he had some suspicions

of his intentions, from the frequent Indian messengers he noticed; but there were
no additional warriors to his train. The Spaniards entered the town in a straggling
manner, and at intervals, which denoted that no direct hostility was anticipated : and
certainly no additional guards were taken against such hostility. Tuscaloosa was
lirought a virtual captive to his own capital. But the hour foretold by Acuera had
arrived. The day of Indian vengeance was near. Mauvila was a strongly fortified

village, situated on a peninsula or plain, made by the windings of the Coosa. It was
surrounded by stout palisades, with inner cross-ties and loop-holes for arrows, having an
east and west gate. Eighty large and single-roomed houses, thatched in the Indian
manner, stood around a square. Some of the trees about this enclosure retained their
natural positions, and were covered with a dense foliage, which threw a pleasing
shade over the square. It was an Indian stronghold. De la Vega's description is

drawn in a manner to enhance our notions of its means of defence ; and lie certainly

much overrates the number of its Indian defenders, all of which is done with the view
of magnifying the glory of the hard struggle De Soto encountered here.

That one hundred foot and one hundred horse, not one of the latter of which could
enter the town, should have sustained a conflict with " ten thousand " Indian warriors,
would be sufficiently wonderful in itself, should we admit half the estimate of La
Vega, which is asmuch as can be reasonably done. For it is perceived that even
the small force with De Soto were, hy the direction of Tuscaloosa, encamped " a
bow-shot " outside of the walls, while his attendants and personal cortege were assigned
quarters inside. Within the walls was also stowed all his baggage, provisions, and
equipage, which had been brought in advance by the Indian burden-carriers. The
rest of the army, consisting of some seven or eight hundred men, was left to come on
by an easy, and it seems very careless march, under Moscoso, his camp-master.
§.was now the 18th of October (1540), at an early hour in the morning, and while
It

the troops were thus separated, and they were in the act of adjusting their encamp-
ment, that the war-cry of Tuscaloosa broke forth. In an instant hosts of Indians
sallied from the houses, where they had been concealed. The place had previously
been emptied of the matrons and children, and the ground about the town cleared as
it were for battle. De Soto and his attendants were suddenly expelled from the fort,

and its gates shut, leaving five dead. They were pressed so close that many of the
horsemen could not get to their horses, which were unsaddled and tied to trees without,

and forty noble animals were immediately pierced with arrows, and fell dead. The
 GENERAL HISTORY. 43

Tiidiiins were divided intwo columns, one of which attacked the horses, and the other
the footmen. With the usual gaUantry of himself and officers, De Soto led the
remaining si.xty horsemen and all his men to storm the fort. He was soon joined by
some few of Moscoso's horse, and drove back the assailants. They found the gate
closed, quite narrow,and well defended, and were dreadfully annoyed wliile before it,
by the arrows which were shot from the walls and loop-holes with amazing force
and
accuracy. Some of his most gallant cavaliers were fatally pierced between the joints
of their armor, and numbers of their horses killed. In the mean time the yells of the
Indians were deafening; they beat their drums in loud defiance, and shook the
spoilsthey had taken from the Spaniards in triumph at them, from the walls;
and
they were provided ^vith stones to cast on such as came too near. De Soto could not
maintain his position beneath the walls, and was compelled to retreat.
Seeing this, the courage of the Indians rose to the highest pitch of fury. Their
yells and wild music were deafening ; some of them sallied from the gates, others let
themselves down from the walls, and rushed upon the Spaniards. The latter kept in
close and compact bodies, and returned their charges. For three hours they fought in
thismanner charging backward and forward, and over the plain but the advantage, in
;
;

point of numbers killed, was in favor of the Spaniards, who, although suffering
severely,
were cased in armor, while every blow was effective on their foes. At length the
Indians withdrew from the plains, and shut themselves up in their fortress,
and
manned its Avails.
De Soto now ordered his cavalry, being arrow-proof, to dismount, and taking battle-
axes, to break open the gate. By this time the remaining horsemen had reached the
and two hundred cavaliers dashed forward to his support. The gate was soon
field,

broken, though furiously defended by darts and stones, but was found too narrow
to
admit all. Some rushed in pell-mell, others battered the rude plastering from the
walls and climbed over. The fight was furious. The Indians fought from the tops
of their houses. They thronged the square. Lance, club, and missile, were wielded
from every quarter. The struggle was so fierce, particularly from the roofs of the
houses, that the Spanish soldiers, fearful lest the Indians should regain some houses
that had been taken, set fire to them. This was a fatal act.
constructed As they were
of reeds and other combustible materials, fumes of smoke and flame soon spread through
the place, and this added tenfold to the horrors of the scene. Those of the Indians
whom the lance and battle-axe spared, were suffocated in the smoke, or leaped over
the walls. The Indians fought with desperation ; even their 3'oung women snatched
up the swords of the slaughtered Spaniards, and mingled in the fight, showing more
reckless desperation than even the men. The battle, in all its phases, lasted for nine
hours. At length the Indians gave way. Those who left the fort fled in all
directions, pursued by the cavalry. Those who were encountered within the walls,
would neither give nor take quarter. They preferred to die on the spot, and to fight
44 GENERAL HISTORY.
till the last gasp. Not a man .surrendered. The slaughter was immense. The
Spaniards acknowledge a loss of eighty-two men ; eighteen of whom were shot by an
arrow in the eye or mouth, so unerring was the aim. They lost forty-two horses.

They claim to have killed twenty-five hundred natives. This battle appears to have
been fought by the combined forces of the Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaw s.
Tuscaloosa fell, but his name has been perpetuated to the present day, though the
traditions of his peojile do not reach back to the time of De Soto. Such a determined
resistance De Soto had never met with. The feebler Peruvians had shown him no
such instance of it. It was a victory dearly purchased, as in its practical eflfects

it had all the evil consequences of a defeat. The worst thing that had befallen him
was the loss of all his baggage and stores, and supplies. He had not even a scrap of
lint left, to dress a wound. Clothing, extra equipage, goods which had been taken
along as presents to Indians, or to rejsay their services, were all consumed. It made
him moody and taciturn, and from this moment his whole plan of operation was
changed. He had vested his ample fortune, acquired by the plunder of Atahualpa, in
an adventure which had signally failed ; hopes of golden empires appeared no longer
to flit before his mind. He had been pushing on to reach the sea-coast, at the splendid
harbor discovered by Moldenado, and now named Pensacola, or Perdido bay ; where
he supposed that commander to be awaiting his arrival, with new supplies from Spain.
He had fixed on this as the capital of his projected settlement. He was now within
less than a hundred miles of that point. But the battle of Mauvila had come like a
dark cloud over his prosj^ects. There were murmurs in his army they had
; lost every-

thing, even their clothes. He overheard some of his officers expressing the intention
of embarking as soon as they reached the sea, and returning to Spain. He determined
at once to balk this plan, and, as soon as the wounds of his men would permit, to
change his course, and march towards the north. To the north he therefore wheeled,
with all his forces, horse and foot. But an The stand
evil rumor went before him.
made by among them as a triumph. It had broken the
the Indians was heralded
charm of invincibility, and taught them the possibility of a victory even over the

dreaded horse. And from this point, wherever he went, De Soto encountered nothing
but hostility of the deepest kind. " War is what we want," said they; "a war of fire

and blood."' Such was his reception, at the various points at which he encamped,
before reaching the Mississippi. But from none of the tribes did he encounter such a
determined resistance as from the Chickasaws. Tliis tribe, Avho are closely allied to

the Choctaws, have ever maintained a high character for bravery and independence,
which probably has its origin in the times of De Soto, although their traditions, as I
am assured by them (1852), do not reach those times.
His track laid across the Tuscaloosa and Tombigbee, leading north-westwardly till

'

Theodore Irving, p. 28
 GENERAL HISTORY. 45

he came to the waters of the Yazoo. The village on the Tuscaloosa, at the site of the

present capital of Alabama, was abandoned before him. But little opposition, indeed,

was made till reaching the Tombigbee, where the Indians were found in force on its

northern banks, to oppose his crossing. A messenger, who was despatched with offers

of peace, was massacred in De Soto's sight; the Indians then fleeing, with loud shouts

of triumph. Boats were constructed in two days, to cross the wide stream, after which
the army marched on north-westwardly, which led them across the fertile uplands of
Mississippi, till they reached a village called " Chicaza." This stood, apparently, on

the banks of the Yazoo. It was now the 18th of December, an entire month after

quitting the smoking ruins of Mauvila. The bleakness of autumn characterized the

forest,and the season began to exhibit cold days and nights, before which the
men shrunk. De Soto had not many days left the country of the Choctaws, and
entered on that of the Chickasaws. The enemy vanished before him, and when
pressed by the cavalry, retired into reedy thickets and positions, where they could
not be followed. On entering the Chickasaw village, it was found completely deserted.

There were some two hundred wigwams, occupying a gentle hill of oaks and walnuts,
having a stream on either side. It was a favorable position for an encampment, and
De Soto determined to occupy it for his Avinter quarters. For this purpose, he caused
other and larger buildings to be erected with wood and straw, brought from neighbor-

ing hamlets. For two months he reposed in these quarters ; sending out, however,

almost daily, foraging and scouting parties into the adjacent forests.

§. At length the thought to burn the encampment appears to have entered the minds
of the Chicaksaws, and well did they conceal their plan till they could carry it into

effect. For several nights previously, they had made feint night attacks on the
camp, as if, by the frequency of these alarms, to throw the Spaniards off their guard
in the course of which time, however, the rapacity and lawlessness of the soldiers
brought the commander into some serious difficulties. A dark and wild night was
chosen by the Indians for the attack, when the mnd was blowing strongly from the
north. They proceeded in three parties, moving cautiously, and choosing the inter-

vening spaces between the sentinels, to penetrate the camp. They carried live embers

in covered clay jars, and in separate places set fire to the light combustible materials

of which the wigwams and barracks were made. The wind soon blew it into a flame,

which being fed by the dry straw mats, raged with the fierceness of a prairie on fire.
It was at the most profound part of the night, and the soldiers, suddenly aroused

from their slumbers by a terrible outcry, were half bewildered. Some of them at

first took to the woods ; but being recalled, joined in the fight, and as day broke tbe
assailants were chased into the woods, and the army kept its ground.

De Soto, who always slept on his arms, at least "'

in doublet and hose." fought

valiantly, and was finally sustained by his principal officers and men. But this

be more disastrous than even the terrible battle ol'

midniffht attack turned out to
46 GENERxVL HISTORY.
Mauvila. From the suddeuness of the flfimes, some of the men barely leapt out
Avith their lives, leaving a part of their arms and equipments. Swords and lances
required to be re-tempered, for which purpose a forge was built. Many of the saddles
were burnt, and much of the furniture of the houses consumed. Forty Spaniards
had fallen in the combat. One woman, the only Spanish female in the army —a
soldier's wife — was burned to death. Fifty horses had perished, either by the dart
or by the fire, as it was impossible in the melee to untie them from the stakes;
>ind many more were wounded. Another grievous loss was the swine, that had been
driven so far as an element in the contemplated agricultural settlement. They had
been penned, and nearly all of them perished in the fire.

§. This disastrous battle, following so soon after the conflict at Mauvila, was enough
to appal the stoutest heart. Yet it was amazing with what energy the Spaniards set to

work to repair their losses. In three days they established a new camp, within a league
of the old site, to which De Soto gave the name of Chicacilla, or Little Chickasaw.

Not only were their armorers put to work in repairing their arms, but while they

i-emained in this position, w^hicli was during tlie rest of the winter, they made saddles,
shields, and lances. Here they suffered greatly from cold and the want of suitable
clothing and bedding — for the conflagration had left them nothing but what they had
on their backs. It was the 1st of April (1541) before De Soto was ready to quit his

encampment. But it was to encounter new oppasition. The hostile spirit of the

Indians seemed to be deeply and generally aroused in every direction. An easy march
of four leagues, through open plains with deserted hamlets, brought them in sight of a

strongly stockaded fort, called Alabama, (situated on the banks of a stream,) which
was carried by assault, after a desperate resistance. In this contest the Spaniards had
many men wounded, of whom fifteen died ; and although they killed great numbei's

of the Indians, those who remained were in no wise humbled, and never omitted an
opportunity to fall on their enemies, when they could do so to advantage. They
appeared to be the most accurate and powerful marksmen with the arrow that can be
imagined; — this deadly weapon being sometimes driven with such force as to pass

through the entire body of a horse. After a halt of four days, to attend to their
wounded and dead, they again set forward, still marching north, but through tangled
and dense forests and waters, till they came to the banks of the Mississippi, which they
appear to have struck at the lower Chickasaw blufl's. This discovery was indeed the
grand and crowning point of his expedition, and is destined to cany his name to the

latest times. Mines of gold and silver had indeed eluded his grasp, but by the discovery
of this great artery of the North American continent, he had found the high golden way
that w^as destined, in after years, to carry down the products of a valley of far greater
value tc the commerce of the world, than that of the proudest sti'eams of antiquity'.
In comparison with this channel of wealth, the brilliant mines of Mexico and Potosi
shine with diniiuished lustre. Alreadv fifteen States of the American Union cluster on
 GENERAL HISTORY. 47

its mighty stream and innumerable branches, containing thrice the population of the
dominions of old Spain, whose proud and chiv^alrous bannei's were first displayed to its

breezes; and of the future population of this valley, this is hardly the centuple.
The village that was seated here was called Cheesca, ("Chisca.") Its chief had
his lodgment on a high artificial mound, constructed for that purpose. The army,
impatient of the continual attacks they had encountered, immediately^ rushed into it,

and carried it by assault, making prisoners of the women and children, and taking
whatever was found in it, and giving it up to the pillage of the soldiery. By this

means the Spanish leader held in his hands hostages for good conduct ; and he succeeded,
on full negotiation, in concluding a peace. De Soto now desired peace. He had passed
over the broad and magnificent area from Florida, verging far north, and traversing a
very extensive line of country, to the banks of the Mississippi ; and had learned, from
hard experience, that his incessant conflicts with the Indians, though he might have
killed double or treble his numbers, yet had the inevitable tendency to weaken his
forces, exhaust his means, and dispirit his men. He had lost some of his best troops,
nearly half of his noblest horses, and all his baggage ; and, after his most chivalric bat-
tles, victory only gave him empty towns, or unbroken forests. The natural magnificence
of the country kept up his hopes from encampment to encampment but it was only
:

the magnificence of woods, forests, and waters ; occupied by a poor, brave, and hardy
race, who were determined to sell their lives at the dearest rate, who had never
submitted to the yoke of a conqueror. And he had found that every victory
exhausted him, and that his army must at last melt away and be subdued by a
continuation of such reverses.
But he determined, before coming to his final conclusion, to try one more excursion.
It was to penetrate the undiscovered west, that separated him, he supposed, by no
broad space, from the Pacific. The very boldness, width, and strength of the
Mississippi, formed a barrier Avhich invited his martial spirit to cross its channel.
For this purpose he put his army in the best array, and, by slow marches, followed up
the winding channel of the river for four days. To the joy of all his men, who had
been threading dense forests, he deployed on a high open plain, on the immediate
shoi'es of the river, with high and steep banks. These were so abrujjt, that he could
neither ascend nor descend them. He was now evidently on the Chickasaw blufis,

opposite the first eligible grounds above the mouth of the St. Francis. Having
determined to pass the river at this ancient crossing-place of the Indians, he halted
for twenty days, and emploj^ed his men in constructing boats for this purpose. When
they were completed, he launched them, and before daj-light sent across a pioneer
party, to gain the point of landing on the other side. The river was judged to be
half a league in width, but deep and swift, carrying down on its surface uprooted
trees and flood-wood. He effected his passage without molestation, and two hours
before sunset, his whole force was safely across, and he thus turned his back on
48 GENERAL HISTORY.
the fierce Appalachian tribes, who had so stoutly opposed him. Here then was the
first expedition to penetrate that mighty and unconquerable west, which has for three
centuries continued to be the theatre of geographical explorations, by the Spanish,
French, and Americans. It was not, indeed, till 1806, under the conduct of Lewis
and Clark, that De Soto's object was finally attained, the Cordilleras of the Rocky
mountains scaled, and the Pacific shores reached.
§. De Soto was a man not to be daunted by slight or ordinary obstacles. He lifted

his eyes to the western horizon with the contemplation of a hero. After five days'
march, partly through lagoons, he reached the highlands of Missouri; and here he
found himself surrounded by the Casque, who are supposed to have been the Kaskas-

kias of the Algonquin group; a people who, on the settlement of Illinois by the
French, Avere found entirely east of the Mississippi. He here fell into a mistake,

similar to made in his march to Cofatchique, in relation to

that which he had
the Uchees. The Kaskaskias received him with friendship glad to find an ally who ;

might sustain them in a war with a neighboring tribe. They accompanied him in
great force against their enemies the Capaha (Quappas), under the plea of aiding in

carrying the baggage and acting as scouts and pioneers; but they had no sooner reached
the vicinity of their enemies, than they stealthily pushed ahead of the Spaniards
and fell without mercy on the place, killing and scalping all they met with, and
plundering the previously deserted village.
This subtle step cost De Soto a war. He attacked the tribe in a strong-hold in
an island to which they fled, in the Mississippi, where he was deserted by his

allies, who fled. His new enemies belonged to a large and different genera or
group of the aborigines, who are known to us, ethnologically, as the Dacotas;
the uomades of the western prairies. From this attack he withdrew with difficulty.
He then returned to Casque, on the St. Francis, a large village with abundance of
food, where he remained many days to recruit his army. He then marched south
but hearing reports of mineral wealth at the North, countermarched to the wild
granitical regions on the sources of the St. Francis. This was the highest northern
point west of the Mississippi river reached by him. He sent out runners to the salt
country and to the buff'alo country. He ranged through the Ozark mountains and
the defiles of White river. He then crossed a rough elevated district to Tula in
these broad highlands, and wintered in the country west of it. He came to a

country after several days' march, whicli assumed a milder and more fruitful

character. It afforded good pasturage for his horses, and the neighboring Indian
villages gave him supplies of maize. lie encountered severe weather, with snow
storms; and organised parties to supply his camp with fuel from the contiguous
forests. He was now on the north banks of the Arkansas at a high point, where
he wintered, and he resolved, in the spring, to descend the river, with a view
to carry into elfect his long-meditated project of a colony. He selected a site on
 GENERAL HISTORY. 49

the eastern banks of the Mississippi for its capital, in the territory of a people

who were sun-worshippers, and who were clearly by their language and religion the

Natches. This tribe, which appears to have occupied a higher position on the Missis-
sippi than they were found to possess at the period of the settlement of Louisiana,
were called Quigualtangui. They manifested the deepest hostility, and ridiculed the
idea of De Soto's being a child of the sun — an idea which he had thrown out in his
message to them soliciting submission to his arms. " If you are a child of the sun," was
the haughty reply, " return to him, dry up the Mississippi, and we will submit to you."
§. His affairs had now assumed a gloomy aspect; he regretted that he had not
founded his contemplated settlement at Pensacola, or in Perdido bay. He determined
to retrieve his position by building two vessels, to communicate with Cuba, and
reinforce himself, and immediately began the work. In the midst of these activities, he
was seized with a fever, and after a few days' confinement to his couch, sunk rapidly
under its wasting fires, and yielded up his spirit.

He had previously appointed his successor in Moscoso, one of his chief officers. De
Soto's death was carefully concealed fi'om the Indians, from motives of policy. The
Spaniards secretly buried him at midnight, and took every pains to conceal the spot
of his interment, to prevent his body from being dug up and insulted by the Indians.
It was finally determined to place it in a rude sarcophagus of wood, made from
hewing out a heavy tree ; and having done this, it was carefully rowed out into the
centre of the channel of the Mississippi, and sunk.
Consternation was depicted on every brow. It was not immediately seen, that

in the death of a man of his untiring energy, ready resource, and high heroic
greatness of every kind, the expedition was in fact crushed. The maledictions of
Acuero had been accomplished. Vitachucco and Tuscaloosa had not devoted their
lives in vain, to defeat and destroy their proud conqueror. De Soto's death could
not long be kept a secret from the Indians, and they gathered fresh courage in
reflecting on his demise.
§. It had been a popular idea with the army, before De Soto's death, that they were
within striking distance of the frontier settlements in Mexico ; and Moscoso put the
army once more in motion to realize this wild scheme. He persevered in the efibrt,

marching towards the west. He everiywhere encountered fierce and hostile tribes.
These rude enemies had no property, no towns, no government ; but were what they
have remained to our days, — fierce nomades, living on game, and roving over immense
spaces, as the seasons varied.

At length Moscoso became satisfied of the impracticability of reaching Mexico, and

returned to the Mississippi, and resolved to build vessels and leave tlie country.
This was accomplished by the greatest efforts of skill and la]x)r. To take along their
remaining horses, two wooden canoes, or boats, were lashed together. But the
gathering Indians hung upon their rear, waylaid and attacked them in front, and
Pt. III. —7
 ;

50 GENERAL HISTORY.
never gave them rest, day or niglit, till they had killed every horse, destroyed some,
of the boats, and chased them to the very mouth of the river.
§. The track of De Soto has been a
question of much discussion.

The march west of the Mississippi has been generally deemed to be very obscure

in the Spanish narrative. Having, in early life, made my first exploratory trip,' in

rano-ino- among the semi-Alpine group of mountainous hills in Missouri and Arkansas,
called Ozark, which were the scenes of De Soto's marches, the route has assumed,
to me, a more definite character. This route was partly governed by the geological
configuration of ;the country, and in some measure also by the ancient Indian trails
and paths, which, later, gave direction to the routes of the earliest modern roads.
After crossing at the lower Chickasaw bluffs, he marched five days, on an Indian
trail, over the alluvions of the
, Mississippi, west to the hill-country of the St.

Francis, and reached the site of Casqui ;

probably a location of the Illinois Indians
(Kaskaskias). He followed the wily chief of this village nortli-eastwardly, against
his enemies the Capahas (Quappas), on a bayou of the Mississippi, difficult to

approach from that quarter. This was, evidently, about seventy miles above his
orioinal landing point. He then returned south-west to the Casqui; then marched
south to Quiguate, probably near Black river. Hearing fresh reports of mineral
wealth, he now marched north-west to Coligoa, on the source of the St. Francis, to

latitude about 35° 30' or 36°. This was his utmost northern point. He was now at

the foot of the high granitical peaks of St. Francis county, Missouri ; celebrated, in

modern days, for the Iron Mountains, and the lead and cobalt mines of La Motte.
He now marched south, in search of a rich province called Cayas (Kanzas)

and probably crossed the White river valley at Tanico. He thence crossed a hill

country to Tula, in the fine valley of Buffalo creek. The Indians here were ill-

favored, tattooed, and ferocious. Kecruiting at this place for twenty days, he passed

an uninhabited region for five days, west, over the remaining elevations of the

Ozark chain, and came to fertile prairies beyond, inhabited by Indians called Quipana,
Pani, or Pawnee. A few daj^s' further march brought him to the banks of the
Arkansas, near the Neosho, which appears to have been about the present site

of Fort Gibson. Here, in a fruitful country of meadows, he wintered. Next

spring he marched down the north banks of the Arkansas, to a point opposite the
present Fort Smith, where he crossed in a boat, previously prepared. He then
descended the south bank of the river to Anilco (Little Rock), where the army
crossed to the north bank, partly on rafts, and reached the mouth of the Arkansas,

where he died.

These ancient lines of march will more distinctly appear in the diagram (Plate 44)
herewith furnished.

'
Adventures in (be Ozark Mountains, recently revised, and published by Lippincott, Grambo & Co..

riiiladelpLia ; and forming an appropriate illustration of this portion of the text.

I
II. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. B.

(51)
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. B.

SYNOPSIS.

A. GENERIC TRAITS OF MIND.

1. Dignity of Indian Thought.
2. The Indian pronounced very low in the Scale by Philosophers.
3. Testimony of the French Missionary Authors.
4. American Testimony on this Topic.

6. True State of the Hunter-man.

6. Basis of Character. On what Founded.
7. Imperturbability.
8. Taciturnity.

B. TRACES OF FOREIGN ORIGIN. (1 Platk.)

9. Scarifications on the Loss of Friends. Scalping.

10. Immortality in a Future State.

11. Primary Duality of the Deity.

12. A Persic Trait.
13. Not Buddhists.
14. Hebrew Customs.

C. DISTINCTIVE PHASES OF THE HUNTER STATE. (8 Plates.)

15. Government Patriarchal.

16. Gathering Wild Rice.
17. Watching the Corn-fields.

18. Woman in the Savage State.

19. Striking the War Post.

(68)
64 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

D. COSTUME. (7 Plates.)

20. General State of Indian Costume.

21. Moccasin.
22. Esquimaux Boot.
23. Leggin — Male and Female.
24. Characteristic Remarks.

25. War Coat.

26. Head Dress.
27. Winter Caps.
28. Agim, or Snow-Shoe.
29. Azian, or Breech-Cloth.

30. Necklace.

31. Ornaments from Oregon and California.

E. ACCOUTREMENTS. (3 Platbs.)

32. Quiver.

33. Shield.

34. War Flag.

35. Tobacco Pouch.
36. Navoho Wigwams. (1 Plate.)

A. GENERIC TRAITS OF MIND..oiJ .w

1. The scope of thought of the Indian tribes, when they stand forth to utter their
sentiments and opinions in public, is more elevated and high-minded, and evinces
more readiness of expression, than is generally found among the lower uneducated
classes of civilized nations. The talent for speaking is earnestly cherished. During
a long intercourse with various tribes, I have often been surprised by the noble
style of their thoughts, and their capacity to rise above selfishness, and assume a high
heroic attitude. It is difficult sometimes for the interpreters to follow, or understand
these veins of lofty thought, and to do justice to the aboriginal oratory. If these
flights are not always sustained, it may be said that they are sometimes so ; and we
must judge the Indian as we do civilized nations, by their best examples. That a
people who are often depressed, so as to be put to their wit's ends for means of
subsistence, should rise to elevation of thought at all, is surprising.
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 55

The hunter mind is so deeply foscinated with its ideal of freedom, that it seeks
occasion to burst through the fetters imposed by the irksome pressure of civilization
and, as a relief, it gives vent to these bold and free flashes of thought. Their fonns
of language would appear to be too narrow to permit this, were it not that the
purposes of generalization are effected by bold and striking metaphors, which are often
violent indeed, but sometimes surpassingly simple and appropriate. "I stand in
the path," ' the exclamation of Pontiac to the commander of a British force marched
into his country in 17G3, is a metaphor denoting imperial sway in the West, worthy of
Napoleon in the palmiest days of his wonderful career, of putting his feet on the
necks of the kings and emperors of Europe.

2. This trait of intellectual vigor elicited early remark, on the settlement of America.
But it is worthy of note that the best instances of it were not found in the elevated
table-lands and heights of Anahuac, Caxamarca, and Cuzco, on the slope of the Andes,
but among the free forest tribes who wielded the bow and arrow in North America,,
The absence of such traits in the Montezumas and Atahualpas, who were looked to as

the earliest exponents of Indian sentiment, appears to be the most natural and tenable
reason that can be assigned for such sentiments as were uttered by Buffon and De
Pauw ; who, on a sur\'ey of Mexican and Peruvian history, pronounced the human
species in America, together with the whole animal creation on this continent,
diminutive, despicable, and debased.

3. The opinions of French missionaries to New France were singularly in opposition

to this dogma of the eminent philosophers named. Struck by the bold and manly
bearing of the Indian sachems, and their ready powers of oratory, tliey sent back the
most glowing accounts of the natural capacity of this people.

Pere le June, one of the earliest missionaries, remarks — '-I think the savages, in
point of intellect, may be placed in a high rank. Education and instruction alone are
wanting. The powers of the mind operate with facility and effect. The Indians I
can well compare to some of our own villagers who are left without instruction. Yet
I have scarcely seen any person who has come from France to this country, who does
not acknowledge that the savages have more intellect or capacity than most of our
^
own peasantry."
Lafitau says — '' They are possessed of sound judgment, lively imagination, ready
conception, and wonderful memory;" and that "they are high-minded and proud;
possess a courage equal to every trial ; an intrepid valor, and the most heroic
constancy under torments ; and an equanimity which neither misfortune nor reverses
can shake."

'
JIajor Rogers's Nar., Brit. Ann. Register. Relation.
56 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
Pere Jerome Lallemant writes — " Many are disposed to despair of the conversion

of this people, from their being prejudiced against them as barbarians, believing them
to be barely human, and incapable of becoming Christians. But it is very wrong to
judge them thus, for I can truly say that, in point of intellect, they are not at all

inferior to the natives of Europe ; and had I remained in France, I could not have
believed that, without instruction, nature could have produced such ready and vigorous
eloquence, or such a sound judgment in their affaii's, as that which I have so much
admired among the Hurons."
La Potherie observes that, " when they talk in France of the Iroquois, they suppose

them to be barbarians, always thirsting for human blood. This is a great error. The
character which I have to give of that nation is very different from what these
prejudices assign to it. The Iroquois are the proudest and most foi'midable people in
North America, and at the same time, the most politic and sagacious."
Charlevoix remai'ks —" The beauty of their imagination equals its vivacity, which
appears in all their discourse : they are very quick at repartee, and their harangues
are full of shining passages, which would have been applauded at Rome or Athens.
Their eloquence has a strength, nature, and pathos, which no art can give, and which
the Greeks admired in the barbarians."
4. Similar testimony is expressed by numerous other foreign writers of early periods,
all of whom, with the exception of Buffon and De Pauw, concur in the position, that
the Indian mind possesses great vigor, and strong powers of perception, eloquence,
and imagination. American writers have approached the subject with more soberness
of apprehension, and with a perpetual recollection, it would seem, of the Indians'
general defects of induction, forecast, and stability of character. The aborigines are
perceived to possess an imagination of a peculiar, apparently a very ancient and
oriental, cast. Their natural eloquence has commanded general admiration, as

possessing some of the very highest elements. Thought has seldom been brought
home to human actions more forcibly, than it is seen in some of their more celebrated
harangues and oratorical efforts. Mr. Jefferson has given us a most remarkable
instance of their oratorical powers, in his Notes on Virginia.' Mr. Cadwallader
Colden had noticed this trait nearly forty years before, and expresses his opinion that

the interpreters did injustice to the native speakers. " I must own," he says, " that I

'
The facts connected with the speech of Logan are so fully and elaborately considered, in a discourse
delivered before the Mar3'laud Historical Society, 9th May, 18.51, by Brantz Mayer, Esq., as to leave nothing

more to be said on the subject. It is clearly shown, by the testimony of General G. R. Clarke, that Logan was
mistaken in asserting that the murder of bis family was perpetrated by Captain Michael Cresap. It was the act
of one Daniel Grcathouso, at a time when Captain Cresap was at another point on the Ohio: the latter, on hearing
of this cruel and perfidious act, expressed his utter abhorrence of it. Cresap was truly a man whose name
and fame had rendered him an object of foar and respect by the western Indians : but he was as humane as he
was politic and brave ; and his patriotism and military services were of the highest value to the cause of

American independence.
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 57

suspect our Intci"i3reters may not Iiavo done justice to the Indian eloquence. For the
Indians, having but few words and few complex ideas, use many metaphors in their
discourses, which, interpreted by an unskilful tongue, may appear mean, and strike
our imagination faintly, but under the pen of skilful representations, might strongly
move our passions by their lively images."
'

De "Witt Clinton, in his discourse before the New Yoi'k Historical Society, in 1811,
pays a tribute to the Iroquois stock of the Indian family. " No part of America
contains a people which furnish more interesting inforaiation, and more useful
instruction ; which will display the energies of the human character in a more
conspicuous manner, whether in light or shade ; in the exhibition of great virtues or
^
talents, or of great defects."

5. The Indian mind is not capable of strong powers of excogitation. It perceives

quicklj'', and reasons very well on those topics which are familiar to the hunter state.

Neither is it progressive at all. It rather reverts to what is past, than to what is to

come ; and it dwells on these reminiscences with a degree of satisfaction and approval,
as if the age of hunting was the golden age of Indian history ; and all that he sees
around him tells him that that is past. There is but little disposition to pry into the
future condition of human society, and none whatever to seek its improvement.
Allusion is had, of course, to the most elevated minds. The common mass hardly
think at all ; and there is absolutely nothing, in any clan, of a progressive tendency.

Its original conceptions are reproduced at intervals of one, two, and three centuries.
It does not accumulate images and ideas, as happens in civilized and learned life, by
the reading of books. The skies, the woods, and the waters, are the Indian's books.
He I'eads them, and expresses himself poetically concerning them, as well, indeed, at the
earliest points of his history, as he does at the present day. Acuera, Vitachucco, and
Tuscaloosa, were as good interpreters of the Indian views and sentiments, as Pow-
hatan, Tamanend, and Connassatego. The thought-work is, perhaps, improved a
century later, if judged by the eloquent voices of Garragula, Myontonimo, and
Pontiac. We get a sterner view of the effects of civilization on the Indian mind
and institutions in our own day, by listening to the harangues of a Tecumseh, a
Red Jacket,^ or a Thyendanegea. If there be an intellectual declension in aboriginal
character, it is in those tribes who have come more immediately in contact with

civilization, and fallen under the misconceptions and temptations of mixed society.

In these cases, the change is not a mental progress, but a letting-go, as it were,
of the Indian beau ideal of original thought. It is a step downward. The wild
and unsubdued tribes are ever the boldest and freest in their oratory. But their

'
History of the Five Nations. London, 1747.
' Collections of the New York Historical Society, Vol. IT., page 10. New York, Van Winkle and Wiley. 1814.
'See Plate (2.5).

Pt. III. —8
58 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
powers of oratory cannot be taken as a measure of their capacity for meeting the
practical questions of life. To think closely and consecutively, to plan -well, and to

execute with firmness and perseverance, ai'e the characteristics of the human mind
in a high state of civilization. If the Indian mind could be taken apart, as a piece of

mechanism, it would be found to be an incongruous and unwieldy machine, which

had many parts that did not match, and Avhich, if likened to a watch, only ran by fits

and starts, and never gave the true time. The materials of which it is constructed
would be found most diverse, — as "wood, clay, stubble," mud, and dross; bright and
foul things ^vould be found in close proximity, and they could not be cemented or
bound firmly together.

6. What are the focts that the Indian mind has had to guard against ? Physical
suffering of the intensest character ! This has made him to exhibit the most hardened
and stoical qualities. Sometimes deception of a deep dye ! This has made him
eminently suspicious of eveiy one and everything, even things without life ; for, being
a believer in necromancy and witchcraft, he has had to suspect all forms of life and
matter. It became a prime object, in all classes, to suppress the exhibition of the feeling

of nervousness, susceptibility, and emotion. He was originally eminently a man of

concealments. He always anticipated harm, never good. Fear and suspicion put
double guards upon him. A look or a word might betray him, and he therefore often
had not a look or a word to bestow. This severe mental discipline made him a stoic of

the highest character to his enemies, and to all whom he had reason to fear or suspect.
It is the aged, the sedate, the experienced, to whom these traits peculiarly apply. If
such men are dignified and reserved before strangers and councils, it is the dignity of
Indian philosophy. No wonder the French missionaries and officers of the crown
admired such a man, and made strong efforts to convert him, and transmitted
enthusiastic reports of him to the court of France.

7. Imperturbability, in all situations, is one of the most striking and general traits

of the Indian character. To steel his muscles, to resist the expression of all emotion,
seems to be the point of attainment; and this is to be particularly observed on public
occasions. Neither fear nor joy are permitted to break this trained equanimity. The
newest and most ingenious contrivance placed before him, is not allowed to produce
the least expression of wonder ; and, although his language has provided him with
many exclamations of surprise, he cannot, when placed in the gaze of public
observation, be induced to utter any, even the slightest of them, to mark emotion.
The mind and nerves are schooled to this from the earliest hours and it is deemed to ;

be a mark of timidity or cowardice to permit his countenance to denote surprise. In

tliis stern discipline of the mind and nerves, tliere is no appreciable difference in the

whole Indian race situated between the tropic and arctic zones. Heat of climate has
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 59

not been found to Lave liad the effect to relax the liabit, nor cold to make him forget
the unvarying severity of cautiousness, or of what is conceived to be its manly
requirements. The Inca Atahualpa ordered some of his warriors to be immediately
put to death, because they had evinced some emotion of surprise at the sight of
Pizarro's cavalry, who had been directed to curvet before him ;' although
the horse was
everywhere, on his first introduction, known to be the especial object of Indian wonder
and fear.

8. Taciturnity is a habit of mind very consonant to the maxims and experiences

of the hunter life. Where the punishment of hot or hasty words is often the knife or
club, a man is compelled to deliberate well before he utters a sentiment. It is a maxim
in Indian life, that a man who is sparing of his words is discreet. The habits of the
forest tend to show this. Public speaking, and talking, are different acts. A speech or
an oration is left for public councils and occasions ; and is, therefore, thoughtfully
prepared. There is always a private council to determine what shall be said, and a
man appointed to speak, who is not always a chief This preparation is often so
carefully made, that it was customary in early times, on great occasions, to have a
string of wampum, to serve as a memorial or symbol to every paragraph or topic. ^ I
have, in the course of more than twenty years' official dealings with them, found their
private councils to precede every important measure to be discussed; and a public
answer was seldom given, without first assembling by themselves to deliberate. The
requirements of the highest diplomatic circle could hardly, indeed, prescribe greater
caution and concealment than is observed in their public treaties ; and in these two
qualities we may take a Talleyrand and
Metternich, and a Pontiac and Tecumseh, as
the two extremes where barbarism and civilization meet: it Avould be difficult to
determine in which two classes of diplomatists profound concealment and deception
most abound.

B. TRACES OF FOREIGN ORIGIN.

9. Nations between whom no intercourse or commingling of languages is supposed
to have existed, may yet develope a similarity in certain manners and customs. The
most that can be contended for, is that striking and general customs imply early
intercommunication. Some shadowings of an Asiatic origin, it is thought, are to be
seen in the existing customs and beliefs of the Indians. Such is the practice of cutting
and scarifications of their arms and legs, to denote sorrow for the dead ; a custom
which is mentioned in the sacred writings, and also by Grecian and Roman writers, a.s

' Prescott's Conquest of Peru. «

Colden's Five Xations.
60 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
a characteristic of barbarians. The practice of scalping appears to have been a

Hebrew custom.'

10. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul is distinctly taught by most of the
North American Indians. No one can have been a witness to their funerals, and heard
the address which it is customary to make to the corpse, Avhile it is lying dressed out,

ready for burial, in the best of habiliments, without being strongly impressed with this
idea. And the customs and observances connected with its interment on elevated dry
ground, with the implements and ornaments of life, and the lighting of the symbolical
funeral fire, for several nights, on the grave, which is an Algonquin custom, appear to
denote that the soul is believed to be observant of the respect paid to the body, and
that a reunion of the two is believed in. A very ancient notion appears to reveal
itself in the gift of food that is offered, for some time, to the dead — namely, the soul's

duality.^ It would seem that they believed in a sensual and local soul, as distinguished

from an ambient and absent spirit. They act only what they believe. Why make
an offering which there is no belief to justify ? The human mind rejects this.

11. One of the strongest, and, at the same time, the most ancient point of Indian
belief, is that of the duality of God. This was the leading doctrine in the Zendavesta
of Zoroaster ; and was a common oriental notion long before the son of Terah was
called from the plains of Persia to cross the Euphrates. Everywhere our Indians
have upheld this idea of a duality of gods; giving one good, and the other evil powers;
with its ancient developments of subordinate polytheisms.

12. Equally general has been the notion on this continent, in all its latitudes, that

the sun is the symbol of the beneficent Creator and upholder of their great cosmogonic
t'rame, imparting light and warmth for the benefit of mankind. Very incongruous and
horrid rites of offering and sacrifice have, it is true, as was especially seen among
the Aztecs and Toltecs, been built up on this foundation, obscuring its simpler ancient
forms. Yet this belief was at the foundation of all their religious schemes. While
A-ictims were sacrificed to Huitzil Opochtli, the sun was still regarded as the symbol
of beneficence. The duality of God was to be observed by the Toltecs and Aztecs
but it was only the malignant attributes that claimed the chief worship. And upon
these, deeply associated as they were with the continuance of the earth, as marked in
tlieir astronomical system, the native priesthood relied for their power.
The ancient nations " sacrificed to their drag," and made gods of war and battle.

Yet they had their Astarte, their Osiris, their priests of On, and their Baals, in every

grove. Even the temple service did not escape the contamination of the sun-worship,
in the days of its gross declension.'

'
Psalms. » See Vi.l. I., p. 33. ' Ibid. p. 30.
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 61

13. There seems but little, in their manners and customs, to connect the American
Indians with the Hindoo race, notwithstanding the resemblances in some of their
physical traits. They did not burn their dead, even in the torrid zone. Widows
never ascended the funeral pyre. Old men were not committed to the sacred waves
of the Amazon, the Orinoco, or the Mississippi. There was no Avcstern Ganges.
They did not swing on hooks of steel. They did not fall before the car of a western
Juggernaut. There is no infanticide. There are no traits of caste. The extreme
excess of the polytheism of Buddhism was not practised, though each element had
its attributed god.
Yet, like the Hindostanese, they worship the spirits of their ancestors. They both
place cakes on their graves and sepulchres, and pour out libations. Vide Vol. I., p. 38.

14. The strong trait in Hebrew compound words, of inserting the syllable el or a single
letter in the names of children, derived from either the primary or secondary names of
the deity, does not prevail in any Indian tribes known to me. Neither are circumstances
attending their birth or parentage, which were so often used in the Hebrew children's
names, ever mentioned in these compounds.^ Indian children are generally named
from some atmospheric phenomenon. There are no traces of the rites of circumcision,

anointing, sprinkling, or Avashing, considered as consecrated symbols. Circumcision

was reported as existing among the Sitkas, on the Missouri ; but a strict examination
proved it to be a mistake.

The practice of making a feast of the first animal killed at the opening of the
hunting season, is well knoAvn to be quite general with the tribes. It is the remark
of observers, that the animal devoted to this feast must be all eaten and nothing left.

There is evidently some deep feeling or superstition, of luck to happen in the

hunter's life after this feast; and its rites and ceremonies are regarded with the
strictness of an old custom.
Whether the practice itself, or the custom of eating the entii'e carcase, would have
been deemed a coincidence with the solemn Hebrew rite of eating the paschal lamb,
had we not a pre-conceived theory of the Hebraic origin of the tribes (promulgated
first, I think, by Grotius), may be questioned. What has been said of not breaking

'
One of the most striking traits of resemblance in the sound, orthography, and definition of words of the aboriginal
languages to the Hebrew, is that of the verb denoting existence ; a fact mentioned in the grammatical remarks
iu Vol. II., § Language, where the conjugation of the Indian verb is given at length. It appears from Gesenius,
that the Hebrew term for deity, nij], is made up from the root rrn — ;. e., being or existence. The aspirate T

is not, perhaps, always as fully sounded in the Indian. The combination of the two long vowels I and A, as
heard in I-au, more perfectly denotes it ; but the aspirate is often distinctly heard from Indian lips. The parti-

cle au, so frequent a sound in the language, is a derivative from this word, and conveys the meaning of being
or existence, through its complex lexicography. Thus I-au-dizzi is a living being : izzi being a personal generic
particle. And Ogcem-au, a chief, from Ogeem, a grandfather, and au, the declarative particle for existence.
62 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
the bones, is not confirmed b}- any observation of mine on ; tlie contrar}-, it is common to

preserve the head-bones, and garnish them in some v^sxj, as memorials of hunter triumph.
The most striking custom of apparently Hebraic origin, is the periodical separation
of females, and the strong and universal idea of nncleanness connected therewith.
Some of the choruses of their religious dances are deemed by observers to excite

the mysterious and awe-inspiring. But these choruses differ among the diflerent
stocks, and the sequence of S3'llables mentioned as being sacred, by Adair, is thought
to be almost purely fanciful. They dance under any and every excitement, and there
is nothing of moment concluded with them without a dance.
One of the most characteristic of their social dances, is Avhat is vulgarly termed
the Beggar's dance : (vide Plate -3.) This dance is got up in the native villages,
whenever a specific contribution is required. At the towns and garrisons on the
frontiers, the object is generally to solicit tobacco, food, or liquor.

C. DISTINCTIVE PHASES OF THE HUNTER STATE.

15. The extreme antiquity of Indian society appears to be attested by their

adherence to the patriarchal state. The father of the family is the source of power
and authority. He becomes in the various languages the Inca,' the Micco," the
Ogima,' Sachem,'' Rakawana,* or whatever form of language or power the chieftainship
assumes. These are the legitimate words to be interpreted king, lord, emperor, czar,

or whatever forms aristocratic or despotic systems of government may require. The

Iroquois used the term Atotarho for the presiding officer of their league ; but as to
power, he was a mere moderator, and in his costume a simple baldric and feather
could make him. Tecarahoga, a word which has been exhibited by writers" on the
Iroquois as an equivalent for generalissimo, was a mere term for a tribal war-captain,

and did not denote an officer of the confederacy.

Mishinowa, in the Algonquin, signifies, a bringer; one who acts as an economical
aid to the chief The word is from the verb meezh, to bring. If he is to bring aid

in war, he then takes the name of Ogimaus.

10. In the shallow waters of the rivers and lakes, extending north of the latitude

40°, the Zizania Palustris is found in such quantities as to furnish one of the principal
means of Indian subsistence. It is thus still obtained in the principal shallow lakes and
streams of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and in the valleys of the upper
Mississippi and Mis.souri. It is ripe in September. The labor of gathering it is a

care of the females. The places where each family is to gather it, are generally

'Peruvian. 'Creek. 'Chippewa. * North-east Algonquiu. 'Mohawk. ' Vide Stone's Life of Brant.
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 68

selected and known beforehand. "When the capsule is in a fit state to part with the
grain, by agitation, the gathering is commenced. This is generally done by two or
three females ; one of whom takes the bow and the other the stern of a moderate-
sized hunting-canoe, which has been previously cleansed and is perfectly water-tight

and dry. They shove the canoe into the field of rice, and bending the stalks

in handfulls over the sides of the canoe, beat out the grain with paddles. (Vide
Plate 4, Vol. III.)
The Zizania Palustris is a small cylindrical grain, of about half an inch in length,
covered by a very thin pellicle, of a dark color. This pellicle adheres tightly, and is

left on the grain, and is consequently of a dark color when served up. It is boiled, in

plain w^ater, to the consistence of hominy, and is eaten with a spoon. It contains

more gelatinous matter than the southern rice, and is very nutritious. It is also

sometimes roasted and eaten dry. When taken from the bottom of the canoe, it is

full of husks, and requires to be winnowed. It is then put into coarse JS^shkemoots, a
kind of bag, made of vegetable fibre or twine, with a woof of some similar material.
Occasionally this filling material is composed of old cloth or blankets, pulled to pieces.

These bags of rice are laid aside for winter use ; and mucli of it is sold to the traders,

to subsist their men, on their visits to the Indians.

17. It is found, among the bands who raise the zea maize, that, as the grain ripens,

attention is required, in some seasons, to keep the rails, blackbirds, and other
graminivorous species, from destroying the crop. This is a precautionary labor that
also falls to the share of the matrons, girls, and boys. Such is the fierceness of these
predatory attacks, that a particular kind of staging is sometimes erected in the field,

on which the watchers sit, to frighten away the birds. (Vide Plate 5, Vol. III.)

18. Woman, wherever she is, mitigates society. Without her, the savage state

would be demoniacal. Entrusted by nature with cei'tain instinctive principles of

truth, education and refinement prepare her for the noblest ends; but, even in the
savage state, her benign influence is not lost. The savage, when he returns from war
or hunting, is fatigued by over-exertion. Tensity of nerves and stoicism of habit —
rage and fury — the pursuit of vengeance and blood — all these exhaust the savage
mind, and he comes back to his -wigwam to find repose. The first object that
greets his eye in the lodge, is his wife and children. This is pleasing to his heart
the very sight of babes, who are too feeble to walk or talk well, soothes his mind, and
turns it away from ideas of cruelty and blood.
It is not customary to indulge in warm greetings. The pride and stoicism of the
hunter and warrior forbid it. The pride of the wife, who has been made -the

creature of rough endurance, also forbids it. But though her lips are silent, she is

busy. She hands him his smoking apparatus. She gives him clean and dry

«,
64 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
moccasins. She puts on lier little pot, with its forest viands and his wild rice, and
by the time he has fully recollected himself, according to Indian notions, and done
justice to his philosophical sense of taciturnity and imperturbability, the bark onagon
(dish) is set before him ; and he is made to feel that there is at least one person whose
hand is not against him. I once saw a Fox Indian on the banks of the Mississippi,

near whose wigwam I had, unnoticed to him, wandered, take up his male infant in his
arms and several times kiss it —a proof that Indians, if generally stoical, are
sometimes in the melting mood.

19. Whoever has observed the varying phases of Indian society, as it exists both in

the forest and prairies that stretch between the Alleghany and Kocky mountains, must
have become sensible that the feature of military glory constitutes the prime object of
attainment. It is not, we confess, such military glory as is gained among civilized

nations at tli# cannon's mouth, or by charging on the enemy in well-drilled squadrons.

There are no walled towns to batter down, or moats to scale. But the object of
attainment is the same. It is to prove that one set of men are braver or stronger than

another. The civilized warrior receives a badge of honor and a title from his monarch's
hands. The Indian is content with an eagle's feather fastened in his hair. His step
is as proud, his satisfaction for the honor as great and vivid.
One of the principal means of cultivating this spirit in the Indian, is a public
assemblage for reciting the deeds of bravery in the tribe. For this purpose a post is

erected on some eligible sjjot, where the Avhole tribe can conveniently witness the
ceremonies. This post is painted red, the usual symbolic color of war. Music is

provided by the Indian tawaiegon or drum, and rattles ; and by having present a
corps of singers, who are adepts in the Indian songs and choruses. After these
preliminary flourishes, to excite the feeling of military ardor, a sharp yell gives them
notice that one of the warriors jjresent is about to recite his exploits. The music
immediately stops, and gives place to the most profound attention. Dressed out in
his highest " braveries " and war-marks, the warrior then steps forward, and with his

club and lance strikes the painted post. No ancient hei'o, drawn by Homer, could
exhibit more fire, in words and acts, while he details his exploits. He accompanies
every gesture with the precise voice and unction jjroper to the narration ; and when
he finishes his recital, the whole asscmljly of warriors unite in yells of victory and
defiance. The music and singing then re-commence, and are continued till another
warrior signifies his readiness to recite his bravery. Hours on hours are thus employed,
till all who wish have acted their parts. This ceremony is called striking the post.

•In this manner the war spirit is fanned. It is a forest school, in which the young
boys learn their first lesson ; and they become the prey of an ambition which is never
gratified till they have torn tlie bloody scalp from an enemy's head. (Vide Plate 6,

Vol III.)
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 65

D. COSTUME.
20. Throughout the plains and level forests of the tropical and southern latitudes
of North America, the Indian wears little or no clothing, during a large part of the
year. But it is different on the eminences elevated thousands of feet above the
sea; and also very different as the observer extends his views over the temperate
zone.
Nudity, where it is asserted of tribes within the present area of the United States,
as is done by De Bry, of the Virginia Indians, implied generally uncovered limbs
and body. But it permitted the azian or loin-cloth, a necklace of shells, claws, or

wampum ; feathers on the head, and armlets, as well as ear and nose jewels. The
Powhatanese woman had, if nothing else, a short fringed kirtle of buck-skin; the
bust was nude,' but this was doubtless only the summer costume.
But even in summer, the northern Indians were less scantily clothed. The skins
of beasts were adapted to every purpose of garment, and the severity of winter was
warded against by the richest and warmest furs. Commerce immediately altered
this, and taught the Indian the wastefulness of wearing skins and peltries, one tithe
of the market price of which, would clothe him in woollen. It also urged him to
throw by the bow and arrow, and his wooden traps ; accepting instead, guns, gunpowder,
and steel traps. With these he began an effective war on the whole race of quadrupeds,
and soon rendered his hunting-grounds fit for nothing but the plough.

21. Moccasins have stood their ground as a part of the Indian costume, with more
entire success, against European innovation, than perhaps any other part of the
aboriginal dress. (See Plate 7.) They are made of buck-skin, or buffalo-skin, dressed
and smoked after the Indian fashion. The different kinds of adz for removing rough
hair from skins have been denoted in Figs. 6, 7, and 8, Plate 7, Vol. 11. The skin is

then macerated and dressed with the brains of the animal, till the harsher properties
are well discharged, and it is brought to a soft, smooth, and pliant state. (See Plate
14, Vol. II.) If it is designed for a bride's moccasins, or to be worn by females on
some ceremonial occasions, and to be ornamented with porcupine quills and ribbons,
the dressing is continued till it is as soft and white as the finest white dressed doe-
skin ; but if intended for ordinary use, it is smoked, and brought by the pyrohgneoiis
properties of the smoke to a brown color and compact texture, in which state

it is fitted the better to repel moisture. This smoking is effected by burning

hard wood chips in a smouldering fire, in the bottom of an orifice dug in the ground,

the skin being suspended by a light frame around and above the orifice. For the

'
De Bry's Drawings.

Pt. III. —
66 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
various forms of this article, see Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. There is a fashion in the

cut, closing and pucker of the shoe, Avhich denotes the different tribes. As a general

remark, the puckered toe is indicative of the Iroquois and the Dacota stocks, and
the Missouri tribes generally. In the Algonquin, and particularly in the Chippewa
shoe, the pucker is very finely drawn and covered with ornamental quiU-work. No
attempt has been observed in any of the United States or British-American tribes,
to macerate their skins in decoctions of oak, chestnut or hemlock bark, with a view

to thicken or sohdify the fibre; or to do anything towards the important art

of tanning. Yet they have known the stringent principle of these barks, as we
observe, in some rude and harsh attempts to apply them medically. Indeed, the

moccasin and the leggin of skins, constitute one of the most characteristic arts of
the true hunter state. The Spaniards, who have never failed to state, if not to over
estimate, the semi-civiUzation of the Toltecs and Aztecs, have left us in the dark on

this point, and to conclude that these tribes never had the art of tanning.
Figs. 9 and 10 represent the Indian personal or toilet painl^bag, and looking-glass.

22. The preparation of the Esquimaux boot. Fig. 8, equally with that of the Indian
buck-skin shoe, manifests the want of any knowledge of the solidifying properties of
tannin. It consists merely of seal-skin, doubled in a peculiar way under the foot,

hanging but loosely around the leg, like a buskin, except that it is drawn at the top,

and has small orifices for strings to keep it on, which are tied on the instep.

23. The buck-skin leggin —the "leather-stockmg" of popular American literature

prevailed over the continent at the respective periods of tribal discovery ; and is in

use, at the present period, among all our hunter tribes. It is by far the most
durable and appropriate article for the purpose knowTi ; being as light as it is strong.

It resists the rough wear and tear of the woodsman's and hunter's life better than any
fabric which has been substituted for it. Those designed for males are made precisely
the length of the leg ; the outer seam being cut so as to embrace the hip. When
thus drawn on, it is fastened, by strings of the same material, to a main cord,

or abdominal tie. The female leggin has no such appendage. It reaches a little

below the knee, where it is fastened by a garter.' See Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, Plate 8, male;
and 5 and 6, female. Both kinds reach down closely on the moccasin, where they are
fastened at the ankle, so that the convex part of the leg is quite covered, and the rain
and snow kept out. Ornaments and fringes are permitted, agreeably to the size. The
female leggin is only ornamented at the bottom. The male leggin is fringed and
ornamented nearly its entire length. There is generally what is designed as a

'
In the painting of Pocahontas, in the Rotundo of the Capitol, the sister of the heroine is painted

sitting on the floor, with a man's leggins reaching the entire length of her limhs, and tied, in the male fashion,
around her body. Nothing could be more erroneous, in respect to Indian costume.
\

^mg^
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 67

military stripe, of quill-work, reaching from the ankle to half thigh. To give
firmness, and serve at the same time for ornament, a colored worsted tasselled garter
is tied below the knee : (Fig. 3.) At this point hawks' bells are attached, which
produce a tinkling sound in Avalking.
The article offered and worn as a substitute for buck-skin leggins, by the trade, is

made of strouds a coarse blue

; cloth, red or green, coarse quality ; coarse broadcloth,
or white or spotted moulton.

24. In female hybrids of the Indian blood, who have been educated and introduced
to the refinements of drawing-room life, there is often found some recognition of, or
lingering taste for, some particular features of the native costume. There is worn by
them a species of pantelet, the substitute of the leggin, which is made of thin Italian
black silk, drawn over the stocking and slipper, and tied in graceful folds, gathered
below the knee.

25. War-shirts, war-coats, and mantles, for use on ceremonial occasions, are often
made from the skins of the fiercest and most renowned animals captured in the chase.
Deer-skin and dressed bufialo-skin constitute their ordinary materials. They are
elaborately wrought and profusely ornamented. In this department, dyed porcupine
quills, sweet grass, and colored hair, are chiefly employed. The favorite colors
in the ornaments of their dresses, are bright red and blue. Drawings of these
garments have been carefully made, and are exhibited in Figs. 1 and 2, Plate 9. At
the treaty of Prairie-du-Chien, on the Upper Mississippi, in 1825, a great variety of
these dresses were exhibited. None, however, exceeded, in its majestical style, the
rube of a Yankton chief, from the Minnesota river, who was called Wanita. He was
a remarkably tall man, with features that might have done honor to a Roman emperor
of early periods, as Ave see them figured on coins. He was clothed in a war-robe of buflf-

colored bufialo-skin, ornamented with porcupine quills, brilliantly dyed. This garment
reached to his feet. He had bunches of red horse-hair tied above his elbows. His
moccasins had appendages of the skin of the hystrix, which dangled at his heels.
He carried gracefully a highly ornamented Sioux pipe-handle of four feet in length.

26. Nothing however creates so much pride, or receives such elaborate attention, or
is purchased at such a cost, as the head-gear in which a chief or warrior presents
himself Taking his ideas probably from the male species of the feathered creation
which are decorated by nature with the brightest and most gaudy colors, he devotes
the greatest attention to this point. And the result is almost as various as these
species, so far as respects form and color.

The primary point aimed at, is to denote his prowess and standing in war. The
scale by which this merit is measured has been mentioned at page 57, Vol. II., and i>*
G8 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
depicted in Plate 13, Vol. IT. But tins mode of denoting a specific honor does not

interfere -with or prevent persons from preparing a highly ornamented head-dress. The
feathers of the eagle are generally chosen for the purpose. Sometimes there is a. fillet

of colored skins, with a feather of honor attached. Horns are often fastened to. this.

(Fig. 2, Plate 10.) Horns are symbolical of power. Where much pains have been
bestowed in framing an elaborate head-dress of feathers which would be easily
deranged, a case to contain and preserve it for ceremonial days, is constructed. (Vide
Figs. 1, 2, 3, Plate 10 ; also Figs. 3, 4, Plate 11 ; also Fig. 4, Plate 13.)

27. During the heats of summer, and the mild weather of spring and autumn, no
covering is required for the head. But it is far otherwise with the northern tribes, in

winter. A cap of cloth is made to fit closely to the head, and falls down the neck,

being tied over the shirt or coat in a manner to prevent the snow from reaching the
neck and throat. (Vide Figs. 1, 2, Plate 11.)

28. It is also during the prevalence of the rigors of winter that the very singular
appendage to the moccasin, called snow-shoe, is worn. .(Vide Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Plate 12.)
It is simply a contrivance to keep the foot from sinking in soft snow. For this purpose

two bows of hard wood are formed and bent elliptically ; the two ends of the bows
being brought together, and closed behind the foot, forming a projection. Two cross-

pieces are put to the front part for the foot to rest on, and a third piece behind the
heel to give firmness to the frame. The whole surface is then laced over with deer's
sinews or strips of hide. A thong of leather confines the foot to the thwarts,
permitting it to play freely, and the whole appendage hangs from the toes, resembling
a vast sandal, allowing the muscles the freest scope. (Fig. 5.)

Various sizes and shapes of the snow-shoe are worn by the different tribes. There
is also always a female snow-shoe, Avhich is shorter, and has some peculiarities of shape.

The cording of the latter is often painted in fanciful colors, and furnished with light

tassels.

29. No tribe in the United States dispenses with the azian. This is generally made
of a quarter of a yard of strouds, drawn closely about the person, before and behind,
and held up by the abdominal string, which also supports the leggins. A flap of the

cloth hangs down an equal length behind and before. This flap is usually ornamented
by needle-work, elaborately done. (Fig. 2, Plate 13.)

30. Over his shirt, or around his coat, if that gannent be worn, the warrior winds
his baldric or girdle, which is woven of worsted from beaded threads. The ends of
these filaments depend as a tassel. (Vide Fig. 5, Plate 13.) The garter is generally
constructed of similar materials. (Vide Fig. 5, Plate 13.) An ornament made of the
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 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 69

claws of the grizzly bear (Fig. 6), the most ferocious beast of the "West, is much coveted
by warriors, who fancy themselves, when carrying such a symbol, as being endowed
with that animal's courage and ferocity. It is in this sense an amulet as well
as an ornament. Indeed, there are but few of the ornaments of the Indians that
have not this two-fold character.

31. Much variety exists in the department of costume that embraces Indian
oniament. A peculiar line of fancy of indi\aduals for personal decoration is seen in
the several objects described in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Plate 14.

E. ACCOUTREMENTS.
32. The quiver is variously constructed and ornamented, but is generally of leather
or bark. It is suspended from the shoulders by a strap around the breast. An Indian's
riches and efficiency, in war and hunting, consist greatly in the number of his

arrows. These are generally fabricated, not by himself, but by another person who
has the requisite skill in the business, and is known as a professed arrow-maker. He
is rewarded for his services, and thus is relieved, in a great measure, from the
necessity of hunting on his own account. (Vide Figs. 1, 2, 3, Plate 15.)

33. The shield is the only protection which the Indian possesses against the arrow.

The Aztec had guarded himself by a wadded cotton doublet. But there was no such
defence against rifles or arms, north of the Gulf of Mexico. The prairie tribes who
employ the shield, use the thickest pieces of the hide of the buffalo. It is an
appendage which they paint and decorate with the greatest nicety. The appended
ornaments of eagles' feathers are represented in Figs. 4, 5, Plate 10.

34. The Indian ensign is formed by attaching the feathers of the eagle to a pole of
some six feet in length, the bearer of which is conceived to be intrusted with a high
honor. These feathers are attached longitudinally, by puncturing the quill, and
drawing a line through the orifice. (Vide Fig. 1, Plate 13.)

35. Wherever the Indian goes in peace and war, and whatever he does, his pipe is

his constant companion. He draws consolation from it in hunger, want, and

misfortune; and "when fair skies betide him" — his constant expression for good

fortune — it is the pipe to which he appeals, as if every puff of the weed were an
acceptable oblation to the Great Spirit. The various sacks in which he carries this
cherished plant, are ornamented with great skill and patience. The drawings in Figs.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Plate 16, are taken from specimens of the Gush-kip-e-tan-gun, a tobacco

pouch in our possession.
III. ANTIQUITIES. C.

(")
 ANTIQUITIES.

SYNOPSIS.

1. Antique Indian Pictographic Inscription on the Banks of the Hudson : (with two Plates.)
By H. R. S.

2. Antique Pottery from the minor Mounds occupied by the Indians in Feasts to the Dead,
on the Sea-coasts of Florida and Georgia. By H. R. S.

3. Antique colored Earthen-ware, from the Rio Gila, New Mexico. By H. R. S.

4. Erie Inscription in the Indian Character of the Kekeewin : (two Plates.) By H. R. S.
5. Notices of some Metallic Plates exhibited in annual Dances among the Muscogees : (one
Cut.) By H. R. S.

1. ANTIQUE INDIAN PICTOGRAPHIC INSCRIPTION ON

THE BANKS OF THE HUDSON. (With two Plates.)
There is a pictographic Indian inscription in the valley of the Hudson, above
the Highlands, Avhich from its antiquity and character appears to denote the era
of the introduction of fire-arms and gunpowder among the aboriginal tribes of that
valley. This era, from the well-known historical events of the contemporaneous
settlement of New Netherlands and New France, may be with general accuracy
placed between the years 1G09, the date of Hudson's ascent of that stream above the
Highlands, and the opening of the Indian trade with the Iroquois at the present site

of Albany, by the erection of Fort Orange in 1614.

The first emplo_yment of fire-anns in a battle of aborigines against aborigines was

undoubtedly that of the well-known conflict of the able and energetic Champlain, on
the borders of the lake now bearing his name, in northern New York. It was the
first successful blow struck with this new weapon in the long and sanguinary war
Pt. III. — 10 (73)
74 ANTIQUITIES.
waged between the two leading tribes of the Indian race ; namely, the Algonquins and
the Iroquois, who so long held the balance of aboriginal power in this part of North
America. It established his reputation with the Indians, and may be regarded by
historians as but one of a series of measures which pi'ove him to have been the ablest
of all the Governors-General, and from his policy and efficiency the true founder of
Canada.
But the Iroquois were quick to improve the lesson, and having been supplied with,

arms by the Dutch, visited with long and fearful retribution this well-managed essay
of the French commander, to supersede their ancient arms. It is not our object in
this notice to follow up the details of these early historical events. It may suffice

to affirm the position, that the first six years after the opening of the era of the

trade at Albany, was sufficient to put the gun into the hands of both the Mohi-
kinder, or River Indians, and the Iroquois.
The jMohikinder,' or children of the Mohigan sub-stock, were Algonquins of the
Lenno Lenapi, or Delaware type. They had, prior to the discovery, been conquered
by the Iroquois, and placed in the position of neutrals or allies. This is attested

by all authorities ; and were there no other evidence but that of the haughty speech
of Canassatego, delivered in full council in their presence, at the treaty of July 12,
1742, nothing could be more conclusive of such ancient subjugation of the Delawares."''
Not a woi'd was said, or permitted by the Iroquois to be said, in reply ; but they were
commanded by the Indian speaker to quit the council, and as a punishment for their
audacity in presuming to sell lands, ordered to quit the Delaware river and remove
instantly to Shaumokin, on the Susquehanna.^
The location of the inscription (Plate 18) is on the western bank of the Hudson, at
Esopus landing. My attention Avas first directed to it by Peter Force, Esq., of
Washington, D. C, a gentleman who had once, in past years, visited the place, and had
carefully examined the declivity on which it is cut ; being a convenient spot, as he told
me, for undressing, as was the custom of the boys in the vicinity, to swim in the river.
Other indications have been reported, at sundry times, of the skill of these ancient
Indians in inscribing figures on I'ocks. Tracks of human feet are among these objects
but the progress of building in that vicinity, and the existence of but little curiosity
on that head, appears to have destroyed these interesting traces of a people who once
fancied themselves imjDortant, l)ut who now live only in history. The traditions of

'
In this compound of Hollandais and English, the first member of the word is taken from Mohigan ; the
inflection kinder (Kind n. plu. er. Adler), cliildren, is improperly, it is thought, spelled "kaunder."
* Colden's Five Nation?, p. 78, Lond. ed. 1747.
' A
maudlin tone has been assumed by some writers who have bewailed the loss of the ancient supremacy of
the Delawares and their conquest by the Iroquois, among whom is the excellent and pious John Hcckewelder.
We are indebted to him for preserving a valuable body of materials of Indian history; he is to be regarded as
liaving had feelings of strong sympathy with the Delawares on this topic. Vide Trans. Hist, and Lit. Com.
Am. Phil. Soc., Phil., 1819, 1 vol. 8vo, p. 404.
 Rare 18

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Capt S Eaatzaan.U S A di?l

PUBLISHED BY LIPPmCOTT. GHAMBO St CCPHILADA

 ANTIQUITIES. 75

the residents of Ulster County do not refer to a period wlien tliis inscription was not
there.

In a map publislied at Amsterdam, in Holland, in 1G59, the country, for some

distance both above and below Esopus creek, is delineated as inhabited by the
Waranawankongs, who were a totomic division or enlarged fimily clan of the
Mohikinder. They spoke a well-characterized dialect of the Mohigan ; and liave left

numerous geographical names on the streams and physical peculiarities of that part

of the river coast quite to and above Coxsackie.' The language is Algonquin.
Esopus itself appears to be a word derived from Seepu, the Minsi-Algonquin name
for a river.''

In the Amsterdam map referred to, this river is made to connect itself with the
Delaware —the country probably not having at that early date been carefully explored

—the easy portage from one to the other being magnified to an actual inter-flowing of
currents, which is not the case. The inscription may be supposed, if the era is
properly conjectured, to have been made with metallic tools. The lines are deeply
and plainly impressed. It is in double lines. The plumes from the head denote a
chief, or man, skilled in the Indian medico-magical art. The gun is held at rest in
the right hand ; the left appears to support a wand. It is in the rampant Indian style.

Such an inscription, recording the introduction of the gun, would not be made when
that era had long past and lost its interest. Indians never resort to historical
pictography when there is nothing new to tell. Thus the Indian pictography throws
a little light on the most rude and unpromising scene ; and if the sources of these
gratifications are but small, we are indebted to them for this little. No attempt of
rude nations to perpetuate an idea is ever wholly lost.

Plate 19 presents the landscape of the east shores of the Hudson, as seen from the
locality of the inscription. Its fidelity will be recognized.

2. ANTIQUE POTTERY FROM THE MINOR MOUNDS

OCCUPIED BY THE INDIANS IN FEASTS TO THE
DEAD, ON THE SEA-COASTS OF FLORIDA AND
GEORGIA.

It is known that, prior to 1492, the aborigines of this continent used vessels of

clay in cooking such articles of their food as required boiUng. There is no evidence
whatever to prove that inetal, of any kind, had been employed for this purpose, in

'
Keport of the Aboriginal Names and GeograpLicil Terminology of the State of New York. — Part 1 Valley

of the Hudson : New York Historical Society. Printed for the Society, 1845 : 43 pages 8vo.
' Keport before quoted.
76 ANTIQUITIES.
either North or South Anierica, at au earlier peiiod. The Peruvians and Aztecs
had a method of hardening native copper, in the form of chisels and other tools but ;

this metal had never been rolled into sheets, so as to form culinary vessels nor had ;

even this art of hardening copper extended to the Mississippians and the Atlantic or
Lake tribes. Pottery, and pottery alone, appeared to be the article relied on.

Wherever the sites of their ancient residences are examined, we find fragments of it.

Entire vessels of this material are frequently discovered in their tombs, mounds, and
teocalli. The highest form of this art, on the continent, existed, as is well known,
among the semi-civilized nations of the south ; who, at the same time, excelled the
other tribes in agriculture, architecture, and their knowledge of astronomy. In
proportion as we recede from those centres of incipient art, the character of the
native pottery becomes coarse and rude ; and this fact also renders it probable that

the state of civilization at those ancient points was the development of a pre-existing
ruder art, which the other tribes had also possessed ; for it did not diffuse itself among
those ruder tribes, as it would have done, had they derived the first knowledge of it

from these more modern centres; but it left them, as they originally were, in
the possession of the hunter or nomadic branch of it. They still made the simple
earth-kettle out of coarsely tempered clay. In other words, the migration, at early
periods and prior to the Aztec period, appears to have been to those centres of future
semi-civilization, and not fro7n them. Thus the species of ancient pottery of the Rio

Gila, and of Sonora, which have attracted the attention of travellers, is of an era
prior to that of the valley of Mexico, and .is to be regarded as the first fonn of
improvement on the hunter's earth-kettle. Afterwards, when the art had received
the highest form, to which it was indebted to Toltec and Aztec skill, though yet
retaining a barbaric character, it becomes a means of tracing migrations towards the
south, east and north-east from the newly-founded Indian capital.

Some of the vessels from South America, as those of Peru, figured by C. T. Falbe,
in the Memoirs of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries, 1843, evince much
skill in their composition, and no little symmetry and beauty in their form and
ornament. But there was no tribe in all the central latitudes of the continent, so
destitute and degraded in point of art, as not to have some form of the article,
however rude. They all made the globular akeek, or sand-bath kettle, and some of
them, vases. This remark applies, certainly, in North America, to all tlie tribes on
the Gulf of Mexico, and along the north Atlantic to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and
north-west from this point as far, at least, as the continental summit, which gives
origin to the Mississippi river, and down its broad valley to the Gulf Indeed, one
of the surest tests of the existence of an ancient town or village, in the great era
denoted, is the finding of vessels or broken pieces of pottery in the soil. To knead
a lump of clay and temper it with sand, or some silicious or felds-pathique material,

and to dry it in the sun, or bake it by heat, appears to have been one of the earliest
 ANTIQUITIES. 77

and simplest arts among men. We may regard it as one of the primary arts of the

western, as it confessedly was of the eastern continent ; and its remains constitute at
this day one of the peculiar branches of testimony, though not the strongest,
by which the early races of the old and new world are to be compared.
In taking up for examination some articles and fragments of antique potter3-,

from the low mounds of the Gulf coasts of Florida, attention is called to a style of the
art, which appears to hold a middle place between the more elaborate specimens of
Mexican fabric, and the rude attempts of the hunter tribes of the north-western and
north-eastern latitudes of the United States.
The principal articles were brought by Mr. Hitchcock, from Florida, who took them
from the small antique mounds bordering on the Mexican Gulf, in that State.

They consist of pieces of broken jars, kettles, stewpans, and a kind of antique
porringers; all designed, apparently, for use in the domestic or medical economy, and
exhibiting a considerable degree of skill and art in their construction. Some of the
vessels are nearly entire, and deficient only in having an orifice broken into the bottom
of them. This orifice seems to have been broken in at the time of their deposit in
the mound, manifestly to prevent their being taken out, and thus to insure their
safety in the small circular mounds or barrows from which they were taken. Of
others, the fragments enable us to detennine their size and shapes. All are orna-
mented wth figures of various kinds. Most of them were obtained in 1841, from
the minor species of mounds on the Appalachicola bay. Such mounds are numerous
in that vicinity, and apparently of great antiquity. They exist on the margins of
streams, in the open pine-barrens, and also in the dense impenetrable hammocks;
leading to the idea, that the country Avas generally inhabited by tribes who had fixed
habitations and some of the arts of semi-civilization. Such were indeed the people
represented by the narrators of De Soto's expedition, to be found here in 15-38. Thev
lived in villages, cultivated the zea maize, and yielded implicit obedience to chiefs and
rulers.

The antiquity of these mounds is inferred from the growth of the live-oak on their
summits ; some of the trees of this species being two or three feet in diameter. The
slow growth of this tree would hardly justify us in assigning for the largest of these
species, a period of less than six hundred or seven hundred years from the time of the
interments. This would indicate the 12th century as the period when this art of

pottery flourished; agreeably to similar proofs, it may be observed, which correspond

very well to the Mound Period of the Ohio Valley.
These Florida coast mounds are neither gigantic, like those of the Mississippi Valley,

nor in the teocalli style, like those of Mexico.' They are generalh^ from thirty to fifty

'
The largest mounds of this general region of country appear, as we are informed by Mr. Pickett, to have

been designed for the residences of the native rulers. Such are large tumuli on the Ocmulgee in Georgia, and
at Florence and Carthage in Alabama.
78 ANTIQUITIES.
feet iu diameter, and from twelve to eighteen feet in height. They appear to have
been, not places of worship, but of burial, as is ever^^where proved b}^ the human
bones found along with the antique potter3-. The^^are constructed of the rich black
soil or sand of the rivei''s bank or plains ; and as many of these plains are subject
to periodical inundation, thej' originated, perhaps, in the motive to preserve the local-
ities of their bui'ial-grounds dry, and a desire to prevent the bones of their relatives
from being washed away and carried into the Gulf.
Similar mounds exist on the St. John's and the Ochlaw^aha. In one of these, the
skeleton of a very large person was found in a horizontal position, with a skuU of
great lateral expansion. Around it were the bones of others, all in a sitting posture.
In another mound two layers of skeletons were found, with their heads inclined to the
centre — the heads being raised, and the feet forming the extremities of radii.

Crania were obtained from these barrows.

The cavities of the skulls excavated, were filled with sand, and the dead Avere all

supposed to have been interred in a sitting posture. The bones were so completely
saturated with moisture, that it required the utmost care to raise them. After exposure
to the sun and light, they acquired the hardnessthat they now present. All the mounds
examined were circular and orbicular, with trenches; but these trenches Avere too

shallow to admit the supposition that they were ever designed as works of defence.
They arose simply from the excavations of earth necessary to cover the bones. In
one of the barrows on the A]3palachicola river, a bit of metal was found, supjDosed to
be brass, but without any orifice or inscriptive marks; a piece of galena, and a clay
pipe, were likewise found in one of the mounds. Some charred tobacco adhered in
the bowl of the pipe.
In some of tlie mounds mentioned, all vestiges of bones whatever had disappeared
— even the pottery had gone to decay, except some small fragments. Others disclosed
large quantities of the conch, oyster, and clam — the latter of a very large species,
and such as is not now to be obtained on the coast. These are locally called Feasting
Mounds ; from an impression that they were the favorite sites of the aboriginal feasts
to the dead. They are not otherwise, than by these ditches, distinguishable from the
barrows or Sepulchral Mounds, since human bones and vessels of pottery are alike
disclosed by both kinds of tumuli. As a general remark, the skeletons appear to
have been arranged in radiating circles from top to bottom, Avith the feet outwards,

and the heads a little elevated, and the vessels placed beside them. Man, in all ages,

lias been averse to placing his dead in positions where the bod}' is in Ioav or damp
])laces, particularly Avhere exposed to immersion in water. Hence the custom of
first burning on hills, and afterwards, when men began to occupy low alluvial places,
of erecting the sepulchral mounds. This idea, Avherever the ancient inhabitants of
America came from, is indelibly imprinted on the character of the burial mounds.
One of the strongest evidences in favor of a considerable degree of art among the
 ANTIQUITIES. 7.)

ancient Floridiaus, is to be deduced from the discovery of a potter's wheel, and other
vestiges of a pottery, mentioned by Mr. Hitchcock, as having been made near the
banks of the Flint river, in Georgia, some years ago. This remarkable fact is stated
by him in a letter, herewith suljinitted. These vessels were found in digging a well,

several feet belo\v the surface. There were present in the excavation, several vessels
of pottery, in a perfect state. What Is very remarkable, is the fact stated, that there
was found in this Georgian excavation, an unfinished vessel on the wheel, as if the
catastrophe, by which the labor was interrupted, had been sudden and instantaneous
It is doubtful, however, whether the discovery of this vestige of civilized arts is not
due to the early attempts of the Spaniards to colonize Florida. In scanning the
specimens of pottery from Florida, I have looked very carefully for the stria3 of the
potter's wheel, such as are produced by its centrifugal motion on the plastic clay, but
without satisfying myself of any such evidence. The ware itself is a mixture of
silex with alumina, colored incidentally by the peroxide of iron. It is quite superior

to the akeeks, or clay pots and vessels in use l:)y our northern tribes on the discovery of
the country. Still it is a question of moment, whether the Florida pottery had been
baked in a potter's oven prior to use. Its full red color, in many pieces of the ware
actually examined, fxvors the idea of such a process ; as it is known that the oxides of
iron existing in common clay, do not require an intense or very considerable and
continued heat, to impart their color. If such a heat was applied to this ware from
the Appalachicola, it is certain that the process was badly done ; as the burning was not
carried, in any instance examined, quite to the centre of the ware, where a dark line

denotes the defect. In some of the pieces the color is umber or brown. In a single
piece it is black ; denoting that no fire whatever has been applied to this specimen. It

is made from a clay having fine particles of mica, tempered with a silicious material, in
a state of considerable fineness. Some fragments are in the condition, nearly, of a baked
black marl. Articles designed for coarser purposes, are made from an argillaceous

earthy mixture, in which there are gross particles of common quartz. These, from
their abraded look, ai'e such as would probably be gathered on a sea-beach. There
appears among the fragments, no vase pi'oper.
One of the vessels exhibits the union of a kind of porringer and a funnel. The
, purpose of the funnel is effected by a hollow, forked handle, through which we may
suppose the prepared liquor could be poured into small vessels without liability to
spill it. This care in its construction suggests the idea that the vessel may have been
used to prepare a precious drink at feast.s, or a liquid supposed to impart courage to
warriors — such as the noted Hack drinh of the Muscogees. At any rate, the shape of
this antique vessel is, so far as we know, peculiar.

Such are the articles from Florida, to the consideration of which this paper i3

particularly directed. They have one characteristic which may be particularly

mentioned. It is the style of the ornaments upon their exterior, in the shape of fillets.
80 ANTIQUITIES.
circles, half circles, dots, parallels, slashed, upright, and waving lines, and other
geometrical figures. These will be best understood by the accompanying drawings,
numbered from one to twelve, which are taken from the fragments, and exhibit, it is

believed, all that is characteristic in this respect.

Geometrical figures and ornaments must be confessed to supply a means of the

comparison of the Icnowledge and ideas amongst nations, civilized or uncivilized.
Some of the curved figures cannot fail to recall similar combinations on ancient
Etruscan and some other early forms of earthen-ware. This trait is plainly observable

in the chain border, Fig. 1, which may be described as a combination of the letter S,

elongated and arranged horizontally. The dots of the field containing this device,

afford a good, although very simple relief. In Figs. 7 and 10, a waved fillet occupies
the same species of ground. Fig. 2 is a plain border, slashed diagonally with a dotted
stripe.

These devices may be regarded as derivative from architectural ornaments ; an idea

which is still more manifest, perhaps, in numbers four and six. Number four consists
of five parallel lines, returned at fixed intervals, producing a half circle of five
concentric lines. Number six consists of an exact semicircle of six concentric lines,

separated at regular distances by five parallel lines. The relation, in the one case, of
five parallels to five curves, and in the other, of five parallels to six curves, is the

trait which, in each border, gives it completeness and demonstrates design.

In number three, this resemblance to forms early developed in the other hemisphere
ceases ; or rather, while the system of right lines and curves is still apparent, the
combination reminds one rather of the curious principles of native architecture, which
form so striking a feature in the monumental ruins of Yucatan.' This border, if its

character has been rightly apprehended, is a combination of the lines of rigid pillars,
and semicircles, placed convex to convex, and ornamented in the dot-style of 1, 2, 7,

9, 10. This feature of the dot is, indeed, it may be said, the characteristic one of these
borders, or at least that feature which denotes their identity of origin.

So far the devices appear to have been taken from artificial objects ; but there are
also a few traits derived from the natural history of the country. Such are, in most
cases, in the fragments of the pottery examined, the ears of the cooking vessels, or
those appendages on opposite sides of the rim, which are provided with orifices to insert
a thong or bale by which these vessels might be suspended over a fire. In some of
the fragments of separate vessels examined, the heads and beaks^ of a duck, a gull,
and an owl, are respectively represented. It ma}-, perhaps, also be thought that
the ornamental devices in some of the fragments represent plumes of feathers.
In Fig. 8, there is a comljination of segments of circles with ellipses and right-

angled lines, inaccurately drawn. It is a drawing which exhibits a fixed theory,

without much manual art. It is the rudest figure obser\^ed. Yet there is in it a

'
See Stephens.
 FLORIDA •
/.{

?lTBLi?HED BY LIPPINrOTT.UBJULSBli s-
 ANTIQUITIES. 81

character whicli denotes it to be sal ijcneris. It is the homogeneous style of dotted

gi'ouud-work.
The particuLar type of the design of number nine is simply parallels ; in number
ten and number five, of circles irregularly drawn ; in eleven, the chain figure of

number one modified. In number twelve there is a rej)resentation of dotted arches

and parallel fillets.

So much evidence of art in the combination of figures to produce agreeable results,

would appear to betoken some advance in the tribes or people who erected the
barrows, feasting mounds, and sepulchral monuments, from which these antique vessels
were taken. The art of adjusting proportions is one of the clearest tokens which a
people can give of the laws of design. There is nothing, in truth, more characteristic
of the low state of art amongst the North American tribes, including the highest
efforts of the ancient Mexicans, than the want of this principle. It seems diflBcult,

indeed, to suppose that the Aztec head could ever have had its exact prototype among
the " sons of men ;" and with every allowance for craniological peculiarities, it is more
consonant to reason and observation, to account for its excessive acuteness, on the
theorj^ of cranial compressure or bad drawing.
That pottery was a fixed art, and the business of a particular class of society,
amongst the ancient Floridian and other American tribes, is thought to be evident from
the j^receding facts. No mere hunter or warrior could drop his bow and arrow, or war-
club, at any time, and set to work to fabricate such vessels. The art of adjusting the
mixture of alumine and silex, so as to counteract excessive shi'inkage, and enable the
ware to sustam the application of sudden heating and cooling, is one that requires skill

and practice. Still more is the manipulation or handicraft of the potter one that
demands continued practice. A hunter and a warrior, it is true, expected to make his
arms and implements ;
yet there was one branch of the requirement which demanded
too much skill and mechanical dexterity for the generality of our tribes to succeed in.

It was the chipping of flint and hornstone for darts, and spear and arrow heads.
There was, according to Chippewa tradition, a particular class of men among our
northern tribes, before the introduction of fire-arms, who were called makers of arrow
HEADS.' They selected proper stones, and devoted themselves to this art, and took in
exchange from the warriors for their flint-heads, the skins and flesh of animals. This
is related by the Algonquins. The Iroquois affirm that pottery was the art of the
women. ^
With respect to the style of the drawings above alluded to, it is the theory of the
designs that appears to be entitled to particular notice. The execution is such as
resembles the efforts of clumsy artists to copy good designs. And we are at liberty,
in examining them, to suppose that they denote ancient fonns of taste and beauty

'
Algic Researches. ' Notes on the Iroquois.
Pt. in. — 11
82 ANTIQUITIES.
lingering in the minds of a people, after they had partially retrograded to a condition

of barbarism.
That the quality of the Florida pottery itself is quite superior, both in composliion
and manufacture, as well as ornament, to the common aiceek, or Indian pot, and
ONAGUX, of the Atlantic and Lake tribes, is strikingly shown by a large and entire
specimen of the black earth-kettle of the Algonquins, which is figured in Plate 22,

Vol. I. This ancient relic of the earthen-ware of the Hunter Period, as it existed
immediately at and he/ore the discovery, was obtained, many j'ears ago, from a cave in
an island of the straits of St. Mary's, Michigan. Nothing can exhibit a ruder
condition of the potter's art. It is a coarse compound of aluminous earth and pounded
fragments of silicious stone and feldspar, without any baking prior to use. It was
evidently used as a retort in a sand-bath. Having no legs, by which a fire could be
kindled under it, the fire was evidently built around it, the kettle itself resting on a
bed of earth or ashes. By inspecting the interior, the carbonaceous and hardened
remains of liquid food, probably boiled maize, will be noticed. This vessel is supposed
to be two hundred and fifty or three hundred years old.
"We thus have, m juxtaposition, the pottery of Florida and of the outlet of lake

Superior — positions separated by sixteen degrees of latitude. They present two

conditions of the art, which are widely different. If both the specimens before us

were executed by the red race, as is commonly supposed, those inhabiting the Florida
coast were superior, as potters, to our northern hunters.
But a single remark will be added in reference to the general question of these
vestiges of ancient art in Florida. It is the tradition of the Shawanoes, which was
recorded twenty-five years ago, in the first volume of the Transactions of the
American Antiquarian Society, p. 273, that Florida was anciently inhabited by white
men, and that their ancestors found vestiges of arts, such as were not common
to the red men. These ancient inhabitants appear to have had the use of iron
tools. Stumps of trees cut ofi" with such tools, they affirm, were found by them,
covered with soil, together with other indications of civilization. It is but a few years
since the gold-diggers in Davidson county. North Carolina, in excavating the gold
debris of a valley, disinterred the remains of a rude house, in which was found a
.stone, excavated in its top, with a stone pestle lying therein, such as is used, at this

day, by the native Mexicans, in making tortillas. Is this also to be regarded as part

and parcel of this ancient supposed North American civilization ?

Questions of this kind arc readily propounded ; but it is much safer and more in
accordance with the sound deductions of history, to account for facts on more
natural and common principles. It is far more probable that these vestiges of art

may be due to earlier European attempts at settlement.

 ANTIQUITIES.

3. ANTIQUE COLORED E ART II EN-WARE, FROM THE RIO

GILA, NEW MEXICO.
The ancient Indian tribes who ihlml)ited the Ijanks of the river Gila have attested
their residence in that valley very characteristically by fragments of potterj', which are
profusely scattered in all parts of it. The remains of the ruins of buildings on the

borders of that stream, are not more characteristic of the peculiar state of Indian
art. The name of the river itself is stated to be derived from a tribe called Gilands,'

whose descendants still dwell on its upper waters ; but these descendants do not hold
a very high rank among the tribes who now rove over the elevated and broken
plains, and sally out stealthily through the precipitous canons, and around the
volcanic peaks, and often dry lateral valleys of the river. They are nicknamed
Kiataws, or prairie-wolves, by the adventurous foresters and hardy emigrants, and
by the United States military detachments who pass through that valley on their
perilous route to Southern Cahfornia. Whatever other characteristics they have at
this time, they appear to be ignorant of the potter's art, and live a predatory, roving

life, having the use of the horse ; obtained from the Spanish, probably, about the time
of Coronada's expedition.
For the specimens of antique pottery, figured in the annexed Plate 20, we are

indebted to Lt.-Col. Emory, U. They were obtained by him (then a subaltern

S. A.
of Topographical Engineers) during the march of the army down that valley,
pending the Mexican war, 1846-47. He has communicated the following description

Nos.

1. The under, or convex side, is of a dingy dove color, and flattened in numberless
small planes, conforming to the general curved surface; appears to have been
patted with a flat instrument while plastic. The concave surface represented

is smooth ; a slight glaze on it.

2. Piece of the rim of a pot; seems to have been much used for cooking; blackened
on upper corner with heat and smoke ; outside represented ; inside, red color
of No. 9 ; hard coarse earthen-ware ; no glaze.

3. Convex side exhibited; coarse imperfectly baked ware; full of white quartz

granules and silver mica.

4. Still coarser, and very slightly baked; contains mica and grains of quai'tz (a

granule shown, eighth in. long) ; convex side exhibited, very slight curve ; both

sides of 3 and 4 alike in appearance.

5. Concave side exhibited (curved slightly across also) ; very smooth ; a sort of
glaze ; the other side is darker ; of a purplish hue ; coarse and porous.

'
Captain Johnston's Report, Ex. Doc. No. 41, p. 587.
 ;

84 ANTIQUITIES.
6. Concave .'sicle aljovo, and tlio back below ; both smooth ; appears more so from
use than a glaze ; some minute species of white mica in the edges.
7. Concave side represented; same sort of ware as the preceding; convex side a

dark dove color, with marks of heat and smoke (edge of a vessel).
8. Convex side coarse and porous ; the white on it appears to have been rapidly
brushed over, and the black executed rapidly with a full brush ; concave side
brick red.
9. Still coarser, and more imperfectly baked ; smooth, apparently from use, on the
back, and of a mouse color.
10. Convex side shown ;
quite good pottery ; edges of thickness about a line deep
baked orange color ; middle, dove ; the white chearon edge appears to have been
drawn wdth freedom; concave side red, color of the other.

11. Coarse, porous, and slightly baked; concave showai; this side, regular surface;

the other, color of the stripes, and irregular.

12. A perforated piece, tube ; the body is black, hard, and shining ; looks like black
quartz (gun-flint variety) ; covered with an exterior red coat of a line thick, which
looks like red coral, and as smooth as that substance. Each black conchoidal
break at the ends, has a fine white line through them; orifice, eighth in.

diam. ; it is slightly curved.

13. A crude lump of chloride of copper (or the silicate) ; earthy and heavy.

Of the fragments of pottery figured, we have not had the opportunity of personal
inspection. This is the less to be regretted from the very characteristic notices
given. Some variety in the composition of aluminous and sUicious material is noticed,

and a considerable range of variety in the ornaments, all which evince but a rude
taste. It may be deemed a coarse species of the aboriginal terra cotta. One remark
may be made of it ; namely, that the vessels have all been made by hand, and not
raised on the potter's wheel. This instrument is very old in its mode of construction
being a whirling disc of wood, with an upright iron crank and foot^board. Nothing
can exceed its simplicity, and Ave have no evidence that it has been improved in
its principles for five thousand years.
Pottery made without it is not geometrically true, and is of very unequal thickness.
These are characteristics that distinguish all the ancient pottery of the Indian era of
North America, from the valley of Anahuac, the rivers Gila and Culiacan, to the

banks of the Hudson, the Connecticut, and the Penobscot.

The figures impressed upon this species of ware, wei-e, however, more elaborate
in the southern than the northern tribes. The articles made were also of more varied
utility and application. None of the Gila pottery which has been seen is superior, if

quite equal, in these respects, to the vases and earthen vessels found in the low tumuli
 Seal? of 5z feet to 1 ir.cli

Sculptured insciipUon on ;i rock. South siiie of Cuiniinghani's Is. Lake Er

LippixLCOtt, Grambo & C9 7!-:-'.".-

 ANTIQUITIES. 85

of Florida.' Yet tlie latter was also hand-work, and made Avitliout the formative

exactness of the potter's wheel.

Specimen No. 12 is manifestly a tube of coarse enamel, and not pottery, and has

been brought to its present condition by the process of vitrification, and is consequently

a higher species of art than the other articles. It resembles strongly, judging from

the fio-ure and description, a species of the same kind of ornament found in 1816 on
the banks of the Niagara, in old graves.^
No. 13 is labelled, "An ore of copper."

4. ERIE INSCRIPTION IN THE INDIAN CHARACTER

OF THE KEKEEWIN. (Plate 41.)
The drawing of the figures and symbols composing this inscription, which was executed
in 1851, having been copied on stout paper and numbered, was transmitted to Mr.

George Johnston, of Sault de Ste. Marie, Michigan, a gentleman well versed in the
Indian language, manners, and customs, and by him submitted to the examination of
Shingwauk or the Little Pine, the aboriginal archisologist, who, from his knowledge of
the Indian pictography, interpreted a prior inscription incorporated in this work. (Vol.

I., Plate 36.)

The Kekeewin or Kekeenowin symbohc drawings of the Indians, are an evidence
of that general desire implanted in the human breast, which leads man to seek
posthumous remembrance. It has been remarked, that these devices represent ideas
tclwh ideas ; and their juxtaposition or relation on a scroll of bark, a tree, or a rock,

discloses a continuity of ideas : (Part I., p. 340.) The highest object of this species of

record isfound in the Muzzinabiks, or rock inscriptions, and in the hieratic or juggler's
art. In the American Indian, as in the Toltec and Aztec system, much was ever
committed to memory. So that the lapse of time, and the demise of hieroglyphists,
took away many of the circumstances that were more purely mnemonic. It is this

feature which renders the mythologic and religious scrolls of the Mexican picture-

writing, at this day, so obscure.

Something of this feeling was expressed by the Indian pictographist, on first casting

his eye on this scroll — not so much perhaps from doubts as to the significancy of the
principal symbols, but from the obscurity, or utter obliteration of others ; and from the
fact that they related to tribes and transactions he knew little or nothing of; who
lived on Lake Erie at the time of the execution of the inscription.
He drewpencil-lines from A
to B, and from C to D (Plate 41) ; observing, that from

the obliterations or imperfect drawing of the figures included in this central part of

'
Notices of some antique earthen vessels found in the low tumuli of Florida. New York Historical Society,

1847. W. Van Nordcst, Printer for the Society, p. l.o, 2 plates.

^
View of the Lead-mines of Missouri. See also Bradford's Antiquities, p. 24.
86 ANTIQUITIES.
the drawing, and from his present reflection on them, he could not make fuller

explanations of them than he now submitted.

The inscription is reproduced from Part II., and the figures are now inserted.
Figs. No. 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, &c., are included in this remark.

He expressed the opinion that he believed the inscription related to the wars and
history of the Eries, after the Indians became acquainted with the whites. The
introduction of the symbol for a hat, in Figs. 6, 111, and 117, denotes this. By the
same mode of interpretation, it may be said that the Indians had not yet received
fire-arms from the Europeans, as no symbol for the gun is observed. 'Assuming what
we believe to be correct, that the Iroquois first received guns from the Dutch, at
Albany, in 1614, and that the Lake Indians did not receive them from the French
for some years later, the date of the inscription cannot w'ell be placed prior to
1625. The Eries were then in the country. Jefferson says that they lived on the

Ohio, and were of the same original stock as the Five Nations.' Le Moyne affirms

that the war had newly broke out against them, in 165-3, and that they were conquered
^
two years after.

Of the unexplained part of the inscription, Shingwauk only speaks discursively.

Nos. 84 and 27 are believed to be brothers. They are surveying a scene of carnage

and battle. No. 27 holds his pipe (28) reversed, as if despairing and agonized.

No. 84, on the contrary, sits calmly viewing the sanguinary field, with his foot
removing a skull and the remains of a body. These are wild forest Indians, as they
are drawn without hats.

No. Ill represents a great chief, evinced by his medal (113) and by his half moons
or gorgets (114). His intercourse with Europeans, and consequent condition, are
denoted by the square symbol for a hat on the head. He also retains his feathers.

No. 112 denotes his pipe, which he holds in the attitude of smoking. No. 115
represents an inland Indian smoking. He wears his head-dress, and is one of the
members of the ceremonial society for tattooing.

No. 117 denotes a chief and necromancer who tattoos; No. 118 is an ornament in
his slit ear; No. 120, his medicine-sack ; No. 121, his ceremonial instruments. By his

also wearing a hat and three gorgets, like 114, he prefigures his rank, and his visits

to the forts or trading-posts on the sea-board. He is evidently a man of consequence

and power, which is further denoted by No. 119, a wand.

No. 116 symbolizes a dish of mixed colors, for the operation of tattooing. Figs.

105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, represent objects to be copied, and placed pictorially on
the chief (117, 119). Fig. 78 denotes a road, and 122, serpents who beset the path;
symbolizing enemies, trouble, misery, and pain of the most pointed and stinging
character. This completes the eastern end of the inscription.

'
Notes on Virginia, p. 156. Lond. ed., 1778. ' Lettres Edifiante.
8=.

®©

^
®

1,
 ANTIQUITIES. 87

The top figure, No. G, opens the western portion of the pictograph. This is a chief
and warrior of distinction. Fig. 7 denotes his pipe ; he is smoking after a fast. Figs.
15, 16 are ornaments of leather, worn by distinguished warriors and chiefs; such
as breech-cloths, with hoofs of the deer attached to them. This is further shown
by No. 14, ornaments of feathers. Fig. 33 is a symbol for the number 10, and
denotes ten days ; the length of his fast. Fig. 34 is amark for the number two, and
designates two days ; denotmg that he fasted the whole time, except a morsel of food at
sunset.
Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 1.3, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 35,
36, and 43, represent different objects relied on by the chief, in the exhibition of his
magical and political powers ; denoting, in him, the sources of long life and potent
influence. Figs. 30, 39, and 41, denote a journey in snow-shoes. Figs. 31, 40 are
(agreeably to the prior explanation on the Dighton Eock inscription) war-clubs.
Part I., Plate 37.
Fig. 38 denotes a fast of twenty-one days, and 37 a fast of ten days, agreeably to
the symbols for numbers before used. The hat and plume denote double influence
witli the White and Red races, and point him out as one of the leading and energetic
actors in the events recorded.
Figures 79 and 80 appear to denote the position of lake Eric, and the connecting
waters of Sandusky bay and river Huron as the scene of these transactions.
No. 1, Plate 40, denotes the exploits of a man who has performed several notable
feats, at sundry times. Nos. 2 and 3 indicate a man of f\ir-seeing intelligence. Nos. 4
and 5 are co-actors. No. 6 symbolizes the head of a man, held up by No. 7. No. 8 is
the symbol of the moon. Figs. 9 and 10 are symbols of the sun. He assumes high
influences and energies, and is an actor of note.

5. NOTICES OF SOME METALLIC PLATES EXHIBITED

IN ANNUAL DANCES AMONG THE MUSCOGEES.

Copper was in its virgin, or the native state of mineralogists, in general use by
the North American tribes. It was hammered out in the cold into various implements
and instruments, at the era of the discovery. Recent disclosures, made subsequent to
1842, in the basin of Lake Superior, prove that it was extensively worked at an
ancient period in the trap-veins of that quarter. The ancient veins, which had been
up with earth and covered by a new
filled forest growth, denote an amount of labor
and art in the prosecution, which have led to the opinion, that the ancestors of the
Indians could not have been the authors of this ancient mining ; and such would seem
to be the inevitable conclusion, were we to conjecture these extensive remains of
88 ANTIQUITIES.
mining industry to be the result of general and continuous labors, and not the slow
remains of centuries. Certainl}^, the knowledge of the mechanical powers here
displayed in raising, cutting, and transporting vast solid blocks of metal, is superior to
that manifested in any ancient works which have been discovered.
But while the use of copper implements is shown to have been general, there is no
evidence that the natives possessed the knowledge of forming brass.' The only well-
attested instance of its discovery in the Atlantic States which we have, namely the
so-called "skeleton in armor," found at Fall River, in Massachusetts, in 1834, has been
found far more suitable to poetic ^ than historic uses.
Mr. George Gibbs has examined this subject with care (Part I., p. 127,) and
establishes the extreme improbability of its being of the age of a very ancient interment,
or at all the fabrication of the aborigines. The interment he conjectures to have been
subsequent to 1620. To him the individual appears to have been one of the
aborigines, and the articles found embrace nothing that might not have been obtained
in trade from Europeans. This appears also to have been the opinion of Dr. Thomas
H. "Webb, who announced the discovery to the Northern Society of Antiquarians at
Copenhagen.
A different opinion has however, on further search, been advanced by that Society.^
In conformity with the theory of a Scandinavian colony on the waters of Narragansett
bay, and in the valley of the Assonet or Taunton river, the individual is conjectured to
have been of that colony, and consequently the interment must have been made early
in the 11th century.
The interment of the body in dry sand, the careful wrapping of it, the preservative
qualities of acetate of copper, and the broad plate of brass, bound with a Scandinavian
belt of copper tubes, linked with hempen fibre, appear to favor this. Analysis of the
plate of armor, or breast-plate, by Berzelius, shows it, however, constituently to resemble
not the old Danish, but modern brass or bronze. ''
One fact seems clear; namely, that
the brass plate found with the Fall Eiver skeleton is of European manufacture, and
can by no means be ascribed to the ancient arts of the American Indians.
The discovery of this plate of brass at Fall River ^ is suggestive of both the
European origin and armorial use of the larger part of the antique plates preserved
with such scrupulous and mysterious care amongst the Muscogees.
The earliest notice of these plates appears to be in the work of Adair,^ who had
passed many years as a trader among the Appalachian tribes. We are informed that
on the 27th of July, 1759, a Mr. Balsover, a British trader in the Creek country, was
told of the existence of these ancient relics by a very aged Muscogee chief. They
consisted of seven pieces of copper and two of brass. They were regarded with
'
Memoires de la Soci6t6 Royale des Antiquaires de Nord, 1840-1843 ;
p. 105, Copenhagen, 1843.
^ Vide Longfellow. ' Memoires, page 104.
*
Ibid, page 115. >
Ibid, page 105. " American Indians.
 ANTIQUITIES. 89

superstitious awe, guarded with great care, and exhibited but once a year. This was
at the green-corn dance, which is celebrated as a sort of thanksgiving. This feast
is called the busk, an Indian term peculiar to that tribe.
Le Clerk Milfort, who published his work at Paris, 1802,' describes them as rare and
cherished relics, to which the Indians attached a high value. Mr. Pickett^ affirms that
there are eleven pieces. Two of these are articles of brass, eighteen inches in diameter,
about the thickness of a dollar, and stamped with the Roman letters M with two
dots. They are too large to justify the conjecture that they were cymbals, the only
musical instrument to which they can be assimilated and they were probably taken
;

by the Indians from some of the early European marauders who landed on the Florida
coasts. The other nine plates of copper' may suggest some ancient form of breast-
plate used in similar forays ; for the early adventurers stood in a hostile attitude to

the tribes, held no terms with them, and only aimed to capture them to work the
mines. The Bahama Isles were in a short time entirely cleared of the native inha-
bitants by the plundering expeditions to enslave Indians for this purpose. From the
description and personal notices of Walter Lowrie, Esq., President of the Presbyterian
Board of Foreign Missions, who examined these relics in the Choctaw country in 1852,
compared with the figures in Pickett's History of Alabama, the following figures of
these antique objects, as they now exist in the country west of the Arkansas, are
drawn.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Muscogee tradition affirms that there were more of these plates possessed by them
at former periods, of different kinds, some of which had letters or figures, but that the
number was diminished by the custom of placing one or more of them with the body
of a deceased chief of the pure or reigning blood. The plates remaining are placed in
the hands of particular men. They are guarded with care, and kept from being
touched by women.

History of Alabama, Vol. I. p. 85. 'Ibid. 'Ibid.

Pt. 111.-12
90 ANTIQUITIES.
The origin and use of these plates is a matter of conjecture. The Muscogees, who
have no consecutive notions on the subject, and, Hke all the aborigines, are prone to
hide every thing of this sort under figures and allegories, ascribe them to the gift of
the Great Spirit; with just as much knowledge of a Deity, and no more absurdity
than the Greeks did their palladium and statue of Diana to the benignant hand ol

Jupiter.'

Such was the opinion of Opothlahola, one of their most distinguished modern
chiefs. There is a tradition that they were derived from the Shawnees, during the
ancient period of the sojourn of that tribe in Florida, with whom the Muscogees were
on the best terms. The incidents of the separate Spanish invasions of Narvaez and
De Soto, early in the 16th century, have completely passed from their traditions, and
there is no reference to them as spoils derived from the Spanish defeats. This is,

liowever, the most probable origin of these enigmatical articles of metal. At the
battle of Mauvila, on the Alabama, the Creeks are stated, in Spanish accounts, to
have taken or destroyed all their baggage, miUtary stores, and suppUes ; and nothing
ismore probable than that these are fragments of the armor or musical instruments of
that era. Such has been the opmion of old traders who have lived with them;
amongst whom may be mentioned Barent Dubois, an intelligent citizen of New York.

'
Acts, chap. 19, verse 35.
IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
THE INDIAN COUNTRY. C.

(91)
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE INDIAN
COUNTRY.

SYNOPSIS.

1. Inquiries respecting the Character and Value of the Indian Country.

2. Indian Territories of the United States. (1 Map, 1 Plate.)
8. Series of Saline Strata in the Onondaga Country.
4. Journal of the Expedition of Colonel Redick M'Kee, United States Indian Agent, through
North-western California. Performed in the Summer and Fall of 1851. By George Gibbs.

1. INQUIEIES RESPECTING THE CHARACTER AND

VALUE OF THE INDIAN COUNTRY. (Circular, 1837.)
16. What are the chief rivers in the district or territory occupied ? State their
length, general depth and breadth; where they originate; how far they are navigable;

what are their principal rapids, falls and portages ; at what points goods are landed,
and into what principal or larger waters they finally flow.

17. — Are there any large springs, or lakes, in the district, and what are their
character, size, and average depth ; and into what streams have they outlets ? If
lakes exist, can they be navigated by steamers ? if gigantic springs, do they aiGFord

water-power, and to what extent?

18. —What is the general character of the surface of the country? Is it hilly or

level — fertile or sterile; abundant or scanty in wood and water — abounding or

restricted in the extent of its natural meadows, or prairies ? What grains or other
products do the Indians raise in the district, and what are its general agricultural
advantages, or disadvantages ? What are its natural vegetable productions ?
(93)
94 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
— Do the
19. prcairies and woods afford an abundant supply of herbage spontaneously
— are wells of water to be had at moderate depths, where the surface denies springs
or streams?

20. — Has the old practice of the Indians of burning the prairies, to facilitate
hunting, had the effect to circumscribe the native forests ?

21. — Are there any extensive barrens, or deserts, marshes or swamps, reclaimable
or irreclaimable, and what effects do they produce on the health of the country ; and
do they offer any serious obstacles to the construction of roads ?

22.—Is the quantity of arable land diminished by large areas of arid mountain, or
of volcanic tracts of country, with plains of sand and cactus ?

23. — Is the climate generally dry or humid? Does the heat of the weather vary
greatly, or is it distributed, through the different seasons, with regularity and
equability ? What winds prevail ? Is it much subject to storms of rain with heavy
thunder, or tornadoes, and do these tempests of rain swell the streams so as to
overflow their banks

24. — Does the district produce any salt springs of value; any caves, yielding

saltpetre earth ; or any beds of gypsum, plaster of paris, or marl ?

25. — Has the country any known beds of stone coal, or of iron ores, or veins of
lead, or copper ores, or any other valuable deposits of useful metals, or minerals?

26. —What is the general character and value of the animal productions of the
district? What species of quadrupeds most abound?

27. —Do the Indian traditions make any mention of larger, or gigantic animals in
former periods? Is there any allusion to the mastodon, megalonyx, or any of the
extinct races, whose tusks, or bones, naturalists find imbedded in clay, or submerged
in morasses?

2. INDIAN TEKRITORIES OP THE UNITED STATES.

(Plate XXI.)

The quantity of land ceded by the Indians from the commencement of purchases
in 1795, to the close of 1839, was 442,866,370 acres.' The statements for the
succeeding thirteen years have not been made up to the present year. The rate at

'
Vide Vol. II. p. 598.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 95

which the Indian population declines, is not certainly deducible from any body of
published attainable facts ; although the details are in the process of being collected
and generalized. Nor has such decline been regular, for definite and equal periods, in

our history; the fluctuations in the vital scale of Indian life having been, as we
perceive them to be at this day, very great. That the early estimates were exaggera-
tions, in many cases, is undeniable ; and where the best and most probable results have
been incidentally exhibited by writers, they are to be regarded as mere approximations
to the truth. The means of human subsistence, and of reproduction, generally keep
an equal pace in every well-regulated condition of society ; but the Indian tribes were
exempted, in some measure, from the operation of general laws of increase and
decrease ; while they were at all times subject to an additional element of decline,
from their perpetual hostilities. The hunter state is adverse to fecundity. An Indian
female does not produce, on the average, more than two children ; and we cannot look
back to a period, since the era of the discovery of North America by Cabot, when the
Indian population of the area of the United States probably exceeded, if it ever
reached, one million souls. Estimates, combined with census returns furnished in

1850, (Vol. I., p. 523,) render it probable that the Indian population of the United States
of that year, did not much exceed 400,000 souls ; and the most liberal estimates

cannot place it, at this time, with every accession from explorations, that have
been since made in New Mexico, Utah, California, and Oregon, much over 500,000.
But whatever be the date, or the rate of increase or decline at fixed periods, it is

undeniable that the quantity of land possessed by even the largest tribes has been out
of all proportion redundant and excessive to the population ;
granting that the Indian
population, in the gross, has been industrial at any given period.

The sale of these redundant lands, the original Indian possession and title to which
has ever been acknowledged by the American government, has been the great and
common resource of the Indian tribes. They are, and ever have been, the great
landholders of America ; and while the cessions have furnished ample areas for our
rapidly-expanding population, this system of cession and payments has had the effect
to keep the body of the tribes from feeling the necessity of industry. Although they are
not civilians and proprietors of the soil eii franc allien, the acknowledgment of their
usufruct title has placed them in the position of original grantors. For this purpose

they are regarded as foreign powers, holding the sovereignty, and treated with as
such ; while, for every other purpose, they are acknowledged as the public wards of the
government, and as wards they are interdicted from parting with their title to any
but the national power. This relation of wards, who are tribal annuitants, has placed

them in the condition of privileged debtors on the frontiers. Every object of use or

luxury is at the command of the tribes who have heavy annuities, and the effect of

this system has been to uphold their natural repugnance to labor, and to weaken
and lower the tone of the Indian mind. Its capacities are paralysed by the
96 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
periodical expectation of the government annuities, which are generally squandered
in brief periods after they reach the Indians, on objects that do not invigorate or
benefit, but tend to detract from its capacities of usefulness.

The accompanying Map, Plate 21, has been constructed with great pains and care,
to exhibit the present territory occupied and owned by the Indians. It shows the
recession of the tribes from the Atlantic, the Alleghanies, and the great lakes, towards

the Eocky Mountains and the Pacific.

It is a mistake to suppose that any of the leading stock-tribes or primary generic

groups of the aborigines have become extinct. Numerous small coast>-tribes, extending
at first along the shores of the Atlantic, through every latitude from the St.

Lawrence to the capes of Florida, early fell before the triple touch of intemperance,

indulgence and idleness, or their remnants retreated westward. But the parent languages
Avere preserved in the body of the tribes who receded from the early points of European
landing and settlement, thus preserving the historical line of the stocks. In this manner
the numerous tribes of New England and the southern part of New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, were speedily swept
off; but nearly all these tribes spoke dialects of the great Algonquin tongue, or
varieties of its sub-divisions, as theMohegan, Lenno Lenape, and the Powhatanic.
The Iroquois language, in its sevenfold dialects,' has been perfectly preserved. The
Mohegan exists fully in the existing Stockbridges and Munsees of the West the Lenno ;

Lenape in the Delaware ; the Algonquin proper in the Chippewa, Ottowa, Shawnee,
and Miami, of the Mississippi Valley, and of the great lake basins. Of the Powha-
tanic sub-type of the Algonquin, we must judge from the old travellers and writers,
compared with the existing geographical terminology of Virginia. The Cherokees have
preserved their language and nationality intact. The languages of the great
Appalachian tribes north of the Gulf of Mexico have come down to modern times in
the Creek, Choctaw, and Chickasaw. An hiatus, however, exists in the ancient history

of tribes of the Chicorean group, who lived on the Atlantic coasts of Florida, Georgia,
and, to some extent, South Carolina, and appear to have been forcibly carried by the
Spanish to work in the mines of St. Domingo ; often from the coast direct, or from the
Bahamas, Cuba, or others of the West India groups. In other cases, they were
subjugated by, and incorporated with, the Muscogees.
The progress of purchase of the Indian territories herewith delineated, must, under
the present expanding population of the United States, absorb these Indian territories
wherever the lands have not been secured to them in perpetuity with the sovereignty
thereof For observations on the future prospects of the tribes, reference is made to
flection XI., herewith.

'
Namely, Mohawk, Oneida, Onoudaga, Cayuga, Seneca, Wyandot, and Tuscarora.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 97

3. SERIES OF SALINE STRATA IN THE ONONDAGA

COUNTRY.
COirMFNICATED BY JAMES R. REES, ESQ.

The importance of recognizing the saliferous column in American geology, will give
interest to the following memorandum of boring made at Lockpit, on the line of the
Erie canal, by Mr. John Mead.

PEET. SALINE COLUMN. aggregate.

3 Alluvial soil 3
46 Alternate layers of quicksand and day. Here the rock was struck - 49
30 Gypsum rock interspersed with strata of clay slate. Here the first

vein of salt water appeared. It rose and ran over the top in a
tube of seventy-nine feet depth 79
44 Similar gypseous rock, with marl-clay slate. Salt water continued to
rise in veins of strength---- 123
2 Blue limestone ----- .--- 125
4 Gypsum and clay strata. Here the second vein of salt water was struck
at the depth of 129 feet. It appeared to be double the quantity of
water, which ran over the top of the tube, and increased in strength
from one to two per cent. - ------ 129
11 Gypseous and clay slate rock, 11 feet. Here the augers were loaded
with a black substance adhering to them, depth 140 feet - - - - 140
11 Clay slate of a milk-white color -- -------... 151
12 Indurated clay ; it continued to grow harder to the bottom of the twelve
feet - - 163
5 Softer cutting of the same kind 168
4 Harder cutting of the same kind - 172
40 Same kind of rock, with an occasional hard streak. Here, at the depth
of 212 feet, a hard streak of rock was passed through, and opened a
vein of water and gas. Water discharged fifty gallons per minute,
during the first hour ; it then abated, and continued to run by turns,
three times in twenty-four hours ; it then continued to run regular or
uniform 212
9 Gypsum and clay .---- 221
3 Green rock 224
3 Blue rock 227
7 Of the above blue rock - 234
2 Saliferous rock ------------------- 236
Pt. III. — 13
98 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
2 Grey band 238
2 Grey baud and red saliferous mixed a little --- 240
136 Red saliferous sandstone rock 376

At the depth of 242 feet the drill appeared to strike into a thin seam of rock-salt.
At the depth of 250, a layer of fossil salt was reached, which raised the strength of the

water from 88° to 58°, by the instrument graduated at 100°. At the depth of 270
feet the water stood at a strength varying from 13° to 17°, by an instrument graduated

at 25°. At 280 feet the sediment was mixed with fossil salt, and the rock continued
to grow Salter as the auger descended. Samples of the rock, penetrated during the
last twenty-three feet, were transmitted to you. By inspection with the microscope,

they will be perceived to contain minute and regular crystals of sulphate of lime.
The boring was again renewed, and the well sunk 25 feet deeper in a continuation
of the rock last mentioned, making it 401 feet deep; and the boring was then discon-
tinued.
A tin tube 400 feet long was then run down the aycU, and water pumped up through
it from the bottom of it, which stood at 25°, then 19°; as tested by an instrument
graduated at 25°. Continued pumping until it ran down to 6° ; discontinued the work
for 24 hours, and again drew up water that stood at 25°; but on continuing to pump,
the water diminished in strength as before.
The water continues to flow from the top of the tube, but in a more moderate
degree than at first, at the strength of 6° ; which, on evaporating, forms thin layers
of salt.

The search for salt in the Onondaga country, appears to have been made at an early
period. Accounts of its existence were carried to the sea-shore, by Indians, almost as
soon as Europeans landed on the coast. There is little doubt, both from Indian and
Spanish traditions, that the followers or successors of De Leon and De Soto were led
into these northern regions under the delusive hope of finding glittering masses of
silver ; being misled by Indian reports of the incrustations of salt which were found
on the low margin of Onondaga lake, when the saline springs were first discovered
by the Indians. The natural production of a white and shining substance, was
sufficient to fire the imaginations of adventurers who had left Europe pregnant with
the idea of finding the hills, lakes, and forests of America, to conceal unbounded
stores of silver and gold. There is hardly another interpretation to be given to a
rude Spanish monument found in Manlius, a few years ago, Avith the date of 1520.

The eai'liest notices of the phenomena of the issue of salt water on the borders of
Onondaga lake, were given by the French, about the middle of the seventeenth
century. Le Moyne distinctly states the fact, in his journey into the Onondaga
countiy, in 1652. The Indians were in the habit of manufacturing salt, by evapo-
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 99

rating the water in earthen pots. It does not appear that the French, in their zealous
endeavors to possess themselves of the trade and commerce of the country, ever turned
this discovery to national account.

The English listened, with interest, to the accounts which were Ijrought to the
banks of the Mohawk and the Hudson, b}^ the Iroquois sachems ; aud it is well known
that a grant of the precinct supposed to contain the most valuable salt-mines, was
made to Sir William Johnson, about the year 17G0. The actual remoteness of the
position ; the immense forests, and portages over difficult routes, which intervened
and finally, the war of the Revolution, which changed wholly the position and rights
of the parties, prevented any practical results from this grant.
Grants from the Indians were terminated by the proclamation of George III., in
1763; and when the smoke of the Revolution cleared away, the State of New York,
Avhich had succeeded to the sovereignty of the country, claimed all public rights of this

nature. It would be an interesting inquiry to determine the earliest attempts which

were made to obtain the water by sinking wells on the shores of the lake, and the
progress of discovery and manufticture which marks the history of these celebrated
and pennanent springs, during the last seventy years. Whether the wealth and
resources yielded to the State, or the benefits derived to individuals, are the greatest,
is a matter of doubt.
Every attempt to enlarge the area over which this precious fluid prevails, is

intensely important ; and the details of such labors are well worthy of record. These
borings of Mr. Mead, if they lead to no other result, will tend to show that nature has
not limited her productions, and may incite to renewed researches.

3. JOURNAL OF THE EXPEDITION OF COLONEL

REDICK M'KEE, UNITED STATES INDIAN AGENT,
THROUGH NORTH-WESTERN CALIFORNIA. PER-
FORMED IN THE SUMMER AND FALL OF 1851.
BY GEORGE GIBBS.

Benicia, California, Feb. 23, 1852.

Sir : — Herewith you will receive a transcript of the diary kept by me during your
recent expedition through the north-western part of this State, as also a map
illustrating the country, and a few sketches and vocabularies of the languages in use
among the Indian tribes through whom we passed.
With regard to the map, it is proper to state that it covers a district very little

known, and heretofore never surveyed. Those portions adjacent to the route travelled
100 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
over, are believed to be laid down with sufficient accuracy for ordinary purposes. As
regards the rest, the best information which could be obtained has been used. It will

be readily understood, that in a rapid march through a region of such considerable

extent, man}- details have been passed over, Avhich, in some respects, are important;

but the general features of the country may be relied on as accurate.

As to the opinions advanced in the journal, you will of course in no wise be
considered as responsible.
I am, sir,

Very respectfully yours.

Colonel R. M'Kee. George Gibbs.

JOURNAL.
Monday, Aug. 11. — Colonel M'Kee and party, escorted by Major Wessells, and a
detachment of thirtj^-five mounted riflemen, left Sonoma this morning, and moved
over to Santa Rosa, encamping a little beyond Carillo's ranch. An odometer attached
to one of the wagons, gave the distance at about 19 i miles. The general route
proposed to be followed by the expedition, was up Russian river to its sources, down
Eel river to Humboldt bay, and thence over to the Klamath, ascending that to the
neighborhood of Shasta ' Valley, should the season permit.
A large number of Indians, belonging to this and the neighboring ranches, were
collected in the afternoon, and informed of the objects of the agent, who promised, at
a future time, to meet them for the purpose of making a formal treaty. Their
neighborhood to the settlements, and the importance of first ascertaining the numbers
and condition of those more distant, as well as the country suitable for a reservation,

rendered any immediate action here undesirable. It is unnecessary to say, that these
ranch Indians are entirely inoffensive, and perfectly under the control of the Spanish
proprietors, who, in fact, have always treated them as peons, and inculcated the idea
of their obligation to labor. From their influence -with these bands, or rancherias, the
principal difficulty Avill evidently arise in disposing of the natives, or inducing them to

remove to any other part of the country. The slovenly modes of cultivation in use,
comparatively unproductive as they are, have yet the mei'it of requiring little or no
expenditure of money in wages ; the Indians receiving a bare support beyond what
they can steal, and then only during the summer. "Wretched as this system is, it

would be difficult to eradicate it from a race so wedded to old habits and ideas. The
class of extensive Spanish proprietors is, however, destined to be of short duration.
The titles to their enormous possessions, which, under the imbecile administration of
the Mexican laws, passed unexamined or overlooked, are now to be inquired into, and

'
The true Indian pronunciation of this word appcnrs to be Shastl, vide Fremont's Memoir.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 101

many hold originally merely by sufferance, will undoubtedly be rejected. But a more
certain, and, perhaps, equally speedy agent is at work. Before the " breaking out of
the mines," they possessed very little actual money. Immense herds of wild cattle,
and bands of horses, constituted their wealth. Hides, for which the former were
slaughtered in vast numbers, furnished a means of barter, and were, in fact, the

currency of the country. A few acres of the rich soil in the valleys, barely scratched
with a crooked log, produced their barley, melons, and vegetables; and they were
fortunate when their Indian serfs left them even a sufficiency of these. The discovery

of the hidden riches of the country, for the most part, added nothing to their
prosperity. The toil required to develop them was foreign to their habits, and
although the prices of what they could sell were enormously increased, necessities
before unknown were at once introduced among them. The foresight of the new-
comers, on the other hand, early led them to the acquisition of lands, and a few
thousand dollars in money was a temptation too great for a Californian to resist.

Ranch after ranch has thus been parted with to those more industrious or more
sagacious ; without counting the acres from which the hardier race has, by main force
and obstinacy, shouldered its former claimants. Now that these, by a superior
cultivation and greater labor, can undei'sell the Spaniard in all the productions of the
soil, his ruin, and that not for distant, is certain. A sentiment of pity may lead us to

commiserate the destiny of the ancient proprietor; but we cannot lament those

occurrences which promise to convert an obscure province into a powerful State ; or

waste many tears upon the race which, grasping such vast possessions, was too indolent
to nurture the agricultural wealth of the laud, and had too little enterprise even to

find the mineral that glittered at its feet.

Tuesday, Aug. \2th. —The Santa Rosa plains, here about a mile and a half in width,
a short distance beyond widen out, connecting with the Petaloma valley, and extend-
ing westward toward Bodega for about twelve miles. A heavy sea-fog, which
lingered on the plains throughout the morning, prevented our seeing them beyond a
short distance; but the general character is similar to that of the Sonoma valley.

The soil, though rich, bakes in the sun, cracking to the depth of several inches, and
receiving the plough only during the wet season. The road, which at this time was
good, wound along foot-hills, coming down from the right, and was shaded by oaks,
here thickly scattered, from whose branches long festoons of moss depended. Five
and a quarter miles beyond the Santa Rosa ranch, we came to that of Mrs. West,
the San Miguel, situated like the first upon a small creek running into Rupsiau river.

The usual size of these estates in this part of California, appears to be from six to
nine leagues of land ; the league containing 5000 varas square, of thirt^'-three inches
the vara. Around this, as elsewhere, we saw swarms of Indians idling about, or
perched on high platforms of poles and bush, keeping away the crows, apparently less
102 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
numerous and troublesome than themselves. The common crop everywhere is barley,

and the harvesting and treading out were in progi-ess ; the latter being performed by
turning a drove of wild horses into a corral filled -with the sheaves, and stirring them
round by active use of the whip and vigorous shouting. The average yield of barley

to the acre, we were told, was sixty bushels, and the price asked for it on tlie spot

(the same, by the way, as the market value at San Francisco) was five cents a pound.
This is the only staple; the small quantity of Indian-corn raised being more for
domestic use, than as a marketable commodity, and being inferior to that of good
localities in the Atlantic States. Potatoes and other vegetables were of fine quality,
but, as a general thing, required irrigation.

The foot-hills coming down from the higher ranges, ai'e usually fertile, and
covered with a thick growth of wild oats, which at this season are of a clear yellow.
This hue, .spreading over the whole landscape, presents to our eye, accustomed to
the verdure of the east, a singular, and at first by no means pleasing appearance ; the
only relief being the dark foliage of the various oaks which cluster in groves upon hill
and valley.

Our march of to-day brought us to Russian river, the Slavianska of the Russians

themselves, about a mile and a half below Fitch's ranch ; and we encamped among
the trees upon the bank, having travelled thirteen and three-quarters miles. This
river, the valley of Avhich we were now to ascend, is here about twelve yards in width,

and a few inches only in dejjth, running on a gravelly bed. Its bottom, however, two
or three hundred yards in width, and the marks upon its banks, indicate a very
different size when the waters from the mountains come down in the rainy season.

Between two and three leagues below this point, at Cooper's ranch, the river, which
above runs a general south-easterly course, turns west toward the ocean, passing
through a canon. It empties about nine miles below Fort Ross, without any bay at
its mouth, which is obstructed by a bar formed of sand and imbedded logs, passable at
low tide almost dry-shod. On the north bank commences the true Coast-range of
mountains, which hereafter follows the shore of the Pacific to Cape Mendocino, where
it terminates. Above that point the rivers run chiefly from the eastward, and the
course of the mountain-chains is in accordance with them.
A
number of Indians from the neighborhood came in, and a talk was held with
them. The tribe to which they belong, and which has its head-quarters at Fitch's
ranch, is called " Kai-na-meah," or, as the Spaniards pronounce it, " Kai-na-me-ro." No
opportunity afforded itself for collecting a vocabulary of their language ; but I was
informed that this dialect extends as far back as Santa Rosa, down Russian river
about three leagues to Cooper's ranch, and thence aci'oss to the coast at Fort Ross, and
for tAventy-five miles above. On Bodega's bay, another tribe, the Tu-ma-leh-nias, use a
different one. In appearance these Indians differ entirely from the Chinooks and other
Coast tribes of Oregon, being taller and darker. They have quite heavy moustaches and
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 103

beards on the chin, but not much on the cheeks, and they almost all sufTer it to grow.
Several were noticed with grey heads and beards. They are an ugly and brutish race,
many with negro profiles, and some of the old men resemljliug Chinese figures of their
deities. Their traditions are said to be exceedingly vague, and their religious ideas
even more obscure. They have no knowledge of a God, but believe in a sort of demon
Avhoin they call " Puys," and whom they propitiate by worship, throwing up piles of
stones to liini, to which each passer-by contributes. As to any notion of Christianity,
they ha\'e received none. Each band has its chief, who is hereditary, and of the
Kai-na-meahs there are three. The total number of these appears to be about two
hundred.

Wednesday, Aug. loth. — The morning was again cloudy, and heavy dews had fixllen

during the night. A mile and a half beyond camp we crossed Russian river at Fitch's
ranch, where it issues on the right from behind a high and steep bluflf. Beyond the
crossing, the road ran over low hills, covered with oaks, as below. The river here lay
at some distance, a range of high hills intervening, and the valley having no longer
the character of a continuous bottom, but being cut up by low spurs. Between seven
and eight miles from the crossing, we struck the river again, and tlience the route,
now narrowed to a horse-trail, but passable for wagons, followed its course. We saw
during the day great numbers of the blue or crested quail ; coveys of from twenty
to fifty, exceedingly tame, and perching in the bushes when started up. Although
the young birds were nearly full grown, we had found a nest in our camp of last night

containing eggs. These birds either unite in flocks of several families, or else, as has

been stated, one male has two or three females in charge ; for the numljer seen in a
flock is far too great for a single brood. We passed another ranch. Finds, and
encamped on the river at a fine bend with abundance of wild oats around. The
odometer gave us as our distance 15'67 miles.
The mountains opposite here come close down to the river. The valley since we
last reached it, is generally narrow, well wooded with evergreen and other kinds of
oak ; and the soil, for the most part, good ; though occasionally, as on the hills,

gravelly. The redwood was now abundant on the mountains, to the left. The
scenery was exceedingly picturesque, and many flowering plants of great beauty were
every where in bloom. At camp we found recent signs of deer, and two were started
within it. Two grizzly bears were also seen in the neighborhood.

Thursday, Aug. lith. — To-day we remained in camp. The morning was again
cloudy, and with what, in the Atlantic States, would have been sure signs of rain.
Dew fell every night.
Two or three hundred yards above camp a strong soda spring rose in the Ijed of the
river, and on the margin of the water, as it there ran. It boiled strongly, and tiisted
104 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
something like those at the " Beer Springs," on Bear river. The temperature was 78°,

while that of the stream within a yard was 76°, and of the atmosphere 73°. Several
deer were killed to-day, and a bear chased. The Eocky Mountain hare, or, as it is

libellously called, "jackass rabbit," was abundant, and with good dogs would afford

fine sport. Quartz rock, in connection with serpentine in place, was noticed in the bed
of the river.

Friday, Aug. Ibtli. — This morning, for the first time, was clear. We left camp
about seven, our road still passing up the valley, and crossing the river four times.
In this part it was heavy with sand and coarse gravel the ; river at flood time evidently

overflowing the whole bottom. A little beyond the last crossing we reached Barillesds
ranch, situated on a spur projecting into the valley. At this point, which is called the

Rincon, we should have taken a trail leading up the right-hand branch of the valley,
as it would have thus avoided passing over a hill. Russian river here emerges from
the long canon, and one of the trails follows through that also. Keeping up the valley,

which beyond Barillosas is a beautiful one, we came to our first experience of the

mountains. The road ascends an exceedingly steep and long hill, where the wagons,
though light, had to double teams. From the top of one of the ascents there was a
fine view down the valley. A long descent followed, during which it was necessary
to lock both wheels, and after a march of eleven miles we reached and camped in a

little basin, finding good grass and sufficient water in pools in an arroya. All these
little valle}-s aflford fine pasturage and abundant oak timber. The lower hills also are

covered with oats. Some deer were killed at this place, and we saw signs of bear.
Great numbers of a handsome species of woodpecker frequent the oaks, chattering and
quarrelling vehemently. A peculiarity of this species, common through California and
Southern Oregon, is that it imbeds the acorn for winter food, in the dead limbs of the
oak and the bark of the fir, which are often thus seen riddled with holes.

Saturday, Aug. IQth. — The morning was fine, our elevation being great enough to
clear the fog, and to render the night cool. We ascended in a north-wegterly course
for about four and one-half miles from camp, where we had another fine view back,
and from which a pretty steep, but regular descent, led us into a deep hollow or basin
in the mountains. Fronting us was a peak which forms a landmark at the entrance
of Russian river into the caiion ; and beyond, the still higher range, part of the chain
separating it from Clear Lake. A succession of hills followed, until we struck the
river again just above the mouth of the canon. The valley here is narrow and
bordered by mountains, the stream itself running between better-defined banks, edged
with willows and undergrowth. The hills passed to-day were covered with bunch
grass, the wild oats having disappeared. On one of them the big-coned pine was
)ioticed, which am. — *'>" Tn^lians elsewhere furnishes almost as important an article
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 105

of food as the aconi with those of this district. FolloAving the bank of the river, our
wagons were sometimes compelled to make detours to avoid the steep slopes of the foot-
hills. About two miles from our first reaching it, however, the valley widened out
into a fine bottom, and another mile brought us opposite to the last Spanish ranch on
the river, that of Fernando Feliz, an old Mexican, who claims here some four
leagues of land. Our camp was established on the left bank of the river, near a fine
clear brook, and much colder than below. Feliz's house, like most of those of the
lower class of Californians, was a miserable adobe hut, thatched with tul^, and con-
nected with a sort of out-house by mud walls. A horde of Indians, all scantily
dressed and man}^ stark naked, were lounging in and about the enclosure, or perched
in crows'-nests watching the corn. The old man received the party with a truly
Spanish courtesy, and insisted in turn upon every one sitting down upon the only
chair in the establishment. A more attractive spot to some of us was a pile of tule

under the shed, where were seated the two daughters and the daughter-in-law of the
host, with a visitor, eating water-melons. The ladies were all tolerably pretty women,
and their plump figures were shadowed forth agreeably beneath the thin folds of a

chemisette and petticoat which constituted their costume. Feliz's son, a tall and
rather fine-looking Californian, did the honors of the melons. F^liz appeared very
poor, and indeed complained bitterly of his reduced state. He was too old to hunt, or
to woi'k himself. His cattle were almost all gone, his crop of barley was but small,
and a little Indian-corn and a few melons and cantelopes, picked before they were
ripe to save them from the Indians, were apparentl}' his only other resources. On
learning the business of the agent, he was in great tribulation ;
protesting that he
should be utterly ruined were the Indians to be romoved, as he could get no other
labor, while at the same time he abused them as thieves who had killed his cattle and
eaten his crop. His case seemed a hopeless one. It is that of man^^ of his class, but
the wheels of state must crush some victims in their inexorable career.
The distance travelled to-day was, by odometer, ten miles, to which one should be
added for lockage, making the total from Sonoma a little over seventy-one and one-
half miles.

Sunday, Aug. 11 th. — Col. M'Kee started for Clear Lake, accompanied by Major
"Wessells and nine of the command as an escort, and a small pack-train carrying
presents and provisions. Several gentlemen from the country below, who had come
up on a hunting excursion, also went over. The men were mounted on mules to save

the horses, as the road was a severe one ; and the ajipearance of the cavalcade was
amusing enough, with the heavy trappings of the mounted riflemen on their diminu-
tive chargers, especially as some of the animals were exceedingly restive under the

clattering of sabres and yagers. Our road after leaving the valley was an almost
uninterrupted ascent to the summit of the great range which bounds the valley of the
Pt. III. — 14
106 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
lake on the west, the path behig an Indian trail, distinctly enough marked. The
morning had been cloudy, and towards noon it set in pretty steadily to drizzle,

continuing through the day, an occurrence rare at this season. The ascent in all was
a very great one, the crest of the mountains being covered only with chemisal, dwarf-
oak, and marsanita bushes. Just before reaching the summit we entered on a pretty
little valley, two or three miles in length, and completely circled in the mountain,
containing fine grass. Passing the divide, we came upon a steep descent ending in an
abrupt pitch into the canon of an arroya below, down which was a well-worn path,
probably the equal labor of Indians and bears, guarded on either side by a thicket.
Here was our almost entire descent to the level of the valle}-, which is probably not
less than a thousand feet above that of Russian river. We wound down the arroya,
now dry except in spots, and passing to the right of a couple of small tuM ponds,
crossed some low hills into Clear Lake valley, towards its head. The bottom of the
arroya widens out near these ponds, and bends to the left ; the streamitself, when full,

forming one branch of the principle tributary of the lake. At the ponds we saw a
number of ducks and some deer, and a little beyond found the remains of a huge
grizzly bear, which some vaqueros had, during the preceding spring, lassoed and baited
with bulls. Striking the lake, our trail ran through the tule marshes which border
its western side to camp. This was in an oak grove in the bottom, upon a small
stream, and some four miles from a high mountain which juts into the lake nearly
equidistant from its extremities. The march to-day was estimated at fifteen miles.

Monday, Aug. 18//;. — The morning was again threatening, and the sky did
not clear till the afternoon. To-day about seventy-five Indians from the dif-

ferent bands on the lake, including the principal chiefs and head men, came into
council. The objects and wishes of the government were explained to them by
the agent, and some provisions distributed. They all appeared highly gratified,

and grunted their approbation with pei'fect unanimity, particularly at the promise of
beef. Most of these people were entirely naked, and very filthy, and showed less

sense of decency in every respect, than any we had ever met with. Their women
did not come with them having,
; for the most part, been sent up to the hills. Towards
evening we rode to the lake and visited the nearest rancheria. Tliis, which was only
a summer residence, was pitched in a clump of willow bushes in the tule, and consisted
of the rudest huts of twigs and rushes. A few old women only remained, who were
pounding seeds in a pinole ; and they appeared to have a considerable stock both of
these and of dried fish. Of fish, tlie lake abounds with different kinds, among
Avhich, a species of bass, so called at least, is considered the best. The fishing season is

the fall and winter, when numbers of the adjoining tribes come down. The seeds, Avhich

are of anise and of various grasses, are collected by the women, who cany suspended
on their backs a conical basket, holding about a bushel, and in the hand a smaller
•me, suitable for a scoop. Witli tliis they sweep among the ripe grass, with a motion
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 107

similar to tliat of a man cradling; throwing the seed over the left shoulder into the
larger one. The pinole is ponnded in baskets of firm texture, having a hole in the

bottom, which is placed upon a smooth stone, and is afterwards stored for winter use.
The acorn, however, abundant everywhere, furnishes their chief article of food.
Their principal ingenuity is shown in the making of baskets ; some of these being of
very fine and close texture, capable of holding water. In fact, they boil in them by
dropping in heated stones. The women generally Avear a small, round, bowl-shaped
basket on their heads ; and this is frequently interwoven with the red feathers of the
Avoodpecker, and edged with the plume tufts of the blue quail. They appeared to
have no earthen or stone utensils, nor any of wood, except pipes, ladles, and pestles.
Their canoes, or rather rafts, are made of bundles of the tule plant, a gigantic bulrush,
Avith a round, smooth stem, growing in marshy grounds to the height of ten or twelve

feet. The pipe is a straight stick, the bowl being a continuation of the stem enlarged
into a knob, and is held perpendicularly. They use a species of nati\'e tobacco of
nauseous and sickening odor. The Avinter houses, Avhich are large lodges supported on
poles, and covered with the universal tul^, they always burn on leaving them in spring,
to get rid of the vermin. The onl}^ building of this band which remained was the
" Ser-arloo," or sAveat-house. This, Avhich is used b}' them as a species of daily
indulgence, is heated simply by fires, Avithout the aid of water, and on leaAdng it, they
take to the stream to cool themselves. It is generally built in a conical form, and the
one here was about tAvelve feet high by tAventy wide, with the earth excavated for a
couple of feet deep Avithin. The circles or mounds on Avhich they have been built, are
found in many places around the lake not noAV inhabited, and, from their number, as
Avell as the great size of some, afford eA'idence of a formerly much larger population.
As regards this fact, there is but little doubt, nor of the principal cause of the
diminution in the ravages of the small-pox, at no very remote jjeriod. Some old
Indians, Avho carry Avith them the marks of the disease, state it positively ; and it is

reported, by native Californians, that over 100,000 ' perished of this disease in the
valleys drained by the Sacramento and the San Joaquin.
Concerning the religious belief of these, as Avell as the adjoining Indians, it is

difficult to obtain conclusive information. One of this tribe, who had been for three

or four years among the Avhites, and accompanied the expedition, on being questioned
as to his oAvn belief in a deity, acknoAvledged his entire ignorance on the subject. As
regarded a future state of any kind, he Avas equally uiiinformed and indifferent ; in

fact, did not believe in any for himself As a reason why his people did not go to
another country after death, AA'hile the Avhites might, he assigned that the Indians
burned their dead, and he supposed there Avas an end of them ; a speculation, hoAve\-er,
probably originating at the moment, and not forming part of the national faith. Some
of those who, during our conference, Avere questioned on the subject, admitted, that as

'
Doubtful.— H. K. S.
108 niYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
there were good and bad men and animals, there might be good and bad spirits, and
that was reasonable that there should be a maker of what they saw around them
it

but they added, that these things were for white men to know about. Mr. Benjamin
Kelsey, who had lived some time among these people, and whose intelligence and
familiarity with Indian customs renders him a I'eliable informant, states, on the
contrar}', that among themselves the old men go through ceremonies, at night and
morning, of a devotional character, singing, crying, and making signs; and that an
Indian in his employment, who spoke Spanish, explained that it was like what the
priests did. The custom of burning the dead is universal here, and through the length
of Eussian river ; and, as we afterwards found, among cognate ti'ibes at the head of
Eel river.
In personal appearance, many of the Clear Lake Indians are of a very degraded
caste ; their foreheads naturally being often as low as the compressed skulls of the

Chinooks, and their forms commonly small and ungainly. They, as well as the river
tribes, cut their hair short. They have also considerable beard and hair on the
person. Few of the men have any clothing at all. The women, however, wear, even
from the earliest childhood, a short fringed jsetticoat, generally of deer-skin, around
the loins, but suffer the upper part of the body to be exposed. Sore eyes and blind-
ness, the result of smoke and dirt, were common. It may be noticed that phymosis
is common among all the Indian tribes of this country.
A vocabulary of this language was obtained from the Indian who accompanied us,

and who spoke Spanish sufficiently to be enabled to interpret with his people. It was
carefully taken down, and may be relied on as tolerably accurate. Many of the words
Avill be found identical with those of the Indians on the upper parts of Russian and
Eel rivers ; and indeed he was able to converse with most of these — understanding
them, however, much better than he could reply. (Vide § IX., Language.)

Tuesday, Atig. 19. — The preliminaries of the treaty were agreed upon in council
this morning, a larger assemblage being present than yesterday. In the mean time
an examination of the country was made, as well as time and means afforded, with a
view to a reservation. The length of the lake has generally been stated at GO miles,
but it probably does not exceed 30 or 35. The width near the head is from eight to
ten miles. It is divided near the middle by a spur from the high mountain below our
carap, which extends nearly across it, and the lower portion is much narrower than
the upper. The general course is from north-west to south-east. Its waters empty by
an outlet into Cache creek ; a stream which heads in a high peak to the northward,
and runs towards the Sacramento, losing itself in a tul6 swamp nearly opposite the
mouth of Feather river. The lake has been generally represented as lying Avithin the
Sacramento valley, but its actual position is in a gi'eat basin of the mountains which
border it on the westj for although the watei^s of the lake run towards that river, it
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 109

is yet separated from it by a part of the chain, through a cafion in Avhich Cache creek

forces its way. Surrounded on every side by mountains, this valley is completely

isolated from the adjoining countr}-, there being no access except by difficult trails.

Of these there are several ; the usual one being from Napa across to Putos creek, or
the Rio Dolores, as sometimes called, which heads to the south-west, and runs nearly
parallel to Cache creek towards the Sacramento; losing itself, like the former, in a

swamp, except during the rainy season. The principal valley upon the lake is that
upon which we encamped, lying on the western side, and extending from mount
M'Kee towards the head. The extent of this may be stated at ten miles in length, by
an average mdth of four. A more beautiful one can hardly be pictured. Covered
with abundant grass, and interspersed with groves of superb oaks of the most varied
and graceful forms, with the lake and its green margin of tul^ in front, and the
distance bounded everywhere by precipitous ranges, it combines features of surpassing
grandeur and loveliness. Flowers of great variety and elegance abound, the woods
are filled with game, and in the season innumerable flocks of water-fowl enliven the
shores. Two or three other valleys lie within the mountains, which generally come
down to the water, but none are of the size and value of this. Upon the lake are
several islands, of whicK the largest, called " Battle island," about a mile long, is at
the northern end. Several mineral springs occur in the neighborhood, and at one of
them, on the eastern shore, sulphur is found in great abundance, and in solid and
pure deposits. Salt springs also exist among the mount lins, from which the Indians,
during the dry season, procure what the}^ require ; and further to the north-east, near

the southern head of Cottonwood creek, rock-salt is obtained, for which the Lake
Indians trade.
A cattle ranch was formerly maintained in this valley, and the adobe house, erected
by the owners, was still standing about three miles from our camp, but at this time
unoccupied. It was here that Andrew Kelsey and Charles Stone were killed by tlie

Indians, in December, 1849 ; a murder which was severely punished during the next
spring, b}' a party of troops under Captain Lj'ons, who succeeded in bringing up a
mountain howitzer and two boats from below. The Indians, who had forted upon the
creek, at the upper end of the lake, being driven out by a shot, were pursued in the boats
to the island by a detachment of infantry, and on their trying to escape to the shore,
attacked by the dragoons, who met them waist-deep in the tule. The utter rout and
severe loss which they suffered, had effectually subdued them, and undoubtedly
brought about the readiness with which they now met the overtures of tlie agent.

Wednesday, Aug. 20th. — The council was again assembled, and the treaty explained
to them as engrossed. The triljes represented were the Hula-napo, Habe-napo, Dah-
no-habe, Moal-kai, She-kom, and How-ku-ma, belonging to the lake, and the Shanel-
kaya and Bedah-marek, living in a valley situated to the north of it, on the east fork
110 PHYSICAL GEOGRATHY OF
of Russian river. Provision was also made for the admission of the Cho-tan-o-man-as,
living toward the outlet of the lake, but not present ; and for the settlement of any
other tribes the government may remove from other places. These are all more
properly bands than tribes ; each village, as is the case generally with the Indians of
this part of California at least, having The names have each its
its separate chief
signification. Thus, " Habe-napo" means stone house, " Dahno-habe," stone mountain,
" Bedah-marek," lower people, &c. They give to the first six tribes collectively the
name of " Na-po-batin," or many houses ; an appellation, however, not confined to
themselves, as they term the Russian river tribes the " Boh-Napo-batin," <n- western
many houses. The name " Lu-pa-yu-ma," Avhich, in the language of the tribe living at

Coyote valley, on Putos river, signifies the same as Habe-napo, is applied by the
Indians in that direction to these bands, but is not recognized by themselves. Each
different tribe, in fact, seems to designate the others by some corresponding or
appropriate word in its own language, and hence great confusion often arises among
those not acquainted with their respective names. They have no name for the valle}^

itself, and call the different spots where they reside after those of the bands. In fact,

local names do not seem to be applied to districts of country, though they may be
sometimes to mountains. Rivers seem to be rather described than named — thus
Russian river is called here Boh-bid-ah-me, or " the river to the west."

The Shanel-kayas and Bedah-marek speak a language, or moi'c probably dialect,

different from the Napo-batin, as do also the Indians of the portion of the lake south
of Mt. M'Kee. That of the latter, perhaps, resembles more the Mu-tistul between
the heads of Napa and Putos creeks, or some other of those lying between the lake
and the bay of San Pablo. How many really different languages will ultimately be
detei'uiined between the heads of the Russian river and San Francisco bay, it is

impossible as yet to conjecture. On a cursory examination there appear to be several

but more critical enquiry will, perhaps, reduce them. That of the Napo-batins, in its
various dialects, seems to be one of the most extensive ; reaching from the Sacramento
range to the coast, and up as far as the head-waters of the Eel river.
It is difficult to ascertain the real numbers of these people. Common report had
stated it at some 2500 or 3000 but the nearest approach which could be made
; to a count
gave but 511 as the total of souls in the six tribes of the valley, and 150 to the two
living in the mountains, who were represented by their chiefs only. To this twenty
five per cent, was added, as the probable number of those not returned. The
proportion of men, women, and children seemed to vary greatly. The men of tlie
two nearest rancherias were Avith great difficulty persuaded to bring in their families,
and their ratios were as follows :
—
Huta-napo, 85 men, 81 women, 29 children.
Habe-napo, 29 do. 42 do. 13 do.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. Ill

The details of the treaty appear elsewhere, and need not be repeated. It provided
for the reservation of that part of Clear Lake valley lying to the northward of
Mt. M'Kee, as designated on the accompanying maps, and for the assembling here
of the tribes of Eussian river, the coast and bay, and of the head of Eel river ; the
Indians to be fiirnished with teachers, agricultural implements, domestic animals,
and seeds, and assisted in supporting themselves for the space of two years. As
regards the suitableness of the reservation for its purpose, there can hardly be a doubt.
The spot is isolated to a degree unusual even on the Pacific; abounds in all that
is necessary for a large number of people in their savage state, and is capable of being
made in the highest degree productive by cultivation. K the system pursued in this
respect in the States is adhered to in California, (and in no other way can the condition
of these Indians be elevated, or their extinction be averted,) it must be by removinf
at least their families from among the whites, and turning them to some fixed
occupation. The central position of the lake country will easily enable such numbers
as can be spared, to hire themselves out during the working season, ^s^hile the stores
provided at home will sustain them in the whiter. They appear sufficiently tractable
to admit of teaching, and to be averse to labor from indolence, rather than from pride.
Great patience and tact Avill necessarily be requisite, and care should be exercised
in selecting their teachers for these among other qualifications. We started on the
return route about half past twelve, and reached the top of the mountain in four
hours. The afternoon was fine, and we here enjoyed a magnificent view of the
country and lake behind us. Some of the party left the trail by which we came up,
at the head of the little valley, and descended by one leading to the left. An hour
and a half of rapid travel brought us to Feliz's, where we learned that the camp had
moved up a mile and a half further for better grass. We reached it a little after
dark, and found that the rest had already arrived. During our absence, some
Spaniards and vaqu^ros had lassoed and killed five grizzly bears in the immediate
vicinity of the ranch. This amusement, which may be considered the national one
of California, is performed by from two to four men, all mounted. One of them rides
towards the bear, and as he rears, catches a paw with the noose, takes a turn round
the horn of his saddle, and immediately starts at speed. Another following, lassoes
in like manner the other foot, and spurs in a contrary direction, to prevent the bear

overhauling the first rope, which he would othei'wise speedil}' do. If there are more,
they secure his hind feet and head, and the bear, thus rendered powerless, is dragged
to a tree and made fiist. Sometimes a wild bull is coupled with the bear by a riata,
and the two turned loose to fight it out, the conflict generally ending with the death
of both parties. This pastime seems tolerably dangerous to the uninitiated, but
it is pursued with astonishing fearlessness and dexterity by the Californians ; nor are
some of the American settlers much behind them in either.
To-day a large rattlesnake of a bright green color was noticed among the hills near
112 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
Clear Lake. A large yellow species is also said to be found. Ground-squirrels, in size
resembling the common grey squirrel of the States, but having shorter legs and a
black patch between the shoulders, are common. The pine grouse and quail, geese,
ducks, and cranes, abound in their proper season. Elk, bears, and black-tailed deer,
frequent the mountains throughout all this region.

TJnirsday, Aug. 21st. — Arrangements had been made the day before for bringing

in the adjoining river tribes, and inducing them to consent to a removal to the lake.
For this pui'pose also, three of the principal chiefs had come over with us to assure

them of their friendly disposition. Accordingly, four bands consented to enter into a
treaty, viz., the Sah-nel, Yukai, Pomo, and Masu-ta-kaya ; numbering in all, as was
supposed, 1042 souls. The chief of the Kai-no-m^ahs, living at Fitch's ranch, who
had come up from below, withdrew, being unwilling to consent to a removal, and the
intermediate bands did not appear. These are believed to embrace the larger part of
the population of the river ; many of their people being at the ranches we had visited

below. The estimate formed by Col. M'Kee of the whole number, from the head of

Russian river down, was as follows :

—
In the valleys of Sonoma and Russian river - . . . 1200
On Clear
Oxa the coast
Lake and the adjacent mountains
from Fort Ross southward to the bay ... 1000
500
I obtained here a partial vocabulary from one of the Yukai band. These live in

the vicinity of Parker's ranch, above here. The tribe at this place, the Sah-nels, as

also the Boch-heaf, Ubak-hea, Tabah-tea, and the Moi-ya, living between them and
the coast, speak the same. The Ma-su-ta-kea and Pomo, living further up on the
west branch of the river, use the same as the Shanel-kaya of the east branch, who
were treated with at the lake.

In general appearance there is a similarity among all the Indians between here and

the bay, which indicates their common race. So little attention has been paid to

their peculiar customs that we could gather very little information, and that not very

definite.

The chiefdom is hereditary, but at present confined to small bands, each

independent of the rest, though they often live together in winter. It is probable,

however, that when more numerous, they had, as elsewhere, great head chiefs with
more extended dominion ; for in the Clear Lake language thei'e is a distinct name for

these. In one case we learned, where the males of a family had become extinct,

and a female only remained, she appointed a chief. The custom of burning the dead
is universal. The body is consumed upon a scaffold, built over a hole, into which the
ashes are thrown and covered. Marriage lasts only during agreement, and they have
but one wife at a time. If the parties separate, the children go with the wife. The
practice of abortion, so common among the Chinooks, and some other tribes in
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 113

Oregon, is unknown here. The universal disease is said gradually to be finding its
way among them, though we noticed no marks of it. A more intimate knowledge
of their languages would probably discover many curious observances which have
escaped observation. At some of their dances, for instance, we were told they avoid
particular articles of food, even fowls and eggs. The flesh of the grizzly bear, few
of them will eat at all. It is said that they believe the spirits of the dead enter
them, and a story was related to us of their begging the life of a Avrinkled-faccd old she
grizzly bear, as the recipient of some particular grandam's soul, whom they fancied
it resembled. Parker, who was our informant, stated that an Indian wife he once
had, used to speak of a god called Bhj-head, and when it thundered said that he
was angry. Most of them, however, who have any faith, worship " Pooyah," (the
Puys of the Spaniards.) One custom which had been noticed, was that of crying
together night and morning, as was supposed for the dead, even after the lapse of
some years. This may however be the same ceremony alluded to above as existing
on Clear Lake. The wilder of these tribes hunt, but do not depend on game for

subsistence. On great hunts they make brush fences of some extent with intervals
containing snares, and drive the deer into them. Sometimes also they creep upon
and kill them with aiTows. Their principal food consists of acorns, roots and pinoM.
Fish are taken in weirs, the salmon ascending far up Russian river.

Saturday, Attg. 23c7. — It was decided to send the four wagons we had brought with
us, back to Sonoma, although it was possible to carry them somewhat further.

Indeed an attempt had previously been made to take a train through to Humboldt
Bay ; and it actually proceeded as far as the main Eel river, last of them was
where the
abandoned. The trail followed the river for a couple of miles, when it diverged,
passing up a narrow lateral valley. About six miles from camjo we ci'ossed a range
of low hills, and again reached the main valley, which here widened out into a hand-
some plain. A couple of miles beyond, we reached the last house on the river, that
of George Parker Armstrong, or, as he is erroneously called, "John Parker," to whom
reference has already been made. The house was a small building of logs, or rather
poles filled in with cla}^, and thatched with tule. Its furniture was somewhat incon-
gruous ; for upon the earthen floor and beside a bulls' hide partition, stood huge china
jars, camphor trunks, and lacquered ware in abundance, the relics of some vessel that

had been wrecked on the coast during last spring. Parker, or Armstrong, was
formerly a man-of-war's man in Captain Belcher's squadron, ivhich he left during the

exploration of this coast, some fourteen years ago, since when he had wandered about
in California, and recently posted himself here in advance of the settlements. Near
the house stood the rancheria of the Yukai band, with whom we had treated below.

Three Indians had been implicated in the Clear Lake murder, and Avere accordingly

Pt. IIL — 15
114 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
chastised by Captain Lyons on his return from Clear Lake, from which place he
reached Russian river bj- a trail leading in here.
The valley at Parker's is some five miles in width by eight or ten long, but it is not
as fertile as at Feliz's. Above here the river during the dry season runs chiefly
under the sand, and water is only to be obtained in occasional pools. We halted for
the night at Lyons's encampment, having made between fourteen and fifteen miles.
About a mile above, the east fork of Russian river comes in, after a \\nnding course
through the mountains. Upon it lies the valley inhal^ited by the Shanel-kayas and
others before spoken of

Sunday, Aug. 24:th. — To obtain better grass we passed up the river for about six
miles, finding the bottom narrow and worthless. Crossing the now dry bed of the
stream, we sought for a camp on the right bank, intending to make a short march, as
we desired the next day to reach the head of Eel river. Finding no water, however,
we turned off to the right and lialted in a small jirairie, upon a spring branch.
Several deer were killed near camp, but we were all surfeited with venison, and
preferred beef We saw during our march to-day a number of pines and firs, with
the usual growth of mansanita and madrona. The latter is a gigantic rhododendron,
which occasionally attains a diameter of two or three feet at the butt. It is a very
ornamental tree ; the leaves being evergreen, and of a bright color, while the bark,
which scales oflF annually like that of the sycamore, is red. The wood is valuable for
several purposes, being very compact and fine-grained. It is much used for saddle-
trees. In oiu" camp were several large bay trees, which filled the <air with an odor
too strong to be agreeable. This, which is also called the wild olive, bears a nut of
the size of a hazel-nut, covered with a thick green rind, and is excessively oily. The
Indians use it where it abounds, as a favorite article of food ; roasting it, however, first.

It should be mentioned that we were joined at Feliz's by Mr. Thomas Sebring, one of
the first party that traversed the route between here and Humboldt bay, and who now
acted as our guide.

Moiiddij, Aug. 2oih. — We crossed the east fork of the river, and thence, by a high
and steep ascent, gained the divide between that and the west fork ; keeping, however,
along the left side of the range, and looking down upon the valley of the latter.

Tliis is apparently narrow and broken, but is said to contain some good land and is

well wooded. Water, however, is scarce during the summer. From these hills we
could look back to a great distance, the peak at the entrance of the canon below
Feliz's standing up distinctly, with a back-ground of mountains, part of the Coast
range, the continuation of which bounded on the other side the valley to our left.

Near us, one point, formed a very noticeable landmark, resembling, as it did in many
fespects, the basaltic formations on the upper Columbia. We found on our route the
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 115

hills well clothed with bunch grass and wild oats, as also water in springs, but not

in quantities sufficient for any considerable number of animals. The culminating

point on the divide' between Russian and Eel rivers, may be considered as marked
by an isolated rock, about thirty feet high, standing in a level plat of grass. From
here our course ran northerly down a succession of hills, till about twelve miles from
our last camp we descended into a valley running north-west and south-east. At
the foot of the hills we found running water, in a branch under an alder thicket ; but
the grass had been burnt off by the Indians, for the purpose of collecting aniseed
with greater ease, and we were obliged to proceed some four miles further down,
and finally to encamp without water in our immediate vicinity, sending the animals
back to it. This valley, which the Indians called Betumki, or big plain, is eight or
ten miles long and four or five wide. Two streams come into it, which form the
heads of the middle fork of Eel river, here called the Ba-ka-wha. These are not
at this season continuous, but lose themselves in the plain. At the foot of the
vallej-, a lagoon of a mile or two long forms in the winter, and thence the river passes
out through a canon. The valley is level, fertile in soil and sufficiently wooded,
particularly' at the upper or southern end. Although its elevation is very considerable,
the hills around are well clothed with grass and timber. As being more distant
from any probable settlement of the whites, this and the next valley might have been
considered as more advantageous points of reserve than the Clear Lake country. It,

however, is destitute of water sufficient for a numerous population ; is too inclement

in the winter season for a southern population to exist in it, and would not furnish
enough of the natural productions on which they live.

In leaving Russian river, it may be proper briefly to state its general extent and
that of the country upon it. Taking its general course without reference to windings,
it is less than a hundred miles in length, and the aggregate amount of tillable land
upon it is not great. The largest single body of prairie country is that lying between
Santa Rosa and Fitch's ranch ; which, though not altogether upon the river, may yet
be considered as a portion of the valley, and which embraces a tract of some fifteen
miles in length, by as much in extreme width. Above Fitch's, the bottom consists
of detached valleys, of at most a few square miles in extent, separated by wooded
hills. Small basins are also scattered among the mountains, which, however, do
not greatly add to the quantity. This country, like that around the bays of San •

Francisco and San Pablo, generally requires irrigation for the production of green .

crops, but is admirably adapted to the small grains. Beyond this its great value

is for pasturage, the ranges on either side being very extensive and rich. Large
herds of cattle were formerly kept there, but the improvidence of the owners Jias

allowed them to be almost entirely destroyed.

'
Used as a noun, in this Journal, for ridge. — H. R. S
116 PHYSICAL GEOGRATHY OF
The precaution had been taken of sending Indians on from Parker's to bring in
those of this valley; and, with some trouble, they succeeded in collecting part of the
men. The families abandoned their rancherias, and fled to the mountains on our
approach. There are here five small bands, corresponding in appearance with those
on Russian river, with whom, as well as those on Clear Lake, they are connected.
They are much wilder than the others, having generally but little communication with
the whites, though a few are said to have been employed as vaqudros. We found
that they could make themselves understood by the Russian river Indians, and
generally understood them ; but their dialect is still different. A portion of their
vocabulary was collected, and will be found in the Appendix. [§ IX. Language.]
We remained in this camp two days. A considerable number of men were brought
in, but all attempts to assemble their families served only to excite their suspicions.
In fact, the object of the agent, in the process of double translation through which it

passed, was never fairly brought before them. The speeches were first translated into
Spanish by one, and then into the Indian by another ; and this, not to speak of the
very dim ideas of the last interj)reter, Avas sufficient to prevent much enlightenment
under any circumstances. But the truth was, that the gentlemen for whose benefit
they were meant by no means comprehended any possible motive on our part but
mischief. That figurative personage, the great father at Washington, they had never
heard They had
of. seen a few white men from time to time, and the encounter had
impressed them with a strong desire to see no more, except with the advantage of
manifest superiority on their own part. Tlieir earnest wish was clearly to be left

alone. To the last arguments brought forward, red flannel shirts and beef, their minds
were more open, and they willingly performed many offices about camp, running for
water, making fires, and waiting on the soldiers, who are sure to get work enough out
of them always.
These men, like the other mountain tribes we afterwards met, though small, were
well formed, with prominent chests, and the muscles of the legs and body well
developed. Their arms, on the contrary, were diminutive. Some of them had shaved
the hair from the person, and they almost all wore bits of stick, four or five inches

long, through the ears. A few carried bows and arrows, and one had a spear, headed
with obsidian, which is found scattered over these hills. The names of the bands in
this valley were the Nabob, Chow-e-shak, Chau-te-uh, Ba-kow-a, and Sa-mun-da. One
or two others were said to be absent. The numbers given bj' those who came in
amounted in all to 127 men, 147 women, and 106 children. The total, including
those absent, probably does not exceed 450 to 475.
From a high point to the west of our camp I obtained a fine view over the valley
and surrounding hills. These are well timbered with oak and fir ; which latter timber

IS now prevalent, and interspersed with fields of bunch grass and little valleys affording
good pasturage. Water, however, is scarce.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. IIT

Thursdaij, Aug. 28th. — "We started rather earlier than usual, anticipating a heavy
day's march, in which we were by no means disappointed. The first six or eight miles,

though a series of constant ascents and descents, the former much preponderating,
afforded a very fair trial. Small valleys lay scattered among the hills, covered with
rich grass; and fine views opened behind, of the mountains between us and the
Sacramento. At ten o'clock we halted for half an hour, while the guide sought for the
route ; no easy thing in a country presenting such an endless succession of hills, and
cut up every where by Indian and deer trail. Unfortunately the wrong one was this
time selected, and, after losing ourselves in a forest of redwoods, we turned directly up
a mountain northward. Reaching the top with great difficulty, and on foot of course,

the trail turned east and then south, and two hours of hard work brought us back to
the starting point. The timber in these redwoods was very large ; one tree that we
passed measuring thirty-three feet in circumference, and a great proportion from
twenty-five to twenty-eight. Scattered among them were firs, also of great size. On
the top of the mountain we noticed, for the first time, the chestnut oak, and a species

of chestnut, with leaves like those of the willow in form and size, the burrs being in
clusters and containing fruit not much larger than the beach-nut.

Taking a fresh departure we reached, in about a mile, a little valley running east
and west, and lying directly behind the mountain we had ascended. This we followed

up, and again returning to our general north-westerly course, ascended to a point
whence we could see the mountains beyond the Clear Lake valley, and among the
intermediate peaks, " Loma Prieta," and Mount " M'Kee." A deep ravine or canon lay
on either hand. Here we again mistook our course, and instead of heading that to
the left, kept up the divide between the two. After a still higher climb, and a futile

attempt to descend, Ave turned back, and succeeded in finding the right course. From
this divide a superb view opened of the Coast chain, upon one of the highest ridges of
which we were travelling; range after range, heavily timbered, extending down
towards the sea ; and the sun, now in its decline, shone upon the distant ocean, the
reflected rays illuminating the clouds above.

We formed camp near nightfall on the side of the mountain, with but poor grass and
a scanty supply of water from a muddy hole. The animals, thirsty after their long
march, had to be kept away by force, and groups of disconsolate mules stood, during

the night, at a hardly respectful distance from the sentinel ; their despairing bray

mingling with the j'elping of the coyotes. Our march was probably sixteen miles on
our course, and twenty-four in all. It will be observed that we were crossing from the
waters of the middle, towards those of the south fork of Eel river, on which is

situated the valley we were next seeking. In consequence, however, of losing the
trail, we were compelled to encamp short of the place intended, and upon the summit
of one range of the Coast Mountains.
118 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
Friday, Aug. 29f Ji. — The animals were much strayed this morning, having
wandered off in search of grass and water. We marched only four miles, and
finding both in abundance on a creek running towards the coast, concluded to
encamp there, especially as all the dragoon horses had not been found. The herd of
cattle, which formed part of our cavalcade, were driven on about two miles and a half
to another arroya. A few Indians came into this camp, part of a band belonging to
the next valley. They had with them a dog, the first we have seen among them, and
of a breed not mentioned in Youatt, being apparently a cross between a turnspit and
a coyote. "When it is added that he was as great an adept in thieving as his masters,
all praise of his capacity is exhausted.
The creek on which we were, seemed to be one of the sources of a river
said to enter the coast thirty or forty miles below Cape Mendocino, and which among
some of the sea charts is laid down as the R. des Marons. The deep ravine or canon
facing our camp of last night, was evident!}' one of its heads, as during the march we
jjerceived a gup extending to the ocean. We were afterwards told by persons who
had passed near the coast, that a quite extensive agricultural country apparently lay
near its mouth.

Saturdaij, Aug. oOth. — A general and very noisy mourning among the mules came
off this morning, as the old white mare that had officiated as bell-wether, had fallen

down the hill Our course continued northward, up high grassy

and broken her neck.
hills, and then over the wooded table-land, which forms the western side of the valley.
We found the cattle camp a couple of miles beyond, upon a brook running into it,

with water and grass abuudant. The men accompanying it had started three bears and
wounded one, Avhich however escaped. Strangely enough, the mules, generally very
much afraid of them, had taken it into their ears to have a little private diversion on
this occasion, and surrounding a grizzly bear which they found in the tall bottom grass,

had performed a war-dance round him, kicking and snorting, but keeping carefully
beyond the reach of his paws.

About a mile and a half further we reached the stream which runs through the
valley, and crossing it, encamped, finding sufficient water standing in jdooIs. This
valley, called by the Ixidians Ba-tem-da-kai, we supposed to be on the head of the
south fork of Eel river, and so we were informed by our guide and other mountameers ;

but a belief exists, as we afterwards found, among some of the parties who have
traversed this country, that it is, on the contrary, the head of the river before spoken
of as entering the coast to the westward. It is apparently twelve or fifteen miles in
length, by four or five wide, the general course conforming to the bend of the Coast
range, being from south-east to north-west. That part \y\ug on the easterly side of the
stream consisted entirely of open prairie, fertile and producing an abundance of fine

grass, while the westerly side is mostly wooded. The timber, as on the hills around,
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 119

was of mixed oak and fir. A few Indians visited us, and were directed to call in the

adjacent tribes.
The distance travelled to-day was four miles.

Sunday, Aug. olsf. — Quite a number of Indians were assembled and presents
distributed, but no treaty attempted ;for our Clear Lake interpretei', although able to

comprehend them, could not explain freely in turn. Their language, however, is

clearly of the same family as that of the tribes at the head of Russian river, and those
last encountered. The total number in the ^dcinity, as near as could be ascertained,

was about six hundred souls. In general appearance they resembled the Indians in
the upper valley. They pluck their beards, and some of them tattoo. Many had their

hair cut short, but others wore it turned up in a buucli in front, or occasionally on the
back of the head. The practice of cutting the hair, so unusual among American
Indians, is referred to by Jedediah S. Smith, one of the most adventurous of the whole
class of fur-traders, who, during his various expeditions, constructed a map of Oregon

and California. An entry upon this, designates the tribes living on the west of the
Sacramento range as the " Short-haired Indians." The average height of these men
was not over five feet four or five inches. Thej^ were lightly built, with no superflu-
ous flesh, but with very deep chests and sinewy legs. Their exj)rcssion was mild and
pleasant, and vastly better than their reputation warranted. We saw no women, and
the proposal to bring them in, at once excited their fear and distrust.
I took the opportunity of to-day's halt, to ascend the hills on the eastern side of the

valley. The view from this point was beautiful, the stream winding in serpentine

form along the margin of the plain, fringed with oaks and firs, and the long slopes
beyond diversified with forest and prairie. To the east rose heavy ranges of
mountains, between which and the yet more distant Sacramento chain, a wide and
deep gap indicated another valley, supposed to be the source of the main fork of Eel
river. Returning to camp, Mr. Sebring pointed out a sulphur spring, the water of
which was very strongly impregnated. The temperature proved to be 70°, while that

of the air was 68°.

Monday, Sept 1st. — Following the principal valley down for a mile or two, it

narrowed and became broken by spurs and deep ravines coming down from the
mountain, until at a distance of three or four miles from camp, the stream abruptly
turned to the left into a canon. Beyond this the route became excessively mountain-
ous, crossing deep arroyas and then ascending a broken ridge between the waters of
the south and middle forks. The day proved cold and rainy, and the clouds prevented
our seeing to any considerable distance, though occasionally we had glimpses of a vast
circle of mountains closing around us. These seemed to follow the general chain, but

were broken and erratic to a degree that rendered it almost impossible to trace
120 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
continuous chains. Tlie character of the country, so far as vegetation was concerned,
was the same as that recently passed over ; the higher and steeper crests being covered
with chemisal, dwarf oak, holly, and other similar shrubs, and the less elevated with
fir and oaks of various kinds, but of smaller size than those in the lower country.
Grass was aljundant, even at considerable heights, and water was to be found
frequently in the arroyas ; but it is to be remembered that reports of water streams,
derived from those who have travelled these mountain regions at an earher season,
where the snow was but lately melted, are seldom borne out during the later summer
months. We passed to-day in a deep arroya the wrecks of some of the wagons which
Mr. Huestas had attempted to take through to Humboldt bay. This expedition started
from Sonoma, in the sj^ring of 1850, following the discovery of that harbor, and
unfortunately proved abortive. The last wagon was finally abandoned upon the main
fork, and the company struck across the mountains for the mines on the Trinity. But
one family of Indians were met with on our march, and they fled incontinently ; the
Avomen carrying with them their few effects, the mail gallantly waiting to cover their
retreat. He was evidently under great alarm, and with difficulty could be induced to
accept a present of tobacco which a soldier offered him. These had robes of deer
skin, dressed with the hair on, over their shoulders. They belonged to a wild
mountain tribe, the terror of the valley Indians, and with whom earlier parties of

whites had one or two encounters. Even their women are said to wield the bow and
arrows with dexterity and courage. Of their language and affinities, nothing is

known.
We camped this night on a deep ravine, opposite to two i-emarkable crags called

the " Pilot rocks." Our elevation was great, and the night cold and uncomfortable.
The pine grouse, well known in Oregon, were now abundant, and seemed to gather in

flocks, as the fall approached. Some of our people here prospected for gold, and
believed that, in miner's phrase, they had " raised the color," but without any degree
of certainty. The distance travelled was twelve miles.

Tuesday, Sept. 2d. — In the moi'ning Indian signs were visible round our camp, but
nothing was missing. The day was again cloudy and threatening. Our march was
over a succession of ridges, separating the waters of the south and main forks of Eel
river, and was severe, not only on the animals, but the men, who were continually
obliged to dismount and lead. A dozen or twenty Indians appeared upon a large swell
near the road, after the column had passed, vociferating abusively, but offering no
actual molestation to those in the rear. Near this place a party, to which our guide
belonged, had been attacked the year before, and had killed a chief and two others.

These, apparently, had had no notice of our approach, having probably little commu-
nication with the tribes above, who fear them. Indeed, the valley Indians informed
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 121

us, that they Avere always whipped bade when they attempted to penetrate the
mountains.
A few miles from camp, the South Fork, other heads of which we had turned,
passed behind a mountain to the left, and for some distance was entirely lost sight of,

its course Ij'ing some ten or fifteen miles from the dividing ridge. The main fork had,
appai-ently, an average distance of five or six miles, but was visible during the day but
once, at a conspicuous point called " Saddle Rock." Beyond it a steep ascent led to
another part of the divide, a sliarp and very narrow comb, covered with chemisal and
other shrubs, and exceedingly rough. Following this for five or six miles, we descended
abruptly, and made camp about three o'clock on a ridge between two ravines. Here
we found the skeleton of another wagon, and wondered at the obstinacy which had
brought it thus far. It was the last relic of the ill-fated expedition which we
encountered, as the party had here taken another route.
Our distance to-day was seventeen miles. Water was in sufficient quantity near
camp, but the grass was poor, and we were compelled to tie up the animals, as well to

pi'event their straying, as from fear of Indians. The frequent occurrence of showers
in these mountains during the summer months, seems probable, as we found new grass
sprouting where it had been burnt over.

Wednesday, Sept. od. — We mounted a further continuation of the dividing ridge, and
kept along its crest, still in a general north-westerly direction. Five or six miles on,
we came to one of the most elevated points on our route, a mountain marked on its

summit by a fir-tree, bearing a gigantic parasite. The scenery from here was
magnificent, the mountains being interminable to view, and jiiled up in the wildest
confusion. On the left lay the Coast range ; on the right a vast basin opened, amidst
which rose numerous peaks, sometimes in sharp serrated ridges, elsewhere in regular
cones, surmounted with large bare rocks like truncated pyramids or broken columns.
Here their tops were yellow with grass — there shrouded with the dark foliage of the
chemisal, or crowned with forests of oak and fir. Deep ravines and canons intersected
them, amidst which occasionally lay small green patches, whence the blue smoke of an
Indian camp-fire curled upward, the rare signs of human life in this vast desert of
mountains.
Our dogs started, this afternoon, a couple of half-grown grizzlj- bears, and chased
them smartly up a hill, the bears lumbering along at a rapid though clums}- pace. A
little further on, an old site, with two cubs, was roused from an arroj-a. A soldier who
was in advance, bi'oke her back with a rifle-shot, the cubs in the mean time escaping,
pursued by one of the dogs. The other attacked the bear most resolutely. In the
scuffle she rolled back into the water-course, and the soldier leaping in with his sabre,
ran her twice through the heart. The fight, which lasted some minutes, created a
general excitement, and some pistol-shooting was volunteered; but the credit of first

Pt. III. — 16
122 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
blood and the death-wound, was unanimously given to the rifleman. The meat was
packed into camp, but proved tough and unsavory. Leaving the crown of the ridge,

our trail ran alongside hills to its left for some distance, until, descending a long and
very steep declivity, we came upon the South Fork, or, as it is now called, " Kelsey's

river," at the junction of a small stream named, after our guide, " Sebring's creek."

The river was, at this time, not more than thirty or forty feet wide, and about eight
deep. The low bottom furnished good grass, but was of small extent ; the hill-sides,

however, almost everywhere afford pasturage. What little land there is upon the
river is very loose, resembling, in fact, a bed of ashes ; but there is nowhei'e enough to
attract settlers, even could any convenient route be found through the country. The
mountains are much more craggy than those on Russian river ; huge rocks standing out
on their sides and summits. A grey sandstone, noticed to-day upon the ridge, forms
the canons of the streams.
The Indians at this point, unlike those of the past two days' march, are said to have
been friendly to the whites who have passed through, and to have visited them freely.

Owing probably to the size of the party, we could not get them in. No estimate can

be formed of their number, but it cannot be great ; nor is it probable that a large
population exists anywhere among these mountains. One of the rancherias was near
our camp ; a wretched affair, and with no character of permanence. The tribe is said

to have a practice, so far as known, peculiar to itself, of cutting the tongue, and allowing
the blood to stream down over the person. Whether the custom is a religious
ceremony or not, is unknown it seems to be
; too universal for a mark of mourning.

Their dress, like that of the last seen, consists of a deer-skin robe thrown over the
shoulders. The severity of the climate renders some clothing necessary ;
for in winter
the snow lies here to a great depth, and for a considerable time.
Our march was about seventeen miles, and a severe one on the animals, as for the

two nights past they had but little grass, and the trail was very mountainous. The
day Avas cool, and some rain fell.

Thursday, Sepf. ith. —We remained in camp to recruit the animals, and Avith the

hope of finding some Indians, but none were seen. The morning was again rainy.

An elk and two or three deer were killed. This country seems to be the paradise of
the grizzly bear, for their signs are visible everywhere. A high mountain, which rises

a few miles from camp, takes its name of the "Bear Butte," from an attack made by
two or three upon a man belonging to a former party. The man escaped with his life,

though fearfully crippled.

Friday, Scj)/. yyfli. — The trail here crossed the river, and, skirting a grove of
redwoods, ascended the mountain beyond. This timber had now reappeared, and was
abundant in the bottoms, often attaining a gigantic size. Higher on the hills the fir
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 123

and oak yet prevailed. The mountain sides and tops were generally -very rich, and,

where not wooded, covered with abundant and fine bunch grass ; in i\ict, almost the
only open country was upon these high slopes ; the valleys, if the narrow bottoms can
be so called, being generally filled with forest. Reaching the top of the ascent, we
found the fog so dense that the advance party had stopped ; and we were compelled to
halt for about an hour. From this the trail descended to the foot of the Bear Butte,
a high serrated crest, Avhich forms a conspicuous landmark for many miles, and is even
visible from the Bald Mountains, between Humboldt bay and the Klamath. Our
route thence lay alongside hills, cut up by ravines coming down from the Butte, and
running toward Canon creek, a branch of which enters the river about a mile above
our camp of last night. These were all living streams, and would afford good camping
places, as grass is abundant. Leaving them, and crossing another ridge, we came
upon the feeders of Wood's creek, another branch emptying some four miles above our
next proposed camp, and which here ran on our right. The road was excessively bad,
being a constant succession of ascents and descents upon sidelong hills intersected by
arroyas, the beds of which lay deep below the surface. The ground too was soft, and
added much to the lajpor of the animals.

During the day we met a party of half a dozen Indians, and induced them to stop.

They were exceedingly pleased with the small presents given them, but could not be
prevailed upon to accompany us into camp. Two or three of them were of larger
stature than usual, and one was really a fine-looking young fellow. They wore the
deer-skin robe over the right shoulder, and carried the common short bow, backed with
sinew, and arrows pointed with stone, both tolerably well made. With all these
Indians, the arrow-points are fastened into a short piece of wood, which in turn is

fixed, though but loosely, into the shaft. The quiver, of dressed deer-skin, holds both
bow and arrows. They had also, suspended round the neck, small nets, neatly made
after the fashion of the common game-bag the twine, which was very even, being of
;

course their own work.

The last part of our march led us into a thick redwood forest, upon a mountain,
through which we were obliged to cut our trail, the ground being covered with under-
brush and fallen timber. A fatiguing climb and an excessively bad descent brought us
again to the South Fork. On the other side was a small prairie of about eighty acres,
from which, however, the grass was mostly burnt, a bare sufSciencj- only remaining.
As it was already evening, and the march had been the most laborious we had yet
made, we had no opportunity of seeking farther. It had drizzled a good part of the

day, and the night was still wet. Our estimated distance was fifteen miles.

Saturday, Sept. 6th. — Frequent showers again fell to-day. A piece of grass having
been found about a mile off, it was determined remain over imtil something definite
to
could be ascertained of the trail ahead, of which accounts from the hunting and
124 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
prospecting' parties were unfavorable. Several Indians, among them some of our
acquaintances of yesterday, came into camp. They were very dirty in person, and
equally so in their habits ; in disposition amiable and thievish. An attempt to collect
the tribe proved futile ; nor would it have been of any service except for the purpose

of enumeration, as we could make them understand nothing, their language differing

wholly from those above. They are said to be of a diflferent tribe from the one so
much dreaded by the valley Indians, but are probably of the same race. I endeavored
in vain to get from them the names of articles at hand, parts of the body, &c., as they
either could not or would not understand the object of the inquiry ; nor was our Clear
Lake Indian moi'e successful after liis method. We soon got tired of these gentrj', as
they did not render themselves useful, and required too much watching.
Our camp was a very pretty one, the little prairie being level and rich, and
encircled by a magnificent redwood forest. One tree near the tents I measured, and
found it to be fifty-two feet in circumference, at four or five feet from the ground, and
tliis although the bark and a portion of the wood were burned away. It was still

erect and alive at the top, notwithstanding the interior had been hollowed out to the

height of probably eighty feet, and the smoke was even yet escaping from a hole in the

bide. The diameter, measured through a chasm at the bottom, was eighteen feet. An-
other, likewise much burnt, measured forty-nine feet in circumference, at five feet from
the ground. The stump of a group rising from one root was twenty-two feet ten inches
across. Those above mentioned were single trees, and without swell, the
measurements given being the fair size of the shaft. Colonel M'Kee measured a
fallen trunk near camp, which was three hundred and twenty-five feet in length,
though not of extraordinary thickness. Larger trees than this are known to exist,

but none were noticed by ourselves. Their shafts, often disposed in groups, rise to

a vast height free from limbs, and their foliage is delicate and feathery. The bark
is of an ash color, very thick, but not rough ; the branches small in proportion, and
the leaves resemble those of the hemlock rather than the cedar. The wood, however,
is like that of the latter tree, and of a red color. It splits very readily; somuch
so, that the Indians, without the use of iron, get out immense planks for their huts.

In a manufactured state, it is unsurpassed for shingles, ceiling, and weather-boarding.

The redwood appears to belong exclusively to the coast region ; nowhere, it is believed,
at Iccast in northern California, extending inland more than twenty-five or thirty
miles, and it does not reach a more northern latitude than the parallel of 42°.

SundiiT/, Sept, 7fh. — Our route to-day led down the bed of the river, crossing it

some twenty times, and only occasionally turning into the woods. Some ten miles
from camp we reached the junction of the South fork with the main Eel river, which
had previously received other considerable branches. The two, at this time, however,
contained nearly the same quantity of water. Below, the bed of the river is much

'
A local phrase employed by miners. — H. E. S.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 125

wider, consisting as before of sand and coarse gravel, or large rounded pebbles, of
every variety of color, and intersected with quartz, over which it spreads, being
fordable almost anywhere. In winter, however, both streams bring down immense
quantities of water, the drainage of a vast mountain region. No falls occur in their
course, or rapids of importance, and the salmon ascends fiir towards their sources.
With the exception of the valleys already mentioned, and, perhaps, two or three
others upon other branches, all of them too distant to be valuable. Eel river may,
above this point, be considered as destitute of arable land ; but should hereafter the
wants of California demand, it affords facilities for a lumber trade of the first

importance.
Near the foi'ks, we met a canoe, the first seen on our journey. It was a dug-out,
square at both ends, and sufficiently rude and clumsy. The river was now filled

with stakes, driven into the sand at pretty regular intervals, to which the Indians
fiisten baskets of wicker-work to take the eels, with which at certain seasons it

abounds, and which have given their name to the stream. These, smoked and dried,
constitute a principal article of food among the natives.
We camped at a small fern prairie on the right bank, where we found good grass.
The day's march was about seventeen miles, which, over the stony bed of the river,

was a severe one.

Monday, Sept. 8ih. — We pursued our route down the river. Except two small
prairies, the banks afforded no open land till near the close of our day's march.
Bluffs of sandstone occurred here and there, apparently resembling that in the Coast

range of Oregon, and bearing fossils similar to those at the mouth of the Columbia.
About fourteen miles from camp we reached " Van Dusen's Fork," a branch coming in
from the east. Its bed was nearly as wide as that of the main river ; and though an
inconsiderable stream at the time, it is said, during the freshets, to supply about half
as much water as the other. The two iniited were now about fifty yards in width
but when flooded are some six hundred yards across, and very deep.
This, the last large branch of Eel river, we ai'e told heads with the Mad river ; a
stream entering the coast above Humboldt bay, and, with the south fork of the
Trinity, in the Sacramento range of mountains. It resembles in general character

the other eastern branches. Some ^^rairie land occurs some fifteen or twenty miles
above its mouth ; but the greater part of its course is through mountains, except that
on the upper waters, as is generally the case on the western slope of that chain, are
rolling hills, wooded with oak, and affording good pasturage. A short distance above
its junction with the main river, the open country commences on both, and extends
to the mouth. This point is distant about twelve or fourteen miles above the entrance
of Eel river into the sea. The tide backs up to it, and at low stages renders the water
brackish to within four miles. Below the forks the river is crooked, generally covering
126 niYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
a wide space witli .sand aud gravel. We encamped on the northern bank, about half
a mile from the main stream. Our march Avas fifteen miles.

Tuesday, Sept. dth. — As it was intended to remain in this neighborhood for some
days, in order to recruit the animals, and hold a council with the Indians of the lower
Eel river and of Humboldt bay, the party moved this morning in search of a suitable
camp. About a mile out, the road ascended a high table prairie, exceedingly fertile,

watered with springs, and well timbered. Here quite a settlement had been made ; a
number of houses built, or in the course of construction, and a considerable quantity of
land enclosed, and under cultivation. Some crops of potatoes, planted late in the
season, looked well; others were in bloom, or even just out of the ground; but the
owners seemed to have no fear of their not reaching maturity. We were informed
that rain had ftiUen occasionally during the summer, and that the same was the case
last year ; and the appearance of the vegetation indicated its frequency, as compared
with the valley of the Sacramento. Some six miles from our starting place, we again
struck the river, and followed it down, encamping a short distance off, upon a small
branch, which wo named " Communion Creek." —This camp was situated about eight
miles from our last, as for from the sea, and twelve from the town of Humboldt. We
here remained until the 15th.
Several of the neighboring settlers visited the camp soon after our arrival, and we
learned that there were, including those on the south side of the river, about thirty.
Preparations were made to call in the Indians ; but unfortunately the only persons who
spoke the language with any facility were absent. One or two others could barely
communicate with them on a few subjects ; but too short a time had elapsed since the
arrival of the whites generally to have created any considerable intercourse. Still we
were able to gather some particulars. The tribes on the coast from Cape Mendocino to
Mad river speak substantially the same language, though the dialect of theBay differs
from that lower down. How far back tliis tongue extends we had no means of
ascertaining. On Van Dusen's fork it constantly varies, so that they with difficulty
undei'stand the others. From the Indian wife of a settler on Eel river, I managed to

procure some words, afterwards corrected and increased by another, which will be
found among the vocabularies. No resemblance, as will be seen, exists between this
and the Russian river languages; and, in fact, the appearance and habits of the
Indians indicate a different race. As in all the others noticed on this coast, the F is

wanting ; and tlie Indians sujiply its place in pronouncing English names with the
letter p. Unlike the Oregon and some of the California tongues, however, this
contains the R, in which respect it is like those of the Klamath. No attempt could be
made towards learning its construction ; and there was much difficulty in obtaining

even the words with certainty, owing to the indistinctness with which they
pronounce; the first and last syllables being often hardly articulate. I noticed that
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 127

several words from the "Jargon" or trade language of Oregon were in use, undoubtedly
obtained from Hudson's Bay trappers. Sucli is the word " ma-witch," a deer, by them
applied to all kinds of meat, as well as to the animal, though they have a correspond-
ing name of their own. The word " pappoose," too, has wandered from its Atlantic
home, to become a lixiniliar one on the lips of this race, long after those have passed
away to whom it was vernacular. Tiie name given to this people by their neighbors
is Wee-yot, and Eel river is known by the same.
As salmon Avere abundant, the Indians were all fat. They are generally repulsive
in countenance as well as filthy in person. The men, like those in the mountains, wore
a deer-skin robe over the shoulder ; but evidently' not for purposes of decency. The
women were usually naked to the waist, wearing round the loins the short petticoat
of fringe. This dress, in its various modifications of fashion and change of material,
from dressed deer-skins, often beautifully worked and ornamented, to a rude skirt of
grass, or the inner bark of the cedar or redwood, prevails over an extensive country
and among widely different tribes. The close round cap of basket-work, is likewise
their ordinary head-dress. These Indians have as many wives as they please, or more
probably, as they can purchase, and allow themselves the privilege of shooting such
as they are tired of; a method of divorce that obviates all difficulty as to subsequent
maintenance. One of the whites here, in "breaking in" his squaw to her household
duties, had occasion to beat her several times. She complained of this to the tribe,

and they informed him that he should not do so ; that if he was dissatisfied he must
kill her and get another. As this advice came from her brother, it is fair to suppose
that there was no offence to the family in such a procedure. The women are said to
be chaste, and especially to admit no intercourse with the whites excejjt on permanent
conditions ; a peculiarity whicli, as elsewhere, will probably disappear with the advance
of civilization. Both men and women generally crop their hair very short all over
the head, giving it much the appearance of a well-worn blacking-brush. The former
pluck their beards out, but leave the hair on the rest of the person. Their heads are
disproportionatel}' large ; their figures, though short, strong and well developed. Both
sexes tattoo : the men on their arms and breasts ; the women from inside the under lip

down to and beneath the chin. The extent of this disfigui'ement indicates to a certain
extent, the age and condition of the person, whether married or single.

As far as regards their number, we could not ascertain it with any exactness. As
usual, it was much overrated in general report, and it is probable that those on the Eel
river below Van Dusen's fork, and around the bay, fall short of five hundred. Their
food consists principally of fish, eels, shell-fish, and various seeds, which, like those in

the southern valleys, they collect after burning the grass. A small species of sun-
flower furnishes a very abundant supply of these last. The sallal, salmon, and
berries, hazel-nuts, &c., also abound. Occasionally the more enterprising snare the elk.
which are very numerous. They do not appear to be warlike or disposed to aggression.
128 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
although one or two murders wei'e committed when the whites began to come ii:. It

appeared to us singular that at first thej would not eat beef; but so few cattle had
been brought here that the settlers used more themselves, and had probably spread the
idea that it was not good, in order to save their stock. We found, however, that they
readilj- learned the lesson when an opportunity was afforded them. The grizzly bear,

which is found here in great numbers, they will not eat, because, as they say, it eats them,

the lex ialionis not appljdng in this case. The principal diseases noticed, were sore
eyes and blindness, consumption, and a species of leprosy ; not, however, the result of

syphilis, which has never been introduced. From their OAvn accounts, their numbers
have been greatly thinned by a disease, from the description appearing to have been
gastritis. Of the religious notions of these people nothing could be learned. They
bury instead of burning their dead.
During our stay I devoted several days to an examination of the country ; though
a very complete one was impracticable for want of guides and facilities of transporta-
tion. The best portion is apparently that lying near the mouth of Van Dusen's fork,
on either side of the margin stream. Lower down, the land on the right bank, with
the excejjtion of a narrow strip along the river, consists of rolling hills, covered with
low shrubs, extending to the end of " Table Bluff," a promontory between the mouth
of Eel river and the bay, and reaching back to the redwoods, behind the town of
Humboldt. The soil of these hills is excellent ; but the difficulty of breaking them up,
the want of timber on the ground, and of running water, has hitherto prevented claims
being taken there. On the south, what may be called the valley of Eel river is

bounded by the Coast range, Avhich terminates at Cape Mendocino. These momitains
run back, in an easterly direction, some eighteen miles. They present a fine grazing
country on the slopes, and good situations for farms at their base. The bottom land
on the river is low and level, and in width averages perhaps five miles. Much of this

is, however, covered with thickets of willows, &c., and is subject to floods in the rainy
season. Those tracts above the reach of the freshets are generally of fern prairie,

rich, but not easily subdued. In approaching the coast, the country is much cut up
with sloughs, communicating with the river, and near the mouth consists of salt marsh
and tide-land. The extent of the whole is not far from twenty miles square. For
farming purposes, as carried on in the northern States, such as the production of green
crops, the available portion of this is admirably calculated. On our return to the bay,
later in the season, we were shown vegetables, particularly potatoes, turnips, beets, &c.,

of the finest quality, and of enormous size ; some of the potatoes weighing from three
to four pounds each. The climate, as has been mentioned, is much more moist than
that of southern California, or the Sacramento valley. It is, however, apparently
healthy. The winters are mild ; snow never lying for any length of time, except in

the mountains. Game is excessively abundant, including deer, elk, bears; and all the

fall and winter, duck.s, geese, brandt, cranes, and other water-fowl.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 129

Partly from the difficulty of communicating with the Indians, and parti}- from tl e
jealousy with which each little band seemed to view the rest, the efforts to collect
them from the country- around proved abortive, a few only visiting the camp from the
nearest villages. was an additional drawback, that the head chief of Eel river, to
It

whom the whites have given the name of " Coon-skin," and who is said to possess
considerable influence, was sick. To those who came in, small presents, together with
hard Ijread, and beef, were distributed; but they could not be made to understand the
object of our visit, and clearly remained to the last, in doubt whether the agent was
simply a philanthropic individual, possessed of more red flannel shirts and cotton
pocket-handkerchiefs than he knew what to do with, and who therefore indulged in
the benevolent amusement of giving them away ; or one wdio had some designs upon
them, and was fishing for Indians with that particular bait. It being considered
advisable, however", to bring in as many as possible, in order to produce an impression
favorable to future efforts, I went down the river in a canoe, accompanied by Mr.
Duperru, a gentleman of Humboldt, and Mr. Eobinson, Avith three Indians, \. siting

the different rancherias on our wa}". These were very numerous, but consisting
generally of only two or three fiimiUes. Their appearance, as well as that of their
inhaljitants, was wretched, and we found sickness to prevail everywhere, the disease
being apparently consumption. No inducement that we could offer would bring the
Indians together, their dislike of one another amounting almost to hostility ; each
village assuring us that the next was very bad, and dissuading us from going on.
Indeed, our own crew could hardly be forced to land at some places.
We descended as far as the tide-lands, a couple of miles from the mouth, where we
hiid a fine view of the nearer, or " False Cape Mendocino," with its terraced sides.
The banks of the river, to this j^oint, were generally covered with thicket.s, occasion-
ally interspersed with small prairies, bearing an enormous gi'owth of fern. We
attempted in one place to travel on shore ; but after running out an old trail, lost

ourselves in the rank weeds, and were glad to get back to our boat. Our Indians
proved worthless boatmen, and the canoe leaking badly, we returned without going to
the entrance. The river empties into the ocean through a sort of lagoon, made by
the union of a number of large sloughs, or tide creeks, which intersect the low lands.
A communication by one of these exists to within a mile of Humboldt bay, and with
but little labor could be readily established throughout. The depth of water on the bar
is sufficient to admit the smaller class of vessels. In fact, a schooner, called the

"Jacob Ej-erson," entered it in the spring of 1850, and proceeded up some miles; but
the narrowness of the entrance, and the fact that the sea, except in very calm weather,
breaks across it, wUl prevent its becoming available to any extent. The natural

outlet for the produce of the country is, and will continue to be, the baj-.

About nine o'clock in the evening, we reached the village from which we took the

canoe, and stopped for the night, making our suppers of smoked eels, a cup of coffee.

Pt. Ill —17

130 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
and of course a pipe of tobacco. These Indians, by the way, do not smoke ; a glaring
evidence of ignorance and debasement, to remedy which, it is to be hoped the earliest

efforts of their future guardians will be directed ! The eels proved excessively fat and
oily, and seem to be a more favorite article of food, with them at least, than the
salmon. The river bed near their villages, was everywhere filled with stakes, to
which the eel-pots are attached ; and the lodges farther down had, in some places,

erected strong weirs of well-driven posts, to sustain nets. The band with whom
we were encamped apj^eared to be among the laziest of the race, and even
they had an abundant snppl}'. We had brought with us our blankets, as a usual

now spread them on the sand, not far from the huts. A nearly full
precaution, and
moon shone down upon us, a good fire blazed at our feet, and we sat till a late hour,
drying our boots, and listening to the wailings of a new-born savage, or watching with
humane interest the semi-occasional fights of a swarm of dogs belonging to the village.
Two imps, of about ten and fourteen years of age, persisted in giving us their company,
entertaining us with information which might have proved valuable had we understood
it, and finally amusing themselves by gambling for the shirts we had given them, their
only garments. The largest, of course, won, but was magnanimous enough to permit
the loser to wear his lost property for the night ; and both tucking up the skirts, that

the genial warmth of the fire might reach them without interruption, stretched
themselves on the damp sand, and slept like innocence itself. The next morning, as

it was Sunday, we directed a general washing of faces throughout the village ; a

ceremony evidently of rare occurrence, and which happily settled a question before

agitated in our camp. The representative of the Van Dusen's Fork Indians, who was
present, was not darker, but only dirtier than the rest

Sdndai/, Sept. Uth. — As it had become evident that nothing could be effected with
the Indians at present, for want of interpreters, it was concluded to break up camp
the next day, and proceed on. AVith a view to the prevention of difficulty hereafter
in the selection of a reserve. Colonel M'Kee decided upon setting apart provisionally,
a tract sufficient for the tribes inhabiting Eel river, Humboldt ba}-, and generally the
central portion of his district. — The reservation could at this time be made without
embracing any land occupied by whites, and yet to include all the requisites for
subsisting the Indians themselves. The tract was selected after obtaining the best

information practicable, and comprised the country between Eel river and the
Mendocino range, extending from the coast up to a point opposite to our camp.
This it was believed would furnish sufficient agricultural land, together with the

fisheries upon Avhich they chiefly depend. An arrangement was also entered into,

with a Mr. Charles A. Robinson, one of the settlers, on Eel river, to plant with
potatoes a few acres of ground for the benefit of such Indians as could be induced
<o labor upon it.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 131

Muinhiij, Sipt. li)flt. — Todii}' the cuiiip was broken up, and we moved down t(j

" Huinboldt City." The road, for the greater part of the distance, ran over hills
covered with low brush. It is passable for wagons from the settlement near Van
Dusen's fork, to an erabarcadero on a slough putting up from the bay, whence produce
is taken by water. The town, if it may be called so, is situated upon a little plateau
of about forty acres, neai-ly ojjposite the entrance, and under a bluff, rising from the
midst of a tract of low ground. It contains only about a dozen houses, and was at
this time nearly deserted ; Uniontown, at the head of the bay, having proved a more
successful rival in the packing trade. Vessels of considerable size can lie close to the
shore here ; but the place is not destined to any iniportance, at least until the
settlement and cultivation of the adjoining country shall make it a point of export
for provisions.

Humboldt Bay (Plate 43) is probably a lagoon lying Avithin a sand beach, and undis-
tinguished by any prominent land-mark ; for which reason it pi'obably so long escaped
observation from sea. Its extreme length is about eighteen miles ; its width opposite
the town not more than one, but greater near the upper end, averaging probably four or
five. Somewhat singularl}-, no stream of any size enters it ; the largest being Elk river,
called Ka-sha-reh by the Indians, a creek emptying a mile or two above Humboldt.
The bay was discovered, so far as we have any knowledge of its existence, in the fall of
1849, by a party under Dr. Josiah Gregg, well known as the author of a work entitled
" The Commerce of the Prairies." This party had started from the Sacramento valley
with a view of exploring Trinity vallej^, under the supposition that it emptied into
Trinidad bay. Perceiving, however, that it finally turned to the northward, they left

it, and crossed the country to that point, and subsequently came down uj^on this bay,

which at first they supposed to be a lake. The party here divided. Dr. Gregg, with
Mr. Charles Southard and some others, following do^vn the coast to about lat. 39° 36',

and thence striking over the mountains to Clear Lake, beyond Avhich Dr. Gregg died,
in the attempt to reach Napa valley. Others of the party, among whom was our
guide. Ml-. Thomas Sebring, and David A. Buck, took the route up. Eel river, reaching
Sonoma in February. Both parties experienced great sufiering in their winter journey
through the mountains. It is greatly to be regretted that Dr. Gregg's notes, which
are said to have been very minute, and accompanied with obser%^ations of latitude
and longitude, have never been published. In the spring of 1850, Mr. Sebring
returned to the bay, guiding two parties ; and the attempt to bring the wagon train
across, the failure of which has been mentioned, was made by another. —A vessel

called the " Eclipse," stai'ted from San Francisco, chartered by some of the new
settlers. Before her arrival, however, or that of the expeditions by land, information
of the existence of the harbor was received at Trinidad, through a party of sailors
who had been landed at the mouth of Eel river, and found their way thence up the
coast and the " Lama Virginia," Captain Ottinger, came down, entering fii'st, and
; but
 132 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
a little after Captaiias Dennison and Ticlienor had entered Eel river in the Ryersen.
Such seems to have been the history of the discovery of this bay and the adjoining
country. It may be added that Van Dusen's fork, so named after one of Dr. Gregg's

party, was explored to a considerable height by Captain Tichenor while the vessel lay
in the river. Whether the existence of the bay was previously known to the

Hudson's Bay Company, is doubtful. They certainly trapped in the mountains between

it and the Sacramento range, and there seems to be some evidence of the previous
visit of whites, but no record of it has been preserved.
1

Taesday, Sept. \&th. — We started up the edge of the bay, over salt marshes,
crossing Elk river near its mouth. This stream is only fordable at low water, and
even then we found it over girth deep to our horses. Its width is about twenty-five
yards. A mile beyond we reached Bucksport, a settlement of half a dozen houses,
with a fine prairie behind it ; and finding that we could reach no other camp that day,
halted, making but a little over three miles.

Wednesday, Sept. 1 1th. — One trail ran for nine or ten miles, in some places through
fern prairie, but chiefly in. heavy forest of fir and redwood. Beyond this we came
upon the salt marshes which border much of the bay on the landward side, rendering
travel by land at all times diflficult, and which insummer add to the annoyance
of miry ground, that of myriads of mosquitoes. The distance from Bucksport to
Union is about eighteen miles ; there is another intermediate place named Eureka,
which we did not visit, our trail running too far inland. Union is at the head of the
bay, but at some distance from the water, and goods are brought in boats to an
embarcadero, within half a mile of it. It is built upon a nearly level plateau under a
low table-land, and contains about one hundred houses. Its population, which at one
time was over five hundred, had fallen off; few persons remaining, except a company
of State volunteers, recently called out. Its importance was derived from its trade
with the Klamath and Trinity mines ; and we learned that until recently, an average
of an hundred mules a week had been packed, taking some four or five thousand
dollars worth of goods. The miners, having lately moved higher up, into the neigh-
borhood of the Sacramento and Oregon trails, the business had fallen off. Trinidad,
upon the coast, eighteen miles distant, has been the princii^al rival of Union in this

trade, and Avas suffering under the same depression. It contains about the same
number of houses, and probably about the like population.

What available land there is upon Humboldt bay is of a similar character to that
on Eel river. Too much of it is, however, covered with forest ; the cost of clearing
which would be much greater than its value afterwards. Near Union, and upon Mad
river, a few miles distant, there is some farming country, but as yet very little under
cultivation.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 133

Wo encamped upon the table-land behind the town, and found the grass much
eaten and trampled; our auimals suffered further from the swarms of mosquitos. The
goods destined for the Klamath Indians had been sent to Trinidad ; and as it was
concluded to take the trail leading from here direct to the Klamath, without passing
through that place, they were brought down in packs. A few of the Mad River
Indians came in and received presents, but nothing was effected with them. I

obtained a partial vocabulary of their language, which resembles substantially that

used round the bay, and at Eel river. Beyond Mad river a different one prevails.

The Bay Indians call themselves, as we were informed, Wish-osk ; and those of the
hills, Te-ok-a-Avilk ; but the tribes to the northward denominate both those of the Bay
and Eel river, We-yot, or Walla-walloo. The Indians of Trinidad are called by them
Chori, and those of Gold Bluff, between Trinidad and the Klamath, Osse-gon. Of
these two last we saw nothing.

Wednesday, Sept. 2Ath. — Major Wessells, with the command, had moved the day
before to a camp on the Bald Hills, beyond Mad river ; and to-day the agent followed
with his part}^, starting about noon. We took, as a guide for our future route,
Mr. Benjamin Kelse}', an old resident of California, and one of the most experienced
mountaineers in the State, who had trapped, in fonner 3'eaxs, through the counti'y we
were about to enter on.

The trail, a short distance from town, turned into the redwoods. It had been cut out
by the inhabitants for the convenience of packing, and at this season was pretty good
but during the rains, the soil in these forests becomes a deep and greasy mud, very
difficult to pass over. About five miles out, we reached the crossing of Mad river.

This stream, as has been mentioned, heads with the south fork of the Trinity, Van
Dusen's Fork of Eel river, and Cottonwood creek, a tributary of the Sacramento. Its

length is about one hundred miles, the general course being from east to west. It

enters the sea six miles above Union, but it possibly once ran into the bay itself; for

a dry channel remains, which, with but little cutting, would connect it with one of the
sloughs near the town. Some fifteen or twenty miles from the coast, the redwood
timber disappears, and oak-covered hills extend back to the foot of the mountains,
affording good pasturage, and some farming land. The immediate bottom of the
river is narrow, and covered with alder and balm of Gilead. At this time it was about
thirty or forty feet across, and knee-deep to our horses ; but in winter it swells to sixty
or seventy yards in width. The Humboldt trail to the Trinity crosses it some fifteen

miles farther up.

Leaving the river, we ascended a long spur of mountain to the top of the dividing
ridge between it and Redwood creek, through alternate forest and prairie land. The
character of the mountains, from this to the Klamath, differs widely from those we
have before passed over. Their summits are broader, and the declivities less steep and
134 PHYSICAL GEUGRArHY OF
broken. Prairies of rich grass lie on their southern slopes, and especially on their
tops, from whence their name of Bald Hills is derived. This grass was noAV yellow
Avith ripeness, and the wind, sweeping over its long slender stems, gave it a beautiful
appearance. The Indians use the stalks in their finer basket-work ; and, when split,

in the braids with which they tie up their hair, The

and other ornamental fabrics.

timber here becomes much more open, and fir, white and yellow, predominates over
the redwood. This last is now chiefly confined to the immediate neighborhood of the
coast. Springs of good water occur near almost all these prairies, and camps are there-
fore selected on their skirts. Late in the season, however, the grass is often burned, and
dependence cannot always be placed upon the usual grounds. In winter*, snow lies on
them for several weeks, and to a considerable depth. Elk are very abundant in these
mountains, and the ground was marked everywhere with their footprints.
We found the command encamped upon the summit of the mountain, at a point
overlooking the whole of Humboldt bay and the ocean beyond. The men had here
surprised a party of Indians, who fled at siglit, leaving their squaws and baskets to

follow as best they could. These Bald Hill Indians, as they are called, have a very
bad reputation among the packers, and several lives, as well as much property, have
been lost through their means. They appear to lead a more roving life than those of
the Klamath and Trinity rivers ; with the latter of whom they seem, however, to be
connected.

Tuesdai/, Sept. loth. —Our route to-day led down to a small branch of Mad river, and
thence up another still higher mountain than the last, where we encamped upon
another prairie. It had been our intention to go on to Redwood creek, but a train of
packers returning, informed us that the only accessible camps there had been burnt
over. Owing to the circuitous course of the trail, we made but about four miles on
our direction, with some seven or eight of travel. From this summit there is even a
more magnificent prospect than from our last camp but unfortunately a dense
; fog had
settled over the ocean and bay. Even this, however, aflbrded a superb spectacle ; for
it penetrated up between the different points of highland, Ij'ing only upon the bottoms,
and from our elevated position, appeared itself a sea, whose long series of waves were
as distinctly marked as in that it concealed and imitated. Our guide pointed out the
position of tlie settlements on the coast, and the mouths of the streams, distinguish-
able hy a break in the vapor.

Friday, Sept. 2Cth. —The first business of the morning was of course to de'scend the
mountain which we had climbed the day before. About five miles from camp, we
reached and crossed Redwood creek, a fine mountain stream, running over a stony bed,
and now easily fordable but which, in the wet season, is both deep and rapid. As
,

wo approached, we saw the signal-fires of the Indians, who had themselves decamped.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 185

On the northern bank lay the small prairie we had intended to have reached lai^t

night. The trail now ran down the river for two or three mile.s, over very broken and
rocky ground, and then again ascended the hills. We halted as before upon a
mountain prairie, at a place known as " Indian camp ;" making a distance of about
twelve miles of travel, and with our last camp still in sight. From here the view
opened, to the north, of the ranges dividing the Trinity from the Klamath, and the
latter from the coast and Rogue's river; while to the south, the Bear Butte on Eel
river, which we had passed on the 5th, was visible. It was too late in the afternoon

to permit the ascent of " Kelsey's Point of View," a high craggy hill rising about a
mile to the left which would have given us a better view of
of the trail, this whole
mountain region than any other we could have found.

Saturday, Sept. 27th. — Our march to-day was both as hilly and circuitous as before;
the trail, after a long detour, descending to Pine creek, the first of the waters of the
Klamath which we readied. The Trinidad trail, it should be mentioned, united with
that from Union, about thi'ee miles from our last camp. Beyond Pine creek, which
is a turbulent brook, with a very bad crossing, the route led over a ridge to a small
branch in a deep ravine, and thence ascended another mountain beyond, on the
summit of which we stopped. The place was known as ." Bloody camp," from the
murder of two whites, committed some time previous by the Indians of the hills. We
passed to-day two other well-known halting places, — " French camp," between the
junction of the trails and Pine creek, and "Burnt ranch," so called from an Indian
village having been destroyed there, between Pine creek and the ravine. Our march
was about twelve miles, and we had the satisfaction of finding that we were only two
miles and a half from our next destination, the forks of the Klamath and Trinity.
Water and grass were abundant, and it was accordingly determined to leave the

animals here under a guard, wliile tJie tallc was being held at the feny. The next day
we remained stationary, preparations in the mean time being made for assembling the
Indians and for the accommodation of the party below.

Monday, Sept. 29<A. — Col. M'Kee moved this morning to the ferry at the junction

of the two rivers. Major Wessells remaining for a day or two longer at Bloody camp.
The road was a continuous descent through woods, and our new camp was selected
near the ferry, on the south bank, in a fine grove of bay
trees. We were somewhat
amused at finding a notice posted on the trail, advising whom it might concern, that
Mr. Durkee, who kept the ferry, was at peace with his neighbors, and requesting that
they therefore should not be killed without just provocation; a piece of intelligence to
which our red guides carefidly called our attention.

The Klamath river is here, during its lower stages, about fifty yards in width,
and very swift. Its course in fact is obstructed at short distances by rapids thi'oughout
136 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
its whole length, till within ten miles of the sea, the descent from the source to the
ocean being very considerable. There are, however, no falls of any height ; the largest,

Avhich is a few miles below the forks, being little more than a rapid. Much error has

existed in maps relating to this river its mouth having by many, (among others.
;

Captain "Wilkes and Col. Fremont.) been placed in Oregon, about 42° 35' N. L., and it
was for a long time supposed that Rogue's river, which actually empties about that
latitude, was a branch of the Klamath. The distinctness of the two streams has since

been ascertained, but the source of the mistake is nowhere noticed. The manuscript
map of Oregon and California, by Jedediah S. Smith, which was, till lately, the best

source of information as to this part of the country, although in general singularly

accurate, considering the extent of the region traversed and laid down by him, gave
rise to it. Smith in 1828 ascended the Sacramento valley, and crossing the mountains,
struck on what apparently was the south fork of the Trinity. This he followed
down to its junction with the Klamath, and to the mouth of the latter; thence
pursuing his route up the coast to Rogue's river, and the Umpqua, and over into the
Willamette valley. Supposing Rogue's river, or the Too-too-tutnis, to be the one Avhich
headed in Klamath lake, he so represented it on his map and; to the Klamath he gave
the name of Smith's river, by which it is yet called upon all the English sea-charts.
Smith was a fur-trader, and one of the most adventurous of that class ; and was, as is

believed, for some time at least, a partner of General Ashley of Missouri. His travels,

from about the year 1821 to 1830, as traced upon his map, cover not only the heads
of the Missouri, the Yellowstone, the two forks of the Columbia river, and the Colo-
rado, but encircle the whole of the great basin of California, (which he moreover
claims to have crossed in 1826 from San Francisco to the Great Salt Lake,) and on the
Pacific extend from the Pueblo de los Angelos to Fort Vancouver. He was finally

killed by the Camanches, and not, as is often supposed, on the river of his name. He
ho%\evor lost a party of fifteen men upon the Umpqua, on his route iip from the
Klamath, escaping himself with some difficulty. His furs and goods were recovered
for him by Dr. M'Laughlin of the Hudson's Bay Company, who sent out a party for

the purpose. Smith's map, it is believed, was recently purchased in Oregon by the
Joint Commission of Army and Navy Officers, and is probably now in Washington.

The real course of the Klamath, after leaving the lesser lake of that name, is a
little south of westerly, to about forty miles from the coast, where it turns nearly
to the south of the forks, there again bending north-west to its mouth, which, as
fixed by the United States Coast Survey, is in about latitude 41° 35', some fifteen miles

below Point Saint George, and thirty-five from the junction of the Trinity. The
whole of it, after leaving the lake, is therefore in California. The country traversed
by the Klamath from near its head waters, is a succession of mountains coming down
to its l:);inks, leaving but little, even occasional bottom land, and affording no
inilucemeut to others than miners. During the winter the snow falls to a great depth,
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 137

rendering travel difficult if not impracticable, and its tributaries are swollen to tor-
rents. No settlement can be maintained at its mouth, as the shifting sands are liable

durhig any severe stonn, to close it almost entirely. An instance happened during the
past winter, when a bar preventing any access, formed across it ; although at the
time of the Ewing's visit during the preceding summer, there was fifteen feet of water
at the entrance.
The Trinity, so called by its more recent explorers, from the idea that it emptied
into Trinidad bay, rises in the neighborhood of the Sacramento, and pursues a south-
westerly course for a considerable distance, turning afterwards west and then north-
west to its junction with the Klamath. It receives a number of branches, the largest
of which come from the north, with one exception, the South Fork. This heads in
the Sacramento range, its sources being near those of Bottomwood creek, and it joins

the main river about thirty miles above the entrance of that into the Klamath.
Like the Klamath, the Trinidad runs during its whole length through mountains ; only
two small valleys occurring on its banks, of which the principal is between the south
fork and its mouth. It is in size about half that of the Klamath, and its waters,

likewise rapid, are of transcendent purity ; contrasting with those of the latter stream
which never lose the taint of their origin. The other principal branches of the

Klamath, Salmon, Scott's, and Shasta rivers, will be spoken of hereafter.

The name of ''
Smith's river," which, as a matter of tradition, has been bandied
from pillar to post, shifting from Eel to Rogue's river, has recently vibrated between a
stream running into Pelican bay, and another, called by some Illinois river, and
supposed to be the south fork of Rogue's river. Of the former, called by the Klamath
Indians the Eenag'h-paha, or river of the Eenagh's, we received, at different times,

information from those who had visited it. A small bay, or rather lagoon, lies within
the beach at its mouth ; and the river, where it falls into it, is some sixty yards wide.
From fifteen to twenty miles from the coast, the principal forks occur; the northern
taking its rise in the Rogue's river divide, and the southern, or more properly eastern,
in that of the Klamath. Various other branches join it, draining quite an extensive

tract. Near its mouth is said to lie a belt of good agricultural land, some fifteen miles

in width, similar to that on Humboldt bay ; and we were further informed, that
immense quantities of iron ore are to be found on its branches ; a fact which would

account for the magnetic sand thrown up with the gold at Gold Bluff and other points
on the coast, which could not have come from the Klamath.

Although the value of the country upon the Klamath and the Trinity, as an agri-
cultm-al region, is too small ever to have attracted a population, it, notwithstanding,
possesses great importance in its mines. The district through which gold is found,

extends from the Shasta river, on the former, and the head-waters of the latter, to the
forks. Below there, although it exists, the particles are fine, and the amount insuffi-

cient to pay for collecting. With perhaps one or two exceptions, the diggings have
Pt. hi.— 18
138 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
not been as enormously rich as at points on the tributaries of the Sacramento, but
they cover a very extensive region, afford a fair renumeration to labor, and will,

apparently, be of considerable duration. The details of the subject will be hereafter

given, in speaking of various points. At present it is sufficient to say, that the metal
appears to be distributed, in greater or less quantities, throughout all these mountains

as it is found in most of the small streams, as well as the main rivers. The quantity
is, however, greatest high up ; and the apparent source of the most abundant supply
is the group of granitic peaks at the head of Scott's, Salmon, and the Trinity.
Approaching the coast, the amount diminishes or disappears. With regard to the

origin of the gold at what is called " Gold Bluff," a high cliff of indurated sand and
clay, upon the coast between Trinidad and the mouth of the Klamath, as well as at
some other points on the Pacific, the accounts given of it all point to the Klamath.

The metal, which is in very fine particles, is found on the beach only after north-
westerly storms; and it is said that different objects, among them a human body,
known to have been lost in the river, have at various times been drifted ashore,
indicating the general set of the current. The extreme comminution of the dust is

conclusive as to the distance from which it comes ; and the presence of iron sand is

accounted for, by its existence, in ore, upon the small river in Pelican bay.

The name of Klamath or Tlamath, belonging to the tribes on the lake where the
river rises, is not known among those farther down nor could I learn that any other
;

name for the stream exists among them than that derived from relative position.
Thus, at the forks, the Weits-peks call the river below Poh-lik, signifying down ; and
that above, Peh-tsik, or up ; giving, moreover, the same name to the population, in

speaking of them collectively. Three distinct tribes, speaking different languages,

occupy its banks between the sea and the mouth of the Shaste, of which the lowest
extends up to Bluff creek, a few miles above the forks. Of these there are, according
to our information, in all, thirty-two villages. It was the opinion of some, who were
acquainted with the river, that each village would average nine houses, of ten souls to
the house ; but this estimate, which would give a population of nearly three thousand,
and a village to about every mile and a half on the river, seems clearly too large. It

is probable that some are but summer residences ; and a very liberal conjecture of the

number of the inhabitants, would be fifteen hundred. The names of the principal
villages may be useful in determining analogies. They are the Weits-pek (at the
forks), Wah-sherr, Kai-petl, Morai-uh, Noht^scho, M^h-teh, Schre-gon, Yau-terrh, Pec-
quan, Kauweli, Wauh-tecq, Sche-perrh, Oiyotl, Nai-a^gutl, Schaitl, Hopaiuh, Eek-qua,
and Weht"l<iua; the two last at the mouth of the river. The Weits-pek village, on
the north bank at this point, as well as the two smaller ones, situated respectively
between the forks, and opposite on the south side, were burnt during the last spring,

in consequence of some murders committed in the neighborhood; and, at the time of

our visit, had not been rebuilt, the people living in temporary huts. The first contained
 TUB INDIAN COUNTRY. 189

about thirt}^ houses, and Avas one of the most important of all. The same was the
case Avith the Kai-petl, or, as it was called by the whites, Capel village, ten miles

below. There was formerly a ferry there also, at which the trail then generally used
from Trinidad, crossed ; but the jealousy of the Indians being in some manner aroused,
they attacked the house, killing four persons, and their town was therefore destroyed,
and several of them shot.

Upon the Trinity, or Hoopah, below the entrance of the south fork or 0-tah-wei-
a-ket, thei-e are said to be eleven ranches, the Oke-nokc, Agaraits, Up-le-goh, Ollep-
pauh'1-kah-telit'l and Pepht-soh, all lying in the little valley referred to ; and the
Has-lintah, A-hel-tah, So-k6a-kcit, Tash-huan-ta, and Wits-puk, above it. A twelfth,

the Me-yemma, now burnt, was situated just above '-New," or "Arkansas river."
The total number of inhabitants belonging to these, is probably six hundred. They
differ in no respect, except in language, from the lower Klamaths. Of the Indians
above the forks on the main Trinity, or those on the south fork, we obtained no
distinct information, except that they speak distinct languages and are both
excessively hostile to the whites. The latter are described as large and powerful
men, of a swarthier complexion, fierce and intractable, and are considered by the
mountaineers as of another race, agreeing more with the wild tribes inhabiting the
Avesteru base of the Sacramento range, and in the neighborhood of a large lake
reported to lie there. The lower Trinity tribe is, as well as the river itself, known
to the Klamaths by the name of Hoopah ; of which, however, I could not learn the

signification. A vocabulary of their language is appended ; but it cannot be considered

as altogether perfect, being obtained through the means of the Klamath interpreter.

Of the Indians Redwood creek, called by the whites Bald Hill Indians, little was
of
learned, and none of them could be induced to come in. They are termed Oruk by
the Coast Indians, and Tcho-lo-lah by the Weits-peks. The general opinion is, that
they are more nearly allied to the Trinity than to the Klamath tribes. The names
of some of their bands, as given me by an Indian, were, commencing at the coast,
the Cherr'h-quuh, Ot^teh-petl, Oh-nah, Oh-pah, and Roque-choh.
Still less is known of the Lidians to the north of the Klamath ; but we were
informed that the first tribe on the coast were a warlike band called Tol-e-wahs,
of whom the Klamaths stand in some awe. Above them on Smith's river are the

Eenahs or Eenaghs, and on the head waters of that stream the Sians or Siahs. All
these are said to speak different languages, or more probably dialects. Of the first

I obtained a few words from an old Klamath, but they are hardly to be relied on.
With regard to their form of government, at least that of the Klamath and Trinity
tribes, the mow-ce-ma, or head of each family, is master of bis own house, and there
is a sci-as-lau, or chief, in every village. There are also head chiefs to the different
tribes; but whether their power has definite limits, is confined to peace or war,
or extends to both, seems very doubtful. It certainly is insufficient to control the
140 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
relations of the several villages, or keep down the turbulence of individuals. The
courao-e and energy of a warrior, as we saw, often gives greater influence than the
rank of a head chief.

The lodges of these Indians are generally very well built ; being made of boards

riven from the redwood or fir, and of considerable size, often reaching twenty feet

square. Their roofs are pitched over a ridge-pole, and sloping each way ; the ground

being usually excavated to the depth of three or four feet, and a pavement of smooth
stones laid in front. The cellars of the better class are also floored and walled with
Stone. The door always consists of a round hole in a heavy plank, just sufficient to

admit the body ; and is formed with a view to exclude the bears, who in winter make
occasional and very unwelcome visits. The graves, which are in the immediate
neighborhood of the houses, exhibit very considerable taste, and a laudable care. The
dead are inclosed in rude coffins, formed by placing four boards around the body, and
covered with earth to some depth a heavy plank, often supported by upright head
;

and foot stones, is laid upon the top or stones are built up into a wall, about a foot
;

above the ground, and the top flagged with others. The graves of the chiefs are
surrounded by neat wooden palings ; each pale ornamented with a feather from the
tail of the bald eagle. Baskets are usually staked down by the side, according to the

wealth or popularity of the individual ; and sometimes other articles, for ornament or
use, are suspended over them.

The funeral ceremonies occupy three days, during which the soul of the deceased is
in danger from 0-mah-a, or the devil. To preserve it from this peril, a fire is kept up
at the grave, and the friends of the deceased howl round it, to scare away the demon.
Should they not be successful in this, the soul is carried down the river; subject,

however, to redemption by P<^h-ho-wan on payment of a big knife. After the

expiration of the three days it is all well with them. Such, at least, is their belief, as

related to us by residents, so far as could be gathered from the Indians themselves. A

qualification must probably be made on the score of incorrect translation and
misunderstanding. In person these people are far superior to any that we met below
the being larger, more muscular, and with countenances denoting greater force
men
and energy of character, as well as intelUgence. Indeed, they approach rather to the
races of the plains, than to the wretched "diggers" of the greater part of California.
Two young men in particular, a young chief and his brother, from a neighboring

village on the Trinity, were taller than the majority of whites, superbly formed, and
very noble in feature. The sui^eriority, however, was especially manifested in the
women, many of whom were exceedingly pretty ; having large almond-shaped eyes,
sometimes of a hazel color, and with the red showing through the cheeks. Their

figures were full, their chests ample and the younger ones had well-shaped busts, and
;

rounded Umbs; graces all profusely displayed, as their only dress was the fringed

petticoat, or at most, a deer-skin robe thrown back over the shoulders, in addition.
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 141

The petticoat with the Avealthier, or perhaps more industrious, was an affair on which
great taste and hibor were expended. It was of dressed deer-skin ; the upper edge
turned over and embroidered with colored grasses, the lower cut into a deep fringe,
reaching nearly to the knee, and ornamented with bits of sea-shell, beads, and buttons.
Sometimes an apron, likewise of heavy fringe, made of braided grass, the ends
finished off with the nuts of the pine, hung down in front, and rattled as they walked.

These dames, though bearing a high, and apparently well deserved reputation for

morals, were exceedingly social ; coming up in bands to our camp, to beg for beads
and trinkets, and playing off a thousand aii's of wild coquetry. Indeed, for powers of
wheedling and coaxing they are unsurpassed ; and when a rustic beauty established
herself beside one, her plump arms resting on his knees, and her large eyes rolled up
to his, the stock in trade of the ^actim was pretty sure to suffer. They made
themselves perfectly at home ; bringing their basket-work, and sitting round the tents,
or romping under the bay trees ; their jolly laughter ringing through the woods, and
their squeals echoing far and wide, as some mischievous young savage pinched a
tempting spot, or hugged them in his tawny arms. The manner of these Indians
towards one another was generally caressing, the young men lolling about in pairs,
and the girls sitting with their arms round each other. In justice and truth, however,
it must be added that this Californian Arcadia was not all sunshine, even during the
halcyon da3-s of treaty-making, and that various habits and customs indulged in, were
the reverse of inviting.
The dress of the men consists, generally, of a pair of deer-skins with the hair on,
stitched together. Sometimes, however, a noted hunter wears a couple of cougar
skins, the long tails trailing behind him ; and others again, on state occasions, display
a breech-clout of several small skins, sewed into a belt or waistband. Their moccasins
are peculiar, having soles of several thicknesses of leather. They are not as skilful
in the preparation of dressed skins as the Oregon Indians, and the use of those dressed
on both sides is mostly confined to the women. Their bows are short, and strongly
backed with sinews, which are put on by means of a glue extracted from fish, and
they are often neatly painted. The arrows are well made, the points of stone or iron
being secured to a movable piece fitting into the shaft. Among the skins used for
quivers, I noticed the otter, wild-cat, fisher, fiiwn, grey fox, and others. The skins of
a species of raccoon, of the skunk, and a small animal called the cat fox, were also
employed for different purposes. In dressing their hair, which the men wear clubbed
behind, considerable taste is sometimes shown ; wreaths of oak or bay leaves, or the
broad tails of the grey squirrel, being tv.-isted round the head. Their pipes were made
of wood, generally eight or ten inches long, and tapering from a broad muzzle to the
mouth-piece. They are held erect when smoking, and the same species of wild tobacco
is used that was noticed at Clear Lake. Both sexes pierce the nose, and wear some
kind of ornament in it ; the favorite one being the shell known as the " haiqua."
142 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
among the fur traders. This, under the name of the " ali-qua chick," or Indian money,

is more highly valued among them than any other article. Their canoes are fashioned
like those of the bay and of Eel river, blunt at both ends, with a small projection in

the stern, for a seat ; and they manage them with wonderful dexterity, by means of a
sort of half pole, half paddle. The women are adepts in basket^making of various

kinds, as well as the making of thread and twine from a species of grass. They also

manufacture a very pretty kind of narrow ribbon, by interweaving grass and thread.
In this, as well as in their basket-work, the}' use several colored dyes, apparently of
vegetable origin. The same round basket^cap noticed before, is worn by the Klamath
women, figures of different colors and patterns being worked into it. They tattoo the

underlip and chin in the manner remarked at Eel river; the young girls in faint lines,

which are deepened and widened as they become older, and in the married women are
extended up above the corners of the mouth. It is somewhat singular, that the

Mohahoes and others, on the lower waters of the Colorado, tattoo in the same fashion.
The children are carried in baskets suspended from the head, after the manner shown
in the sketch. Their persons are unusually clean, as they use both the sweat-house
and cold-bath constantly.
The difierent bands, even of the same tribes, if not at actual war, are exceedingly
jealous of each other ; and it was with great difficulty that they could be prevailed
upon to convene from any distance, or kept together when brought in. They have a
reputation for treachery, as well as revengefuluess ; are thievish, and much disposed to

sulk if their whims are not in every way indulged. Whether this character is stronger

with them than with any other tribe, is, however, doubtful. Deception is always one
of the shields of the weak or ignorant and as ; to dishonesty, it must be remembered
that the articles in commonest use among the whites, and often improperly exposed,

are the very ones which have the greatest value in the eyes of the savage. An axe,

a blanket, a large knife, or tin pan, are of almost incalculable value to him ; and it is

not, therefore, to be wondered at, that the temptation to steal is seldom resisted, or

that the ingenuity displayed in doing so is very great. What capacity they may
hereafter show for civilization, can hardly be foreseen ; but there ajjjDcars to be no
greater obstacle than existed in sbme of the Oregon Indians, who ai'e noAV partially
domesticated, and who, under steadier and better directed auspices, would have been
much more so. The objects of the Hudson's Bay Comj^any, the best of their earliest
instructors, tended rather to make those jDcople useful servants in their own peculiar
occupation, than cultivators of the soil ; while the missions failed almost entirely.
The Indians of the Klamath and its vicinity afford a field for a new experiment. Their
country furnishes food of different kinds, and in quantity sufficient to supply their
absolute wants. Game, fish, and acorns are abundant. Improvident, however, as are
all savages, they have their seasons of scarcity ; and the climate of their country

renders clothing and shelter requisite. It is through their wants that the desire of
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 14S

civilization can most readily be excited. Articles of dress and of food, at first mere
objects of foncy or luxury, speedily become aksolute necessaries; and an inducement
to labor for these, especially when the obvious fruits of their industry are directly
applied to their own use, arises as they become accustomed to them.
Dependence upon the whites follows invariably the discontinuance of their own
habits. The bow and arrows are laid aside, and the blanket takes the place of the deer-

skin. The value of their own productions first, and the wages of their labor afterwards,
become essential to procure those articles which they cannot manufacture or supply.
Thus the Indians of the Willamette valley, when urged to remove to another place
where they should be free from molestation by the whites, absolutely refused ; saying
that they should starve, that they had lost their old modes of subsistence, and w-ere
obliged to Avork for a living. Such a result would of course not be that of a day
but a iDcrsistence in the system would undoubtedly bring it about here also. The
education of the savage should first be directed to the improvement of his physical
condition. With the generation which is already grown, at least, conversion to
Christianit}^, or, as is frequently attempted, the inculcation of the peculiar doctrines

of some particular sect, is impossible. The millions that have been expended upon
this object in past ages, have produced no more lasting impression than the tread
of the moccasin on the sea-shore. These Indians already afford one great point,
by means of Avhich, the influence of civilization can be exerted in their fixed
habitations. If collected as occasion may offer, and its advantage be shown to
them, upon reservations, where their fisheries can still be carried on, where
tillage of the soil shall be gradually introduced, and where the inducements to
violence or theft will be diminished or checked, they may possibly be made both
prosperous and useful to the country. They have as yet none of the vices which
so generally follow intercourse with the whites. They have never acquired a taste
for spirits, and their ideas of chastity, as well as their remote situation, have hitherto
excluded disease. So far as regards treaties between them and the whites, however,
it may well be doubted whether, even if made in good faith, they can be kept, unless
in the neighborhood of small military posts, and under the surveillance of military
authority. Broken up into small bands or villages, each having its separate chief,
and with no common controlling head, there is no influence which can be made to
reach all the individuals of any tribe.
We too often give a general character to savage races, derived from a few, and those
most probably the worst of their nation ; forgetting that there may be as great
diversity of disposition among them as among ourselves. Thus the majority
may be well disposed, and yet implicated in crime by the acts of a very few; for
knowing by experience the indiscriminate manner in which punishment is meted out,
they are driven in self-defence to abet or defend them. But besides this, a constant
source of provocation is to be feared from such of the whites as, transienth- passing
144 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
through their country, offer them insult and violence, without, perhaps, endangering
themselves; but insuring revenge and retaliation upon others, and probably quite
innocent persons. A population drawn together, like that of California, necessarily
contains reckless and unprincipled characters, too many of whom regard the life of

an Indian as of no more account than that of a dog and who, in murdering them ;

without provocation, give cause for the reprisals which have sacrificed many innocent
livesand brought about expensive wars and barbarous devastation. That a protective
military force should consist of regular troops there can be no question for although ;

volunteers may be more effective in revenging outrages committed, they can never
afford security against their occurrence, and sometimes commit greater ones themselves.
The mountainous and broken character of this country does not offer scope for

cavalry in its usual form ; but a light-armed force, especially if consisting of riflemen,

provided with mules, would be highly effectual. The season for active operations is

the winter, when flight to the mountains is impossible, and where the Indians are all

concentrated in their villages upon the river. Troops moving upon the usual trails,

would, if they did not reach the bands sought for, drive them among other and hostile

tribes, who would soon cut them off. But it is as a preventive rather than an offensive
force, that they would be needed. Possessing no fire-arms, these Indians are too much
in awe of the whites not to remain quiet in the face of a permanent post ; while, on

the other hand, a source of trouble arising from needless provocation can thus only be
put an end to. The proper strategic point for such a post on this frontier, is clearly

at, or near, the forks of the Klamath or Trinitj', where the principal trails from the
coast to and up these rivers pass, and which commands the country lying below, that
upon both rivers above, and also the Eedwood, upon which a numerous and trouble-
some band are settled. Its supplies could be derived from a depot established
on Humboldt bay, or at Trinidad, and brought up by pack-mules. The ground
immediately at the forks, though well enough adapted for buildings, does not afford

the necessary pasturage for animals ; but a small valley on the Trinity a few miles
above, and included in the reservation made for the tribes, Avould give every necessary
facility, as well as land for cultivation.

In leaving the subject, one remark seems not out of place. The polic}^ early

adopted by the Hudson's Bay Company, (who, better than any other body or
individuals, succeeded in the management of the Indians with whom they came in

contact,) was to break down the power and influence of petty chiefs, by placing in the

hands of one man of energetic character, and secured to their interests, the supreme
control of the whole tribe; governing entirelj' through him, raising him to the rank of
a white man, and giving him the means of supporting the dignity and state of which
the savage is so fond. Such was their course with Com-comly, and with Case-nau;
and siicli should be adopted in the treatment of the wild and turbulent nations of the
Klamath and Trinitv.
 TOE INDIAN COUNTRY. 145

jNIr. Durkee, who owns tlie ferry at the forks, and who was to act as interpreter,

was absent at our arrival, and did not return for several days. In the mean time, Mr.
Thompson, of Gold Bluff, who had joined the party at Bloody camp, went down the
river to induce the lower bands to come up ; and Mr. Patterson, of Union, undertook
to assemble the Trinity Indians. Both were partially successful ; but full deputations,

particularly of the Pohlik-Klamath villages, could not be got together. Some progress
was, however, made in conciliation, and a pretty good feeling finally established. The
Indians persisted in assuming that their burnt villages were to be paid for; and were
in great doubt as to the propriety of a final settlement, while they remained one life

in arrears. The chief, with great formality, displayed a bone, marked on one edge
with twenty-six notches, being the number of white men admitted to have been killed
upon the Klamath ; while the other side of it contained twenty-seven, as the number
of Indians killed by the whites. The difficulty was finally compromised by giving
sixteen pairs of blankets for the extra Indian, and a squaw and child not enumerated,
and furnishing four dozen axes, wherewith to rebuild their lodges. Their o-wti

jealousies, however, were the occasion of the greatest difficulty ; and even after the
treaty had been formally concluded, a portion of them refused to sign at the ferry,
and had to be waited on at a point some distance down the river. The treaty
embraced the usual stipulations of peace with the citizens of the United States ; and
provision to be made for them in a reserve. It unfortunately happened that during
our stay the weather was too unfavorable to permit a survey being made of the district
proposed. A description of this, with its natural boundaries, as laid dovm upon the
map, was, however, obtained from the citizens present. In general tenns, it embraced
the country around the forks, extending on the Klamath, from the mouth of Pine
creek, to the foot of Red-Cap's bar, as it is called, a distance of some fifteen miles

and on the Trinity to John's creek, about as far. It embraced the valley on the latter
river, before spoken of, and which is supposed to contain six or seven miles of fanning
land. This latter track has always been the country of the Hoo-pahs ; and at the time
of our visit there were no white settlers upon any part of it, except Mr. Durkee, who
kept the ferry, and who, possessing the confidence of the Indians, and speaking their
language, will, no doubt, be permitted to remain.

Thursday, Oct. ^th. — The business of the treaty being concluded, the camp broke
up to-dii}-, and the train crossed, our route lying up the opposite bank. Since the
destruction of the lower ferry, aU travel on the Klamath has passed at this point,

although further up many prefer the eastern side. The ferry is managed by a scow,
working on a rope suspended over the river. The house is a log building, capable
of standing against a siege, in which arrows alone are used, and covered with a huge
tent which gives an additional room in front. The trail followed the stream,
ascending and descending low, rugged points ; but well made, considering the nature
Pt. III. — 19
146 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
of the ground, the short space of time that it has been travelled, and the circum-
stances that have called it forth. Indeed, when it is remembered that all these trails,

forming as they do a net-work over this whole mountain region, have either been
entirely cut out, or at least rendered passable for animals, within little more than a
year ; and that by men whose occupations and objects permitted no loss of time, one
rather wonders at their not being worse. The main trails have in general been made
by parties interested in the various towns from which goods are forwarded, or by the
packers who carry them to the mines ; and the expense of exploiing and lajing them
out has been considerable. Much improvement could, however, be efiected in all
of them, both in distance and facility ; as they are frequently carried over mountains,
either to avoid rocky points, where a little blasting would afford a remedy, or to
obtain places for observation. A couple of miles above the forks, we reached the
Hai-am-mu village, and visiting one of the lodges, found the inhabitants engaged in
cooking and eating. The meal consisted of fish and acorn porridge, made by mixing
the flour in a basket, in which the water is kept boiling by means of hot stones.
Of the acorn flour they likewise make a sort of bread, which they bake in the ashes.
They had several spoons, very neatly made of bone or liorn. At this village there
was a large fish-dam ; a work exhibiting an extraordinary degree both of enterprise
and skill. It crossed the entire river, here about seventy-five yards wide, elbowing up
stream in the deepest part. It was built by first driving stout posts into the bed
of the river, at a distance of some two feet apart, having a moderate slope, and
supported from below, at intervals of ten or twelve feet, by two braces; the one
coming to the surface of the water, the other reaching to the string pieces. These
last were heavy spars, about thirty feet in length, and were secured to each post by
withes. The whole dam was faced with twigs, carefully peeled, and placed so close
together as to prevent the fish from passing up. The top, at this stage of the water,
was two or three feet above the surface. The labor of constructing this work must,
with the few and insufficient tools of the Indians, have been immense. Slight
scaffolds were built out below it, from which the fish are taken in scoop-nets ; they
also employ di-ag-nets, or spear them, the spear having the barb movable, and fastened
to the shaft with a string, in order to afford the salmon play. Similar dams to this
exist on the Klamath, a few miles below the forks, and about fifteen above this one
and there is another upon the Trinity, thirteen or fourteen miles from its mouth.
They form a frequent cause of quarrel among the bands inhabiting diflferent parts
of the rivers. Some understanding, however, seems to exist as to opening portions
of them at times, to allow the passage of fish for the supply of those above.
The salmon, which form so important an article of food to the Indian tribes
inhabiting the rivers of the Pacific, are of several apparently distinct species. No
naturalist, that I am aware of, has examined their varieties and habits, and there are
Bome points in regard to them, about which much dispute exists. Seven kinds are
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 147

usually said to visit the Columbia ; two of which, it is probable, are the bull trout and
grey fin of the English waters, and another, perhaps, owes its peculiarities either to
age or food. The spring salmon, wliich is by far the best, is apparently identical with
that of the eastern States and of Europe. Towards fall, a darker colored kind makes
its appearance, which, like the former, wends its way up such of the streams as aftbrd
suflficient water, and which is not the returning and exhausted fish. Later still comes
the hump-backed salmon. This is hardly eatable, its flesh being dry and rank, and
its appearance disgusting. The back, as its name indicates, is protuberant, the snout
is depressed over the eyes, and the jaws furnished with lai'ge hooked teeth. Almost
all the fish taken in the autumn have a diseased appearance ; the skin being discolored
in large blotches. The several species found in the Columbia, seem to inhabit the
Klamath likewise. Besides the salmon, there is also the salmon trout, a beautiful fish,

and excellent eating. Of the brook trout, the only variety I have noticed, differs from
that of the eastern States in having black instead of red spots, and a narrow red line
extending down each side, from the gills to the tail. The fins are also less bright

than in the eastern fish. The salmon rarely, if ever, is taken in fresh water, with the
fly or other bait ; though in salt water at the bay, and in the mouths of the rivers,

they will sometimes bite even at salt pork. The Indians dry them without salt,

splitting them open, taking out first the backbone, next a thin slice of flesh on each
side, for the whole length, leaving the skin covered with another layer. All parts,
even the head and spine, are preserved alilvc.

Our march to-day, in consequence of a late start, and the distance of any grazing
point above, was only five miles ; the course being first north-west, and then changing
to north. We camped opposite the high point Avhich forms a land-mark from the Bald
Hills, and which gives the name of Bluff creek to a stream entering from the north-
Avest, called by the Indians Otche-poh. Upon the other side of the river was an Indian
village, the Sehe-perrh ; the first belonging to the tribe occupying the middle section of
the river, and of which the Quoratem or Salmon river Indians may be considered as
the type. The grass at this camp was scanty, except at a considerable height on the
mountain behind us.

Friday, Oct. IQth. — About a mile and a half from camp, we reached Blnff creek,
which is crossed on a bridge, erected by Mr. Durkee, find for which he has a toll

license. The creek is about ten yards wide, with steep banks, and is not fordable in
the rainy season. At this point the trail from the lower ferry comes in. The extent
of the travel on the now united I'outes may be judged from the fact, that since March
last, 6000 mules have crossed at this place. From the narrow ridge separating the
creek and the river, Ave could look doAvn on both ; the latter being far below the level
of the first, which has a rapid descent to the junction. Another mile and a half

brought us to what is called 31°; Bar, Avhere excavations had been made to a consider-
148 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
able extent by the miners, but wbicb were now abandoned. These bars, as they are
called, are flats formed at the bends of the river, of boulders and sand ; and it is upon
them that most of the washings are carried on. The richest deposits are usually found

on the bed-rock beneath the debris, or in crevices in the strata of slate, which here lies
in place. In fine sand it cannot be obtained by mere washing, but is usually extracted

by means of quicksilver. As a general thing, however, the gold of the Klamath is

coarse. The more elevated spots are usually preferred, as they are less exposed to
access of water, and the smaller bars are considered the richest. The space allowed,

by " miner's law," to each man, as his " claim," is thirty feet square. On some bars, the

earth pays with considerable equality throughout ; but this is unusual. Most of them
will yield from five to ten cents to the bucket ; and an average of from eight to ten is

good yield. The ordinary process is for one man to dig the earth, and another to wash
it; each carrying one half from the hole to the water. To dig and wash 200 buckets
is considered a fair day's work for two men, with the common rocker. This machine
is shaped like a shallow cradle, having a movable cover of sheet-iron, pierced with
holes, upon which the earth is thrown. It is moved with one hand, while the other is

employed in throwing on water. The gravel is thrown off from the cover as it is

washed, the greater part of the earth being carried away, while the gold remains in
the reservoir below, from which, at the end of the day, it is taken and cleaned in a
pan. Another process of washing is by what is called a Long-torn, a trough through

which a stream of water is conducted. These, of course, are capable of producing

more, with less labor, than the rocker ; but their use depends on the convenience of
the place, and they cannot, like the others, be easily transported. Miners usually
work two or thice; but several of these are often associated together, for
in parties of

protection or other purposes. Occasionally the heads of companies employ themselves

in " prospecting" for good spots, while the others are at work or in packing provisions ;

and other necessaries from the towns to the diggings. Many men, whose want of

experience will not insure them good returns, or who want the means of suppljdng

themselves, hire out to others, either for specified wages, or on half profits ; receiving,

in each case, their board.

A couple of miles beyond, we came to Red-Cap's bar ; so called from a sub-chief

living there. Here we found a trading-post, and a small party of miners at work ; a
portion of whom were hired for $75 per month, and their board. The average 3-ield

was probably half an ounce a day per man. The price of provisions varied according

to circumstances; flour having lately ranged from 12* to 25 cents a pound, and pork
from 25 to 40 cents.
The village contained twelve or fourteen lodges, substantially built, and commodious.
This band, the Oppcgach, was included in the treaty made at the ferry. It belongs,

like the rest of those above Bluff" creek, to the Peh-tsik division ;
their language differing

materially from that below the forks. At this place, however, they are said not to use
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 14^

it ill its purity; having, like other borderers, adopted words from their neighbors.
" Ked-Cap," so called from a greasy-looking woollen head-piece, with which some miner

had presented him, and which ordinarily constituted his sole dress, was a short,

thickset individual, with a droll countenance, reminding one of the most authentic
likenesses of Santa Claus. He is a man of considerable influence, friendly to the
whites, and enjoying a high character fur honesty. An instance of his justice, coupled
with a display of financial ability, was related to us, as exercised on the occasion of a

gun being stolen by oue of his band. The weapon could not be found, but Red-Cap
promised that it should be paid for, the price being fixed at thirty dollars. To raise

this, he imposed an excise on all salmon sold to the packers and miners, of fifty cents
which, besides the usual price in beads, was to be exacted in " wangle chick," or silver
white man's money. The amount was soon raised and handed over, and the oppreesivc
tax abated.
At this place there is a ferry, where trains lx)und for Salmon river usually cross,

keeping up the eastern side of the Klamath. A creek of considerable size enters
opposite the village, and takes its name, the " Oppegach," from it. Above, the river,

for some distance, passes through a deep and wild canon ; and although an Indian trail

follows it on the west side, it is rendered impassable for mules, by a point of projecting
rock. To avoid this, the pack trail which we followed turned up the mountain behind
the bar, over which, and at a considerable height above the watei", it afterwards ran.
This portion of the route was dangerous even now, and four of the animals fell over
two mules breaking their backs, and a dragoon-horse being so much injured that he
was aftemvards abandoned. From this we descended to a considerable flat, known as
" Orleans bar," crossing another branch of some size, the Ocketoh, at the mouth of
which there was another dam, similar to that already mentioned, and apparently in

every respect its equal. Formerly a ferry was kept here also, and several houses had
been commenced. Attached to one of them, a fine piece of ground had been broken
up and planted, from which we obtained a few tomatoes, a ver}- welcome addition to

our supper. The miners had, however, all left, either in consequence of difiiculty with
the Indians, or attracted by the reports from Shaste and Scott's valleys above. There
Avere, in fact, at the time of our passing, but few on the lower Klamath ; for although
a good average could be made almost anywhere, it is always the case, that discoveries

of a large amount at any particular point will drain the whole neighboring country.
So far as we could learn, the bars on the entire course of the river, from the forks of
Trinity up, will yield from five to eight dollars per day. A few spots produce more,
but as these are of comparatively limited extent, and soon exhausted, the mining in
this part of the gold region may be considered as simply a matter of high wages for
hard work ; a much more desirable state of things, where it is permanent, than the
occasional "finds" of other placers.
We were here visited by a number of Indians from the neighboring villages, of
150 niYSICAL GEOGRAniY OF
Avhich there are several on both sides of the river; the principal of which is the
Tchai-noh, or Skeina, as commonly pronounced, also represented at the late council.
Our camp was pitched opposite the ferry, the distance travelled being about twelve
miles. Owing to the accident befalling the mules, the train did not arrive till late in
the afternoon.

Sattinla?/, Oct. 11th. — The march recommenced with the ascent of another
mountain ; the trail keeping along the ridge, at some distance from the river, and
then down rolling hills to a small plat, about a mile above the entrance of Salmon
river, a distance of about seven miles. Here we encamped, as it was the intention
of the Agent to hold a council with the Indians of this neighborhood also.

Salmon river, or as it is called by the Indians, the " Quoratem," is the largest of the
affluents of the Klamath, with the exception of the Trinity ; and its general coui'se is

nearly parallel with that of the latter. It has two principal branches, which unite
about fifteen miles from its mouth ; the northernmost heading in the mountains, near
Scott's river, the southern in the Trinity range. On both of these, mining operations
liave been extensively carried on, and they still continue productive. Trading posts
are established at the forks, and at '"
Bestville," a mining village of some fifteen houses
on the north fork, established by a trader of that name. Pack trails lead hence up
lK)th these streatns to the head of Scott's river and the north fork of Trinity. The
pi'ice of freight from tlie coast towns to these diggings, has at times been as high as
two dollars a pound ! The whole course of the Salmon is destitute of valleys, and
some of the severest trials and sufferings which the miners have undergone, have been
during their winter journeys through the high and broken mountain ranges which
border it; many j^ersons and whole trains of mules having perished in the snow.
The scenery at the mouth of the Salmon is exceedingly wild and picturesque. In
the forks a high conical point of rock stands up, evidently once connected with the
Avestern bank of the Klamath ; but which, broken off from the rest of the range by
some convulsion, has now given passage to the river between ; the strata of slate
dipping abruptly to the south and west, showing the subsidence in that direction.
Upon the Klamath, both above and below the junction, are Indian villages of some
size, prettily situated on high platforms of rock projecting over the water, and shaded
by groves of oaks and bay trees ; while below, the river, compressed in its channel,
rushes boiling over rapids. The accompanying sketches were taken, one from near our
camp, representing the Tish-rtuva village, and the Klamath, below the entrance of the
Salmon ; the otlier fnjin a mile higher up, showing the course of the Klamath through
the mountains above the forks. Tlie ti'ee on the viglit hand of the latter represents
one of the signal or "telegraph" trees of the Klamath Indians. These, which are
among the most conspicuous features of the scenery upon the river, occur near every
village. They arc always selected upon the edge of some hill, visible to a considerable
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 151

distance in either direction. Two trees, one trimmed in the form of a cross, the other
with merely a tuft on the top, represent each lodge ; and in time of danger or of death,
a fire kindled beneath them, informs the neighboring tribes of the necessity or
misfortune of its occupants.

Samlaij, Oct. 12th. — We remained in camp for the purpose of treating with the
rest of the bands belonging to this division of the Klamath. They do not seem
to have any generic appellation for themselves, but apply the terms " Kahruk," up
and " Youruk," down, to all who live above or below themselves, without discrimina-
tion, in the same manner that the others do " Peh-tsik," and " Poh-lik." The name
Quoratem, that of one of the bands on the Salmon river, and frequently used for the
river itself, ajjpears to be a suitable one to designate the dialect of the middle sectioji
and those speaking it. The language extends on the Klamath from Bluff creek to
a considerable distance above here ; according to some reports, to the Eenah-met, or
Clear creek, between thirty and forty miles further up, and on the Salmon to the
principal forks. Higher on the main river, the prevailing language is the Shaste,
and on the Salmon is said to be one of those used on the Trinity.
It was proposed to bring the whole of these into the reserve on the Trinity ; leaving
the Shaste, upper Klanuith, and upper Trinity Indians, to fall within that intended
to be established above ; and a treaty, supplemented to that at Durkee's ferry, was
accordingly concluded on that basis.
Four bands, the Sche-woh, Oppe-yoh, Eh-quiv
nek, and Eh-nek, were present, numbering in all probably 250 souls. The total
number of the Quoratems may perhaps be set down at 600 or 700. They are very
much scattered, some of their villages having been burnt. On the Salmon river, for
instance, there are said to be now not more than fifty below the forks. No difference,
except in language, is noticeable between these and the lower Indians; and
intermarriages frequently take place among them.

Monday, Oct. 13//(. — To-daj- our route lay along the bank, occasionally crossing
small bottoms, for about six miles. Here the river made a large bend, to avoid which
the trail passed over the mountain. Another, also much travelled by packers,
crosses the Klamath about a mile beyond, and follows the east bank for sixteen or
eighteen miles, when it recrosses and joins that on the west side. Continuing on, over
high spurs, we descended again to the river, and found camp after a march of twelve
miles. A portion of the road was dangerous, and one mule rolled do^\^l with his
pack, but was recovered.

Tuesday, Oct. lith. — The . trail followed the same general southerly course as
yesterday, gradually diverging from the river, which, five or six miles from camp,
makes another bend to the eastward. Here we again ascended, passing over high
152 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
mountain spurs, mucli of the route being rough and broken. Eight or nine miles
from camp, a trail kno\vu as the " Serra-goin trail," now no longer used, comes in. It

leaves the Klamath at a village of that name, a considerable distance below the mouth
of the Trinity. A long descent brought us again to the river, which made a sharp

turn round a spur from the other side. A considerable branch entered here on the

west, which we crossed. The trail was excessively bad, running along the edge of the
river, in short abrupt pitches, and over broken rocks. A fatigue party had been sent
out in the morning to work the more dangerous places but we were notwithstanding ;

detained at one of these, known as the " Tent Eock," for an hour and a half. At low
stages of the river however, as we afterwards learned, this can be passed through the

water. From here we rode through scrub-oak thickets and low woods for two or three
miles, and encamped on the river, the distance travelled being about fourteen miles.

Much was the worst we had passed over. We found very poor grass on
of the route
the river bench where we halted, and the animals began to suffer, the feed having
generally been poor since the start. The small benches, which occur at intervals
on the river, are, for the most part, sterile, and being camps of necessity to the
various pack trains, are easily exhausted. The mountains also bear evidence of a

poorer soil in the diminished luxuriance of the forest, and the absence of those prairies
which form so marked a feature south of the Trinity. The woods are much more
open, and of a variety of timber ; firs and pines being intermixed with various species

of oak, the willow-leaved chestnut, the bay, and the madronia. Of the oaks there is

a great variety ; several of them evergreens, including the chestnut and live-oaks. The
acorns, bay-nuts, and pinones, or nuts of the edible pine, all contribute to the subsis-

tence of the Indians, who use them in vai'ious forms, roasted whole, or pounded into
flour, and made into bread or porridge. Piles of the husks are to be seen round every
lodge. We passed several small villages during the march, the inhabitants of which
were of the poorer class, and appeared sickly. They complained too of hunger, though

they had the usual store of acorns, and said that they were too weak to obtain fish or
game. The principal complaint seemed to be a disease of the lungs. Blindness or
sore eyes was universal among the aged, as in fact in almost every tribe we have
visited. It struck me that there was a general aspect of decay among the Indians of
this part of the Klamath, and we saw remains of numerous ruined lodges. These,

however, are not of themselves conclusive evidence ; as, although their habitations are
generally permanent, they are accustomed to remove-from a site where much sickness

has occurred. Notwithstanding their poverty, they had the usual complement of
wolfish-looking dogs, which came out of the lodges to look at us and went silently

back. These fellows do not make much noise at any time, beyond a complaining yelp

when kicked, unless they are engaged in one of their customary battles. Their voice,
when they do bark, resembles that of the coyote. Their color is usually bla^k and
wliite, or brown and white. They have bushy tails and slinrp noses, and in fighting,
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY.. 153

snap viciously, much after the manner of the wolf. The Indians, we were told, used
them in hunting to drive deer to their snares, but I saw no instance of their being

employed in this or any other way. They are most arrant and expert thieves, and
it is said, carry their plunder to the lodge ; a statement probably true only as regards
Avhat is not eatable. One peculiarity which they exhibit is inquisitiveness. They
will follow and w\atch strangers Avith no other apparent motive than curiosity. I was
often much amused at the expostulations of the squaws with the dogs, who were
usually in the way or in worse mischief, and paid but momentary attention either to
the cuffs they received, or to the exclamations of " chi.she, chish^," by which they
were accompanied. For the rest, they usually wear an expression of misanthropy and
disgust at the world, which, as they are always half starved, is by no mcAus singular.

Unfortunately salmon blood does not kill them, as it does dogs of a more generous
breed. The Indians, it may be remarked, do not appear to confer proper names on
animals.

Wednesday, Oct. \btli. — The trail, for the first two miles, followed the river bank
upon a steep slope, and sometimes at a considerable height. It being very narrow,
there is some danger of sliding off. Here we lost a mule carrying the whole kitchen
furniture of our pack train ; as he did not fall, but deliberately jumped into the water,
it seemed probable that, di.sgusted with hfe, he had chosen the surest waj' of terminat-
ing his sufferings, and taking revenge on his persecutors. Beyond, the river made
another great bend to the eastward, the road again taking up the mountains. This is,

if not the highest, one of the most elevated points passed on the route. Though steep,

the ascent was pretty good ; but the toil, added to poor food, began to tell upon the
dragoon-horses, which were now every day in a worse plight. Indeed, for American
horses, even in better condition than ours were when we started from Sonoma, these
trails are too severe; and the smaller and lighter California horses, or still better, mules,

are the only fit animals. We were two hours in an almost continuous ascent of the
mountain ; another, winding upon its summit ; and a fourth, in rapid and steep descent
to the river. Here we encamped at the mouth of Clear creek, a stream some ten
yards wide. Good grass was found about half a mile down the river, on to which the
horses were sent, the mules being driven across the creek.
From the summit to-day we had a fine view of the mountains which everj^where
surround us, the vastness of which appeared as we rose towards their level. Heavy
ranges lay between us and the coast, and divided us from the Salmon and Trinity
while to the north was seen the chain se^^arating the waters of the Klamath and
Rogue rivers. In clear weather, " Mount Shasta " itself is visible. Our march to-day
was twelve miles.
A few Indian.?, the remnant of a larger band that once lived on our camp-ground,
and now were settled on the creek near by, came in. One of them, with great delight,
Pt. III. 20_
154 p. II YSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
recognized a man in our party, and recalled himself to his recollection by signs. He
had buried the Indian's child for him the j-ear before, when sickness had prevented the
father from doing it himself, and had hung beads over the grave. He evinced much
gratitude, and a high sense of obligation for an Indian. These Indians complained of
hunger, and seemed reall}'^ destitute. As a temporary relief, by order of Colonel
M'Kee, an ox was killed for them and the adjoining village.

Thursday, Oct. \^th. — Our departure was considerably delayed this morning, the
mules having strayed in quest of grass. The last of the train did not, in fact, leave

till nearly noon. Crossing the creek, we ascended a steep hill of some height; coming
down to the river again about a mile above, at a place called " Wingate's bar," where we
found a trading-house, and a party of miners. From this up, the number at work was
greater. The amount made we presumed to be about half an ounce. Board was
charged at twenty dollars per week. A'little further on is another bar, known as the
" Big Oak Flat," from a superb live-oak tree growing upon it, bej'ond which we again
ascended, keeping along the brow of the mountain, on a very precarious path, and
rising to the height of over a thousand feet from the river. A steep descent brought
us to a deep hollow, only to climb another hill equally trying ; and, after about four
hours and a half of travel, we encamped, having made only eight miles. The
animals were much exhausted, and a dragoon-horse and pack-mule were abandoned.
Our camp was upon a level bottom, about a mile and a half long, and elevated fifteen
or twenty feet above the river ; sandy, but with better grass than we had met since
leaving the feiTy. Opposite us, a large creek entered, upon which there was also some
level land.

During the marches of yesterday and to-day, we noticed, for the first time, a number
of sugar-pines. This tree, which grows only on the mountains, resembles generally
the large-coned pine, except that its bark is smoother. The cones are almost equally
large, and the leaves long and coarse. The sugar is found exuding, in rough hard
lumps, from the interior, but only where the tree has been partially burned, and is

said not to follow the axe ; though this may perhaps be questioned. Its color is an
opaque white, its taste agreeable, partaking very slightly of a resinous flavor, and it is

often used by mountaineers to sweeten their coffee. It is a very active purgative when
dissolved in cold water, and much medicinal virtue is ascribed to it. The sugar found
nearest the bark is of a darker color, and more vitreous in appearance, and is reputed
to possess these properties in a greater degree than that taken from towards the heart.
Some that was found had a peculiar sub-acid taste. While adhering to the tree, we
were told, it withstands the changes of the weather; but after being separated from it,

rapidly aljsorljs moisture, and falls to pieces. In some parts of the mountains, whei-e
•^he trees are numerous, a man can gather as much as five pounds a day. The piilon,
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. ir,5

or nut of this species, is considered better even than that of the nutrpine. The tree

produces pitch, in addition, as abundantly as other kinds.

Frldaij, Oct. lltli. —After our arrival in camp yesterday, it was found that a inule

carrying bedding had strayed into the woods; and to-day it was arranged that Major
Wessells with the command should move on, while the Agent's party waited to seek

for it. Mr. Kelsey and Colonel Sarshel Woods were at the same time sent forward to

Scott's valley to call in the Indians. The mule was found by the miners at Wingate's
bar, and in the course of the day was brought in. Two gentlemen, Messrs. T. J.
Roach and W. J. Stevens, came down to-day from " Murderer's bar," a short distance
above, where they had been located for some time past. They, with others of their
party, had jjrospected extensively in the communicated much
neigliborhood, and
information respecting the country. The creek opposite our camp, called by the
Indians the Yoteh, we learned from them heads in the mountains between the north
fork of Salmon and Scott's river, and is of considerable length. Mr. Roach and Mr.
Charles M'Dermit had recently also ascended the " Batinko," or Indian creek, a branch
emptying from the west, two or three miles above, and heading in the Sis-kiu

mountains, between the Klamath and Rogue's river. From thence they crossed to the
head of Canon creek, which runs into a larger stream, now called Illinois river. Of
this last there has been much dispute ; some supposing it to Ije a distinct river,
emptying into the Pacific near the Oregon line. The better opinion, however, seems

to be that it is a fork of Rogue's river, which it enters ten or twelve miles from its

mouth. Upon it is a large and fertile valley. The country upon Rogue's river itself,

is spoken of with great praise, by all who have seen it, as containing fine farming

valleys. The Indians of the Illinois valley are said to speak the language of this part
of the Klamath (the Shaste), and not that of Rogue's river. We were further informed
that Joe, the head chief of the Rogue's river Indians, the same with whom Major
Kearney had his contest during the past summer, and who is now living in peace with

the whites, at the ferry on the Oregon trail, claims the Shasta tribes as properly his
subjects, although they yield him no allegiance. Be this as it may, the fact of a pretty
intimate connection between the Indians on the upper part of both rivers, is clear.

We heard of one custom prevailing in the Illinois valley, which is different from the
practice here : that of burning the bodies of those killed in battle, instead of burying
them, as they do in cases of natural death.

Scditrday, Oct. ISth. —

Our trail ran through oak thickets for a couple of miles, to
" Happy camp," as the station at Murderer's bar is called. Some seventy persons
make this their head-quarters a portion of them being, however, almost always absent,
;

either in packing, or mining, and prospecting, at a distance. They were, at this time,
living in tents, but preparations were making to erect log-houses for the wmter.
156 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
The amount averaged a tla}^, was about six cents to the bucket of 20 to 25
lbs.; but it has been much higher. This, however, is considered a good paying

rate. The miners on this part of the Klamath have not only been led away by
briUiant reports from other parts, but to some extent discouraged by the mm-ders and
robberies of the Indians, which have rendered mining in small parties dangerous.

The bar itself takes its name from the killing of three men, by the people living on

the creek opposite our last night's camp. Lately, however, the greater part of the

Indians have themselves disappeared, some of their ranches having been burnt by the
whites, and it issupposed have moved either to the valleys above, or to that on the
Illinois river. Their number between Clear creek and the mouth of the Shaste, does
not appear to have been great, and judging from the number and size of the ranches,

is probably not now over 300 or 400. On the creeks there are a few more, but not

many at any distance from the Klamath, except in Scott's and Shaste valleys. Of the
numbers above the mouth of the Shaste, and extending up to the foot of the Cascade
range, we had no definite information. The name of Shaste may perhaps be found

applicable to the whole tribe extending from Clear creek up ; as, with perhaps some
trifling variation, the same language appears to prevail as in the valley of that

name.
The bottom at Murderer's bar is one of the largest on the whole Klamath, being
about two miles in length, and containing some little arable land. Good pasturage
can also be obtained on the hills around. Indian creek, which has been already
mentioned, enters the Klamath just above the station.
Leaving here, we rode up the bottom for a couple of miles, and thence commenced
an ascent over wooded hills to a high mountain, from the summit of which we had
an extensive view. " Mount Shast^" was, however, not visible, nor had the weather
been clear enough at any time as yet, to permit us to see it. The Klamath above
Murderer's bar runs through a deep canon, making a great bend to the south; its

general course being here more westerly than southerly. It was seen at times from

the mountain, much contracted by its narrow channel ; but above, it again widened

out apparently to its full volume, at the junction of the Trinity. So much of its

Avater is in fact absorbed by the soil, or carried ofi' by evaporation during its tortuous

course, that it preserves a very uniform size, at least from the mouth of Scott's river

down. A very steep descent from the mountain top brought us again to its banks,

and we encamped where Major Wessells had stopped the night before, having made
about nine miles.
The pine, which till recently has formed no feature in the landscape, Avas now
common; at least three distinct kinds being seen — the yellow or pitch-pine, the sugar-

pine, and the big-cone. The true nut-pine was not noticed. Cedars of the large
white-barked species, common in Oregon, were also frequent. The leaves of the

deciduous trees were fast falling, and the maple which mingled with the growth
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 15T

in the damp bottoms had assumed a brilliant yellow ; almost the only approach to
the gorgeous autumnal hues of the Atlantic that here meets the eye of the traveller.

Sundaij, Oct. 29</!. — About a mile beyond our camp we crossed a large brook or
creek, which was afterwards fixed upon as part of the boundary of the " reservation,"
and as such is referred to in the treaty made at Scott's valley. We had no high points
to pass to-day, the trail running along the river upon narrow benches. It was,
however, rugged, and broken by ledges of slate, a part of it being excessively bad.
About eight miles of travel brought us to what is known as the " Big Bottom," a tract

covering a few miles square, which forms the nearest approach to a valley that we had
seen upon the Klamath. Here is the usual trail for packers bound to Scott's and
Shaste valleys, and a ferry or crossing to the eastern shore ; the trail on the left bank
being a dangerous one. It is kept by Indians, who pass goods in canoes, the animals
swimming. Major Wessells had halted here the preceding night, expecting us to join
him, and was to make but a short march beyond. As it would, however, take some
time to cross the baggage, and there was fine grass in the bottom, we remained over.
The mules were left on the north bank for the night, and we camped on the other
side.

There were two Indian villages near this spot, but the lodges had been burnt by the
whites. Messrs. Kelsey and Woods had visited them, and invited them to the council

to be held in Scott's valley ; but the men with a few exceptions had run off to the
mountains on the approach of the command, leaving their families behind. These
people were in a great state of destitution. Several of the early miners had been
murdered in this neighborhood, and much property stolen, in revenge for which their
successors had destroyed the lodges and killed some of the men. Of late they had
been more peaceably disposed, but were still regarded Avitli suspicion, having in their
possession a few stolen animals and fire-arms. Those that we saw were evidently of
the lowest caste, a little boy of nine or ten years of age being the solitary and
remarkable exception. Ilis features were regular, and even beautiful. These Indians
keep up a constant intercourse with Rogue's river, whither it is probable many of them
have recently gone. From many circumstances, it would appear that their place of
residence, being the centre through which numerous trails led, has been a sort of
common ground the Alsatia of the neighboring country. We found here a J^oung
;

Indian, who spoke a few words of the Oregon jargon, and through him were enabled
to communicate a little with the rest. By his means I collected enough of the
language to ascertain its similarity to the Shaste, and also a partial vocabulary of his
own tongue, which I presume to be one of the Rogue's river languages. His proper
home he could not be made to tell for although intelligent enough generally', he became
;

very stupid when questioned as to where he belonged.

The bottom here seemed to be from two to three miles in length, and about a mile
158 PHYSICAL GEOGRATHY OF
wide ; a portion of it affording good pasture, but none ajoparently fit for agriculture.

Two creeks enter the Klamath here ; one from the south-east, at our camp ; the other
from the north-east, a mile above. It is along the latter that the Rogue's river trail

passes. A miner whom we found here informed us that he had crossed over by it to

that stream.

Monday, Oct. oOth. —The morning broke with a heavy fog, which, however, cleared
off about eight o'clock. The sky of this region, it may be remarked, is, when
unobscured, of a blue as pure and deep as that even of the Rocky Mountains.
The trail during the day followed the river bank. It was exceedingly rocky, and
much obstructed with brushwood. We made only about ten miles, passing the spot
whei'e the command had encamped about a mile and a half. The grass was very poor,
but we were informed that none could be found elsewhere, within the distance which
^\G could drive. In camping on the Klamath, it is necessary to seek the neighborhood
of the broolvs, especially at this season ; as the water, never pure, is now offensive from
the number of dead salmon. Fortunately springs and small streams are abundant,
and of the finest quality. We passed to-day only one Indian village, a small one,
and that deserted ; but saw a number of the people upon a hill beyond the river,

and sent a messenger, who, with some difficulty, brought them to a talk, and invited
them to come in. Large heaps of the shells of a species of Unio lay along the banks
of the river, at different places. These form a fiivoi'ite article of food with the Indians,
Avho boil them in baskets by means of hot stones.

The approach of winter was now indicated by the appearance of numbers of ducks
in the river, and by flocks of the banded-tailed pigeon, on their way to the south.

Except the omnipresent raven and fish crow, we have hitherto seen but few birds in
this whole region ; a bald eagle on the look-out for salmon, a blue heron starting

with dissonant scream from his perch on a dead fir tree, a few hawks and jays, and
now and then a sparrow, being all.
The prevailing rock is now the white granite, resembling that of New Hampshire,
^vllich forms many of the highest peaks, particularly those at the head of Salmon and

Scott's rivers. The bed-rock of the Klamath is, however, still dark blue slate,
containing veins and seams of quartz. Of this the strata are everywhere displaced
and broken up. A coarse sandstone or conglomerate of volcanic formation occurs.
Without attempting to give any scientific description of this region, it may not be
unimportant to mention that the blue slate is continuous along the whole route
followed. Talcose and mica slates and serpentine are likewise in place ; the last in
greatest abundance, and covering the greatest extent. Where gold is found in the
original rock, it seems to be always in the quartz veins of the blue slate ; and these
are more abundantly interposed farther up. than in the lower district. Thus the gold
of the upper Klamath is much coarser than tliat found below the Salmon. Where it
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 159

exists iu the soil, iudepeudeiit of tlie gravjUy b.ir.5 of" the rivers, it is most frequent
in a reddish earth, as in the dry diggings in Shaste valley, and elsewhere. It is,

however, impossible to account for the occurrence of large deposits in particular

localities, while in others, seemingly as favorable, it is nearly or altogether absent.

Tuesday, Oct. 21st. — Passing over a point of mountain, we reached Scott's river,
about a mile and a half from camp. This, which, next to the Shaste, is the largest of
the upper forks of the Klamath, is here about fifteen yai'ds wide, running through a
narrow mountain gap, and over a bed filled with large boulders. Its sources are in

the immediate neighborhood of the Trinity and the Salmon, and after their junction
its general course is from south-west to north-east. Like all other mountain streams,
its volume of water fluctuates greatly with the season ; the amount brought down in
winter being very considerable, while in the summer and fall it is fordable almost
everywhere. It was formerly a Avell-kuo-\\ai trapping ground of the Hudson's Bay
Company, by whom it was called Beaver ri\'er. Its present name was given it from
that of a miner who first developed its mineral wealth. Our trail now left the
Klamath, and followed up this branch. Scott's river is the most thoroughly explored
of all the gold-producing streams of northern California, and the extent of the works
upon it is astonishing, even to those acquainted with the energy with which mining
operations have been carried on. Between the mouth and the upper end of Scott's

bar, three or four miles above, almost the whole river has been turned from its bed,
and carried through canals, regularly built, with solid stone or log embankments,
several feet in height and thickness. Many of these are from 100 to 200 yards in
length. They were constructed by companies consisting usually of from ten to twenty
persons and we were informed, that at a court or convention of delegates, held iu
;

July to decide upon a contested claim, thirty-two companies were represented. The
number work in the dams at the time of our passing, was small, certainly
of persons at
not exceeding a hundred ; most of the miners having, at least temporarily, abandoned
them. We made careful inquiries as to the productiveness of these enterprises, and
were satisfied that, like most operations of the kind attempted elsewhere, they had
been losing ones. Although very consideral^le sums had in some cases been taken out
by single companies, and the total amount must have been very great, the average

daily earnings for the whole working time was comparatively inconsiderable. It was
variously estimated at from two to five dollars ; the lowest being probablj- nearest the
truth. Those who remained were doing better than this, the different dams yielding
to the present workers from five dollars to an ounce a day. The gold was chiefly
found in crevices of the bed-rock, and was very coarse. One piece was said to have
weighed twelve, and another, found in the bank, fifteen pounds troy. Besides the
dams, other washings were carried on with success, and the ground in front of the
town of "Scott's bar" was literally riddled with what are called "coyote diggings."
160 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
This mining town contains some fifty houses, and, when we passed, numbered
perhaps 150 inhabitants. Through the summer, however, the population had been
far greater. In September, 600 votes were polled in the two precincts of Scott's bar
and the mouth of the river; and even this was only a partial representation. The
packing from this place is chiefly carried on from Reading's springs, or, as it is now
called, " Shaste city," near Clear creek, in the Sacramento valley ; the traders being,

for the most part, their own packers. The price of freight was at this time twenty-
five cents a pound, and the time takeuin the journey seven or eight days. Flour was
selling at thirty-five, and pork at fifty cents; but during the year they had been
respectively as high as $1.50 and $2.25, and as low as twenty and twenty-five cents.
"We saw here a fair supply of other commodities used by miners. Fluctuations in the
prices of provisions, goods, and transportation, are constant at all these places;

depending in some measure upon the state of the trails, as regards supply, and upon
the rush of buyers for the time being, as to demand.
Leaving the town, and following the right bank of the river for two or three miles,
over a very broken trail, we again crossed and passed the high mountain on the left,

to avoid a canon which extends from here to the valley. The descent, though

considerable, was gradual, and the trail good, in contrast with the execrable path from
our camp to its foot. An hour and a half brought us to the top, and we then caught
a glimpse of the valley of Scott's river below us, with the mountains beyond, and the
snowy peak of Shasta lyiug to the south-east, towering above all. The view was a
beautiful one, and not the less so, from its being the first for many a weary day's
travel, in which the habitations of civilized man seemed not out of place. A rapid
descent led us down to the plain, and to the log-house of a settler, and here we saw
another unwonted sight, an ox-wagon laden with hay. Again crossing the river, here
rippling gently over a bed of sand and gravel, we reached Major Wessells's camp,
pitched about a mile beyond, on a small branch entering from the south, at about half
past three in the afternoon, our march being about fifteen miles.

Wednesday, Oct. 22d. — Thin ice formed in our buckets this morning, but the
weather continued to be fine. To-day we rode across the valley to a ranch on the
eastern side, a distance of about eight miles, stopping on our way to ascend a hill

from which we had a good view of a portion of it.

Scott's valley is, with the exception of Shasta, the lai-gest either on the Klamath,
or any of its tributaries ; and is the only one in which any considerable quantity of
good soil is to be found. Its extreme length is, however, not more than twenty-five
or thirty miles, and its width, at the northern end, from eight to ten, diminishing
towards its head to a narrow strip. Its total area does not much exceed one hundred
square miles. By far the greater part of this, even, is suited only to pasturage, being
too dry and gravelly for cultivation. Tracts of a better quality are nevertheless
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 161

found chiefly upon the river, and the two or three small branches which continue to

flow during the dry season ; these seem well suited to the growth of potatoes and other
vegetables, as well as small grain. The richest is in the neighborhood of old beaver-
dams, and, by proper care, would become exceedingly productive. Timber is abundant
on the hills on the western or northern sides; consisting of pine, of a quality not
inferior to that of the Atlantic States. The slopes on the eastern side are covered
with line bunch-grass, affording excellent and most abundant pasturage. Salmon
ascend the river in lai-ge numljcrs, before the waters subside in the spring. In the
rainy season, travel in the valley is exceedingly difficult, and parts of it are even
covered with water. Eight or ten houses, mostly small log buildings, had been put
up at the northern end, and preparations were making for ranching animals on a
pretty extensive scale. We found a good deal of hay mowed and stacked either for
feeding at the corrals or transportation to Scott's bar, whither it is carried on mules.
The price there was twenty-five cents a pound ! The bunch-grass becomes a natural
hay without cutting, and retains all its nutritive qualities. Animals, with any
reasonable degree of work, will keep fat on it throughout the year. A second growtli
always springs up after the commencement of the rainy season. Wild clover abounds,
also, in the valley. But little snow is said to fall here, and that does not remain
long.

Thursday, Oct. 23c7. —Mr. Kelsey returned last evening from Shaste valley, whither
he had gone to invite the Indians. He found great difficulty m persuading them of
the peaceful intentions of the expedition ; as they had taken up the idea that the
escort was a war party sent against them. Some of them, however, accompanied him
a part of the way to satisfy themselves, but still lingered behind. Messengers sent to
the neighboring lodges rejjorted that the men had gone to the mountains to hunt. A
few were finally collected, and the object of the Agent in visiting their country was
explained to them through an Oregon Indian named "Swill," who Uved with the tribe,
and spoke their language. This man was afterwards dispatched with Mr. Abel, one
of the interpreters, to make another effort to assemble the Shaste tribes, and Indian
runners were sent to the Klamath and the upper lodges of Scott's river.
Several gentlemen from the neighborhood, among others, Major Theodore F. Rowe,
Mr. Charles M'Dermit, Mr. Eoach, and Dr. M'Kinne}', visited our camp to-day, and
were requested to remain for the purpose of giving information and advice regarding
arrangements with the Indians. Col. M'Kee, further in view of the imjDortance of
rendering the treaty satisfactory to the miners and settlers, determined to invite them
to Ije present from the different placers, either in person or by delegation, and notes to
that effect were despatched both to Shaste, Butte city, and Scott's bar.
It had become evident immediately on our arrival, that more serious obstacles would
interpose to a pacific arrangement with the Indians of this district, than at either of
Pt. Ill — 21
162 PHYSICAL GEO GR Am Y OF
those before visited. On the one hand, the number of all the tribes intended to be

included, was very large, being variously estimated at from four to six thousand ; and
their disposition was decidedly hostile to the whites, against whom they had several
grounds of complaint; some of them more or less just. The great influx of miners

had crowded them from their fisheries and hunting-grounds, and the commencement
of permanent settlements threatened to abridge their movements still more. Many
of their villages had been burned and their people shot; generally, it is true, in ret.alia-

tiou for murders or robberies, but in some instances no doubt wantonly ; the result in
either case being the same in rendering their families destitute and stimulating their

desire for revenge. Animals stolen from others and sold to them had been seized, and
not least, their women had l)een occasionally taken away. On the other side, a
number of whites had been killed ; some under circumstances of atrocious barbarity.
Several whole trains had been plundered, reducing their owners to actual ruin ; and a
large amount of property stolen from time to time, in blankets, tools, pro^^sions, and
animals, upon which the miners depended for their subsistence. The number of mules
and horses, and the quantity of fire-arms in their possession furnished, to some extent,
proofs of the Indian outrages. To such a degree had the feeling of exasperation risen on
the part of the whites, that they had determined on the setting in of winter to wage
a war of extermination against the Indians on the upper Klamath and its tributaries

generally. Two or three men were not considered as safe anywhere ; and as the

mode in which mining is carried on here involved the scattering of detached parties
or individuals through the hills, they conceived the only way of protecting themselves
would be to extirjiate or drive oft" the enemy altogether. Such was the state of things

when the Agent arrived. Supposing, however, that a treaty of peace could be effected
which the majority of the whites and Indians would respect, there was great danger
that it might be broken by outlaws of one race or another, whose conduct was beyond
control ; and that as discrimination is out of the question in such cases, a renewal of
the strife would follow, with more violence than before. Another very serious
difficulty remained. To fix upon a reserve, into which the Indians could be collected
where they could be placed under the government of suitable officers; where game
and fish would be abundant, and a sirfficient tract of agricultural country could afford
the means of civilization and partial support, and where, at the same time, the
interests of the whites would not tempt encroachment, seemed to be next to impossible.
The removal of the Indians beyond the limits of the State was clearly so; for Oregon
had its own savage population, and the introduction of others was not only beyond the

authority of the Agent, Ijut would have been resisted to the knife. The Territor^^ of
Utah furnished no suitable home for them, or means of maintenance, and the inter-
vening country embraced in Shaste county had alreadj^ a larger number than the
safety of the whites rendered desirable. The only bodies of level land in their own
country were known to Ijo tlie valleys of Scott's and Shaste rivers, and the amount
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 163

of arable soil in them was comparatively- small far less than would suffice
either of ;

lor a considerable number of permanent white settlers. A very considerable part of

this was already taken up in claims, and to some extent improved. Further, it was
impossible to find any district whatever, in which gold did not exist, or where miners
were not carrying on their occupation. Under all these circumstances, the only
possible method of accomplishing the proposed object, seemed to be for the Agent to
invite the concert of the citizens themselves, and after obtaining the best information

in his power, and hearing the suggestions and objections offered, to adopt such a
course in reference to the reservation, as, with the least inconvenience to the whites,
should furnish a refuge for the Indians. Into this it was proposed to collect them as
speedily as possible, in order to prevent further collisions.

Friday, Oct. 2ith. — Major Wessells having concluded to return from here by the
way of Reading's springs and the Sacramento valley, started this morning; the
reduced condition of his horses rendering it important to him to reach quarters before
the rains set in ; which, from the lateness of the i^eason, might now be expected at
any time. The route was up the valley, and following a branch of the north fork
over the mountains to Trinity river, thence down nearly to Weaver-town, crossing to
the head of Clear creek, and down that stream to the springs.
Mr. Kelsey and myself, accompanied by Colonel Woods and Mr. Marshall, left to

examine the valley, following the branch on which the camp is situated to its head,
and tlience turning eastward towards the river. About four miles up, we stopped to
examine a quartz vein in the hills to the left, which a company had opened, and were
preparing to work. The quartz, which was quite solid, lay a few feet beneath the
surface, under a bed of broken slate, dipping to the east under the hill. The gold was
visible only in particular specimens ; but was snid to pervade the whole mass. No
correct estimate could be formed of its productiveness, from the very imperfect trials

made ; but it was said to }aeld from five to forty cents to the pound of ore. The rock
where the metal is not seen by the eye is, nevertheless, often as valuable, and fields
more uniformly than the other. We found some good land in the little valley of a
creek near by, which is about five miles long, and from half a mile to a mile wide.
Crossing some low hills to the main valley, we followed the western side to the foot of
a mountain, which afterwards was made one of the land-marks of the reserve, by the
name of " Seine's hill." This part of the valley is little more than a pine barren, the
land being gravelly, and cut up with arroyas from the mountains. Here Colonel
Woods and Mr. Marshall left us, and continued up. Six or eight miles above, they met
a considerable creek, entering from the south-west, which they followed up. This
stream forked three miles above ; and upon one of the branches the}' found small
prairies. Both headed in the high granite peaks separating the Salmon fi'om Scott's
river; Mr. Kelsey and myself struck across the valley to the main stream. We had
164 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
hitherto been accompanied bj an Indian runner, Avho was sent out with invitations to
some of the more distant villages. This man had kept our mules in a brisk trot
during almost the whole distance, and he left us in the same long swinging walk
which he had preserved from the first, apparently as fresh as when he started.

In crossing the valley we found ourselves at first entangled in the sloughs made by
old beaver-dams, of which there seemed to be no end. Beyond these lay the main
prairie, which afforded fine grazing; and here and there, in places upon the river, land
well suited for cultivation, but in tracts comparatively limited. Considerable grass
had here been cut and stacked for the use of the ranches. We followed the river
down to camp, which we reached about dark.

Sunday, Oct. 2Qt7i. — Accompanied by Mr. Mulkey, one of our visitors, I rode to
Shaste Butte city, a distance of about twenty-five miles from camp. This, it should
be mentioned, is not to be confounded with Shaste city, or Reading's springs, near the
junction of Clear creek and the Sacramento. Our route lay up narrow spurs of the
valley, extending to the dividing ridge between the waters of the two streams, and
crossing over descended by another. The arroyas in these were dry, water occurring
only here and there in them. In both, but more particularly on the Shasta side,

numbers of miners had been at work, and large quantities of earth were thrown up
ready for washing when the rains should come on. These were almost all " surface
;
diggings " the gold being found very near the top of the soil, and most abundantly in

the " gulches," or beds of small water-courses. The earth was of a reddish color, and
generally free from stones of any size ; though small fragments of quartz were
interposed throughout. The hills here Avere well timbered ; and I noticed another
variety of pine, more nearly resembling the eastern white pine than those before seen.
To-day being Sunday, but few of the miners were at work in the diggings ; most of
them were either engaged in cleaning up, or gone into town.
Shaste Butte city, as it is called, is a place of some 300 houses, built on two streets
in the form of an L, and at this time numbered, including the immediate vicinity,
about 1000 souls. It has sprung into existence since May last, in consequence of the
rich diggings discovered here. It is situated, not on the river, but three or four miles
from it, on a small creek, called by the Indians the Koostah, running into the Shaste
from the west side some eight miles above its mouth. The diggings here are not
merely in the hills, but in tlie valley itself, immediately round the town, and the
ground was literally rooted up for many acres in extent ;
— large heaps of dirt having
been collected, in anticipation of a supply of water. This is expected to yield ten
cents a bucket on the average. We found in the town a plentiful supply of
provisions, and in considerable variety ;
game being abundant, and beef, butter, and
vegetables regularly supplied from Oregon. The price of board was three dollars
a day, without bed, and a dollar for horses or mules standing at hay in a yard. The
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 165

restaurants were fitted up in approach to San Francisco style ; and in the evenings,

music invited the lovers of liquor and of mont6.

The next morning, accompanied hy Mr. Moses Dusenbury, of Peoria, Illinois, whom
I met here, I rode to the top of a range of hills about four miles distant, for the

purpose of obtaining a view of the country. The prospect here was very extensive,
commanding the northern and eastern portions of the plain, and extending south-
easterly, to Mount Shasta, which was distant about thirty miles. In this direction,
however, it was intercepted by the ranges of hills which break the level of the
valley. Mount Shaste, or, as it is usually called, the " Shast6 Butte," is not situated
upon any connected chain, but rises by itself near the connecting point of several
the head-waters of the Sacramento separating it from the great range bounding the
Avestern side of its valley, and from the peaks which form the source of the Trinity.
It is this mountain, and not Mount Pitt, as was supposed by Mr. Greenhow, which
was designated as Mount Jackson by the sponsors of the " President's Range ;" and
it is the same as the Rogers' Peak of Smith. By the Shaste Indians it is called

Wy-e-kah. Its height is stated to be 14,300 feet. In form, it possesses singular

beauty ; far surpassing any of its Oregon sisters, and rising thus alone from the plain,

is seen to the utmost advantage. The crater stands out from its western side in the
forin of a truncated cone. From the same point of view we could see Mount Pitt,

or more properly Pitt mountain, so called from the ti'aps formerly dug near it, by the
Lidians; and the noted land-marks of the Oregon trail, the "Pilot Knob," on the
Siskire range to the north, and the " Black or Little Butte," to the south. Pitt

mountain is the same as Mount Madison, and apparently as Mount Simpson of other
geographers.
Shaste valley is of irregular shape, but its extent may be stated, in general terms, as
thirty-five miles in length, by an average width of eight ; though there are some j^oints

where it is much wider. It extends from the foot of the Butte in a north-westerly
direction, to the canon through which the river enters the Klamath. That portion
lying toward the mountain is occupied by fine forests, and is represented as sterile and
rocky. Through the centre runs a singular range of mounds or buttes, rising separately

from the general level, and of every conceivable form and size ; among which are said

to be tracts covered with an alkaline deposit, similar to those found on the North
Platte, and the SweetAvater. The western side of the valley is an extensive plain,

covered with a fine growth of bunch-grass, but barren, and destitute of water or wood.
The same remark applies both to the i-anges of hills scattered through it, and to those

onits sides. The grass being at this time ripe, gave them, at a distance, exactly the

appearance of lidges of blown sand.

Shaste river, the highest considerable tributary of the Klamath, rises, not in the
Butte, but considerably to the north of it, in the extensive plains beyond the low

range bounding the valley to the east, through which it has found a way. It has
1(36 niYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
several branches, some of considerable length, but all losing themselves in the soil
during the dry season. The river itself, wandering through arid plains, becomes tepid
and unfit for use. Through the whole extent of the valley, we could not learn that

any lands fit for agriculture existed, even did its climate permit; for at this great

elevation frost occurs during almost every month in the year. As a pasturing district,

the want of water is the only drawback ; for although snow fiills occasionally in whiter,

it does not remain long. Returning to town, we started in the afternoon on our return,

and camped with some miners in the hills.

Tuesday, Oct. 28tJi. — On reaching camp, we found delegations from Shaste Butte

city, and Scott's bar, present, together with other citizens from difierent parts of the
valley, amounting in all to forty or fifty. But few Indians had as yet arrived, but

towards evening the chiefs of the Shaste and Scott's river tribes, with some of the
head men, came in. We learned from every quarter, that apprehensions existed that
the object of assembling them was to kill the whole together; and this fear had
prevented the chief of the Klamaths from coming. This man was the most important
of all, from the number under his control, and his influence Avith the others. He had
sent his son, a young man of seventeen or eighteen, to observe what was passing. A
preliminary talk was held this e\'ening, with those present, through the Indian " Swill."
At night we had a very Jx'uutiful aurora, first visible towards the north-east, and
nearly in the direction of the town. It was of a rose color, and the liglit so brilliant

that for some time we supposed Shaste Butte city to be on fire.

Wednesdcuj, Oct. 29///. — Intelligence arrived of further depredations by the Pitt

river Indians. That tribe, inhabiting a country difficult to penetrate, has long been
considered as the worst of those of northern California. Their hostility to the whites
has been unremitting ; and their incursions being planned with great ingenuity and
executed with daring and celerity, they have always been the terror of those pursuing
the northern trails. Lately they had extended them into the mining region of Shaste
and the Klamath. It has been supposed, and apparently with reason, that a number of
white outlaws are connected with them, who furnish information and share the plunder.
Some weeks Ix'fore our arrival, a party had started from the Shaste to retake a large
l)and of animals recently driven oft'; and as no tidings were heard from them, it Avas

l)elic\ed that they had been killed. Since then, several corrals, where mules and
horses were ranched by the miners, had been robbed ; and on one occasion forty were
taken. Horse and mule stealing, both by Indians and whites, is, in fiict, the most
common, and one of the most serious crimes of the mining region ; and as men's lives

arc constantly dependent upon their animals, the frequency of these occurrences
creates great disquiet.
Another conference with the Indians took place to-day, when the subject was fully
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 167

entered into. They professed a willingness to divide their country with the whites,
and to receive the Trinity and Klamath tribes into the reserve. Tliey promised to
desist from all hostilities, provided they were not molested in the first place. It was
found impossible, at present, to effect anything with the Trinity Indians, as their
distance and wild habits would prevent access to them in season ; but the son of the
head Klamath chief, " Ishack," was despatched after his father ; first receiving the
present of a blanket, and being provided with a safe conduct. Until he should return
the council was adjourned.
In regard to the location and limits of a reserve, no conclusion could be arrived at,

on consultation with the citizens present ; and it was seen that private interests would
interfere with any selection. Claimants, or squatters, had been rapidly occupying
what tillable land existed in the country ; and every mountain and stream seemed
liable to the objection of producing gold. On the other hand, it was most essential to
the observance of a treaty, that, if possible, it should be rendered generally
satisfactory. All saw the justice of leaving to the Indians the means of support, and
the opportunity of improving their condition ; and all saw likewise the importance of
secluding them, so that the occupations of the miners could be elsewhere pursued
with safety ; but there was no place known where the interests of some would not be
affected. Suggestions were made of the small valleys upon the creeks emptying into
the Klamath from the north ; but these were clearly insufficient in extent, even if

otherwise suitable ; and an insurmountable obstacle presented itself in this locality.

The lina between Oregon and California had never been run ; nor was the position of
any laud-mark known with certainty ; but it was very certain that the 42° parallel
could not lie far enough north of the Klamath to afford the necessary country. Under
these circumstances, it was determined to make a further examination of Scott's and
Sliaste valleys, and the intermediate country, although little more information could
be hoped for than that previously collected ; and Messrs. Charles M'Dermit and Alva
Boles were chosen by the citizens to accompany Mr. Kelsey, Colonel Woods, and
myself, for that purpose, detailed by Colonel M'Kee. The time allowed us Avas,
unfortunatel}', limited ; but for this there was no remedy.

Thursday, Oct. oOtJt. —A hard rain fell during the night, and our departure was
delayed until eleven o'clock, when it partially cleared off, but the day continued
cloudy.
We followed the Avest side of the valley up as far as Seino's hill, and thence struck
diagonally across it. Its Avidth Avas here contracted to five or six miles. The soil on
the river Avas good, and on the eastern side consisted of a light sandy loam, well
adapted to potatoes and other roots. Farther up, the valley became stiU narrower,
the land continuing good, but much broken by sloughs formed by the beaA-er-dams.
This animal appears, since the discontinuance of trapping, to be again multiplying;
168 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
throughout the country. We crossed back and forth several times, and towards dark
camped nearly opposite the creek exploi'ed by Colonel Woods some days previous.

Friday, Oct. Zlst. — We followed the course of the river for a couple of hours, the
valley gradually becoming narrower and more broken and rocky. At its head the
two principal branches, generally designated as the North and South Forks, unite at
the foot of a high peak. The trail to Salmon river follows the latter ; that to Trinity,
one part of the former. On the south fork, about a mile and a half up, there is

another quartz vein from which ore had been taken out. We had no time to visit

it, but a number of specimens were shown us. The gold was not visible, and we
did not learn the amount it yielded. About the same distance farther on, washings

also occur. A trading shanty had been established at the forks, and we met several

miners here. No diggings, it may be mentioned, are carried on in the valley itself,

nor any in the hills around, excepting those already mentioned, at the northern end.
It is, however, probable that in the high granite mountains lying between its head
and the waters of Salmon river, gold will be found in numerous veins of the quartz,
which appears to be abundant.
As regards the principal object of our journey, the agricultural capacity of the
valley, its total extent is about one hundred square miles ; of which not more than
fifteen, or at farthest twenty, are of good tillable land, and of this a full half lies

towards the southern end. A further portion might perhaps be rendered so by

irrigation, but the only source from which water could be drawn would be th& river.
We took the north fork, which turns sharply round the base of the eastern range.
Between two ami three miles above the junction, this again branches; the Trinity trail

running up t!i;' light^hand branch. Our route lay up the left, on which there is a
valley which \\a wished to examine. The course of this is from the north, and it
runs almost exactly parallel to the main river, but in an opposite direction. The
valley is nine or ten miles long, its width nowhere exceeding one. The soil is barren,
and we found water but in one or two pools, the stream sinking into the ground.
Grass was abundant, both in the bottom, and on the hills on either side. There was
but little wood, and that pine. Reaching the head of the valley, we ascended the
mountains to our right, and found ourselves at the top of a high ridge in turning to the
northward and eastward ; on the other side of which headed a corresponding branch,
running into the lower end of the valley. Before us, at a distance of about three
miles, stood the " Sheep-rock," a very remarkable point, which is visible for many
miles around. We had supposed this to be on the dividing ridge between the waters
of Scott's and Shasta rivers, but found it to lie within those of the former. It is said to

be one of only three places, where the big-horn, or mountain sheep, is at present found,

west of the Sierra Nevada. Another is a precipitous crag upon the Sacramento range,
and the third, a mountain visible to the west of the Klamath, from some of the high
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 169

points of view on the trail, and situated probably on the sources of Smith's river. To
our great regret, we had no time to visit the rock and hunt them. Turning to the
right, Ave followed the crest of the ridge, ascending to one of the highest points of the
mountains between the two valleys. From here, a superb view opened of the great
chains around us ; the heads of the Sacramento, the Trinity, and the Salmon, extending
from south-east to south-west, and there dividing the Klamath from the coast, and from
the waters of Rogue's river, on the west and north ; while to the east, the Shaste peak
loomed up, a slender horizontal cloud resting upon its summit. To the north-east, a
wide gap was visible, between the Cascade range of Oregon, and its continuation in
the Sierra Nevada, through which the Klamath emerges from the lesser Klamath
lake. We had, however, but short time to spend in admiration, for the sun Avas near
setting, and it was necessary to seek camp. Seeing no hope of obtaining Avater,
without descending into the canon on our left, we finally halted for the night, upon
the top, under the cover of a clump of red cedars. These trees, which, from the size

of their gnarled trunks, must have been of enormous age, were not more than from
twelve to fifteen feet high, and bore eA'idence of their long conflicts Avith wind and
snoAv. From the dead limbs around, we made a fire that gleamed far and Avide over
the mountains ; and having, Avith much pains, levelled a spot large enough to lie upon
Avithout rolling down the side, tied up our mules, and went, not exactly to bed, but to
sleep.

Saturday, Nov. Isf.

— "We started at day-break, winding along the summit of the
ridge in a north-easterly direction, enjcjying the effects of a glorious sunrise upon the
peak. It was not until after ten o'clock that Ave found Avater, and then only in a small

hole. It sufficed, hoAvever, for our oavu breakfast, and to refresh our thirsty mules,
after nearly twenty-four hours' abstinence. This done, we pushed down the mountain,
^starting, as we rode along, troops of black-tailed deer, which, after a stare at the
imusual intruders, bounded away into the Avoods. About two o'clock we reached a
narrow arm of the valley, where also we found a pool of water. The soil here, as it

had been, in fact, on the mountains we had passed over, had the strongest appearances
of yielding gold; being streAved AAnth small fragments of rotten quartz, slate, and
volcanic rock. The slate observed in place, on the summit, CA^erywhere contained thin
seams of quartz, and was often curled, as if by the action of fire. No prosjjecting

seemed to haA'e been attempted, probably on account of the absence of water. We

followed this raAdne to the main valley, Avhich Ave struck at a point about west
of Shaste Butte, and thence kept doAvn its Avestern side. Herds of antelopes sprang
up from time to time before us, their sentinels alarmed by the clattering of our baggage
mule, and scampered across the plain. These animals are here abundant, and we saw
as many as a hundred at once. A couple of hours brought us to the main trail from

Oregon, which Ave took. As the sun sunk behind the western range, its rays lingeretl
Pt. III. — 22
170 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
on the " Butte," gildiog its summit, and turning the grey rock beneath to a burning

crimson. Fading away, the snow assumed that pecuhar death-like hue which nothing
else in inanimate nature resembles; and then the grey veil of dusk fell over all.
By dint of hard riding, or Avhat to our tired nmles Avas such, we reached the town of
Shaste Butte city, an hour after dark.

Two of our number were already familiar with every part of the valley, and
although the time allotted to us did not permit us to do more than traverse the
principal plain, we had a full view of its entire extent, and saw enough to satisfy us

fully, that it nowhere contained a suitable tract for ''

a reserve." It is utterly destitute

of wood, except in the pine-barrens at its south-eastern extremity; and of water,

except in the main sti'eam. It affords none of the wild productions, such as acorns,
berries, &c., from which the Indians derive so large a part of their subsistence, and its

parched and barren soil would produce no substitute, by cultivation. On reaching

town, we found that Colonel M'Kee had that evening addressed a large public meeting
of the citizens, on the subject of the treaty, and that they had, with great unanimity,
a^jpointed a committee, to enforce its observance, on the part of the whites, should one

be effected.

Sunday, Nov. 2d. — The weather, fortunately, still continued fine. We returned to
camp by the trail usually travelled, a different one from our route on the previous
occasion. Like that, it pursued a long and narrow arm to a gap in the dividing I'idge,

and thence down another, leading to the ranch before mentioned, at the lower end of
Scott's valley. Wagons pass up these ravines on either side, to the foot of the
mountain, and the road could easily be made passable across. A wagon road already
exists from Oregon to Shaste Butte city, on which produce is brought in ; and wagons
also reach it from the great trail to the States ; but none has, as yet, been cut to the
Sacramento valley direct. It is the opinion, however, of Mr. Kelsey and other
experienced mountaineers, that a perfectly practicable route exists over the low range
to the east of Shaste Butte. The pack trail now travelled, runs to the west of that
mountain, between it and the land-mark known as the " Black Butte."
We reached camp some time after dark. The distance from the town to Brown's
ranch, by the route we took to-day, is usually called sixteen miles, and to our camp
twenty-four or five.

Monday Nov. 3(7. —The day was spent in arranging the details of the treaty. Our
exploring party united in a report to the Agent, stating the result of the journey,
and our belief that Scott's valley would aflbrd the only resource for the agricultural

part of the reserve. Colonel M'Kee, upon consideration, accordingly decided to set
apart the lower, or northern end of the valley, for that purpose. In determining the
other limits, it was held iniiiortant to embrace, in as compact a space as possible, a
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 171

tract whicli would afford suflk'lent hunting and fishing grounds for the expected

population, and which should leave the most valuable mineral lands to the whites.
As regarded the first object, a portion of the Klamath was essential for the fishery, and
the northern boundary was therefore extended acro.ss it to the Oregon line, which, it

was supposed, could not be far distant. As respects the latter, it was believed that,

with the exception of the lower portion of Scott's river, the most valuable diggings lay
upon Humbug creek, and eastward, including the Shaste valley ; and these were
therefore avoided. The earth alrcadj^ thrown up in the hills of Scott's valley would
be washed out in the course of the winter, and no loss would therefore ensue to the
miners there, the first of June being fixed as the period of occupancy. As to Scott's

bar, and the river from thence to the mouth, they would probably be exhausted in a
year; but that no real ground of complaint should be left, two years were stipulated for

working them. The details of the '-reserve" in other respects, will be seen from the
accompanying map.
Into this I'eservation it was proposed to collect all the tribes on the Klamath, Scott's,

and Shasta rivers, speaking the Shaste tongue, and also those of the upper Trinity
river. A census of these was attempted, but the chiefs present were unable to proceed
in arithmetic as far as the number of souls under them. They, however, gave that of
" grounds" or villages, as follows :
—
On the Klamath, the 0-de-eilah tribe, at 2-4 grounds.
In Shaste valley, the Ika^ruck,
^
Kose-tah, and KO "
Idarka-riuke, at J
In Scott's valley, the Watsa-he-wa, and i „ ^^

E-eh, at /
Affording a total of fifty grounds or villages, averaging, as was supposed, sixty souls

each, or three thousand in all ; in addition to which the Trinity Indians, it was
calculated, would furnish another thousand, or perhaps fifteen hundred.
The reserve, though the only one that could be made, taking into consideration the
rights and necessities of the Indians, of course was unsatisfactory to some of the
miners and settlers. In fact, without sacrificing the former entirely, it was impossible
to select a district which would not interfere with the interests of adventurers among
the whites. Those who had taken claims Avith a view to permanent residence, (which
in general means a residence of one or two years, a long period in California,) and
cultivation of the soil, and who had ei'ected rude improvements thereon, naturally
viewed the selection of the agent with feelings of particular disappointment. Many
of them had purchased preemptions or claims from others at high prices, and no idea
seemed to have been entertained that the land would not be open to settlement, and
that the same rights would not be granted them, as had been given to the emigrants
to Oregon. At the same time a laudable spirit of acquiescence in the necessity
172 THY SIC AL GEOGRAPHY OF
of the case was everywhere shown, and petitions for indemnity, setting forth strongly

the unexpected hardships sustained, were confided to the Agent, for presentment to
the Indian Department or to Congress ;
petitions, it may not be impertinent to add,
which have strong claims on the consideration of the national legislature. The
Indians, though at first claiming the whole of the valley, appeared perfectly satisfied
with the district allotted them, and expressed their desire to settle upon it at once.

The promise that they should be instructed in the arts of the whites especially
pleased them. A stipulation which was introduced, that they should deliver up all

stolen animals, produced great disgust on the part of one chief whose reputation at
home seemed to be a bad one ; but he was reconciled by the threat, on the part of
his own people, of killing him on the spot, if he declined to fulfil it, and thus
endanger the general arrangement.
In regard to the number of reservations made in California, it is to be remembered
that, so far, at least, as this portion of the State is concerned, the circumstances both

of country and population are widely different from those existing in the frontier
States of the Mississippi valley. No great neighboring hunting-grounds, covered with

bufltilo and other game, offer a place of removal of the Indians beyond interference
with the whites, and without changing their mode of life, or affecting their means of
subsistence ; nor could they without horses or fire-arms obtain food there, did they
exist. Broken up into comparatively insignificant tribes, speaking distinct languages,

and varying greatly in their habits and character, the collecting them together would
be impracticable, even if natural obstacles did not interpose. But the features of

the country have a greater influence upon the savage than the civilized man. The
one conquers them — the other is moulded by them ; and it would prove almost as

impossible to reconcile the Lidian of the mountain to prairie life, as to naturalize the

big-horn in the cattle pasture. These people are not nomadic. Even those without

permanent habitations have at least permanent abiding places, or a country, and their
attachment to localities is excessive. They may indeed be driven off, but they cannot

be persuaded to go voluntarily. The singularly broken character of this whole region

has tended more to render them distinct in every respect, by isolating them from
all but very unfrequent, and then hostile, intercourse with one another, and this too
prevents their being assembled in any one district; none existing which could contain
them. So far as the Klamath country is concerned, moreover, the gold alone affords

any attraction to the white man ; and should this hereafter fail, it would soon be
again abandoned to its former possessors. The true policy of the government is to

allow to our own citizens every facility, consistent with justice and humanity to the
Indian, of reaping that harvest which they alone know how to use, and by the
establishment of small mihtary posts, to check collisions or encroachments, which
may endanger the safety of either. As respects those mineral lands which lie within
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 173

the reservation, licenses to worlc them might hereafter be issued, subject only to such
control as the principal olrject would render necessary.
In the evening we were entertained with a grand peace-dance, by a party of about
fifty. Its main features resembled those of most other performances of the kind.
The majority contented themselves with performing the part of chorus, beating time
feet to a monotonous chant. Two young men were the
with their principal actors, and
kept up the exercise with great spirit. Both Avere slightly built, but with forms of
great perfection; clean-limbed, straight, and lithe. Two ladies also joined in; one
of them the new bride of our interpreter. This dame had, according to custom,
bewailed her virginity for the three nights past, and rivalled the coyotes in the
melancholy variety of her howls. She was an immense woman, but with a superlj

figure ; and her competitor, unmarried, though not so tall, was almost as robust and as
well built, according to the embonpoint order of symmetry. One of the male dancers
carried a sort of whistle in his mouth, on which he played, apparently much to his

own satisfaction. This was the only musical instrument that we noticed among them,
except a species of flute, open at both ends, and with three finger-holes, out of which
a Klamath Indian contrived to extort a noise. In the morning, November 4th, the
treaty was explained carefully as drawn up, and the bounds of the reservation pointed
out on a plat. In the afternoon it was signed in the presence of a large concourse of
whites and Indians, with great formality. The usual presents were then distributed,
and they separated in very good humor, the Klamath chief " Ishack," and his son,
remaining for the benefit of our escort home.

Tharsdaij, Nov. 6th. — It had been arranged that Mr. John M'Kee, Secretary to the
Commission, should remain here for the purpose of seeing to the delivery of the
property stolen by the Indians, and to exercise a temporary supervision over them.
Mr. Kelsey and Col. Woods also concluded to stay in the valley, and the balance of
the party, now reduced to Col. M'Kee, Mr. Walter M'Donald, and myself, with three
men, started about noon on our return. We camped that night on Scott's river, at

the foot of the mountain. The next day it rained slightly, but our mules being light
we reached the crossing of the Klamath, at the Big Bottom. In passing through
Scott's bar, we had an opportunity of seeing the rapidity \vith which downfall, as well
as rise, can take place in this region. The town was literally deserted, and upon the
extensive dams on the river we did not see a dozen men at work. All had left for
Humbug creek or Shaste valley! On the 8th, we made Happy camj), the rain
continuing, and the road excessively bad. Here we remained over Sunday and on ;

the 10th, the weather having cleared, travelled to the fiu-ther side of the mountain,
about three miles above our camp of October 14th. We had been recommended to

cross the Klamath near this place, and to take the eastern side for a day's journey,
thereby avoiding the passing of " Tent rock " and the mountain beyond it. W*?
174 PHYSICAL GEOGRAniY OF
accordingly crossed the animals at an early hour on the 11th, the Indians ferryuig
ourselves and our baggage. The trail followed the river down for some distance, then

diverging, crossed a high ridge, and again reached the water below the bend. From
there it again pursued the course of the river, not lea\'ing it for any great distance,

though at times ascending high up on its banks. Although considerably shorter than
the other route, and by no means so mountainous, it was excessively rough. We
however made a rapid drive, and towards sunset reached the lower crossing, a distance

probably of sixteen miles. The river, in places, was very winding, with narrow
bottoms on the eastern side. We passed several Indian villages, mostly of two or
three houses only, and exhibiting every trace of poverty. The sun at mid-day,

notwithstanding the lateness of the season, was very warm, and the bay trees were
everywhere coming into bloom. A few butterflies were still visible, and some late

flowering plants still retained their blossoms. It should have been mentioned before,
in connection Avith this part of the river, that in going up we noticed frequently near

the trail, small piles of stone, generally consisting of three or four, jilaced upon one
another; sometimes a dozen of them in a cluster. Supposing them to have some
particular object or signification, I made particular inquiry through the interpretei', and

was assured to the contrary ; that they were merely built for amusement by idlers.

They would naturally attract attention from a passenger hy their frequenc}', and might
l)e thought to have some connection with those built by the Puys worshippers of
Russianriver. The signal-trees, before spoken of, seem, however, to be the only

monuments of the Klamath Indian, excepting their graves.

Wednesdaij, Nov. 12tJi. —We started in the morning to recross the river, and passed
the baggage over in a canoe ; but the mules proved troublesome, and on a second
attempt, two of them, including my riding mule, got into a deep eddy, and were
drowned. This crossing is a bad one ; the water being swift, with a strong counter
current on the west side, and a rapid just below. Our principal boatman was crippled
in both legs, apparently by rheumatism, and walked only by the assistance of two sticks.

His wife was a hunchback, the second deformed Indian of either sex that I saw on the
Klamath. About a mile from the crossing we struck an old trail, and near by saw the
carcase of my unlucky saddle-mule lodged upon a bar. The accident had delayed us
till late, and the mules were so much exhausted by their sta}^ in the water, that we

made but a short drive, camping at our old ground of a month before, near the mouth
uf the Siilmon. Several of our old acquaintances among the Indians visited us; and
I succeeded in persuading a pretty girl, the chief's daughter, to sit for her portrait.
The likeness was sufficiently good to be recognised, though it certainly did not flatter

the very gentle and pleasing expression of her face, or the plump graces of her figure.

The operation caused very considerable interest in the savage portion of the bystanders,
ivho, one and all, pronoiuiced it "schoyeh." We found the Indians of the %'illage
 THE INDIAN COUNTIJY. 175

whicli liiiJ been burnt down, I'ebuilding their houses for the winter. The style was
very substantial, the large poles requiring five or six men to lift. These lodges, it

may be mentioned, are usually dismantled in summer, when the inhabitants live in
temporary bush huts, probably to get rid of vermin. The salmon fishing was still
going on ; but the greater part of the fish exhibited an unhealthy appearance.
A miner who joined us during part of our journey, and who had lived some time in
this neighborhood, mixing much with the Indians, described to us some of their
customs. The marriage ceremony is thus conducted. The purchase of the wife is

consummated by the payment of a cei'tain quantity of " aliqua chick." After its

delivery, however, the parties are not allowed to come together till the expiration of
two days, during which the bride goes through the operation of the sweat-bath, the
impatience of her lover being in the meanwhile moderated by confinement to a
vegetable diet, such as acorn porridge and pinole bread. The groom, moreover, must
not club his hair after the usual fashion, but wears it loose ; typical perhaps of his
readiness to have it pulled, when occasion justifies. The season of probation closes
with a dance, and the woman is thenceforward entitled to have the tattooing on her
face extended above the corners of her mouth.
On the death of a person, the friends assemble, and raise a peculiar cry or wail,
which is caught up from one to another, and can be heard to a great distance. The
body is always kept over one night, before interment. If the deceased was one of any
consideration, all the girls of the village unite in making baskets, to be placed round
the grave ; otherwise, one only is staked down at the head, and another at the foot.
The " chick," or ready money, is placed in the owner's grave, but the bow and quiver
become the property of the nearest male relative. Chiefs only receive the honors of a
fence, surmounted with feathers, round the grave.
Their medical practice consists chiefly of pow-wows over the patient. One that my
informant witnessed was held over a young girl, and was conducted, in the first place,

by four maidens of her own age, relieved afterward by four old women. These stood
one at either shoulder and foot, and went through a series of violent gesticulations,

throwing up the arms, and stamping with the feet until exhausted, when they sat
down, and went on with them in that posture, keeping up, all the time, a low cry
sucking the supposed seat of pain till they raised blisters, and kneading the flesh of

the patient, or rather victim. This performance was sustained until they frothed at
the mouth, and sank down almost insensible ; the sick person meantime subsiding into
a sort of stupor, from fatigue and excitement. Whether the result was what might
have been expected, death, or not, the relator did not know. The by
raising blisters
suction of the mouth seems to be a favorite and common piece of surgery among them,
and we heard of whites w^io had submitted to it for the relief of headache, with
advantage.
176 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
Thursday, Nov. 13ih. — Colonel M'Kee and myself started from a little below camp,
in a canoe with three Indians, leaving the rest of the party to go on by the usual
route. The Klamath, for some distance below the mouth of the Salmon, runs through
a canon, taking a bend to the eastward. Rapids occurred at short distances, down
which we shot swiftlj^, the Indians managing the canoe with singular dexterity, by
means of a sort of half pole, half paddle. At the most dangerous, or where the water
was too shallow for our load to pass safely, they made us get out and walk. Our
fellows chattered and shouted in great glee at the excitement, yelling the friendly

salutation of " Ai-ye-queh," as they passed the different villages, and were apparently
much elated at the praises bestowed on their skill. The stoics of these woods are, in

fact, anything but the impassive beings that poetry has handed down as the sole type
of the Indian ; and so far from being tearless, they can cry as naturally as a woman at

the death of a friend, or, it is said by those who have tried the experiment, blubber

like a school-boy at the application of a switch, or the end of a lariat.

The high banks of the river above us were clothed with the mixed growth of oak
and fir, characteristic of the Klamath country. Huge masses of slate, broken up and
inclining at every angle, here and there overhung us, while the stream was, throughout,
confined between walls, on which the water-marks indicated the swelling height of the
winter torrent, and the polislied surfaces of the rocks, the terrific rapidity with which
it speeds towards the ocean. In some of these canons it is said to reach forty feet

above the usual level. An hour and a half brought us to our old camp of October
10th. We stopped to visit the several villages here, and starting again, entered the
canon below Orleans bar; finding, to our regret, and. as we passed, nearly to our

disaster, that the fish-dam at the mouth of Ocketoh creek had been washed away by a
recent flood. From here to Eed-Cap's bar, the river is again confined between preci-
pices, and broken by rapids, and, indeed, with few interruptions, such continued its char-

acter to the ferry at Mr. Durkee's. "We were compelled frequently to get out and follow the
bank as bestwe could, while our boatmen sped merrily down. Nearing the Kaiammu
fish-dam, we found that part of that also had been carried off. "We reached Durkee's
ferry about sunset, well pleased with the exchange from mule to canoe travel, and
having accomplished about thirty miles by the course of the river. It should be

noticed, as illustrating the relations of these Indians with one another, that we had
considerable difficulty in inducing one crew to descend the whole distance with us ; and
that we succeeded only by promising to set them right with the "Weits-peks for

trespassing on their waters, and to prevent their stipulated reward from being taxed
for
''
right of way ;" the international principle not being recognised by them, that
nations occupying part of the waters of a river, are entitled to the enjoyment of the
whole.
"We were detained at the ferry several days, a heavy rain occurring in the mean time,
b}' wliicli the river was raised with great rapidity to a height of about eight or ten
 THE INDIAN COUNTRY. 177

feet above the previous level. The inountiiins lietwccn the Trinity and Salmon rivers
were at the same time whitened with snow. On the 19th, we left Durkee's and
reached " French camp." The next night we stopped near our previous camp of
September 25th, having had rain all day ; and the succeeding afternoon got into Union.
The latter part of the road, particularly that between Mad river and the town,
was extremely bad, the deep black soil in the redwood timber becoming an unctuous
and slipping paste in wet weather. After two or three days spent in Union, for the
purpose of disposing of the mule train, &c., the party having been broken up, we
proceeded to Humboldt. No opportunity, however, presented itself for leaving until
the 8th of December, when the steamer " Sea-GuU " arrived on her way to Oregon
and as this might prove the last opportunity, we concluded to proceed in her as far, at

least, as Port Orford, hoping to meet the " Columbia " on her way down. In this we
were disappointed ; and were finally compelled to go on to the Columbia river. An
accident occurring to the machinery, we did not reach Portland till the 19th; and on
the 23d, left in the Columbia for San Francisco, where we arrived December 28th,
1851 J having been absent on the Expedition nearly five months.

Pt. m. — 23
 V. TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. C

(179)
 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, HISTORY, AND
GOVERNMENT.

SYNOPSIS OF PAPERS.

1. History of the Iroquois Republic; its By H. R. S.

Government, Power, and Policy.
2. Indian Tribes of Oregon and California. By G. F. Emmons, U. S. N.
3. Sioux, or Dacotah Proper (Second Paper). By P. Prescott, U. S. Indian Interpreter.
4. Origin of the Mandan Tribe, and its Stock of Affiliation. By H. R. S.
5. Migrations of the lowas. (With a Map.) By H. R. S.
6. History of the Iowa and Sac Tribes. By Rev. S. M. Irvin, and Rev. Wm. Hamilton.
7. Hochungara Family of the Dacotah Group. By H. R. S.
8. Winnebagoes. By J. E. Fletcher, Esq., U. S. Indian Agent.
9. Ancient Fries. By H.' R. S.
10. Carolina Manuscript respecting the Origin of the Catawbas. Office of the Secretary of

State of South Carolina.

11. History, Language, and Archaeology of the Pimos of the River Gila, New Mexico. By
H. R. S.

12. Moqui Tribe of New Mexico. By H. R. S.

1. HISTORY OF THE IROQUOIS REPUBLIC; ITS

GOVERNMENT, POWER, AND POLICY.
Great prominence has been given by historians to the Indian empires of Mexico
and Peru. There has been, from the first, a strong predisposition to exalt the type of
their semi-civilization, in order to enhance the glory of their conquest, and to challenge
the admiration of mankind. Their labors and skill in building palaces and teocalli
their art of r'ecording ideas by means of picture-writing; their municipal polity;
(181)
182 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
the fixity of their dynasties; and the social aggrandizement of their chief rulers,

have been dwelt upon as furnishing the evidence of their high advance.
Such ideas were very natural three centuries ago, when Europe bowed to
the most absolute forms of the feudal yoke ; when Leo X. wand
stretched his hieratic
over the nations ; when Charles V. swayed the empire of western Europe and when ;

Elizabeth ruled with a rod of iron over England ; or gave, reluctantly, her sceptre to
the bigoted, narrow-minded, and voluptuous Scottish dynasty, whose despotism,
goading the Anglo-Saxon mind with unendurable tasks, led it to re-act, and assume
its earliest form of republicanism.
Tliat the Indian mind should, of its own monitions, pursue a similar track, concen-
trating the power of the many in the hands of a few, and loading with most intolerable
burthens the slavish, unthinking masses, reproduced delight in the privileged circles of
the old world. It? was deemed a proof of the incapacity of man to govern himself by a
mixed or republican system ; without reHecting that the inherent feebleness of the
Indian dynastic rule, with no sympathy or support from the masses, was the true cause
of the speedy fall, after a short and inglorious resistance, of the glittering but incongru-

ous and feeble empires of Mexico and Peru, which only cast the shadows of royal thrones.
The caciques and incas of Caxamarca and Cusco could build palaces and pyramids,
and make roads and aqueducts — for all labor was compulsory and without reward but ;

the domicil of the lalaorer was a hut or a wigwam, made of the most light and perish-
able materials. The consequence of this inequality was, that when at a later age these
regions of equatorial mildness and fruitfulness were examined, they were found strewed
over with the monumental ruins of palaces and strongholds, once occupied by heredi-
tary priests and rulers, but without any traces of the rights and comforts enjoyed by the
people. These had, indeed, no rights and no comforts ; and when the disproportioned
tind tottering framework of the aboriginal governments fell before civilization and
Christianity, the common people were first placed on the basis of having some fixed
lights, for which they had a guarantee. The conquest thus was a blessing.

Of the several governments existing in America when it was discovered and settled,

none had a system which is at all comparable for its excellence and stability with the
confederacy of the Iroquois. The tribes or cantons which originally composed it, were
affiliated, not very closely perhaps or permanently, by history ; though having the same
language. Arrested in their wanderings, they became fixed to tlio soil. They still

pursued war and liunting ; liut tlie field for war was external, and they returned in
triumph to their respective cantons and villages, where their families pursued
:igriculture. A fixity of location, as in the two celebrated instances of Mexico and
Peru, was tlie first fruit-bearing point in their social and political advance. The
next was the al).soluto independence of the cantons. Each canton was, in fact, a

military federal republic, in the councils of which the warriors were the representa-
tives ; and they were ])ound together by a general cordon of cantons. Unanimity was
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 183

urged in all jiublic questions, by every consideration of interest and honor. But it is

very clear, as resulting from the absolute independency of the confederates, that each
canton had a poAver very like that described by the Roman term veto ; for it could dis-
sent from the central proceedings without being called in question. Its quota of men was
freely oflered, or refused. Contributions for a central government there were none. A
high notion of military glory existed, but the voluntary principle supported that.
It has been remarked that there was a strong resemblance in the principle of the
Iroquois confederacy to the Grecian Amphjctionic Council ;' and an acute and
learned man has asserted, that the Iroquois language is mingled with Grecian roots.

Mr. Prescott has placed before the literary world, accounts of the two most
celebrated Indian governments of the new world, as they were found to exist at the
opening of the sixteenth century ; viz., those of Mexico and Peru. He has described
the principles by which they had been, for considerable epochs, held together and
governed ; and shown also their inadequacy, owing to defects of the Indian character,
to withstand the shocks and severe discipline of a higher civilization.

But while these two world-renowned monarchies are displayed as exhibiting the

highest efforts of Indian mind in architecture, arts, a knowledge of the solar

recessions, and of the pseudo literature of pictographic records, and the general
force of political concentration, they are apprehended to have fallen infinitely short

of the power of thought and forecast, and public polity, which were secured at the
same era for a century and a half later, in the Iroquois Republic, a confederacy of
bold tribes, which guarantied to each tribe, while conceding general power, their tribal
or cantonal independence and sovereignty ; and at the same time to each man and
warrior his equal rights. This is, in fact, the great political problem, which has
since been solved, through a long series of Colonial and State mutations, by
the American government ; not more perfectly, perhaps, so far as equal rights, and
a jealousy of, and verbal stipulations against hereditary immunities were concerned,
but by a more stable, united, fixed, determined and powerful system, of the
application of the political doctrine of a democratic imperium in imperio.
It ia a memorable fact, that the Iroquois were so strongly impressed with the
Avisdom of the working of their system of confederation, that they publicly recom-
mended a similar union to the British colonies. In the important conferences at
Lancaster, in 17^, Canassatego, a respected Sachem, expressed this view to the
commissioners of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Maryland. " Our wise forefathers," he
said, " established union and amity between the Five Nations. This has made us
formidable. This has given us great weight and authority with our neighboring
nations. We are a powerful confederacy, and by observing the same methods our
wise forefathers have taken, you will acquire fresh strength and power. Therefore

'Clinton. ^Charlevoix
 184 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
\ I counsel you, whatever befalls you, never to fall out with one another." No sage

of the brightest day of Greece could have more truly appreciated the secret of their
own power and success.

Lescarbot, La Potherie, Charlevoix, and all the missionary writers and historians

of New France, acknowledge, and appear to have felt, the potency of the power of

this aboriginal confederacy, while deploring the dreadful barbarity of their general
manners and customs while engaged in war. Yet this class of writers did not perceive

that this potency arose, not like that of Montezuma and Atahualpa, from exactions,

but from the real independence and freedom with which the Iroquois contributed their
quota to the war-parties and means of offence. By a heart-warm nationality of plaudits,
which was upheld through their dances and other popular assemblages, they created a
high appreciation of military virtue and heroism. In council, they preserved the air
and deliberation of perfect Solons; and their fiat, when it was given, decreed the

extinction of nations. Canada itself maintained, for a long period, a doubtful struggle
against such a power.
It remained for the Anglo-Saxon race, who had themselves been struggling for civil

liberty and private rights, from the days of King John, to appreciate fully the true

character of the Iroquois confederacy. No persons, so far as we have read, have so

early and so fully expressed their sense of, or seem to have been better qualified by
their civic talents to judge definitely of its merits, in their respective eras, as

Cadwalader Colden and De Witt Clinton.

" The Five Nations," observes Colden, in 1747, (as their name denotes,) "consist of

so iiiiiny tribes or nations, joined together by a league or confederacy, like the United
Provinces, and without any superiority of the one over the other. This union has
continued so long, that the Christians know nothing of the original of it. The people

in it are known to the English under the names of Mohawks, Oneydoes, Onondagas,
Cayugas, and Sennekas.
" Each of these nations is again divided into three tribes or families, who distinguish

themselves by three different arms, or ensigns — the tortoise, the bear, and the wolf;
and the sachems, or old men of these families, put this ensign or mark of their family

to every public paper, when they sign it.

" Each of these nations is an absolute republic by itself, and every castle in each
nation makes an independent republic, and is governed, in all public affairs, by its own
sachems or old men. The authority of these rulers is gained by, and consists wholly
in, the opinion the rest of the nation have of their wisdom and integrity. They never
execute their resolutions by force upon any of their people. Honor and esteem are
their principal rewards ; as shame, and being despised, their punishments. They have
certain customs, which they observe in their public transactions with other nations,

ana in their private affairs among themselves, which it is scandalous for any one
among them not to observe ; and these always draw after them either public or private
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 185

resentment, whenever tliey are broke. Their leaders and captains in hke manner
obtain their authority by the general opinion of their courage and conduct, and lose it

by a failure in those virtues.

" Their great men, both sachems and captains, are generally poorer than the common
people ; for they affect to give away and distribute all the presents, or plunder, they
get in their treaties, or in war, so as to leave nothing to themselves. There is not
a man in the magistracy of the Five Nations who has gained his office otherwise than
by merit ; there is not the least salary, or any sort of profit, annexed to any office,

to tempt the covetous and sordid ; but, on the contrary, every unworthy action is

unavoidably attended with the forfeiture of their commission ; for their authority is

only the esteem of the people, and ceases the moment that esteem is lost. Here we
see the natural origin of all power and authority among a free people; and whatever
artificial power or sovereignty any man may have acquired by the laws and
constitution of a country, his real power will be either much greater or less, in
proportion to the esteem the people have for him.
"
The Five Nations think themselves l)y nature superior to the rest of mankind, and
call themselves Oxgue-honwe that is, men surpassing all others. This opinion, which
;

the}' take care to cultivate and instil into their children, gives them that courage which

has been so terrible to all the nations of North America ; and they have taken such
cai'e to impress the same opinion of their people on all their neighbors, that they, on
all occasions, yield the most submissive obedience to them. I have been told by
old men in New
who remembered the time when the Mohawks made war
England,
on their Indians, that as soon as a single Mohawk was discovered in the country,
their Indians raised a cry from hill to hill, A Mohawk a Mohawk upon which they ! !

all lied like sheep before wolves, without attempting to make the least resistance,

whatever odds were on their side. The poor New England Indians immediately
ran to the Christian houses, and the Mohawks often pursued them so closely, that
they entered along with them, and knocked their brains out in the presence of the
jjeople of the house ; but if the family attempted to shut the door, they never
tried to force it, and on no occasion did any injury to the Christians. AU
the nations round them have many years entirely submitted to them, and
for

pay a j'early tribute to them in wampum;' they dare neither make war or peace
without the consent of the Mohawks. Two old men commonly go about every year
or two, to receive this tribute ; and I have often had opportunity to observe what

'Wampum is the current money among the Indians. It is of two sorts, white and purple; the white is

worked out of the inside of the great conches, into the form of a bead, and perforated, to string on leather; the
purple is worked out of the inside of the muscle shell ; they are wove as broad as one's hand, and about two
feet long ; these they call belts, and give and receive at their treaties, as the seals of friendship ; for lesser mattera

a single string is given. Every bead is of a known value, and a belt of a less number is made to equal one
of a greater, by so many as is wanting fastened to the belt by a string.

Pt. III.— 24
186 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
anxiety the poor Indians were under, while these two old men remained in that part

of the country where I was.

" An old Mohawk sachem, in a poor blanket and a dirty shirt, ma}- be seen issuing
his orders with as arbitrary an authority as a Roman Dictator. It is not for the sake
of tribute, however, that they make war, but from the notions of glory, which they
have ever most strongly imprinted on their minds ; and the farther they go to seek an
enemy, the greater glory they think they gain ; there cannot, I think, be a greater, or

a stronger instance than this, how much the sentiments impressed upon a people's
mind conduce to their grandeur, or one that more verities a saying often to be met
with, though but too little minded, that it is in the power of the rulers of a people to

make them either great or little ; for, by inculcating only the notions of honor and
virtue, or those of luxury and riches, the people, in a little time, will soon become
such as their rulers desire. The Five Nations, in their love of liberty and of their
country, in their bravery in battle, and their constancy in enduring torments, equal
the fortitude of the most renowned Romans. I shall finish their general character by
what an enemy, a Frenchman, says of them ; Monsieur De la Poterie, in his History

of North America. '

When we speak,' says lie, ' of the Five Nations, in France, they

are thought, by a common mistake, to be mere barbarians, always thirsting after

human blood ; but their true character is very different. They are, indeed, the fiercest

and most formidable people in North America, and at the same time are as politic and
judicious as well can be conceived; and this appears from the management of all the
affairs which they transact, not only with the French and English, but likewise with
almost all the Indian nations of this vast continent.'
" Their matters of consequence, which concern all nations, are transacted in a general

meeting of sachems of each nation. These conventions are commonly held at

Onondaga, whitih is nearly the centre of their country ; but they have fixed on Albany
for the place of treating with the British Colonies. They strictly follow one maxim,
formerly used by the Romans to increase their strength, that is, they encourage the
people of other nations to incorporate with them ; and when they have subdued any
people, after they have satiated their revenge by some cruel examples, they adopt the
rest of their captives ; who, if they behave well, become equally esteemed with their
own people, so that some of their captives have afterwards become their greatest
sachems and captains. The Tuskaroras, after the war they had with the people of
Carolina, fled to the Five Nations, and are now incorporated with them ; so that they

now, properly, indeed, consist of Six Nations, though they still retain the old name of
the Five Nations, among the English. The Cowetas also, or Creek Indians, are in the
same friendship with them.
"The Tuskaroras, since they came under the province of New York, beliave them-
selves well, and remain peaceable and quiet ; and by this may be seen the advantage
of using the Indians well, and I believe, if they were still better used, (as there is

room enough to do it,) they would Ik' proportionably useful to us. The cruelty the
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 187

Iiulians use in their wars, towards those who do not or cannot resist, siicli as women
and children, and to their prisoners, after they have them in their power, is deservedly
indeed held in abhorrence ; but whoever reads the history of the so-famed ancient
heroes, will find them, I'm afraid, not much better in this respect. Does Achilles's
Ijehavior to Hector's dead body appear less savage ? This cruelty is also not peculiar

to the Five Nations, but equally practiced by all other Indians. It is Avonderful how
custom and education ai'e able to soften the most horrid actions, even among a polite

and learned people; witness the Carthaginians and Phoenicians burning their own
children alive in sacrifice ; and several passages in the Jewish history ; and witness, in
later times, the Christians burning one another alive for God's sake.
" When any of the young men of these nations have a mind to signalize themselves,

and to gain a reputation among their countrymen, by some notable enterprize against
their enemy, they at first communicate their design to two or three of their most
intimate friends, and if they come into it, an invitation is made, in their names, to all

the young men of the castle, to feast on dog's flesh ; but whether this be because dog's
liesh is most agreeable to Indian palates, or whether it be as an emblem of fidelity, for
which the dog is distinguished by all nations, that it is always used on this occasion, I
have not sufficient information to determine. When the company is met, the
promoters of the enterprize set forth the undertaking in the best colors they can ; they
boast of what they intend to do, and incite others to join, from the glory there is to be

obtained ; and all who eat the dog's flesh thereby enlist themselves.
" The night before they set out, they make a grand feast ; to this all the noted warriors

of the nation are invited, and here they have their war-dance, to the beat of a kind of
a kettle-drum. The warriors are seated in two rows, in the house, and each rises uji

in his turn, and sings the great acts he has himself performed, and the deeds of his

ancestors ; and this is always accompanied with a kind of a dance, or rather action,
representing the manner in which they were performed ; and from time to time all

present join in a chorus, applauding every notable act. They exaggerate the injuries
they have at any time received from their enemies, and extol the glory which any of
their ancestors have gained by their bravery and courage ; so that they work up their

spirits to a high degree of warlike enthusiasm. I have sometimes persuaded some of

their young Indians to act these dances for our diversion, and to show us the manner
of them; and even on these occasions they have w^orked themselves up to such a pitch,
that they have made all present uneasy. Is it not probable that such designs as these
have given the first rise to tragedy ?

" They come to these dances with their faces painted in a frightful manner, as they
always are when they go to war, to make themselves terrible to their enemies and in ;

this manner the night is spent. Next day they march out with much formality,
dressed in their finest apparel ; and in their march observe a proud silence. An officer

of the regular troops told me that while he was commandant of Fort Hunter, the
188 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
Mohawks, on one of these occasions, told him that they expected the usual military

honors as they passed the garrison. Accordingly, he drew out his garrison, the men
presented their pieces as the Indians passed, and the drum beat a march ; and with
less respect, the officer said, they would have been dissatisfied. The Indians passed
in a fyngle row, one after another, with great gravity, and profound silence ; and every
one of them, as he passed the officer, took his gun from his shoulder, and fired into the
ground near the officer's foot. They marched in this manner three or four miles from
their castle. The women, on these occasions, always follow them with their old
clothes ; and they send back by them their finery in which they marched from the castle.
But before they go from this place where they exchange their clothes, they always
peel a large piece of the bark from some great tree ; they commonly choose an oak,
as most lasting ; upon the smooth side of this wood they, with their red paint, draw
one or more canoes going from home, with the number of men in them paddling which
go upon the expedition ; and some animal, as a deer or fox, an emblem of the nation
against which the expedition is designed, is painted at the head of the canoes ; for they
always travel in canoes along the rivers which lead to the country against which
the expedition is designed, as far as they can.
" After the expedition is over, they stop at the same place in their return, and send
to their castle to inform their friends of their arrival, that they may be prepared to
give them a solemn reception, suited to the success they have had. In the mean time
they represent on the same, or some tree near it, the event of the enterprize ; and now
the canoes are painted white, their heads turned towards the castle; the number of the
enemy killed, is represented by scalps painted black, and the number of prisoners by
as many withs (in their painting not unlike pot-hooks), with which they usually
pinion their captives. These trees are the annals, or rather trophies of the Five

Nations. ' I have seen many of them ; and by them and their war-songs, they preserve
the history of their great achievements. The solemn reception of these warriors, and
the acclamations of applause which they receive at their return, cannot but have on
the hearers the same effect, in raising an emulation for glory, that a triumph had on
the old Romans.
"After their prisoners are secured, they never offer them the least mal-treatment; but,
on the contrary, will rather starve themselves, than suffer them to want; and I have
been alwaj-s assured that there is not one instance of their offering the least violence
to the chastity of any woman that was their captive. But, notwithstanding, the poor
prisoners afterwards undergo severe punishments before they receive the last doom of
life or death. The warriors think it for their glory to lead them through all the
villages of the nations subject to them which lie near the road ; and these, to show
their affection to the Five Nations, and their abhorrence of their enemies, draw up in

two lines, through whicli the poor prisoners, stark naked, mu^t run the gauntlet; and

'
This ideographic mode of conveying information is noticed in § VI. of the various volumes of this work.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 189

on this occasion, it is always observed, the women are more cnicl than the men. The
prisoners meet with the same sad reception when they reach their journey's end ; and
after this they are presented to those that have lost any relation in that, or any other
former enterprize. If the captives be accepted, there is an end to their sorrow from that
moment ; they are dressed as fine as they can make them ; they are absolutely free,

(except to I'eturn to their own country,) and enjoy all the privileges the person had in

whose place they are accepted ; but if otherwise, they die in torments, to satiate the
revenge of those that refuse them.
" If a young man or boy be received in place of a husband that was killed, all the

childi-en of the deceased call that boy fother ; so that one may sometimes hear a man
of thirty say that such a boy of fifteen or twenty is his father.
" Their castles are generally a square, surrounded with palisadoes, without any

bastions or out^works ; for since the general peace their villages lie all open.
" Their only instruments of war are muskets, hatchets, and long sharp-pointed knives.
These they always carry about with them. Their hatchet, in war-time, is stuck in
their girdle behind them ; and besides what use they make of this weapon in their

hand, they have a dexterous way of throwing it, which I have seen them often practice
in their exercise, by throwing it into a tree at a distance. They have, in this, the art

of directing and regulating the motion, so that though the hatchet turns round as it

flies, the edge always sticks in the tree, and near the place at which they aim it.

The use of bows and arrows is now entirely laid aside, except among the boys, who
are still very dexterous in killing fowls and other animals with them.
" The}^ use neither drum nor trumpet, nor any kind of musical instruments, in their
wars ; their throats serve them on all occasions where such are necessary. Many of
them have a surprising faculty of raising their voice, not only in inarticulate sounds,
but likewise to make their words undei'stood at a distance; and we find the same
was practiced by Homer's heroes.

Thrice to its pitch bis lofty voice he rears,

friend ! Ulysses' shouts invade my ears.

" The Five Nations have such absolute notions of Hbert}-, that they allow of no kind

of superiority of one over another, and banish all servitude from their territories.

They never make any prisoner a slave ; but it is customary to make a compliment of
naturalization into the Five Nations ; and considering how highly they value themselves
above all others, this must be no small compliment. This is not done by any general
act of the nation, but every single person has a right to do it, by a kind of adoption.
The time I was among the Mohawks, I had this compliment from one of their old
first

sachems, which he did by giving me his own name, Cayenderongue. He had been a
notable warrior and he told me that now T had a right to assume to myself all the
:

acts of valor he had performed; and that now my name would echo from hill to hill
190 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
all over the Five Nations. As for my part, I thought no more of it at that time, than

as an artifice to draw a belly-full of strong liquor from me, for himself and his com-
panions ; but when, about ten or twelve years afterwai'ds, my business led me again
among them, I directed the interpreter to say something from me to the sachems ; he
Avas for some time at a loss to understand their answer, till he asked me whether I had
any name among them : I then found that I was known to them by that name, and
that the old sachem, from the time he had given me his name, had assumed another
for himself I was adopted at that time into the tribe of the bear, and for that I'eason

I often afterwards had the kind compliment of brother Bear.

" The hospitality of these Indians is no less remarkable than their other virtues ; as
soon as any stranger comes, they are sure to offer him victuals. If there be several

in company and come from afar, one of their best houses is cleaned, and given uji
for their entertainment. Their complaisance, on these occasions, goes even further
than Christian civility allows of; as thej^ have no other rule for it than the furnishing
their guest with everything they think will be agreeable to him. For this reason,

some of their prettiest girls are always ordered to wash themselves, and to dress in
their best apparel, in oi'der to be presented to the stranger for his choice ; and the
young lady who has' the honor to be preferred on these occasions, performs all the duties
of a fond wife, during the stranger's stay. But this last piece of hospitality is now
either laid aside by the Mohawks, or, at least, they never offer it to any Christian.
" This nation, indeed, has laid aside many of its ancient customs ; and so likeAvise
have the other nations with whom we are best acquainted, and have adojjted many of
ours ; so that it is not easy now to distinguish their original and genuine manners
from those wliich they have lately acquired ; and for this reason it is, that they now

seldom offer victuals to persons of any distinction, because know that their food
they
and cookery is not agreeable to our delicate palates. Their men value themselves in
having all kind of food in equal esteem. A Mohawk sachem told me with a kind of
pride, that a man eats everything without distinction ; bears, cats, dogs, snakes, fi'ogs,

&c., intimating that it is womanish to have ar\y choice of food.

" I can, however, give two strong instances of the hospitality of the Mohawks, which
fell under my own observation ; and which show that they have the very same notion
of hospitality' which we find in the ancient poets. When I was last in the Mohawk
country, the sachems told me that they had an Englishman among their people ; a
servant who had run from his master in New York. I immediately told them that
they must deliver him up. '
No,' they answered, '
we never serve any man so who
puts himself under our protection.' On this, I insisted on the injury they did thereby
to his master; and they allowed it might be an injury, and replied, '
thougli we will
never deliver him up, we are willing to pay the \-alue of the servant to the master.'
Another made his escape from the jail at Albany, where he was in prison on an
(execution for deljt. The Mohawks received him, and, as they protected him against
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 191

the slicrifF and his officers, they not only paid the debt for him, but gave him land,
over and above sufficient for a good farm, whereon he lived when I was last there.
To this it may be added, all their extraoi'dinary visits are accompanied with giving and
receiving presents of some value ; as we learn likewise from Homer was the practice
in old times.
" Polygamy is not usual among them ; and, indeed, in any nation where all are on a
par as to riches and power, plurality of wives cannot well be introduced. As all kind
of slavery is banished from the countries of the Five Nations, so they keep themselves
free also from the bondage of wedlock; and when either of the parties becomes
disgusted, they separate without formality or ignominy to either, unless it be occasioned
by some scandalous offence in one of them. And in case of divorce, the children,
according to the natural course of all animals, follow the mother. The women hei'e

bring forth their children with as much ease as other animals, and without the help of
a midwife, and, soon after their delivery, return to their usual employment. They
alone also perform all the drudgery about their houses. They plant their corn, and
labor it, in every respect, till it is brought to the table ; they likewise cut all their
fire-wood, and bring it home on their baclvs, and in the marches bear the burdens.
The men disdain all kind of labor, and employ themselves alone in hunting, as the
only proper business for soldiers. At times when it is not proper to hunt, one finds
the old men in companies, in conversation ; the young men at their exercises, shooting
at marks, throwing the hatchet, wrestling, or running, and the women all busy at
labor in the fields.

"On these occasions, the state of Lacedajmon ever occurs to my mind, which that of
the Five Nations, in many respects, resembles ; their laws or customs being in both
formed to render the minds and bodies of the people fit for war.
" Theft is very scandalous among them ; and it is necessary it should be so among all

Indians, since they have no locks, but those of their minds, to preserve their goods.
" There is one vice which the Indians have all fallen into since their acquaintance

with the Christians, of which they could not be guilty before that time, that is,

drunkenness. It is strange how all the Indian nations, and almost every person among
them, male and female, are infatuated -with the love of strong drink ; they know no
bounds to their desire, while they can swallow it down, and then indeed the greatest
man among them scarcely deserves the name of a brute.
" They never have been taught to conquer any passion, but by some contraiy passion
and the traders, with whom they chiefly converse, are so far from giving them any
abhorrence of this vice, that they encourage it all they can, not only for the profit of

the liquor thej^ sell, but that they may have an opportunity to impose upon them.
And this, as they chiefly drink spirits, has destroyed greater numbers than all their
wars and diseases put together.
'•
The people of the Five Nations are much given to speech-making, ever the natural
192
'
TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
consequence of a perfect republican government. Where no single person has a power
to compel, the arts of persuasion alone must prevail. As their best speakers distinguish
themselves in their public councils, and treaties with other nations, and thereby gain
the esteem and applause of their countrymen, (the only superiority which any of
them has over the others,) it is probable they apply themselves to this art, by some
kind of study and exercise. It is impossible for me to judge how far they

excel, as I am ignorant of their language ; but the speakers whom I have

heard had all a great fluency of words, and much more grace in their manner
than any man could expect among a people entirely ignorant of all the liberal arts

and sciences.
"I am informed that they are very nice in the turn of their expressions, and that
few of themselves are so far masters of their language, as never to offend the ears of
their Indian auditory by an impolite expression. They have, it seems, a certain

urbanitas, or atticism in their language, of which the common ears are ever sensible,

though only their great speakers attain to it. They are so much given to speech-
making, that their common compliments to any person they respect, at meeting and
parting, are made in harangues.
" They have some kind of elegancy in varying and compounding their words, to
which not many of themselves attain and this principally distinguishes their best
;

speakers. I have endeavored to get some account of this, as a thing that might
be acceptable to the curious; but as I have not met with any one person who
understands their language, and also knows anything of grammar, or of the learned
languages, I have not been able to attain the least satisfaction. Their present
minister tells me, that their verbs are varied, but in a manner so different from the
Greek or Latin, that he cannot discover by what rule it was done ; and even suspects
that every verb has a peculiar mode. They have but few radical words, but they

compound their words without end; by this their language becomes sufficiently

copious, and leaves room for a good deal of art to please a delicate ear. Sometimes
one word among them includes an entire definition of the thing ; for example, they

call wine, Oneharadeschoengtseragherie ; as much as to say, a liquor made of the

juice of the grape. The words expressing things lately come to their knowledge,
are all compounds. They have no labials in their language, nor can they pronounce
any word wherein there is a labial; and when one endeavors to teach them to
pronounce these words, they say it is too ridiculous that they must shut their

lips to speak. Tlieir language abounds with gutturals and strong aspirations ; these

make it very sonorous and bold and their speeches abound with metaphors, after
;

the manner of the eastern nations, as will best appear by the speeches that I have
copied. As to what religious notions they have, it is difficult to judge of them;
because the Indians that speak any English, and live near us, have learned many
thino'S of us; and it is not easy to distiiigiiisli the notions they liad originally among
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 193

themselves, from those they have learned from the Christians. It is certain they
have no kind of pahlic worship, and I am told that they have no radical word to
express God ; hut use a compound word, signifying the Preserver, Sustainer, or
Master of the universe ; neither could I ever learn what sentiments they have of future
existence after death. They make a large round hole in which the body can be placed
upright or upon its haunches ; which, after the bod}^ is placed in it, is covered with
tiuiljer, to support the earth which they lay over, and thereby keep the body free
from being pressed. They then raise the earth in a round hill over it. They always
dress the corpse in all its finery, and put wampum and other things into the grave
with it ; and the relations suffer not grass nor any weed to grow on the grave, and
frequently \'isit it with lamentations. But whether these things be done only as

marks of respect to the deceased, or from a notion of some kind of existence after
death, must be left to the judgment of the reader.
" They are very superstitious in observing omens and dreams ; I have observed them
show a superstitious awe of the owl, and be highly displeased with some that mimicked
the cry of that bird in the night. An officer of the regular troops told me also, that
while he had the command of the garrison at Oswego, a boy of one of the far west-
ward nations died there ; the parents made a regular pile of split wood, laid the corpse
upon it, and burnt it; while the pile was burning they stood gravely looking on,
without any lamentation, but when it was burnt down they gathered up the bones
with many tears, put them into a box, and carried tliem away with them ; and this

inclination which all ignorant people have to superstition and amusing ceremonies,
gives the poj^ish priests a great advantage in recommending their religion beyond
what the regularity of the Pi'otestant doctrine allows of.

" Queen Anne sent over a missionary to reside among the Mohawks, and allowed him
a sufficient subsistence from the privy purse ; she sent furniture for a chapel, and a
valuable set of plate for the communion-table ; and (if I am not mistaken) the Uke
furniture and plate for each of the other nations, though that of the Mohawks was
only applied to the use designed. The common-prayer, or at least a considerable part
of it, was translated also into their language, and printed ; some other pieces were
likewise translated for the minister's use : namely, an exposition of the Creed.
Decalogue, Lord's Praj-er, and Church Catechism, and a discourse on the Sacraments.
But as that minister was never able to attain any tolerable knowledge of their
language, and was naturally a heavy man, he had but small success ; and his allowance
failing by the Queen's death, he left them. These nations had no teacher from that
time, till within these few years, that a 3'oung gentleman, out of j^ious zeal, went
voluntarily among the Mohawks. He was at first entirely ignorant of their language.
and had no interpreter except one of the Indians, who understood a little English, and
had, in the late missionary's time, learned to read and write in his own language. He
learned from him how to pronounce the words in the translations which had been
Pt. III. — 2.5
194 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
made for the late missionary's use. He set up a school to teach their children to

read and write their own language ; and they made surprizing proficiency, considering
their master did not understand their language. I happened to be in the Mohawk
country, and saw several of their performances. I was present at their worship, where
they went through some part of the Common Prayer with great decency. I was
likewise present several times at their private devotions, which some of them performed
duly, morning and evening. I had also many opportunities of observing the great

regai'd they had for this young man ; so far, that the fear of his leaving them made
the greatest restraint on them, with which he threatened them, after they had been
guilty of any offence. Soon after that time, this gentleman went to England, received
orders, and was sent by the Society, missionary to Albany, with liberty to spend some
part of his time among the Mohawks.
" I had lately a letter from him, dated the 7th of December, 1641, in which he
writes as follows :
'
Drunkenness was so common among them, that I doubt if there

was one grown person of either sex free from it ; seldom a day passed without some,
and very often forty or fifty, being drunk at a time. But I found they were very
fond of keeping me among them, and afraid I should leave them, which I made use
of to good purpose, daily threatening them with my departure, in case they did not
forsake that vice, and frequently requiring a particular promise from them singly ; by
which means (through God's blessing) there was a gradual reformation ; and I know
not tha,t I have seen above ten or twelve persons drunk among them this summer.
The women are almost all entirely reformed, and the men very much. They have
entirely left off divorces, and are legally married. They are very constant and devout
at church and family devotions. They have not been known to exercise cruelty to
prisoners, and have in a great measure left off going a fighting, which I find the most
difficult, of all things, to dissuade them from. They seem also persuaded of the truths

of Christianity. The great inconveniency I labor under, is the want of an interpreter,

which, could I obtain for two or three years, I should hope to be tolerably master of
their language, and be able to render it easier to my successor.'
" This gentleman's uncommon zeal deserves, I think, this public testimony, that it

may be a means of his receiving such encouragement as may enable him to pursue the

pious purposes he has in view.

" The Mohawks, were they civilized, may be useful to us many ways, and, on many
occasions, more than any of our own people can be ; and this well deserves to be

considered.
'•
There is one custom their men constantly observe, which I must not forget to

mention ; that if they be sent with any message, though it demand the greatest

despatch, or though they bring intelligence of any imminent danger, they never tell

it at their first approach, but sit down for a minute or two, at least, in silence, to

recollect themselves before they speak, that they may not show any degree of fear or
 HISTORY, ANIJ GOVERNMENT. 195

surprize, by an iudeceut expression. Every sudden repartee, in a public treaty, leaves

with them an impression of a liglit inconsiderate mind; but, in pri\ate conversation,

they use, and are delighted with Ijrisk, witty answers, as we can be. By this they
show the great difference they place between the conversations of man and man, and
nation and nation ; and in this, and a thousand other things, might well be an examjile
to the European nations."

This testimony of Mr. Cadwalader Golden, who had often been a commissioner to
the Iroquois during the reign of George II., received from them the compliment of
adoption ; and as he was familiar with their history and customs, is entitled to all

consideration. It is only to be regretted that he had not proceeded a little farther

in the delineation of their character and institutions.
One of their most remarkable customs, and that which has perplexed civilians most
to understand, is their descent of chiefs. And it is this trait that, more fully than any
other, marks their jealousy of a privileged class in their government. The chiefs, Avho

are never any more than the exponents of the popular will of the warriors, had only
a life-tenure. The office died with the man. The descent was strictly in the female
line. It was not the wife, but the sister next in birth to the chief, who transmitted
the chieftainship. Her eldest male issue was the presumptive chief of the band ; but
even this required the ratification of the popular voice, and it was necessary that a
public council should 3'ield their assent. These councils had all the political effect of
an installation. Crown or badge of office there was none. The simple garb of his
ancestors marked the incumbent. If any difference was perceivable, it was rather in

the neglect of everything like decoration. Feathers of honor he might wear, if these
were the rewards of his bravery. But they were the every-day right of the warrior,
and not the honor of the rakowana, chief, or sachem. At every mutation by the
death of a chief, the hereditary line was broken, and returned into the body of the
tribes. There was, therefore, no tendency to the aristocratic feature of feudalism, but
the utmost jealousy to guard against it. It was only in the totemic tie, that the
descent by blood-relationship was recognised, and carried the witness in itself; and this
was equally strong in the female as the male. Totemically thus —a turtle totem
denoted the brother or sister of a turtle family ; a wolf totem of the wolf family ; a
bear totem of the bear ftimily, &c. The appeal to the totem was a testimony
unquestioned. It was a point of proud but stoical honor, and it was a testimony never
doubted, whether in the social circle or wigwam, the grand council, or in life's last

extremity at the stake ; and it was recorded by a representative device at the grave.

The history of the world shows that it is one of the tendencies of bravery, to
cause woman to be respected, and to assume her proper rank and influence m society.

This was strikingly manifested in the history of the Iroquois. They are the only

tribes in America, north and south, so far as we have any accounts, who gave to
196 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
•woman a conservative power in tlieir political deliberations. The Iroquois matrons

had their representative in the public councils ; and they exercised a negative, or -what
we call a veto power, in the important question of the declaration of war. They had
the right also to interpose in bringing about a peace. It did not compromise the war
policy of the cantons, if the body of the matrons expressed a decision in favor of
peace. This was an extraordinary feature in a government organized on the war
principle, arid among a race which, both in the domestic circle and in the coi'n-field,

laid heavy burdens on their females.

To such a pitch of power had the Iroquois confederacy reached on the discovery of
New York, in 1609, that there can be little doubt that if the arrival of the

Europeans had been delayed a century later, it would have absorbed all the tribes

situated between the gulf of St. Lawrence and the mouth of the Ohio, if not to the

gulf of Mexico. Such a process of extension was in rapid progress when they were
first supplied with fire-arms by the northern colonists ; and as this was in advance of

the western tribes, the result w^as, for a long time, promoted by it.

In a map prefixed to Mr. Colden's History, pubHshed in 1747, the most southerly
and westwardly points of their influence are placed at the mouth of the Wabash, and
along the eastern shores of lake Michigan. In the elaborate map of Lewis Evans,

published by Benjamin Franklin in 1755, the country subject to their sway is

called "Aquanishuonig;" and reaches, on the map, from the Wabash to the St.

Lawrence, including both sides of lakes Erie and Ontario. It extends to the source
of the Illinois, and to the mouth of the Ohio; and tradition denotes^ that they

extended their warlike incursions even to the entrance of lake Superior. Not that
they had permanently conquered all this region, but they had rendered their name
a terror to the tribes who lived far west, as well as east of the AUeghanies. They
drove the Eries from the Ohio valley and the south shore of lake Erie, together
with their allies, the so-called Neuter Nation of Canada; gave the Mississagues a
location there, and reserved most of it as hunting-grounds. Not a village was
suffered permanently to exist along the east banks of the Ohio, from the Monon-
gahela to the Kentucky river; a territory which they ceded to Great Britain.^ They
pushed their forays along the entire range of the Alleghany mountains, through
Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and North Carolina, to Fort Hill, in South
Carolina, the residence of the late Hon. John C. Calhoun, which was a Seneca
station; wvaging the most inveterate war against the Catawbas and Cherokees.
From the tables of Mr. Jefferson, their kindred, the Nottoways, Meherrins, and
Toteloes, occupied the mountainous districts of Virginia ;' under the name of Tusca-
roras, they spread over the interior of North Carolina. The pride and arrogance

with which they addressed the nations whom they had subjugated east of the moun-

'
Vide Oneota. ' Imlay's History of Kentucky. ' Notes on Virginia, p. 152.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 1-97

tains, particularly on the waters of the Susquehanna and Delaware, has no parallel
in history. " Cousins," said Canassatego, addressing the once proud Leuno-Lenapes,

at the treaty of Lancaster, in 1744, "let this belt of wampum serve to chastise you.
You ought to be taken by the hair of the head and shaked severely, 'till j^ou recover

your senses, and become sober. You don't know on what ground you stand, nor
what you are doing. Our brother Onas's '
cause is very just and plain, and his inten-
tions are to preserve friendship. On the other hand, your cause is bad, and your
heart far from being upright. You are maliciously bent on breaking the chain of
friendship with our brother Onas and his people. We have seen with our eyes, a

deed signed by nine of your ancestors above fifty years ago, for this very land ; and a
release signed not many years since by some of yourselves, and chiefs now living, to

the number of fifteen or upwards. But how came you to take upon you to sell land
at all ? We conquered you we made women of you
; You know 3'ou are women, !

and can no more sell land than women nor is it fit you should have the power of
;

selling lands, since you would abuse it. This land that you claim is gone through
your guts You have been furnished with clothes, meat, and drink, by the goods
!

paid you for it and now you want it again, like children as you are
; But what !

makes you sell land in the dark? Did you ever tell us that you had sold this land?
Did we ever receive any part — even the value of a pipe-shank — from you for it ?

* * * You have told us a blind story t * * * You act a dishonest part, not

onl}- in this, but other matters. Your ears are ever open to slanderous reports about
our brethren You receive them with as much greediness as lewd women receive the
!

embraces of bad men; and for all these reasons we charge you to remove instantly
we don't give you the liberty to think about it. You are women; take the ad\ace of
a wise man, and remove immediately. You may retui'n to the other side of the
Delaware, where you came from.^ But we do not know whether, considering how
you have demeaned yourselves, you will be permitted to live there ; or whether you
have not swallowed that land down your throats, as well as the land on this side.

We therefore assign you two places to go to, either to Wyoming or Shamokin ;

you
may go to either of these places, and then we shall have you more under our own
eye, and see how you behave. Don't deliberate ; but remove away, and take this
belt of wampum." ^
This is the language of a conqueror flushed with success, and
conscious of power. It is a proof of this power to add, that the mandate was imme-
diately obeyed. The Delawares went to Shamokin.
After a pause, during which the speech was translated into the Iroquois and
Delaware languages, Canassatego resumed his speech ; and taking a string of wampum
in his hand, added further, "After our just reproof and absolute order to depart

from the land, you are now to take notice of what we have further to say ui you.

'
William Penn. '
In the West. ' Colden'a History of the Five Nations, p. 79.
198 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
This string of wampum serves to forbid you, your cliildren, and grand-children, to the
latest postei'itj for ever, meddling in land affairs ; neither you, nor any who shall

descend from you, are ever hereafter to presume to sell any land. For which purpose
3'ou are to preserve this string, in memory of what your uncles have this day given
you in charge. We have some other business to transact with our brethren, and
therefore depart the council ; and consider what has been said to you." Thus finally

terminated the sceptre of Lenape rule.

Such reproachful language was not often heard in the Iroquois councils. It reminds
one of the ironical speech of Garangula to the Governor-General of Canada, on the
failure of his vaunted expedition to the Onondaga countr3^ They always deliberated
with the utmost calmness, and uttered their opinions and sentiments with emphasis
and gesture, but in language lofty and dignified. That they were sometimes pathetic,
is proved by the s^ieech of the Cayuga chief, Logan, the sou of Skellelamus.
The Oneida sachem, Skenando, electrified the moral commuuit}', when an hundred
years had cast their frosts around his noble and majestic brow, by views of the tenure
and destinies of life, which were worthy of the lips of Job.

For readiness to perceive the true position of the Red Race, as civilization gathered

around them, curtailed their hunting-grounds, and hemmed up their path in various
ways; for quickness of apprehension, and breadth of forecast, and appositeness and
sharpness of reply, no one of the leading groups of tribes of North America has
equalled the Seneca orator Red Jacket, or Sagoyawata. (Plate 25.) Many persons of
enlarged and cultivated minds are yet living, who have listened with admiration to
his manly and eloquent orations.

Such were the Iroquois ; and if this celebrated league had done nothing else to prove
their capacities as thinking men, the instances alluded to, would justify us in
pronouncing 'them to present some of the higher qualities of mind.
It is the observation of De "Witt Clinton, a man of lofty intellect, and who is

regarded as having been one of the greatest benef^ictors of his native State, that
the Iroquois were the only people of the Indian stocks who possessed true eloquence.
There is more than one point of resemblance in this primitive Indian government
to the principles of the articles of confederation which were first adopted for our own
Union. In it, the States, like the Iroquois cantons, Avere all-powerful. And the same
jjrinciples had made them so; namely, that militar}' importance in the contest that
had been just triumphantly finished. But there was one resemblance in their princi-

ples of union, which assimilates strong!}- with our present system. This is the principle
of its extension. Ever}' new canton which was added to the original Mohawk league,
augmented its strength and durabihty, and took nothing awaj'. When, after long expe-

rience of the working of the league, the five cantons admitted a sixth in the Tuscaroras,
they were still more formidable to the surrounding nations. This was in 1712. Eleven
years afterwards, in a full council at Albany, tlioy received the seventh nation, in the
Exsmian tTS .Army Deli

Ji\L\D J A B W IY .
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 199

Necariages of Micliillimacinac and Lake Huron ; a peo2)le from whom they had been
estranged since the first settlement of Lower Canada. They also received the Mississa^
gues into their league, making the eighth nation. This was a people of five castles and
eight hundred and lifty They were Algouquins, but faithfully adhered to the
men.'
confederacy, and fought with them against their enemies to the end." They first lived,
agreeably to Cusic, north of the Niagara river, but moved north, occupying the head of
Lake Ontario in Canada, where their descendants still live. The Iroquois also brought
ofl", and adopted the Tutelos from Meherrin river in Virginia,^ and some other tribes of
the Monahoac stock.'' Their error appears to be this; that they did not admit to their
all the nations whom they conquered
confederacy, with equal rights, whereby they ' ;

would have become a most powerful confederacy, stretching from the banks of the
Mississippi to the St. Lawrence. This error appears to have been almost perceived
and announced by Cannassatego, when he gave that remarkable piece of advice to the
Colonial Commissioners at Lancaster, in July, 1744 ; recommending imion and
agreement among themselves, and stating that this had been the cause of the L-oquois
strength and power; a declaration, which, so far as the thought^work goes, may,
indeed, for its political wisdom, be conceded to be the germ of our American Union.

'
Golden, p. 177. London ed. A. D. 1747.
^ The late Mr. Gallatin is wholly mistaken in classifying the Mississagues as Iroquois, as he does in Am.
Eth. Trans., Vol. II.

'Jefferson's Notes on Virginia, p. 125. London ed. 1788. *

Ibid. p. 155.

' Golden, p. 149. London ed. 1747.

^ The Eries, who appear to have lived on the Ohio, and spoke a cognate language, were exterminated or
driven off south. See § V. present volume, where this subject is discussed.
200 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,

2. KEPLIES TO INQUIRIES RESPECTING THE INDIAN

TRIBES OF OREGON AND CALIFORNIA.

BY GEORGE FALCONER EMMONS, U. S. N.

[Remark. — "We prefix to tliis paper a quarto Map of Oregon, &c., which has been reduced by

Captain Eastman from a hirge sheet prepared by him from the later manuscript authorities, for the
daily administration of the Office of Indian AlFairs.]

Bureau of Construction, &c.,

Washington, D. C, May 2Qih, 1852.

Sir : — Your printed circular calling for information in relation to the Indian tribes

within the United States, is before me. The subject is one of such growing
interest, independent of the duty we all owe in endeavoring to supply a void in the

history of mankind, that I feel more regret than I can well express, that circumstances

beyond my control prevented me from gaining much interesting information while

among Rocky Mountains. It was one of the primary objects

the tribes west of the
of the expedition confided to me by the commander of the United States Exploring
Expedition, in 1841, in passing through Oregon and Upper California, to the Bay of
San Francisco.

As will appear upon reference to the printed Instructions in the fifth volume of the
Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, and although my instructions, independent

of this, gave me enough to do, it was owing mainly to the ague and fever that
attacked nearly every officer and man in the party, and the subsequent hostility of

the tribes, that I now find myself unable to answer many of the questions embraced

in your circular.

Such as I can answer, I will now take again in the order propounded, confining
myself to the following tribes, whose appi'oximatc numbers and localities are sufficiently

described in the Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, Vol. V.

These names are variously spelled by different travellers, and the numbers differently

estimated by those whose opportunities of forming a judgment were less favorable

than those at the command of the different parties composing the Exploring
Expedition. Therefore in these two particulars I shall copy verbatim from the above
work :
—
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 201

TRIBEa NDMBER LOCALmr, ETC.

Chinooks . . . 209 Mouth of the Columbia river, north side, includ-

ing some 50 miles interior.

Klatsops . . • 220 Mouth of the Columbia river, south side, and

20 or 30 miles of sea-coast.
Chickeeles . . . 700 North and east of ditto.

Kilamukes 400 South and east of ditto, extending to the coast.

Number, I think, overrated.

Callapuyas . . . 600 Valley of the Willamette river.

Umpquas . . . 400 do. Umpqua do. going south.
Rogues or Rascally 500 do. Rogue do. do
Klamets "... 300 do. Klamet do. do.

Shaste ' . . . . 500 Mountainous country and dividing ridge between

Oregon and California.
Kinkla 500 =
On Destruction river and head-waters of the
Sacramento river.

Sacramento
8000 =
Valley of the Sacramento and its lower tributaries.
Tula or Tulara

N. B. These numbers, I presume, were intended to embrace the remnant of several

other tribes also occupying this country.

" 1. — What facts can be stated, from tradition, respecting the origin, early history,
and migrations of the tribe; and what are the principal incidents known, or
remembered since A. D. 1492?"
Relating to their origin, early history, migrations, &c., I could learn nothing from
those I communicated with worthy of repetition.
The fact, now well established, that Japanese vessels have been driven across the
Pacific Ocean upon our north-west coast, will, of course, suggest but one way that our
country may have been first populated.

" 2. —By what name are they called among themselves, and by what name, or names,
are they known among other tribes ; and what is the meaning of these respective
names ? State the various S3mon3-ms. Where did the tribe dwell, at the earliest date
what was its probable number, and the extent of territory occupied or claimed by it?
How has their location, numbers, and the extent of lands or territories, varied sine*;

the earliest known period ; and what are the general facts, on these heads, at the
present time?"
The names of the tribes here given are the same as known by themselves in every

'
For these tribes, see later estimates of Mr. Gibbs, p. 171 : also, § XV. Statistics of Population.
' My own estimate. —G. F. E.

Pt. III. — 26
202 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
instance, I believe, but that of the Rogues, who were thus name 1 by the whites, for
several good reasons.
It will be observed that the principal river is generally of the same name as that of
the tribe occupying the country tlirough which it runs.
From their clanish habits, and peculiarities of language, I should conclude that they
have seldom changed their location. Wars, too, so common among savage tribes, of
which these are no exception, would naturally tend to confine each tribe within its

original boundaries.

Their numbers must have been very much more numerous formerly, than appears
by the preceding table, from their rapid decline since the whites have come among
them.
The extent of territory claimed is usually bounded by rivers, mountains, preeminent
rocks or trees; and although their landed possessions do not appear to cause them
much solicitude, I recollect upon one occasion a chief of the Callapuya came to my
camp, and after pointing out the tops of certain hills, and other natural objects, as the
boundaries of his country, expressed a hope that this would not be taken from them
by the wliites. Poor Indian ! his country is already in the possession of the white
man, or "pale-face," but it is very doubtful if he has lived to see it.

"4. — Is there any idea developed among them b}^ tradition, allegory, or otherwise,
"
that white people, or a more civilized race, had occupied the continent before them ?
They have allegorical traditions in regard to their origin, &c., and a confused idea
of dates; I cannot now repeat anything in a tangible form.

•'9. — Have they suffered any great calamity in past times, as from great floods, or
wild beasts, from epidemic or pestilential diseases, or from fierce and sudden assailants?"
They have suflfered great losses from the epidemic diseases since their first inter-

course with the whites, which have exterminated whole tribes.

The introduction of the small-pox they attribute to the Hudson Bay Companies
the disease was very fatal to them in the year 1839.
The ague and fever, which also proves fatal to many every year, they say was never
known among them until the year 1830, when an American captain, by the name of
Dominis, arrived at Astoria, in a vessel, from the Sandwich islands ; for these, and
sundry other bodily complaints of modeni date that they are subject to, they attribute
altogether to the Avhites, whom, they appear to believe, have the power of withholding
or communicating those di.seascs to them.
Hence one cause of their avowed hostility to the whites, and particularly to my
party's passing through tlieir country; to prevent which I received warnings by
runners from the Shaste nation, long before I reached the Umpqua river, with threats
of annihilation if I attempted it.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 203

" 9. — Docs the tribe speak one or inoi'e dialects, or are there several languages spoken,

or incorporated in it, requiring more than one interpi'eter, in transacting business with
"
them ?
Of " Languages," &c. — I would respectfully refer you to the philological work of the

Exploring Expedition, edited by a gentleman eminently qualified to do this subject

justice, and whose opportunities were probably superior to those of any officer
in the expedition.

— What the
"IG. are chief rivers in the territory or district occupied by the tribe?

State their length, general depth and breadth — where they originate — how far tliey

are navigable — what are their principal rapids, falls, and portages — what
at joints
goods are landed, and into what principal or larger waters they finally flow."
The principal rivers traversing the country through which my route lay, were the
Columbia, Willamette, Umpqua, Rogue's, Klamet, and Sacramento ; the first and last

only being navigable for large vessels for any considerable distance. All of these have
their tributaries, that may be navigated by boats, and in several instances are worthy
of the name of rivers. With the exception of the Willamette, that takes its rise to

the southward, and flows north into the Columbia, their general direction is westerly
to the Pacific ocean, until you pass the dividing ridge near the Shasta mountains,
when you come upon the head-waters of Destruction river, that flow south into the
Sacramento, the latter continuing in a south-westerly course to the bay of San
Francisco.

"17. — Are there any large springs, or lakes, in the district, and what is their
?
character, size, and average depth ; and into what streams have they outlets

Passed many small lakes and ponds — most of them quite shoal. One place in
Oregon —now quite filled up by the washings from the surrounding hills —was pointed
out to me as formerly a lake, by an old gentleman by the name of McKay, who said

he had formerly caught beaver there for the Company of John Jacob Astor, about
1811 and '12.

Springs are also quite numerous in the mountain districts ; temperature generally
between 40° and 50° F. Discovered one strongly chalybeate, south of the Shasta
Peak. The gold region has since been discovered to extend north of this.

" 18. — What is the general character of the surface of the country occupied by the
?
tribe

The general features of this country, lying between a range of mountains running
nearly parallel with the coast and the latter, and known as the President's range,
is extremely mountainous after leaving the valley of the Willamette, until you
descend into the valley of the Sacramento.
204 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
Immediately skirting the rivers, and occasiouallj removed from them, we passed
over small prairie bottoms of rich soil ; independent of which, but a small portion of
the country is susceptible of cultivation. Neither wood nor water are very abundant,
except in particular localities ; the first, I think, is owing mainly to the annual fires

set by the Indians ; and the latter, evidently, to the annual drought, which dries up
large streams of water.
With proper in-igation, all grains and vegetables that are common with us, would
doubtlessly thrive; this, to a limited extent, has ah'eady been proven, through the
exertions of our missionary establishment and the Hudson's Bay Company, in Oregon,
and through Captain Sutter, and more recent American settlers, in Upper California
but in no instance, that I am aware of, through the efforts or industry of the Indians
themselves.

"19. —Are cattle and stock easily raised — do the prairies and woods afibrd an
abundant supply of herbage spontaneously — are wells of water to be had at moderate
depths?"
Cattle and stock thrive admirably; sheep require watching on account of the
wolves, &c. Wells were uncommon; two that I saw in Oregon were very deep —
perhaps thirty feet to the surface of the water.

"21. — Are there any extensive barrens, or deserts, marshes or swamps, reclaimsible
or irreclaimable, and what effects do they produce on the health of the country, and
do they offer any serious obstacles to the construction of roads ?"

In my route, there were no very extensive barrens nor swamps ; some of the latter,

I have no doubt, had an unfavorable effect upon the health of the country, and might
be reclaimed without much difficulty. They offer no serious obstacles to the construc-
tion of roads ; but to make the latter suitable for travel in vehicles, and the trans-
portation of goods, &c., much grading and bridging will be necessary.

" 23. — Is the climate generally dry or humid? Does the heat of the weather vary
greatly, or is it distributed, through the different seasons, with regularity and equa-
bility? What winds prevail? Is it much subject to stoi'ms of rain with heavy
thunder, or tornadoes, and do these tempests of rain swell the streams so as to over-
flow their banks, and destroy fences and injure the crops? State the general character
of the climate, giving meteorological tables if you can."
The six months' almost continual rain from fall to spring, and the remainder
drought, svill suggest the answer to the first part of this question. The variation of
temperature within short intervals is greater than I have ever experienced elsewhere
for instance, the thermometer would stand at 100° F. during the heat of the day, in
the shade, and descend to 32^ or freezing, the same night. Upon one occasion, on the
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 205

bottom-land of the Klamet, in about latitude 42°north,it rose to 110° F. at meridian,

in the shade. Had but little reason to suppose that this country was subject to
frequent storms, tempests, or tornadoes; during the summer and fall months only
experienced one, and this unattended with rain, thunder, or lightning; it happened
in the month of October, while we were encamped near the Shasta mountains, and
prostrated some giant trees. The country has not the appearance of being much
subject to inundations, except on the navigable waters of the Columbia, Sacramento,
and San Joaquin.
My route was evidently too far to the eastward, or too near the ridge of mountain
already alluded to, to feel the influence of the regular land and sea breezes; and I did
not discover that there was any prevailing wind. .

Would respectfully refer to the Report of the Geologist, Mr. Dana, who accompanied
me, for answers to the two next questions. See Vol. V., Ex. Ex.

"26. — What is the general character and value of the animal productions of the
district? What species of quadrupeds most abound? State their number and kind,
and what effect the fur trade has had in diminishing the value of the country for the
purposes of hunting, and what species still remain ?

Elk, deer, bear — white, black, and grizzly; panther, calamenul, wolf, fox, raccoon,
rabbit, porcupine, pole-cat, mountain sheep, beaver, otter (land and sea), squirrel,

weasel, &c., are among their wild animals ; the buffalo not having yet cros.sed the Rocky
Mountains. For a more detailed account upon this subject, I must refer to the
Naturalist who accompanied me on this expedition, Mr. T. R. Peale ; Avhose work I
believe has not yet been published.
An animal of a different species from any before seen in California has been taken
by a Mr. Hill of Nevada. It is called the California cat. It is described as being
very beautiful, and bearing a resemblance to the marten ; differing from it, however, in
color, being a dark grey, encircled with bright brown rings, similar to the raccoon.
The fur is very soft and beautiful. Its body is about the size of the grey squirrel, but
about fifteen inches long, and its tail sixteen or seventeen inches long. 1852.
The fur trade has evidently diminished the value of the country for hunting
purposes ; some of the most valuable animals having already become rare in many
portions of the country, where, thirty-five years ago, they were quite numerous.
The beaver is among the first to disappear.

" 31. — Are they expert in drawing maps or charts of the rivers, or sections of country
which they inhabit?"
Should judge not. I endeavored upon more than one occasion to obtain some
information of the unexplored country adjoining them by tracings in the sand ; bur
could not.
206 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
" 32. — Are there anv antique works, or remains of
"
any kind, which are the result of

human industry in ancient times, in your district ?

Saw upon the tops of some of tlie hills in the Callapuya and Umpqua country,

small mounds of earth, and occasionally a pile of stones, seldom exceeding three feet

in height. Suppose them commemorative of some event.' Upon some pre-eminent

peaks found the stones so arranged as to adapt the place to a look-out station, and
occasionally detected the Indians occupying such positions.

"34. — Has the progress of settlements west of the Alleghanies, and the felling of
trees and clearing up of lands, disclosed any ancient embankments, ditches, or other
"
works of earth or stone, having the character of forts, or places of military defence ?

Their only mode of fortifying, that came to my observation, was upon the banks of
tlie Columbia river; by a circumvallation of palisades, placed close together, from ten
to fifteen feet high, and between which there was occasionally a small loop-hole through
which thev could discharge their missiles. This fortification was so constructed as to

afford those inside a covered way to the water or river.

" 37. —Does the level surface of the prairie country, which is now partially over-run

by forest, preserve any traces of a plan or design as of ancient furrows or garden-beds,

which appear to have been abandoned at a definite period ?"

None that I could discover. They Avould necessarily have to be very permanent,

to remain long in existence in this country, where the soil abrades so much.

"39. — What is the genex-al character of the antique implements, ornaments, or

"
utensils of earthen-ware found in your district of the country ?

Saw but few implements of any kind. The water-tight basket, of various sizes and

shapes, woven out of green bark or grass, is used by the tribes about the Columbia for
almost all domestic purposes. I have been told that they even boil water in these, but
this I never saw. They now begin to substitute our iron and tin vessels.

"40. — If pipes are found, what is the material — is it stone, steatite, or clay —how
are they formed — to admit a stem, or to be smoked without, and what are their
•sliapes, sizes, and ornaments?"
Their pipes are carved out of stone, steatite, or clay, generally so formed as to admit
a stem, which is usually a piece of reed ; they vary in size and shape, arc generally
(n-namented by .some animal figure in high relief upon the bowl or stem, or both.
Tlie weight of some I should judge to be six or eight ounces.

"41. — How many kinds were there? Describe tliem."

The stone pestle and mortar I noticed particularly among the Californian Indians

'
See Mr. Gibbs's paper, p. 174. for remarks on these heaps of stone.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 207

the latter was frequently a fixture in the bed of the mountain streams, -where holes
had been worn or excavated in the rocks, and where water was always at hand.
Their use appeared to be coufaied priiicipally to pulverizing acorns, roots, and seeds,
for the manufacture of bread-stuffs.

"42. — Manufacture of darts, &c. What was the process of manipulation of

these often delicately wrought articles? What species of mineral bodies were
chiefly used — and how was the cleavage of them effected ? Did the art constitute
a separate trade or employment? If darts abound, what is the material and size?
Do they differ much in size and apparent object, some being for war and others
for hunting; and ai'e there any elongated in the shape of spear-heads, or javelins?
How many species of darts, spears, &c., were there ? Describe them, and give figures
of the size and descriptions of the uses of them."
Could learn nothing satisfactory in relation to the process of manipulation, which I
was most anxious to do, regarding this as the highest order of art that I discovered

among any of the tribes named. As many of their arrows are not armed, I should
infer that one kind was intended for war, and the other for hunting or practice ; their
length appears, in most cases, to be graduated by the length of the bow, which among
these tribes seldom exceeds four feet ; the material most u.sed is the wood of the yew
or red-cedar, the strength and elasticity of which is considerably increased by a
covering of the sinew of animals, the string used in projecting their arrows being of
the same material.'
From the samples of arrows already furnished you, you can judge of the material
used in arming, obsidian being most common.
Spears, darts, or javelins are seldom seen. The bow and arrow is almost universally
used in the mountains, while the tribes on the sea-coast are beginning to adopt our
fire-arms.

"63. — How were accounts formerly kept ? And how are they now kept? If the
terms skin, plue, and abiminiqua, or others, are employed in the interior trade as
synonjTnous, and as the standard of value, in which accounts are kept, what is the
"
scale of the computation ?

, The Hudson's Bay Company had established certain prices for certain skins, long
previous to our arrival in the country ; and having graduated these to certain articles

of exchange, as, for example, a beaver-skin eqxial to one blanket, &c., skins, in the

absence of coin, had become the currency of the country.

Their powers of computation, so far as my opportunities for judging, are very hmited.
"96. —Are they moral, sober, and discreet?"
Neither "moral" nor "sober" when they can get liquor enough to get drunk;
generally "discreet" in other things, but cannot be relied on as a rule.

See Mr. Wyeth's paper, Ycl. I., for a description and plate of the Oregon bow.
208 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
" 99. —Ilave the purposes of commerce, since the discovery of the continent, had the
effect to stimulate the hunters to increased exertion, and thus to hasten the diminu-
"
tion or destruction of the races of animals whose furs are sought ?

Should think it had, the Hudson's Bay Company having found it necessary to make
a rule to forbid the Lidiaus kilhng animals while young.

" 100. —Have the different races of animals declined rapidly since the prosecution of

the trade ? What animals flee first, or diminish in the highest ratio, on the opening
of a new district of the remote forest, to trade ? "
They have. The beaver first disappears the buffalo : is not found in this country.

"101. — Are the lands, when denuded of furs, of comparatively little value to the
Indians, while they remain in the hunter state ? Is not the sale of such hunted lands
"
beneficial to them ?

Should conclude they were, from their always following the game ; and under such
circumstances a sale ought certainly to benefit them ; and it will of course depend
very much upon the manner the equivalent is appUed, whether it does.

"103. — If the diminution or failure of wild animals lead the native tribes to turn

their industry to agriculture, is not the pressure of commerce on the boundaries of

hunting an efficient cause in the progress of Indian civilization ?

The diminution of game, or failure of wild animals altogether, would not, I think,
be a sufficient stimulant to induce these tribes to cultivate the soil, so long as they can
procure enough fish, roots, or berries, to subsist upon.
To the second question, I answer yes. Third question, do.

" 104. —What evil effects, of a moral character, have resulted from the progress of
the Indian trade ? Has not the traffic in ardent spirits been by far the most fruitful,

general, and appalling cause of the depopulation of the tribes ? How has the intro-
duction of gunpowder and fire-arms affected the principles of the trade, and what has
been the general influence of this new element of the means of destruction, on their
"
history and civilization ?

The introduction of liquor, which, although a fruitful source of depopulation among

all savages, has among these been so much interdicted by the wise efforts and con-
trolling influence of the Hudson's Bay Company's officers, headed by Governor
McLaughlin, that they have evidently' sufiered less from this than the diseases which
they attribute to the whites.
" Gunpowder and fire-arms," although much sought after by these Indians, more
especially those having frequent intercourse with the whites, have likewise been with-
held from tlieni, to a very considerable extent. Hence the effect has principally been,
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 209

in adding to the powers of the former, and causing the latter to be more respectful
and cautious in their intercourse. To this consciousness of the superiority of the

whites, or their fear of fire-arms, T attribute having passed through the country of
four hostile tribes, Avith only twenty-eight fighting men, without losing one.
After an interval of seven years, I visit this southern portion of my route again
mingle principally among the tribes inhabiting the Sierra Nevada mountains and
valley of the Sacramento, which were I'egarded as friendly. The gold is discovered
ciciUzaiion and liquor pour into the country — collisions between the white and red
man, and murders, become common — and while but a week in the mines, have seen
parties of whites going out with their rifles to hunt Indians, as in our country they
are in the habit of hunting wolves and foxes.

This system, faithfully persevered in as it has been so far, Avill soon relieve Congress
of legislating in their behalf; and only hasten the end, which all history teaches us
could not be very remote, of this unfortunate and doomed race.

" 105. —Are there any serious or valid oljjections, on the part of the Indians, to the

introduction of schools, agriculture, the mechanic arts, or Christianity ?"

I did not hear any objections raised, on the part of the Indians, to the introduction
of schools, agriculture, the mechanic arts, or Christianity ; but with the example of
our missionaries before them, and their efforts in their behalf, but little had been
effected up to the time of our visiting the country ; and such, I predict, will be the
result to the end of time.

" lOG. —What improvements can you suggest in the existing intercourse laws of the

United States, as last revised, with the Indian tribes? Are these laws efficient in

removing causes of discord, and preserving peace between the advanced bodies of
emigrants or settlers on the frontiers, and the Indian tribes ?

I believe the general application of these laws, if properly enforced, would lead to

good results; but it has not been my fortune to see their effect upon these tribes.

'•'111. — What pro"\nsions would tend more effectually to shield the tribes from the
introduction of ardent spirits into their territories, and from the pressure of lawless or
illicit traffic ?

I know of no law that will be likely to shield these Indians from the introduction
of ardent spirits, so long as it is used by the whites. The operation of what we now
call the " Maine Liquor Law," among those claiming the advantages of civilization,
aids me in coming to this conclusion.

"112. — Is there any feature in the present system of negotiation with the tribes
'"
susceptible of amendment and improvement ?
Pt. ni. — 27
210 ;, TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
What justice most demands for these Indians is, that they should have immediate
protection from Lawless whites, i. e. in their pei-sons or lives; they require none in
property, for they have none. And the country they occupy is, at the farthest, but a
temporary home for them. And while we are discussing the propriety of Indian
agencies and treaties, they are falling by tens, fifties, and hundreds, before the western
rifle.

A war of extermination has been declared by the whites of Klamath against the
Indians of that vicinity. A party of settlers and miners surrounded two lodges at
Indian Ferry, and shot the men and several squaws, and destroyed the ranch, thirty
to forty Indians having been killed.

" 113. —Are the game, and wood, and timber, of the tribes subject to unnecessary or

injurious curtailment or trespass from the intrusion of emigrating bands abiding for
"
long periods on their territories ? Are there complaints of any such trespasses ?

Think it quite possible — had not been — heard none.

"119. — What ideas have the Indians of property ?
"

They appear to have a distinct idea of their rights to territory and personal
property ; but I cannot go farther into this subject. In saying they have no property,
as in my answer to question 112, I speak of them generally; some few have horses,
others canoes, &c. ; but the masses can carry all of their personal estate upon their

backs without much inconvenience.

" 159. — Are the ties of consanguinity strong?

I had but few opportunities of judging of their ties of consanguinity, as my inter-

course was almost altogether with the men separated from their families. But from
the fact that one of the hired men of my party, who had an Indian wife, purchased a
little squaw, about eight years of age, from her parents for two blankets, I infer that
they are not always very strong. I merely mention this as a fact ; not that I believe
it to be a fair criterion of the general estimate in which they hold their offspring.

" 160. — Does the hunter state insure abundance of food and clothing to the family ?

How is this state, in its domestic bearings, affected by polygamy, and what are the
terms and relative affections of stepmothers and children ? Are wives well treated
under the actual state of the hunter life ? Are they ever interfered with in the house-
hold affairs, and management of the domestic economy ? Do they participate, in any
degree, in tlie hunter's vocation, or forest labors, and to what extent?"
Between hunting and fishing, I not only believe that the country generally tlu'ough
which I passed will furnish sustenance for the Indians occupying it, but with their
natural indolence, the very exercise necessary for obtaining this will best promote
tlieir health. My party lived principally on game for two months; and I seldom sent
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 211

out a hunter until after we had encamped in the evening. At one camp on the
Sacramento, six grizzly bears and two deer were shot. game will soon
It is true,

disappear as the country becomes settled ; and so will the Indians.

Clothing they rarely trouble themselves with ; and when they do, it is generally
some old cast-off garment, or skin, that rather disfigures them than otherwise.
Although I understood their laws punish infidelity in their wives with death, I was
told that polygamy among their chiefs was not uncommon.
So far as I could learn, their general treatment to their wives is kind ; and they
are not interfered with in their household affairs ; but they are expected to perform a
good share of forest labors, and assist in preparing the winter's stock of food.
See answer to next question.

"161. —Are the labors of husband and wife equally or unequally divided?"
The labor of husband and wife, so far as I could judge among these tribes, operates
the reverse of what it usually does in civilized life. The latter, indejjendent of the
usual household duties, goes into the fields to collect seeds, roots, acorns, &c., and not
unfrequently joins the husband in piscatory excursions, besides occupying her leisure
time in preparing the winter supply of food.
Hence I infer that these savages are no exception to the rule that, generally, obtains
elsewhere among their race, in exacting a full, if not unequal share, of labor from their

wives.
The males, I believe, in all instances, manufacture their hunting and war imple-
ments, including their canoes ; while the females manufacture fish-nets, baskets, mats,
&c. I am unable to say how far the latter are permitted to take part in the councils of
the nation. I have seen them congregated in squads, and busily employed in pounding
acorns, and preparing- their winter's food, while all the males of the tribe, including
boys, were painted and armed, waiting an expected attack from a neighboring tribe.

" 164. —Are their appetites regular or capricious, admitting of great powers both of
"
abstinence and of I'epletion ?

Never saw them refuse anything good to eat ; from what I heard, more than from
my own observation, believe they possess great powers of abstinence and repletion.

" 168. — Are the changes of location, fatigue, cold, and exposure to the vicissitudes of
climate, felt in the general result of Indian population ? What is the highest number
"
of children born ? Are twins common ?

Learned but little in relation to courtship and marriage ; should judge that barren-
ness was not unfrequent, that twins were very uncommon, and that the general average
of families did not exceed two children ; all of which I should attribute, in a great
degree, lo their precarious and exposed mode of life, in connection with the vicissitudes
212 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
of climate, &c., and to this may be added the uuusual custom, of the mother in weaning
her children.

"169. —Are strangers announced before reaching the lodge, and how are visits

ordered? Do parties of Indians stop at a short distance, and send word of their
"
intended "S'isit ?

Among the friendly tribes, Indians visited our camp without any ceremony or
previous invitation; but among the hostile tribes, they usually despatched one or
more, unarmed, to solicit ormake known their wants. I recollect a green bush was
held up, upon one occasion, as an emblem of peace.

" 172. — Has the \nfe or husband the right of divorce ?

"

Have been informed that divorces might be effected upon the mutual consent of the
parties.

"173. —At what age are children weaned?"

Children are sometimes not weaned until they are five years of age.

"173. — Is the domestic government left wholly to Indian mothers?"

The domestic government of children is left wholly with the mother.

"177. — What are the effects of the introduction and use of ardent spirits in the
lodge, in deranging its order ?"

The introduction of ardent spirits among these people is every way fatal to their

peace, health, and happiness, and will finally prove one of the fruitful causes of their

depopulation.

" 179. —
Have they degenerated into any customs or practices revolting to humanity?
Do they eat human flesh, upon any occasion and if so, under what circumstances ?"
;

Saw no evidences of cannibalism, nor practices revolting to humanity.

"184. —What is the Indian mode of salutation?"

The only form of greeting I observed was the shaking of hands, which I believe to

be imitation of the whites.

" 187. — Is stoicism of feeling deemed a mark of manliness by the Indians?"

In common with the Indian race generally, stoicism and taciturnity are among the
characteristics of these people, but in a less degree to the north than the south.

" 188. — Is there extreme acuteness of the senses, and a nervous power of appi'eciating
the nearness, or relative position of objects ? These have excited general notice, but

the subject is still a matter of curiosity and further information."

 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 213

Quickness of sight, &c. One example. When we had progressed about half-way
in our journey, and arrived in a mountahious portion of the country, where there was
not the least sign of a path or trail to guide us, there arose some discussion among the
pioneers of the party as to which was the right way. Not agreeing, it was finally left

to an Indian woman who was the wife of one of the trappers belonging to my party
and who, with her husband, had, several 3-ears previously, accompanied a party of the
Hudson's Bay Company, through this portion of the country. She did not hesitate a
moment in pointing out the right way ; and as an evidence that she knew where she
was, she pointed to a crotched tree not far off, where she had placed a small stone
some years previous as a land-mark ; then riding up to the tree, produced the same.

"189. — Are the Indians very prone to be deceived by professed dreamers, or the
tricks of jugglers, or by phenomena of nature, of the principles and causes of which
"
they are ignorant ?

They are very superstitious, and liable to be deceived by jugglers or professed

dreamers; but I very much question if they are more thoroughly bamboozled and
mystified than a large portion of our own people are by another set of jugglers, who
practise their art and make their living surrounded by all the intelligence and civiliza-

tion of the age.

" 190. — How do their physical powers compare with the strength of Europeans?"
The physical powers of some of the mountain tribes, whose muscles are considerably
exercised, I should think would compare very favorably with those of Europeans.
The prairie tribes are very inferior in this respect ; but few of either knowing anything
of the use of the axe or scythe. The men fast and endure fatigue well.

"191. — How is still hunting performed?"

Still hunting is usually performed by first getting to leeward of the game, and
hunting to windward, as among many whites.

" 193. — How is the antelope approached ?

"

The deer and antelope are frequently decoyed within the reach of their arrows, by
an Indian secreting himself in the grass and then crawling towards the game, exhib-
iting only a small object on the end of a stick.

They also build large cii'cular j^ens of bushes, having an entrance, to entrap largo
animals. Some that we saw, we concluded were constructed for wild cattle; and
others, leaving a small outlet opposite to the entrance, we presume were intended
for rabbits.

"194. — Mode of drying and curing skixs. This is a very important branch ol
214 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
the hunter's art, and it would be interesting to know the process, the various methods,

and the amount of labor and time required."

The only process of preparing skins that I witnessed, was in smoking deer-skins
which had been previously cured. This was accomplished by sjjreading them on sticks

placed over a hole dug in the ground, at the bottom of which a slow fire had been
previously kindled.
After keeping them in this position, and exi^osing both sides to the smoke
for two days, they were then considered suitable to be made into clothing; of whicli

several of the gentlemen of the party obtained suits before leaving Oregon; the
object of smoking being to counteract the shrinkage in case of drying, after they have
been wet by rain or in washing.

" 195. —How many modes have they of taking fish ?

"

They catch fish by constructing weirs and dams, by scoop-nets, spearing, and by
firing their arrows into them. In the running season, several tribes are in the habit
of assembling at the Willamette Falls, for the purpose of laying in a supply for the
season. They rig out planks and pieces of timber just below the falls, upon which
they stand and catch the salmon in their scoop-nets, as they flirt out of the water in
their attempts to overcome the cascade.
Their success with the bow and arrow, in this particular, may perhaps be regarded
as demonstrating something more than mere physical skill in the use of this weajDon.
Their spear, or fish-gig, is something like the following — not always straight

a spUt or crotched pole, from ten to twenty feet long, armed at tlie spear end with
deer's horn ; which is intended to slip ofi" the ends of the spear after they have entered
the fish, when they are held by a lanyard attached to the pole just above the crotch,
and by this means secure the fish as by a toggle.

"19G. — Are the arts of hunting taught the children at an early age? Do they
commence with archery ? And at what age are the boys generally competent to
engage in the active labors of the chase ? Have women, thus left alone, or deserted,
(!ver been known to practise the use of fire-arms ?"

Archery is taught the Indian boys when young; I have seen those whom I did
not believe over twelve years of age, very expert with the bow. I have also seen

them, at about this age, armed and painted for war. Some Indian women belonging
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 215

to my party carried fire-arms, as well as their husbands ; and whenever we came to a

bad place, where it was suspected Indians might be lying in wait for us, they took the
precaution to examine their flint and priming.

"197. —What is the present state of the arms and implements used by the hunters
of the tribe ? Have they abandoned the bow and arrows, partially or altogether ? Do
they use the gun or rifle, in hunting deer or buffalo ? Are they well supplied with
ammunition, and at reasonable rates ?"
Some of the tribes about the Columbia appear to have abandoned their own, and
substituted fire-arms ; but these have been but little used, owing partly to a scarcity
of ammunition, and there being no necessity of their depending altogether upon them
for their subsistence.

"198. — How are war-parties raised, subsisted, and marched?"

In regard to raising war-parties, I can only cite one instance, where it was accom-
plished in sight of our camp, by getting up a war-dance ; which took place in the

Rogue country, around a large fire, and lasted most of the night ; resulting in their

ambushing next morning, and final dispersion upon the near approach of the party.

"199. — How is the march of the party conducted after they are assembled? Do
they move in a body, or separately in files or sub-parties ?"
Have several times seen them in large bodies, without any particular order (unless

it be no particular order) in marching; from their trails, I should judge they generally
confine themselves to the order of single file. Sentinels were posted, when we
encamped near their village on the head waters of the Sacramento.

"200. —To what extent do the chiefs exercise the duties and rights of officers ?"

Chiefs evidently command, with the assistance of aids, or runners ; but I could not
discover evidences of any great degree of subordination and discipline among any of

the tribes.

"201. — What are the usual devices of attack resorted to? What are the usual

manoeuvres ?"

Their usual mode of attacking parties of whites, in which they have several times
been successful, has either been by first straying in and about their camp in large

numbers, unarmed, but pretending friendship, and watching for the first favorable

opportunity to seize upon and massacre the whole.

Or to select the most favorable time and place to secrete themselves in ambush, and
rise upon, and fire into, the party at a time most favorable to create terror and

confusion, and, if possible, to separate the animals from their owners; to do which I
216 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
am told that they usually wait until about one lialf of the party have got past, when
they let fly their arrows, utter an indescribable yell, shake dried skins, &c. &c., and in
this way usually secure many of the horses and packs, if they fail in destroying the
party.
I could not learn that they had ever made a night attack.

" 203. — Is personal servitude recognised ? Are there any persons, who, having lost

their liberty, or forfeited their lives, are reduced to slavery, or placed in the relative

position oi peons, or menials, who are compelled to work, and carry burdens?"
They have their slaves, male and female, who may, or may not, be captives, and
whose relative position, I have been told, is much the same as that of a similar class
among us, or the peons of Mexico.

" 205. — What constitutes the ordinary dress of warriors, on a war excursion ?
What paints are used, and how are they applied to different parts of the person ?

What feathers are worn on the head, as marks of former triumphs ? How is the hair
dressed?"
For war costume, paint is freely used, the color principally red, applied to the face,

arms, and chest. Feathers and leaves are also used to decorate the head. Some, I

think, had the hair tied up in a knot ; but my memory will not now permit me to
enter into particulars ; although these remarks, I believe, have a general application, I
cannot, of my own knowledge, apply them but to
one tribe that I saw in the Sierra Nevada mountains,
some of whom were partially clad, while others
were entirely naked. Some of these northern tribes
wear, for their dress, a jacket of mail, something
like the annexed cut, which covers them in front,

and afibrds protection against ari'ows to the most

vital portion of their bodies.

It is composed of thin parallel battens of very

tough wood, woven together by a small cord ; with
arm-holes, and strings at the bottom corners, to fasten it around the waist.

" 207. —How have these varied in the lapse of time ? Are fire-arms substituted for

the bow and arrow in war, as they are supposed to be, generally, in hunting ? Are
war-clubs, tomahawks, and knives, employed ?

Fire-arms are already substituted among the tribes having frequent intercourse with
the whites. Knives are used. Saw no war-clubs nor tomahawks.

'•208. — Is dancing a national trait of the tribe? Is it confined to males? How

man}- kinds of dances are there?"
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 217

Saw but one war-dance, and one dance of honor. The first

was among the Rogue Indians, and has already been alluded
to ; the latter was performed by Indian boys, on the banks of
the Sacramento, in honor of our arrival; the latter were
entirely naked, and averaging about twelve years each. Upon
their body they had a variety of white chalk marks in front,
something like those represented in the annexed cut. Think
dancing was a characteristic mode of expressing popular
feeling among all of these tribes. I did not hear of females
being permitted to join in any of their dances.

" 210. — How many kinds of games of chance exist ? Is

"
the tribe much addicted to these games ?

There are games of chance, where small sticks are used. I have only seen it

practised by the males. The Valley Indians, and more particularly to the south, I
think, are addicted to gambling. Never learned the modus operandi.

" 211. Deaths and burials. What are the characteristic facts connected with these
subjects? When a person dies, how is the corpse dressed and disposed of?"
The custom appears very general among the Oregon tribes, when burying their
dead, to deposit with the corpse, or upon a stick or pole alongside of it, some
implement or utensil formerly used by the deceased; but as these relics are above
ground, and perishable, they do not afford a means of judging of the state of the arts
far back.

High and dry places are usually selected for burying-grounds. The bodies of some
of the tribes on the Columbia river were placed in the bottom of canoes, in a prostrate
posture, and then covered over with poles and pieces of split wood after which the ;

canoe was elevated from three to four feet above the ground, and then supported upon
a scaffold the direction of the canoe, or body, lying east and west, as near as I can
;

recollect.

" 212. —Are burials usually made in high and dry grounds ? Are the bodies buried
east and west ; and if so, what reason is assigned for this custom ?"
I noticed one or more exceptions to this general rule of selecting a high and promi-
nent position for a burying-ground. Here, the bodies appeared to have been deposited
upon the surface of the earth in a prostrate position, without any reference to the
cardinal points of the compass, that I could discover, and then covered over with
brush and poles ; but not sufficiently to aflford sure protection from the wild animals
uf the country, or carnivorous birds.
Pt. III. — 28
218 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
"227. — What are the materials, form, sizo, and mode of construction, of their

lodges ?"
Some of the tents or lodges about the Columbia, were constructed of upright posts,
or pieces of split timber, and covered with skins.
Those in southern Oregon, and western California, were much more slightly con-

structed — generally of poles, sometimes lying horizontally upon one another; at

others, forming a semi-circle, with both ends in the earth
;
' and again, by meeting at
angles, to form a cone when in an upright position. All quite circumscribed in their
dimensions, with a covering of poles and bushes ; which must afford but poor shelter

in the rainy seasons, and require frequent renewing.

"228. — Of what material are canoes or boats made, how are they constructed, and
what is their usual capacity ?"
All that I saw were made from one tree — dug out, and sharpened at either end.

Those in Oregon were usually made from the pine tree, and some of them were large
enough to carry twenty men.
Those in California were made from the pine, sycamore, and cotton-wood trees;
about half the size, seldom so well finished, and never so well modelled, as the former.
The larger canoes on the Columbia are sometimes propelled by short oars ; all the
others, by paddles which have long handles and short blades, and are steered by the
same. All those I saw were probably excavated with modern implements obtained
from the whites.
Those on the Rogue river were very roughly built — some of them scow fashion,

with flat bottoms. Among the Klamats, a bunch of bulrushes was used as a substi-

tute, lashed up in the shape of a sailor's hammock, but considerably larger; upon
which I take for granted the Indian sits astride, and makes use of it principally in

spearing fish.

" 230. — Is raw meat ever eaten ? Do they use metallic cooking vessels, generally,
and if so, what kinds ?"
They generally cook both meat and fish have been told that they have been
;

known to eat both raw.

They begin to use metallic cooking-vessels about the Columbia. Their mode of life
must make them irregular in their meals generally.

"231. —
Method of curing meats?"
They dry meat by cutting it in thin slices, and placing it on horizontal poles several
feet above the earth ; and in smoking it, have then only to build a fire underneath.

'
See a Jrawiiig in Vul. V. Exjiloring Expedition, p. 250.
 HISTOUY, AND GOVERNMENT. 219

Their fish is cured very imich in the siuuc w;i\' ; after which it is pounded quite
fine, und clusely packed, to be used upon certain occasions, and for tlieir winter's

supply.

'•232. — To what extent do the purely hunter tribes rely on these? Give a cata-
logue of them, denoting the various kinds of roots, trufHes, berries, and nuts relied on."
Among the roots most used, ai'e the kamass and bulrush.
" nuts " acorns and hazel-nuts.

„
" , . , f arbutus, service, whortle, and cranberries, black,
berries { -,

[ straw, rasp, and goose-berries.

" seeds " pine cone, grass, &c.,
and doubtless many others I know not of. Fox grapes may be added to the above
list; and in seasons of great scarcity, I have been told, they resort to certain barks.
With a moderate degree of industry, there would be no occasion for the last resort in
the country through which I passed.

"234. — What is the ordinary dress of the tribe, male and female?"
The ordinary dress of the tribes having frequent communication with the whites,
particularly in north Oregon, was a mixture of coarse cloth, skins, old cast-off

garments, and blankets which only covered a portion of their bodies, and set loosel}'

upon their persons. ' Going south from here, the amount of clothing diminishes ; so

that before you leave the Callapuya country, you frequently see the males with only a
covering amidships. Continuing south until you arrive among the Umpquas, even
this last excuse for a covering generall}^ disappears ; and you find them as nature has
endowed them, apparently unconscious of what to us appears improper in such an
expos^.
The females, however, appear more modest and shy, do not expose themselveis
unnecessarily ; and those who have arrived at the age of puberty are seldom seen
without some covering, extending from a little above to just below their hips, and
equivalent to what is usually tenned a " maro." This generally consists of a tasselled
belt, made of bark, grass, and feathers, &c., that encircles the bodj- just above the hips,
and answers admirably for the purpose intended.

With the addition of a little tattooing, or an occasional daub of paint, nudity-

continues fa.sliionable, until you arrive again within the influence of the whites on the
Sacramento, which at this time did not extend above Captain Sutter's, or navigable
waters.

—
"235. Are there any other peculiar adaptations of dress to varying circumstances?
Are there summer and winter dresses ?"

'
Speciiueu uf the Callapuja tribe, 5th vol. Exploring Expedition, p. 223
220 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
About the Columbia, the thick blanket is worn in the summer as well as winter; and
some covering would be found almost as necessary in
farther south, I should think,
protecting them from the sun's rays in the summer, as from the cold blasts in the

winter ; but from the preceding answer it will be seen they seldom provide against

either.

"236. —Do they attach a peculiar value to ornaments? What kinds of ornaments
are most desired ?"
They appear to value ornaments, although they exhibit but few. Among those
worn are feathers of different colors, beads, buttons, porcupine quills, rings, bracelets,

and shells.

The latter, I was told, constitutes a kind of currency among them. Some puncture
the lobes of their ears, and others, but more rarely, the central or cartilagineous
portion of their nasal organ, for the purpose of suspending some ornament.

" 237. —Are there any native dye-stuffs, or roots or vegetables, employed in coloring
parts of their clothing, or ornaments ?"
They use paints, dyes, and ochres, or colored clays, either upon their persons, dress,
or implements.
Some of them tattoo their faces, as well as their arms and breasts ;
' this habit is not
confined entirely to the male, but, so far as I could see, is, to adults, much the most
common with the males, and less so with either sex than among the nations of the
Pacific islands generally.

" 239. —What are the customs and fashions of wearing the hair and beard? Is the

whole head shaved ? Is the beard generally extirpated by the tweezei's, or other
mechanical means ?"

Hair generally worn long, but not unfrequently tied up in a bunch : have seen it

cut quite close on some of their boys. Beard very uncommon ; suppose it to have
been extirpated by some mechanical means.

"241. — What is the general scope and capacity of the Indian mind, as compared
with other stocks of the human race ?"
In regard to their mental capacity, lielieve them generally inferior to the tribes east

of the Rocky Mountains, but superior to some tribes in South America; for more
reliable data and particulars upon this subject, which I had but little opportunity of
following up, I must again refer to the notes or work of Mr. Hale, the Philologist of
the Exploring Expedition, which I have not yet seen, but presume it must convey
some valuable information upon this subject, and others that I must pass over.

'
See a specimen in 5th vol. Exploring Expedition, page 242.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 221

« 258. — How far has knowledge, art, and commerce, and the general progress of
civilization, affected the improvement of the Indians, and changed or modified their

original manners, customs, and opinions?"

The effect of semi-civilization among some of these Indians, resulting from frequent

intercourse among the whites, appeared to me to have produced but little other change

than that of dress, and a more tame and friendly feeling toward the whites.
And when opposed to this, you throw in liquor and some other of the refinements
attending civilization, it may be a question with some whether it would not have been
better for them to have lived and died in their savage state.

This reflection forces itself upon me, as from day to day I now read of the continual
murders and massacres among these same people.
Only to-day 150 are reported to have been massacred by the whites in the " Shaste"
country.

"259. —What are the prominent effects, physical and intellectual, of the inter-

mixture, by marriage, between the European and Indian races ? Has the tribe been
much affected by such intermarriages?"
Not affected by amalgamation with the whites.
The few white trappers who had Indian wives had generally taken them from the
tribes farther east, and their children were yet young.

" 260. —What is the present rate of progress of population of the tribe, compared with
former periods ? Are they advancing or receding ?"
From causes already alluded to, I believe they are rapidly diminishing in numbers,
that they cannot keep up their tribal organization many years longer, and if not
removed, or reinforced by bands lying east of them, that very few will be found aUve
in 1870.

"262. — What general changes have taken place in regard to costume and clean-
?"
liness, in the tiibe, and in their habits or modes of living, and general housewifery
See answer to question 258.

" 263. — Is this test of the barbaric or hunter state still tolerated ; and if so, to what
extent ?"

See answer to question 161.

"264. —What is the present state of the tribe in respect to Christianity?"

The tribes in the Willamette valley, and about the Columbia, from Astoria to Walla
Walla, have several j-ears enjoyed the advantages of Christian teachers, both
Protestant and Catholic : up to the time of my visiting the country, they had been but
222 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
a few years operating, and very little had been accomplished ; if they have been more
successful since, the result -will, I presume, be made known through reliable sources

civilization, with its concomitants, has perhaps thrown as many obstacles as aids in

their way of accomplishing good.

" 265. — Are the principles of temperance, in the use of ardent spirits, on the increase
or decrease ?"
The principles of temperance, which at one time were so much encouraged in Oregon
by the Hudson Bay Company's officers, have been very much neglected with the
increase of population and confusion growing out of the gold discovery, and it appears
quite problematical if liquor will be again interdicted while the Indian lives.

"266. — What are the prominent facts in relation to the cause of education, in

reclaiming and exalting the tribe ? What means have been found most effective in
the education of their children and j'outli ? Have females duly participated in these
means, and has any part of such means been applied to such branches as are essential
them for the duties of mothers and housewives ?"
to qualify

Education, like religion, had made but little progress in Oregon, notwithstanding the
earnest and laudable efforts of the American Baptist Mission, both male and female,
who had succeeded in overcoming the prejudices of the Indian parents, and induced
them to send their children to school ; but like young partridges caged up, they were
difficult to tame, and upon the first good opportunity would run away, swim the rivers,

and return to their homes ; sometimes their parents would carry them back, and the
next good chance they would run again.
I did not hear that harsh treatment was resorted to in such cases. It would no
doubt prove ineffectual.
The girls were reported more tractable than the boys, and some of the half-breeds,
Canadian and Indian, were making considerable progress.

"268. — Is there any interest observable in the improved modes of agriculture?"

Have made no progress in agriculture, and so far as I could see, appeared perfectly
indifferent about it.

" 269. — Have the tribe provided for the construction of roads, bridges, and ferries,

either bj- an appropriation of their general funds, or by imposing the duty of personal
service or tax, on the residents of the sevei'al districts ?"
Have literally done nothing.

" 270. — To what extent is the English language spoken, and English books read,
and what is the tendency of opinion and practice on this subject, in the tribe ?"
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 223

Saw but two of the Klatsop tribe that pretended to speak the English hiuguago,
and their knowledge in regard to it Avas very limited.
Mj opinion has already been expressed upon several of these i^oints ; their condition
will not be much improved until our laws are enforced among them, restraining the
whites as well as themselves.

" 288. — Have there been any striking changes in the physical type of the Indian
race, beyond that produced by latitudes and longitudes, and by their manner of
subsistence ?

The physical difference between the Indians found at the mouth of the Columbia,
and those inhabiting the upper valley of the Sacramento, is very striking ; and very
much in favor of the latter, who resemble the Pacific Islanders more than any I met
with on tlie coast. This difference is, perhaps, as much due to their different manner
of subsistence, as to latitude and climate : the language is also very different.

Many of the questions that follow I must pass over, having gained but little

knowledge of the structure of their difierent languages, which vary very much, and
to me appeared neither homologous nor homogeneous.
Through the assistance of an intelligent American, by the name of Rodgers, (who,
with his young wife, was afterwards carried over the Willamette falls in a canoe, and
drowned,) I endeavored to make out a vocabulaiy of the Callapuya language; but
owing to their indolence and indifference, had not proceeded far when the former was
taken sick, and left me. I afterwards employed a Canadian, who understood the
jargon spoken about the Columbia river, but who could not interpret after leaving the
Callapuya country. The language which I had pre^dously heard most spoken about
the Columbia was the Klatsop dialect, of which I can furnish the meaning to a few
words, viz. :
—
Ikaui, or Akaui Their principal god, or deity.
So-ole Another god, or name for same.

Ital-a-pus " "of fish.

Tam-au-a-wa " " " dancing.

Steokum " « " evil.

Boston ships A general name for all ships.

Boston man '•' " " white men.

Co-at-la-li-kum Man.
Cloach-man Woman.
Chicks Friend.
Chu-ban Horse.
Moos-moos Cow.
Mo-u-ets Deer.
Cula-cula Bird.
224 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
Ka-wacks Dog.
Qua-wack Salmon.
Qua-qua Duck.
Su-bits Wood.
Suk-walella Musket.
Olem-bo, or boh Pipe.
Kin-tie, or kin-u-tle Tobacco.
Ma-ma-lus-te Dead.
Loosh Dying.
Wobu-kata Die.
Muc, or muck Eating
Close-nau-ich Look-out.
Hi-as Great.
Sa-math Their future hunting-grounds.
E-to-ke-te Good.
Ni-ka I. Also, small.
Mi-ka You.
Yo-ka He.
A-ka She.
We-si-ka We — ours.
Mi-si-ka Ye — yours.
Klas-ka They — theirs.

I am not quite certain that I have, in every instance, adopted the spelling best suited
to convey the sound.
The language is extremely guttural, and it requires some ^jractice to catch the
sounds.
Many words in this language, I presume, are common to the Chimook language,
and, perhaps, to the Chickeeles, and Kilamukes, who mix with, and appear to
understand each other.
Grimace, more than gesticulation, appears to aid them in their expression; a
peculiarity less observable among the more southern tribes.
Finally, as a race, although they differ materially in language, in point of mental
and physical development, and the color of their hair, eyes, and skin, I question if
they differ more from each other than the people occupying the extremes of the
United States. They are generally well formed, below the whites in stature, have an
easy gait, but neither graceful nor handsome ; their eyes and hair usually black — the
latter occasionally brown, generally parted in the middle of the forehead, so as to
hang down each side ; noses broad and flat — some aquiline exceptions. The mouth
large, lips thick, teeth fair, but in adults generally more or less worn.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 22:,

They are wily, superstitious, lazy, indolent, and dirtj^ With these traits, united to
an implacable hostility which they generally entertain towards the whites, it does not,
I think, require much wisdom to predict their fate.

Facts that have developed themselves within the last year relating to these tribes,
must, I think, convince the observing that Indian agencies and treaties cannot alone
save them. It is melancholy to see them melting away so rapidly ; but it does not
appear to be intended that civilization should prevent it.

In conclusion, permit me once more to express my regret that I am able to furnish

you with so little information in regard to these tribes, of whom so little is known.
Very respectfully.

Your obedient servant,

George Falconer Emmons,
Henry E. Schoolcraet, Esq. Lieut. U. S. N.

Office of Indian Affairs, Washington, D. G.

3. THE DACOTAHS OR SIOUX OF THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI.

[Second Paper, continued from "Contributions," p. 199, Vol. II.]

BY PHILANDER PRESCOTT,
U. 8. DACOTAH INTERPRETER, FORT SNELLING AGENCY, MINNESOTA.

SUBJECTS OF PAPER.
1. Religion.

2. Mythology.
3. Manners and Customs.

RELIGION. — [continued.]
'•
135. Have they a class of persons who affect to wield the power of necromancy
or sorcery ? Do they affect to remove diseases, or to inflict them ? Do they believe

in witchcraft?"

Disturbances and murders are committed every now and then, on account of the
belief in supernatural powers. They believe they can kill each other in various ways.
So, if a person dies, some individual is charged with the offence, and revenge sought
(See Xos. 74 and 133.)
Pt. III. — 29
226 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
"136. — Do they believe in vampyres or in premonitions from tlie dead, or in the

theory of ghosts ? What is the Indian theory of dreams ? Ai-e dreams regarded as
revelations of the divine will ? Do they exercise much influence over the practical
affairs of the Indian life ? Are good dreams courted under the influence of abstinence?"
The Indians are much afraid of vampyres and the bat, and say they are a bad
omen Avhen they fly about them — also the Ljnis Fatuus, vulgarly called the Jack-o'-lan-

tern — the Indians are very much afraid of them. Whoever sees one of these at
night, it is a sure sign of death to some one of the family. Dreams are much believed
in by them, and they talk over their dreams, but what causes them they cannot tell.
One thing is certain, that their bad dreams are caused mostly by their over-eating at
night and going to sleep soon after. I have known an Indian to go to two or three
feasts of an evening, and eat all that was given him, which would amount to five or

six pounds of venison, with the fat along with it. In good dreams they suppose some
friendly spirit has been near them, giving them some good advice. Indians are often
downcast and think some ill flite is going to happen them. I suppose there is hardly
a day passes over an Indian family, but some omen is seen or heard ; therefore they
are very much troubled in their superstitious beliefs.

"137. — What species or degree of worship do the}', in fine, render to the Great

Spirit? Do they praise him in hynuis, chants, or choruses? Do they pray to him,

and if so, for what purpose ? Is it for success in hunting, war, or any other avoca-
tion of life ? Give, if you can, a specimen of their prayers."
To analyze the worship of Indians, in our view amounts to nothing at all. They
are very tenacious and say they are right, and are very zealous and cling to their

old habits like death, and will not give way to any kind of teaching. They pray, but
their prayers are very short. The following is a sample. " Spirits or ghosts, have

mercy on me and show me where I can find a deer or bear," (as the case may be,) and
so with all things. Their prayers are to the creature and not to the Creator. I once
was travelling witli some Indians by water. We came to a lake. The Indians took
their pipes and smoked, and invoked the winds to be calm, and let them cross the lake

in safety

"138. —
Do they fast that they may acquire mental purity, or cleanliness to
commune with him ? Are the general feasts at tlie coming in of the new corn, and
at the commencement of the general fall hunts, of a religious character ? Are these
feasts of the nature of thanksgivings? Are any of the choruses, or songs of the
prie.sts, sacred, or of a hieratic character? Is the flesh of the bear or dog which is

sacrificed, used to propitiate favor? Is it true, that all the flesh, bones, and the
'
purtenance ' of the animals sacrificed in the feast, must be eaten or burned, as in

the institution of the paschal supper?"

 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 227

I never knew any of the Dacotahs to fast on religious principles, but for one or two
things ; that is, the worship of the sun and moon. I have known them to fast two
and three days. The worship of the sun, (Plate 27,) is caused by some one having
dreamed of seeing the sun. Tlie worship is performed at intervals of about four or
five minutes, by two young men in a most singular attitude. The two worshippers
are almost in a state of nudity-; only a piece of cloth about theirloins. The
worshippers have each of them a small whistle in their mouths, and foce the sun.
The mode of dancing is a kind of hitch of first one leg and then the other ; but they
keep time to the singing and beating upon raw hides or parchment. In their singing
there are no words used, nothing but the chorus appropriate to such occasions. The
nearest and best comparison that I can make of them when worshipping, is a frog held
up by the middle, with its legs about half drawn up. This dance is kept up two and
three days, during which time the worshippers eat no food. The feast of the new
crop is made for what we would term a thanksgiving ; but the Indians apply it in

honor to their war-medicine and the medicine used among themselves. If a man
makes a feast of new corn, it is in honor of his war medicine. If a woman makes a
corn feast, it is in honor of the medicine they use among themselves. At these feasts,
if a person does not eat all that is given him or her, they do not have to pay for it, as
in some of their feasts; but otherwise, the one that eats up his dishfull first, will

probably receive a present from the person who made the feast, of a gun or large kettle,
or some traps. This being a common custom amongst them, there is always amongst
the eaters a great strife to see who will eat up their portion first, and get the present.
As soon as the word is given for them to commence eating, the work commences, and
such blowing, stirring, eating, and sweating, as that the grunting animals could not
surpass them. The music is vocal, but nothing but a chorus, but considered sacred

amongst the Indians. In some of their feasts, everything is sacred. Not a morsel of
the meat must fall to the ground. The spirits will be displeased and some great
calamity will befall them. The bones are all gathered up, and either burnt or thrown
into the water, so that the dogs cannot get them, nor be trampled upon by the women
in particular ; because they consider a woman very unclean at times, and it would be
a great sin for them to step on or over any part of the remnants of their offerings.

"139. — Ai'e the leaves of the tobacco plant, which are cast on the waters or burned
in the pipe, offered as sacrifices to the Great Sj^irit ?"

Tobacco is used in most of their ceremonies except the feasts above mentioned. I

never saw them use any. Its perfumes are offered to the ghosts, or spirits, on many
occasions, for good luck in hunting, for calm weather, for clear weather, &c.

"140. — Have you observed any traces of the Ghebir worship, or the idea of an
eternal fire ? It is seen in their pictorial scrolls of bark, that they draw the figure of
228 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
the suu to represent the Great Spirit. Is the sun the common symbol of the Great
"
Spirit ? Do they now, or did their ancestors, worship him through this symbol ?

These Lidians have not many symbolic ideas. The answer to this question is given
above.

"141. —What are the notions of the tribe on the nature and substance of fire, or
caloric ? Is fire obtained from the tlint, or from percussion, deemed more sacred than
"
from other sources ?

Fire obtained in any way appears to be all the same to them. Fire formerly was
obtained by friction, (Fig. 1, Plate 28.) A piece of wood was squared or flattened, so
as to make it lie steadily. A small hole was commenced with the point of a stone.
Then another small stick was made, round and tapering at one end. The small end
is placed in the small hole of the piece of wood first described. The Indian puts one
hand each side of the small round stick, say six inches long, and commences turning
it as fast as possible back and forth. Another person holds the under piece with one
hand, and a piece of spunk in the other, so that where there is the least signs of fire,

he is ready to touch the spunk, and kindle the fire by putting the lighted spunk into a
bunch of dry grass that had been rubbed fine in the hands. In this way they say
they have made a fire in a short time, when all the materials were ready.

" 142. —Did the Indian priests, at former periods, annually, or at any set time, direct
the fire to be extinguished in the Indian lodges, and ashes cast about to desecrate them,
"
that they might furnish the people new and sacred Gre to re-light them ?
The Indians, when they make their sacred feasts, remove all the fire from the lodge,
and rekindle it from the flint and steel before the food is put on to cook, so as to be
sure and not have anything unclean about the feast. For my part, I am forced to

believe that these feasts are handed down from the children of Israel, but have through
time lost all their original features and merits.

" 143. —What notions have they of the planetary system ? Are the stars or planets

regarded as parts of a system ?"

The Indians do not profess to know much about the stars, although they have names
for a few of them.

" 144. — How do signs affect them ? Do omens and prognostications exercise a strong
sway over the Indian mind ? Do they ever influence councils in their deliberations, or
war-parties on their march ? Are predictions, drawn from the flight of birds, much
relied on ? Are auguries ever drawn from the sombre hue, shape, or motions of the
clouds ?"
The Dacotahs have many signs, as fowls fl^nng, animals running, and sounds at
night. In their war-excursions the Indians are often guided by signs and dreams.
 ?.ar^;

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 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 229

" 145. — Is there reason to believe the Indians to be idolaters? Are images of wood
or stone ever worshipped ? or is there any gross and palpable form of idolatry in the
"
existing tribes, similar to that of the oriental world ?

The Dacotahs have no images of wood that they worship, nor have they any edifices

for public worship. These Indians worship in their natural state. An Indian will
pick up a round stone, of any kind, and paint it, and go a few rods from his lodge, and
clean away the grass, say from one to two feet in diameter, and there place his stone,
or god, as he would term it, and make an offering of some tobacco and some feathers,
and pray to the stone to deliver him from some danger that he has probably dreamed
of, or from imagination.

" 146. — Do they believe in the immortality of the soul, and the doctrine of moral
accountability to the Creator? Do they believe in the resurrection of the body? Do
"
they believe, at all, in the doctrine of rewards and punishments in a future state ?

The Indians believe in the immortality of the soul, but as for accountability they

have but a vague idea of it. Future I'ewards and punishments they have no concep-
tion of All that they can say respecting the soul is, when it leaves the body, it goes
southward, but of its abode they have no fixed idea. Everything appears to be dark
and mysterious with them respecting the future state of both the soul and body.

'•
147. —What is the common notion of the Indian paradise? Do the virtuous and
vicious alike expect to enjoy its fruitions? Are there any deaths in the Indian
paradise ? Or is it a final state ? Will there be any giants or enchanters there ? Will
there be any wars ?"
They believe that each soul acts for itself As for the Indians' paradise, they have
not looked far enough into futurity to give any kind of an idea about it. They think
they will still continue to be at enmity with their former enemies. As many as four

souls inhabit one person, like a bear, which the Indians say has four spirits; and
beheve some other animals have souls.

"148. — Is there not a perversion of the doctrine of immortality respecting the brute
creation ? Do the Indians believe in the resurrection of animals ? Do they believe

that the Great Spirit has given the brute creation souls and reasoning powers, as well
as man? An Indian, in 1820, begged pardon of a bear, whom he had shot on the
shores of Lake Superior. Did this imply that he was to encounter him, as an immortal
being, in another life ?

The Indians believe that many animals have the power to injure them, by a
migrating movement. In man}' cases, where an Indian is taken sick, he lays bis
sickness to some biped, quadruped, or amphibious animal ; but they charge some of
their own people with the cause of some animals torturing them with sickness, and
230 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
the only way they have of driving the animal from the sick is to make something
similar to it of bark, and shoot it to pieces. The following is a list of the Indians'
laws of prohibition, and if not obeyed, some one of the family has to suffer ; so they
are most always in trouble. For- instance, a turtle a woman must not step over.
None of the family must stick an awl or a needle into the turtle : if they do, they are
sure the turtle will punish them for it, at some future time. The same with a coon, a
fisher, a bear, a wolf, a fish ; in fiict, as to almost all kinds of animals, they must not stick

an awl or needle into them. Also with a stick of wood on the fire. No person must
chop on it with an axe or knife, or stick an awl into it. If he does, some one will
either cut himself, or run a stab in his feet, for so doing. Neither are they
allowed to take a coal from the fire with a knife, or any other sharp instru-
ment. A woman must not ride or bridle a horse. A woman must not handle the
sack used for war purposes. A woman must remain out of doors during the time of
her menstruation, and the war implements must hang out of doors during that
time. The Indian, praying to the bear, was fearful that some other bear might take
the wounded bear's part, and probably tear him to pieces. If a bear attacks an

Indian, and tears him, the Indian will say at once the bear was angry with him. The
fear that tliey have of them is in this life. As for animals having reasoning powers,
I have heard Indians talk and reason with a horse, the same as with a person. I have
known many instances of horses running away from The owner would
their owners.

say the horse Avas mad, or displeased, because they had not given him a belt, or a piece
of scarlet cloth to wear about his neck.

The red hand spoken of by Mr. Stevens as seen on the walls of the ruins in Central
America, is a veiy common thing amongst the Dacotahs. You will see sometimes a
whole row of the stamp of the whole hand, with red paint, on their blankets. The
paint that they use is oxide of iron. They pick it up in many places in this country,
and burn it, then pulverise it, and it makes paint equal to Spanish brown. This
represents that the wenrer has been wounded in action by an enemy. If the stamp is

with black paint, it denotes he has killed an enemy in action.

"149. —What peculiar societies characterize Indian life? Are these societies bound
by the obligation of secrecy ? What secret rites exist ? Do they partake of a reli-
gious, festive, or other character ? What knowledge do they profess to cultivate ? Is
the knowledge and practice of medicine confined to the members or professors of these
societies ?"

The clans in the great medicine dance are kept secret. The Indians that are not
memljers of the dance, know no more about it than the white people. They have
many feasts that they call religious feasts. There are two societies : one is the
medicine society ; the others are not members of the medicine society ; still, out of
these feasts and dances, they have no distinction — all are on an equal footiug. I
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 231

cannot ia.y these feasts are free from vice or bad people. In the great medicine dance,
there are people of all sorts and morals ; the murderer, the drunkard, the adulterer,
the adulteress, the thief, &c., &c., are all associated in the great medicine dance. Still,

it is a mysterious thing, and equally as secret, and probably more so, than Free-
masonrj- ; for there are instances where Free-masonry has been divulged, but the great
medicine dance of the Dacotahs I never heard, nor has tradition handed down an
instance, of their secrets having been divulged. (See No. 12.) We cannot perceive
that there is any more wisdom amongst the medicine party, than there is in those that
do not belong to it. Neither are they more artful, only to do mischief, and keep the
people in ignorance. They oppose everything that tends to enlighten them. Could
this absurd practice be broken up, no doubt this people would listen to good counsel
but the medicine party claim to be possessed of supernatural powers ; therefore they
fear each other, and so they end their days in mutual fear of this imaginary power.
As for songs, they have no lengthy ones ; three or four words is about the length of
them. They have a number of tunes, or choruses, which they sing on many occasions
at feasts, dances, &c.

Mythology.

" 150. —What peculiar myths have the tribe ? Do they believe that the great spirit
of evil manifests himself on the earth, in the form of the serpent? Are the rattle-

snake, and other venomous species, more than others, invested with fearful powers?
Do the priests sometimes put these into their drums ? Is the respect and veneration
paid to serpents, the true cause of their lives being spared when encountered in the

forest ? Do they offer tobacco to appease the spirit of the snake ?"
As to their belief of evil spirits, they do not understand the difference between a
great good spirit and a great evil spirit, as we do. The idea that the Indians have is,

that a spirit can be good when necessary, and do evil if it thinks fit. The rattle-

snake is much feared by them, and in fact all kinds of snakes are looked upon with
horror ; still, they will not kill one of them. I never knew of any Indians putting
the rattlesnake in their drums, but they use the skin in the great medicine dance.
The rattles are also kept in their medicine-bags. The Indians say, if they kill the

rattlesnakes, some other one will bite them for so doing. Indians sometimes smoke to
serpents, and ask them to be friendly to them, and go away and leave them. Some-
times they will leave a piece of tobacco as a peace-offering.

"151. — Is the belief in metamorphosis general? Do they believe that various

quadrupeds, birds, or reptiles, were transformed into men ?"
These Indians have no such belief.
232 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
" 152. —Do they believe in the Pythagorean doctrine of metempsychosis, or the
transmigration of souls ?"

They have no belief of this kind.

"153.
—"What particular animals stand high in their mythology, and how does this

belief aflfect their institutions ? Do the respect and honor which are paid to the turtle,
wolf, and bear, and to the clans who bear these devices, (vide 77,) arise from the
supposed importance of ancient heroes or valiant men, who fell under the necromantic
power of evil spirits or wizards? And what influence has this myth had on the
original establishment of the totemic system of the clans ?"

The honor that is paid to these animals, is to keep peace with them ; for they fear
that they can supernaturally send diseases upon them. This myth is kept up by the
clans of the medicine party, and probably, in some instances, deters them from
injuring each other.

" 154. —What fabled gods, demigods, heroes, and viewless spirits, or genii of the air
and earth, have they embraced in their oral traditions? Who were Inigorio and
Inigohatatea ? Are they allegorical representations of the Great Spirit's will in the
moral world? What demigods, giants, or heroes, are denoted by the names Quet-
zalcoatl, Tarenyawago, and Manabozho?"
Nothing of this amongst these Indians, only the winds. They have a name for the
four cardinal points, which are described as follows : the way of the setting sun is
west, the situation of the jiiues is north, the way the sun rises is east, the downward
direction is south. There is supposed to be an animal in the water, who has large
horns, and which they call Unk-a-ta-he. The Indians pretend to be in possession of
its bones, in small pieces, which they value very highly for medicine.

" 155. —What are the names and classes of their principal local deities, or woodland
spirits, and what analogy do they bear to the mythological creations of the old world ?

Is there a class of creations analogous to fairies ? Are there fairies of the water, as
well as of the land ? Are the Indian pachwies visible or invisible ? Are they vicious
or benign? Do these creations delight to dwell in romantic retreats, or at picturesque
points ? Are there nymphs and dryads, who reside in
local sj^irits, or a kind of local
caves or at cascades, or inhabit Do they protect or entrap
cliffs or mountains?
travellers ? Do the natives believe in mermaids or mermans ? "
The Dacotahs believe in fairies of the water, and say they often see them in all
shapes of animals they think them vicious, and consider it an omen of some calamity
;

that is to befall them. They believe there are fairies of the land, as well as in the
water. There are local spirits inhabiting almost all singular places of the Indian
country — as cliffs, mountains, rivers, lakes, &c., &c. ; they believe these spirits trouble
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 233

them often. They believe in what they call Unk-a-ta-he of two kinds ; one of the
water, and one of the land. They say these animals have great power, and can even
kill the thunder. They have a country for their spirits to go to. Some of their
people have died, and returned back from the spirit land, and say they saw a large
city, full of spirits of all classes of people.

"156. — Are the Indian allegories, fables and lodge stories, mentioned in Title V.,
fruitful in the revelation of their mythological notions? Are such oral tales and
relations common? Do they form a species of lodge-lore, which the young early
"
learn ?

The Lidians have many oral tales that they tell in the lodge at night to their rela-

tions, in relation to all kinds of people and animals.

"157. — Is thunder personified? How many thunderers are there? Are they
located in different quarters of the heavens ? What is their various character, and
?
origin

Thunder is a large bird, they say ; hence its velocity. The rumbling noise of
thunder is caused by an immense quantity of young birds ; it iscommenced by the old
bird, and carried on by the young birds, or thunders ; this is the cause of the long

duration of the peals of thunder. The Indian says it is the young birds, or thunders,
that do the mischief; they are like the young mischievous men who will not listen to

good counsel. The old thunder or bird is wise and good, and does not kill anybody,
nor do any kind of mischief.

"158. —What fabled monsters and dragons, with wings or horns, filled the antique
epochs of the world ; and who killed them, or how were the races extirpated ? Has
their system of mythology been affected by the introduction of Christianity ? Some-
thing of this kind is thought to be observable in examining the ancient jjicture-

writings of the Aztecs, Avritten after the conquest of Mexico, and it is important to
guard against this intermixture of original and interfused notions."
The only fabled monsters we hear of, are the Giant and the Unk-a^tarhe ; the Giant
surpasses all in power, and the Unk-arta-he next. The Giant, or Ha-o-kuh, can kill
anything it looks at, merely by its piercing eyes. They are yet in existence. We do
not perceive that the system of mythology has been affected by Christianity as yet.
The Indians' notions in this country are mostly all premature ; as yet, some few may
have an intermixture of notions.

Manners and Customs.

"159. — Are the of consanguinity strong? Are there terms
ties for each degree of"

relationship, and what are they the degrees?

forAre the different same names uscl
— 30
Pt. III.
234 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
for collateral relatives by the father's as by the mother's side ? Are the same terms
used for elder and younger brother, and for elder and younger sister ? Are the words
aunt and uncle by the mother's side the same as aunt and uncle by the father's side ?
By what terms are the dead alluded to ? State any peculiarities which may exist in
the terms denoting kindred, age, or sex, or other particulars in the family names,
Avhich mark them, or distinguish the principles of speech in the family circle from
those of other known nations."
They have a degree of relationship, three and four generations back. The old
women generally keep this account, and are very correct. They have no sur-
names, but always live near together ; their houses are not more than ten feet apart.
They cannot well forget their relationship ; the father's name, as well as that of the
mother, is recollected for three or four generations. They are not named after either
of the parents ; an Indian may be called a White Spider, and his son a White Whale,
or Red Bufliilo ; and so with a woman. The mother may be called the Checkered
Cloud, and the daughter may be called Grey Hand, or Red Blanket.
The same names
are not used for elder bi'other and younger. The first male child may be named
Chiska the second, Hapan third, Hape fourth, Chahlun fifth, Hah-ka the first
; ; ; ; :

female, Wenvonah the second, Hahpan third, Hahpistinah fourth, Wauska fifth,
; ; ; ;

Wehahka. If there are any more born, they have to give them some other name, for
they have no more regular names for children and after a short time, these names ;

are changed to some outlandish things. Aunt and uncle are the same on both sides.
The dead are alluded to, and their names left to be understood. The names of the
deceased are seldom spoken by the Indians ; they say such an one's brother or sister,

uncle or aunt, as the case may be, is dead. All Indian names are peculiar to their
habits and customs; the men have different expressions from the women, and new
beginners are laughed at frequently by both men and women. To a man, they say
you talk like a woman ; and to a woman, they say you talk like a man. The lan-
guages of all the nations differ so much that they cannot understand each other.

" 160. —Does the hunter state insure abundance of food and clothing to the family ?

How is this state, in its domestic bearings, affected by polygamy, and what are the
terms and relative affections of stepmothers and children ? Are wives well treated
under the actual state of the hunter life ? Are they ever interfered with in the house-
"
hold affairs, and management of the domestic economy ?

The hunter does not furnish abundance of food and clothing. Now and then an
Indian will furnish a plenty of venison for his family for a month or two in the winter.
Some of them do not kill more than from two to ten deer in the winter hunts. Some
kill from ten to fifty. So those that have good luck feed the poor. The clothing the
Indian takes in credit of the traders, for which he pays one-half to two-thirds of the
amount. Polygamy is the cause of a great deal of their miseries and troubles. The
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 235

women, most of them, abhor the practice, l)ut are overruled by the men. Some of the

women commit suicide on this account. Some of their steimiothers are kind. Some
are very bad, and the children are treated accordingly. Their wives, or dogs, as some
of the Indians term them, are well treated, as long as they let the men have their

own way, and do all the work, except liunting. They keep as many wives as the}'

want; and if a woman remonstrates against this, (that is, polygamy,) she probably will
get a beating. The men do not often interfere with the work of the women neither ;

will they help them if they can avoid it, for fear of being laughed at and called a
woman.

"161. — Are the labors of husband and wife equally or unequally divided? Does
the public security of their hunting-grounds, arising from council and warlike expedi-
tions, enter into the views of the wife, as constituting an acceptable part of the
husband's duty ? Who makes the arms and implements of war ? Who makes canoes,
paddles, cradles, bowls, and dishes ? Who plants, and hoes, and gathers the fruits of

the field? Who makes fish-nets, weaves mats, and cuts rushes, and gathers wild rice?
Run through the entire class of forest labors, and draw a comparison between the
relative industry, or time, devoted by the husband and the wife."

The labors are not equally divided. Take the year round, probably, it is for a

month or two in the winter, when the men are most bus}' ; it is in the midst of the

winter hunts. The women often upbraid one another for their cowardice, and think it

is right for their husbands to defend their country and family. The men make all the
arms and implements of war and the women are not allowed to touch them, nor go
;

near them, particularly when menstruation is with them. Men and women make
canoes, paddles, cradles, bowls, and spoons. The women plant and hoe the corn, and
gather it. The men sometimes help to husk the corn. The women make mats, pull
rushe-s, gather wild rice, cut the wood, carry the lodge, cut the grass, cook, prepare
the skins and furs for market, dress the skins, mend them, mend
make moccasins, and
clothing, and make them, dig make pemican. In the
roots, dress meat, pound and
summer a man does not work more than an hour in the day. Through the summer
the women labor about six hours per day. In winter the men will average about six
hours in a day, and the women about ten hours per day.

"162. — What are the usual causes of family jars in the Indian lodge? Are
domestic discords common ? Is the loss of youth and youthful attractions in the wife

a cause of neglect ? Does barrenness produce dissatisfaction ? Do children give their

mother an additional power over her husband's affections ?"

Domestic discords are often in a village, not in every family. Some families live a

long time without any serious quarrelling, and some are at it all the time. Some are

passionate and cross, and scold. Barrenness does not appear to displease them in some
236 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
cases. As children increase, the parents appear to be more affectionate ; but then this
friendship is often broken up by the husband taking a second or third wife. At the

age of fort}-, fifty, and sixty years, we see some of the Indians seeking to get a new
wife. In the case of plurality of wives, the most vicious and strongest one is mistress

of the lodge. The Indian is generally sedate and dignified. The Indian women are

as fond of dress as any other people in the world ; and put on all the finery they can get

— silver brooches, wampum, ribbons, or blankets of fine cloth. I have seen a woman's
dress that was all covered with large and small brooches, and garnished blankets and
leggins, which cost them probably two hundred dollars. Where there is a plurality of
wives, if one gets finer goods than the other, you may be sure there will be some
quarrelling among the women ; and if one or two of them are not driven off, it is

because they have not strength enough to do so. The man sits and looks on, and lets

them fight it out. If the one he loves most is driven off, he will go and stay with her
and leave the others to shirk for themselves awhile, until they can behave better, as

he says.

"163. — How is order preserved in the limited precincts of the lodge? Casual
observers would judge there was but little. Inquire into this subject, and state what
are the characteristic traits of living in the wigwam, or Indian house. How do the
parents and children divide the space at night ? How are wives, and females of every
condition, protected in their respective places, and guarded from intrusion ? Is there

seat, or abhinos, as it is called, for each inmate ?"

a prescribed or fixed
There is but little order in the lodge. Children act much as they please, and every
Indian is a king in his own lodge. The children generally roll themselves up in their
blanket by themselves ; that is, after they are four, five, or six years old. Under this

age they generally sleep with their parents or grand-parents. Fear is the best pro-

tection. The fear of being punished is what keeps many of them from committing
crimes. There is a fixed seat for the man and for the wife. The woman sits next
the door and the man sits next to her, or in the back part of the lodge. As the
woman has all the drudging to do, she sits next the door, so as to be handy to get out.

The woman has one particular way of sitting. She always draws her feet up under
her to the right side, and thus sits for hours sometimes ; a position no white could
remain in twenty minutes, I believe, (Plate 29.) The man does not sit in this position
at all, but tumbles and lounges about as he pleases. They all sit flat upon tlie ground
on some straw and skins of different kinds. This is in the lodge. The summer-house
is from twenty to thirty feet long, and fifteen to twent}^ wide, with a platform on each
side about two feet high and six wide. On this platform they all sleep in summer
generally four families in a lodge, sometimes more. If there are four families, each

one will have a corner, and if there are more, (young married people, for instance,)
they take the middle.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 237

" 1C4. Sociality in the lodge circle. Are tlie inmates taciturn and formal, or do
they, when relieved from the presence of strangers, evince a general ease and spirit of

sociality ? Is this observed particularly on their Avintcring grounds in remote parts of

the forest? Do they eat at certain hours of the day? How many meals do they
take in the twenty-four hours ? Do they address the Great Spirit at any meal or feast,
by way of prayer? Are their appetites regular or capricious, admitting of great
"
powers both of abstinence and of repletion ?

We believe they are diflSdent, and have some respect for strangers, and are more
modest before them than at other times, and are very secret in sleeping together. I

have lived Avith them for many days and months at a time, and never saw an improper
secret exposure. Their habits and customs are not the same in winter as in summer.
The men say they do not sleep with their wives more than once or twice a month. In
the winter they have no particular hours for eating. It is according to the quantity
of food they have that determines how many times they eat in a da}-. If they have
plenty, they eat often ; if not, from one to two meals per day. The women are no
eaters in comparison to them. common meals they seldom offer up thanks.
lu the
Sometimes an Indian mil say " Wah negh on she wan da;" which means, Spirits of the
dead, have mercy on me. Then they will add what they want; if good weather,
they say so ; if good luck in hunting, they say so. This is about the amount of the
Indian's prayer. Their appetites are capricious, admitting of great powers of absti-

nence and of repletion. Some Indians I suppose have eaten a gallon of food and
probably more at one meal.

" 165. — Is thei'e any tradition of the institution of marriage ? Has it the sanction
of the Indian medas, or priests, or of the parents only ? What are its ceremonies ?

Is the preparation of an abbinos in the mother-in-law's tent, to receive the bride, a part

of these ceremonies ? Is this act done with parade ? Are the mats, skins, clothing,
"
and ornaments, appropriated to it, where the parties can afford it, rich and costly ?

They have a marriage ceremony or form of marriage, which is considered lawful

and binding. The parents or relations are the only persons consulted. The priests

have nothing to say in the marriage affairs. There is very little ceremony inside the
lodge. The ceremony is outside the lodge. The mother-in-law has something to say
in the choice, and that is about all. The bride is received in the open air, and with
some pomp and ceremony. The dress for the bride is as costly as can be obtained.

" 166. —How are courtships managed? Are there regular -sasits to the lodge, or are

the interviews casual ? Do young persons, of both sexes, adorn themselves, to become
more atti'active? Do they use anj- jieculiar paints or ornaments? Do young men
play near the lodge, on the pibbigwun, or Indian flute ? Are these chants appropriate ?
Do they make presents to the object of their esteem ? Are presents made to the
238 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
parents ? How is consent asked ? Wlien are the parents consulted ? Are matches
"
ever made without their consent ?
Courtships can be carried on at almost any time, owing to their being huddled
together, and all the time meeting each other about the lodges. Some we may say,

make their visits regularly to the lodge ; others do not ; and some may not visit the

lodge at all, or ever have spoken to the woman, and the first thing she knows she is

bought. Both sexes adorn themselves. Red is the most used. The young men
play on the chotunkah, or flute. If they make presents, it is of little amount. Finger
rings, or ear rings, are about the amount of presents to girls. Consent is asked by
sending the price of the gii-1. If accepted, the girl is sent; if not, the goods are

faithfully returned. I have known the goods to be returned because there was no
powder-horn. There are many matches made by elopement, much to the chagrin of

the parents.

"167. —At what age do the Indians generally marry? Are there bachelors, or

persons who never marry ? Are there beaux, or young men addicted to dress ? Do
widowers remarry, and is there an^- rule, or limit of propriety observed ? Do young
widows usually marry again ? Are their chances of marriage affected by having
"
previously had children ?

The}' marry at the age of from ten to twenty. I do not know of a bachelor among
them. They liave a little more respect for the women and themselves, than to live a
single life. The young only are addicted to dress. Widowers and widows remarry,
the most of them. They go almost always one year before they marry some two or ;

three years. A woman having many children, is a detriment to her getting married.
Their having children does not appear generally to be much in the way of marriage.

" 168. — How does a forest life affect the laws of reproduction in the species? Does
the full or scanty supply of subsistence govern it? Are the changes of location,

fatigue, cold, and exposure to the vicissitudes of climate, felt in the general result of

Indian population ; and at what age do women cease bearing ? What is the highest

number of children born ? What is the earhest known age of parturition ? Are twins
"
common ? Is barrenness frequent ?

There appears to be no difiference. They have children at all times of the year, as

Avhites do. No doubt those cau.ses produce a large number of diseases. Many die in

inftincy, caused by exposure, and The women cease

many die of consumption.
bearing from thirty to fifty years of age. As the Indians do not know their age, we
cannot tell the exact time or age of bearing children but by all that we can see, we ;

think from thirteen to fifteen is as early as they have children. Fifteen or sixteen is

tlie largest families amongst the Dacotahs. Three to eight is a common family amongst

the Indians. Twins are not common. Barrenness is not common.

 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 239

"11)9. —Are strangers announced before reaching the lodge, and now are visits

ordered? Do parties of Indians stop, at a short distance, and send word of their
intended visit ? How are the ceremonies arranged, and how are guests received and
entertained ? Is precedence always awarded to guests ? Are social visits made, in
"
which these ceremonies are set aside ?

Visitors are announced by the children, generally, some time before they reach the
lodge. The Indians sometimes send word of an intended visit. The guests enter the
lodge, and, sitting, wait for a pipe to be lighted. After a puff or two, the pipe is

passed to the next one, and so on round. Sometimes twenty persons will smoke out
of one pipe, after which some food is set before them, which is eaten by the guests
alone, without any ceremony by many, by some a word of thanks is given to the
host. Social visits are made in their own villages. They give supper sometimes, and
at any time of the day a repast is given, in which there is but little ceremony.
Probably some old man will make a short speech of praise to the host. A messenger
is always sent. Hospitality is a general characteristic among the Sioux. There have
been instances of baseness and perfidy.

"170. — Are there persons who exercise the office of midwives ? Are the labors of
parturition severe? Are separate lodges provided? Are arrangements made in

anticipation ? Does any female friend attend as a nurse ? Are cases of solitary
confinement rare ? Is there any rite analogous to circumcision ?"

The grand-mothers, and the mothers of daughters, and when they are not at hand,
other women are called in. The men scarcely ever interfere in midwifery. Sometimes
the women are entirely alone, when they have children, and have no trouble,
apparently. Sometimes, when out on a hunting excursion, a woman may liave a child,
and there Avill be no one present but the husband, and a very awkward business they
make of it. The women often laugh at them in those cases. Arrangements are
made, as far as can be, for people that have nothing in common. The infant, when it
is born, is wraj^ped up in swan or goose down, then laid in a blanket, and wrapped up

warm in it, and tied up for a short time, say one hour. The child is then taken and
washed, and put back into the blanket, with a new band of down. There is a rite

performed, which I should think was analogous to circumcision ; that is, boring of the
ears, which is a ceremony of considerable display of feehng. Horses, guns, cattle,
&c., are given away on the occasion.

"171. —Are there any ceremonies at the naming of children? By whom is the
name given, and from what circumstance ? Does the father or mother bestow the
name ? Are these names usually taken from the objects or incidents of dreams, which
have impressed the minds of the sponsors, and are supposed to be sacred? What are

the usual names of males and females ? Give specimens.

240 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
There is no particular time for From one day to a year, and
naming children.

sometimes longer, they have for The parents give names, sometimes
naming children.

others do it. The first sometimes give a name their names are generally taken from
;

objects seen and heard. Tah-tun-kah-dootah, Red Buffalo, Tasen-i-chah, Ground

Squirrel, Nay-he-no-we-nah, or Spirit of the Moon. A woman's name, Hahzah-dootah-
win, the Eed Whortleberry. The word win is added to every woman's name, meaning
feminine, to distinguish it or them from men's names. There is no secrecy in children's
names, but when they grow up there is a secrecy in men's names. Etiquette, or respect
for persons, is the cause of it. Nicknames are given for some trifling or mischievous
conduct.

" 172. —Has the wife or husband the right of divorce? Must there be good causes,

and what are they generally ? Must the chief of the village be consulted ? What is

the common practice ? Which party takes the children ?"

There are divorces from one to many, caused by polygamy. Some, no doubt, have
cause for divorce. The chief seldom interferes. Both parties take the children some-
times. Other times the man, and sometimes the woman.

'•173. —How are children nursed and attended? What the kind is of cradle used
— how is constructed —
it well adapted
is the purposes of the
it to forest, and the
protection of the child from accident ? Is it suited to promote the natural growth and
expansion of tlie limbs? How do females become in-iocd? Are the feet of female
infants bound by their mothers in the cradle in such manner as to tinm i)i, and do
they thus determine their growth ? At what age are children weaned ? How do
children address their parents ? Do they abbreviate their words ? How do mothers
address their infants and children? Are there any terms of endearment?"
The children are nursed as well as could be expected for people in their situation.
The cradle is a flat piece of board, with a bow over the head it is well adapted for ;

the life they live. The mode of lashing the children does not appear to affect their
growth any. The men and women are all in-toed; I believe it is in their nature.
The feet of the infant are not turned in when they are bound. Children are weaned
at from one year to eighteen months. Father and mother Ahta is father, Enah is ;

mother. Some of their words are abbreviated. (My child. Mechuckshe, my son
Mechunckshe, my daughter.) They have words that they use for endearment.

*'174. — Is the domestic government left wliolly to Indian mothers? Is it well

exercised? Is there any discrimination, in tlie discipline, between male and female
children ?"
The management of children is left mostly to women. A male child is not
whipped as mucli as a female. Some women tliiuk it wrong t<i strike a boy any how.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 241

"175. —How is the identity of their traditions kept up? Are children initiated in

the knowledge or lore of their fathers, by tlio mother, in nursery tales, or are they
left to pick it up, at later periods, from mingling in dances, congregations, and feasts?"
The children arc taught by their parents all their customs ; and then again, they
see them acted out every day almost, so they cannot help but learn them. Grand-
mothers have much to say on the manners and customs, and traditions. There are
many that toll stories, and a number of them will gather round and listen, and be
much amused at the singular fictions they tell.

"176. —Are families often increased by the addition of white children, or youth who
have been stolen in marauding excursions, on frontier settlements ? State any known
instances of this kind. Was the incorporation into the family in these cases complete,
"
and were the persons reclaimed in after life ?

The Mendawahkantons have very few children, at present, that they have stolen or
taken prisoners. In former times thej' used to take a great many women and children
prisoners. The Sioux say they have taken a great many from the lowas, and Indians
of the Mississippi and Missouri. We know of no whites ever having been taken
prisoners, except in one instance. Some people were coming from Red river to Saint
Peters. The Sussetous attacked them, and killed several of the white people, and
took one or two children prisoners, which were delivered up to Lieutenant Green, an
officer of the 5th infantry, and brought down to Fort Snelling.

"177. —What are the effects of the introduction and use of ardent spirits, in the
lodge, in deranging its order ? Does it lead to broils and scenes of intoxication ? Does
it diminish the means of the hunter to procure food and clothing ? Does it impair his
capacity of hunting? Does it injure his health ? Does it affect his reputation ? Does
it deprive his wife and children of necessary comforts? Do its excesses lead the
victim, in the end, to want, to the murder of friends, killed in states of inebriation,

and finally, to his own premature death ?

The effects of ardent spirits in the lodge are equal to the appearance of a grizzly
bear amongst them. The men get drunk, and perfectly crazy ; all at once, the Indian
will grasp his gun and knife, and out he goes, in search of some one that has injured
him. He drives through the women and children — they scream with fright, and fly

to the woods ; the maniac, if he cannot find the object he wishes, will take after the
women and children ; and many a night have they had to sleep out in the coldest
winter nights, on account of these drunkards. The use of ardent spirits makes them
unhealthy, and the effect is cai-ried down to the children. An Indian, when he drinks,
sleeps out very often, almost naked, which brings on disease. It makes him lazy;

and what he ought to give to his children goes to buy whiskey. The amount paid for
whiskey, in this country, if spent for corn, would feed all the Indians on the Saint
Pt. ITT .— 31
242 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
Peters river, full one half of the year. In the sight of the Indians, drunkenness is

not looked upon as a great evil ; that is, by the major part, for the most of them drink
to excess, all means to get liquor.
and try They come and make complaints about the
whiskey and at the same time are carrying it secretly into the country.
traffic,

Indians are always poor enough but by indolence and drinking, they suffer much
;

more. There are thousands of people in the United States that have not half the
advantages of the Indians who draw annuities, and Avould live a happy life if they had

some advantages which those Indians have. But not so with the Indians themselves
they are all in misery and trouble, and always will be, until our government treats
them as a ftither treats his children — judges and acts for them, and compels them to
listen to the President, who is their guardian. They often kill each other in drunken
broils, which news does not often reach the President. Many are the cases of prema-

ture deaths by intoxication, and the Dacotah nation is beginning to wane, and every-
thing appears to be hopeless as to the future and we have forebodings that
;
it will be

said, ere long, " This is where a fine-looking race of Dacotah Indians lived."

" 178. —What means are taken to preserve the family identity? If the clan-marks

or totems denote affinity, is it not rather the evidence of a general, and not a near
fixmily connexion ?"

The Dacotahs have no marks of identity as noticed. The medicine-sack of a

deceased Indian is given to the nearest relation ; this is the only mark of identity.
This sack is kept for two or three generations sometimes; but the names of the owners
have no affinity to the former family. So all is kept in the memory ; and when that
fails, all is gone.

"179. —Has there been a declension of the tribes in the United States from any
former probable condition, and what is the type and character of the hunter state, as
it exists amongst these tribes ? Are any of the tribes quite degraded in the scale of
being? Have they degenerated into any customs or practices revolting to humanity?
under what circumstances ?"
Do they eat human flesh, upon any occasion, and if so,

It is reported by the Indians themselves that there were once many more Siouxs
than at present. The Indians of the Missouri have degraded themselves in the scale
ofhuman beings, and have habits and customs revolting to humanity and decency.
Many of the Siouxs eat the heart of an enemy; all the war-party will get a mouthful

if they can.

"180 —Is there any proof of the existence of infanticide among the American

Indians? Are the lives of female children held in less esteem than those of males?
Are widows ever doomed to death on the decease of their husbands? Is there any
tradition that they were over l)urned, on such occasions, as upon a funeral pyre ? Are
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 248

devotees to religion ever known to sacrifice themselves to their gods, as is done in the
East? Do they ever suspend themselves on hooks of iron, with the view of enduring
meritorious sufferings ? Do they wear particular spots on their foreheads to denote
I'eligious sects ? Are there any castes among the North American tribes, or any ves-

tiges of such an institution, or belief? Are any of the American waters, or great
rivers, deemed sacred, and coveted in death?"
Infanticide is committed occasionally among the Dacotahs. The lives of female
children are held in less estimation than the male children. The widows are not
doomed to death on the decease of the husband. Some women die shortly after their
husband, with a purer love than that of the man. We have no tradition of their
burning any one after death. We know of no human sacrifices that are accredited.
They do not suspend themselves on hooks, but sometimes run a knife through the
fleshy part of the arm or thigh, as a token of mourning for deceased relatives. A few
have marks for fancy mostly. Caste, among the Indians, does not seem to be noticed
among the Dacotahs. A negro very black, they despise. The rivers and waters are
not coveted in death.

"181. —Do they, in scalping persons slain in battle, use any ceremony, or adopt any
practices which are of oriental character ? Is the scalp-lock, which it is customary to

cultivate, a usage of ancient origin ; and is there any peculiar mode of tracing anti-

quity in its form and position?"

Any part of the head is scalped when in a hurry ; but when they have time they
scalp the Avhole head and face, except the nose, eyes, and mouth. This is a trophy
for the women and children to dance about.

"182. — Is the patriarchal feature strongly marked in the Indian institutions? Note
whether there be anything in their manners, customs, or opinions, resembling ancient
nations of the eastern world. Observe, particularly, whether there be any customs
respecting the sacrifice of animals, or the withdrawal of females, or any other well-

known ancient trait, in which the Indian tribes coincide."

Meats forbidden, are strictly observed by the Indians, but all differ in the different
kinds of meat forbidden, (see Deuteronomy, Chap. XIV.) Fish also, (Deuteronomy,
Chap. IX.) Self-righteousness prevailed amongst them, (Leviticus, Chaps. XXII.,
XXX.) In some of the Indians' feasts they have to eat aU the food cooked, (Leviti-
cus, Chap. XXIII.) The feast of first fruits is strictly observed among these Indians.
An Indian will not eat of his fruits until he has made a feast. All meats offered must
be of the best kind, (Leviticus, Chaps. XV., XX.) This law respecting wrtmen is

strictly observed. A woman cannot enter a lodge during her menstruation. When
their issue ceases, thej- go and jump into the water up to their waist, and wash them-
selves thoroughly, and build a fire near by, and stand by it until dry. AVhen they go
344 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
to the lodge, the fire is all removed from out the lodge. The woman enters, and a
new fixe is kindled, (Leviticus, Chap. XI.) There are some animals they consider
unclean and will not eat them. In all the Indian feasts of spiritual forms, incense is

ofiered in the following manner. After the feast is over, the host draws a large coal
or two from the fire, and some leaves of the cedar are laid thereon, and all the dishes

are perfumed. Then the Indians leave the lodge for home, taking with them the
dishes.

"183. —Do the Indians swear, or use any form of oath? Is the Great Spirit ever
appealed to by name, or is the name carefully suppressed, or some other substituted
for it?"

They swear by Wakonda and the Earth. The Great Spirit is seldom named,
only in forcing the truth, and not frequently. Also some appeal to the Earth.

" 184. —What

is the Indian mode of salutation ? Have they any conventional terms

for it? Do they shake hands? If so, is this an ancient custom, or is it done in
imitation of Europeans? Do they greet each other by name? Did the Indians
anciently rub or fold their arms together, as was witnessed on the first meeting of the
northern tribes with Cartier in the St. Lawrence, A. D. 1535 ?"
They seldom greet each other, and seldom shake hands. Of late years, some
of the old people shake hands. It is not an ancient custom. These Indians have no
mode of greeting.

" 185. — Is smoking a very ancient custom ? Was ther'e a time when their ancestors

did not smoke ? Did they bring the habit from abroad ? Was the tobacco-plant given

to them by the Great Spirit ? How and when ? State the tale. Was the gift made
in the north, or did they bring the plant from the southern latitudes ? K this plant

will not grow, and come to perfection so as to bear seed, in high northern latitudes,

is this not a proof that their general migration was from the southern or central lati-
"
tudes ?

Smoking is a modern practice, and was introduced by the traders. Also the tobacco.

"186. — Approbativeness. Is this strongly developed in the Indian mind; and

what forms of exhibition does it assume in the manners and customs ? Is the war-
path pursued as the chief avenue to fame ? Are hunting and oratory pursued with
the same ultimate ends ? Are there any other modes in which an ambitious chieftain
?
can gratify the passion
Many of them have strong, expressive looks. It is exhibited in many ways ; in

power, in anger, in love, in mischief, or in craftiness. War is often resorted to, to

iippease anger. If they cannot succeed in this way, they try their luck by quurrel-
hng at home.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 245

"187. — Is stoicism of feeling deemed a mark of manliness by the Indians? To

what extent is the conntenance a true exponent of tlie actual state of feeling ? Does
taciturnity proceed from a sense of caution, or is the mere act of silence deemed
wisdom ? What general theories of thought govern the manners of the sachems, and
to what extent, and in what manner, are the maxims of conversation and of public
speaking taught to the young ?

Stoicism is deemed necessary to form a brave man. You seldom hear an Indian
comi^lain. I once saw an Indian's arm amputated; and you could not perceive a
muscle move in his face. As soon as the limb was off, the Indian asked for a
pipe to smoke. Mock-peeah-mence, Walking-Cloud, was his name. Indians are

generally cautious. This is caused by necessity and habit : also from the constant
wars which are carried on and carried out, by men coming in, dis2)ersing the enemy,

and taking every advantage of them. Public speaking is a gift of nature. Generally
there are many of the chiefs who are no orators.

" 188. — Quickness of sight and acuteness of observation in threading the wilder-
ness : these have excited general notice, but the subject is still a matter of curiosity.
How are they guided when there is neither sun by day, nor moon by night ? How is

the precise time of the desertion of an encampment, and the composition and character
of the party, determined ? What are the elements of precision in this knowledge, so

far as they are to be found in the plants, or forest, or in the heavens? Is there

extreme acuteness of the senses, and the nervous power of appreciating the nearness,
"
or relative position of objects ?

I have known Indians to get lost in their own hunting-grounds, but it is not a frequent
occurrence; and I believe the Indians are not as good judges of distance and direction
as our white hunters, particularly in a country they are not acquainted with. They
are guided by some foreknowledge of the country, tracks and traces. They are
generally very correct in telling the time of passing or leaving camps. In summer
when the grass is trodden down, it will soon wither, but will retain some color for
several days ; but if a rain should fall, the grass turns a dark color, and in this way
they tell pretty accurately when any one is passing along. They say it is so many
days since it rained, and the foot-tracks have either been made before or since, say
three, four, five, or six days, as the case may be. In the winter thej- tell in the same,

way, by snow camp has been raised, or before also when they cut
falling after the ;

wood, the cuts will change color. The strength of the camp is found by the number
of lodges, and number of fires. They claim to have some extreme acuteness of the
senses, and often pretend to tell when an enemy is near them.

"189. — Are the Indians very prone to be deceived by professed dreamers, or the
tricks of jugglers, or by phenomena of nature, of the principles and causes of which
246 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
they are ignorant ? Is not the surrounding air and forest converted, to some extent,
by this state of ignorance of natural laws, into a field of mystery, which often fills

their minds with needless alarms ? Are their priests shrewd enough to avail them-
selves of this credulity, either by observing this general defect of character, or by
penetrating into the true causes of the phenomena ? Do the fears and credulity of
the Indians generally nourish habits of suspicion ? Do they tend to form a character
"
for concealment and cunning ?
We say that they ai'e deceived, but the Indians say they are not deceived, and do

not believe in all the tricks of their jugglers. They will not acknowledge they are
ignorant, particularly in religious opinion, and Avar. They say the whites are the
greatest fools they ever saw, to go and stand up like a stump to be shot at. Indians
are all cunning ; and all their thoughts are upon war and strategy. The game they
kill is killed in large quantities by cunning, in approaching within shooting distance.
Once an Indian bet a keg of whiskey with a trader, that he could go into the open
prairie and approach a deer and kill it. So one day an opportunity happened in sight
of all the people at the trading house. The Indian approached the deer and killed it,
and got his keg of whiskey. The Indians are very credulous. Phenomena, they say,
are sent as omens from something that is angry with them. Meteors, Aurora Borealis,
and things of this kind, they fear very much. They can conceal desires for a long
time, and revenge the longest of all. An Indian had his niece killed by a Chippewa,
who cut the girl's nose and upper lip off, after she was dead. Thirty years after, the
uncle went to war, and they killed a Chippewa girl. The Sioux did as the Chipjjewa
did, and got revenge, as he said, by cutting off the girl's nose and lip.

"190. — How do their physical powers compare with the strength of Europeans?
How many pounds can they lift? What are their comparative powers in running, or

rowing a boat ? Are they expert and vigorous in handling the axe, or the scythe ?
What is the greatest burden which you have known an Indian to carry ?

Their physical powers are not to be compared with those of the whites in any way,
but by travelling, or carrying on the head, and this is custom. One hundred and fifty

pounds is a heavy lift for an Indian ; still, I suppose an Indian would carry two hundred
pounds on his head by a strap quite easy. I have seen white men beat the best of
them running short races. Rowing a boat they know nothing about but to paddle a
;

canoe, there are but few to surpass them. They cannot chop or mow. The women
beat the men voi-y decidedly in chopping.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 247

ORIGIN OF THE MANDAN TRIBE, AND ITS STOCK

OF AFFILIATION.

SUBJECTS OF PAPER.
a. Mandans.
h. Crow Tribe.

c. Paunch Band or Clan.

d. Minnetarees Proper.
e. Minnetarees of the Willows.

/. Gros Ventres.

g. Big Bellies.

h. Mattasoons or Ahahaways.

MANDAN AND UPSAROKA FAMILY.

HiSTOKT has but little that it can appropriate to itself, respecting most of our Indian

tribes. One of the most common and them, consists in that

striking facts respecting

evolvement of one tribe from another, under some distinctive name, and the assump-
tion of a position of independency, which has covered the broad country Avith a

multiplicity of various dialects and languages, bands, tribes, and nations, and with its

concomitant, endless wars. Most commonly these names are terras of reproach, from
some other tribes; sometimes they are geographical terms, with local inflections,

denoting the places where they dwell ; never do they denote the ethnological chain
which connects the great circles and groups. Tradition is soon exhausted, and the
Indian mind is prone to take shelter in allegory and fiction.

The Mandans hold their place in this category : agreeably to a tradition which they
communicated in 1805,' they had a subterraneous origin. They were shut out from

the light of heaven, and dwelt together, near a subterraneous lake. A grai^e-vine,

which extended its adventurous roots far into the earth, gave them the first intimation

of the light that gladdened the face of the earth. By means of this vine, one half of

the tribe climbed up to the surface, and were delighted with its light and air, its

wild fruits and game.The other half were left in their dark prison-house, owing to
the bulk and weight of an old woman, who, by her corpulency, tore down the vine,
and prevented any more of the ti'ibe from ascending.

Lewis and Clarke's Expedition, p. 139, Vol. I.

248 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
If we compare this relation in the only light in which sense can be made of it,

namely, a figure or allegory', designed to show some important phase, or calamitous

point in their history, it may be said that darkness is a symbol of woe and trouble.

By this they were enveloped, and held, for a well-remembered time, from the benefits
and advantages of subsistence, from which they had been excluded. Grapes
and buffalo may be deemed symbolical of abundant fruits and game. Owing
to the intervention of a female, one half of the tribe were actually excluded from
these benefits. In short, they were, by some mischance, parted into two bands or
tribes, and went different ways. The particular character of this mischance can only

be conjectured ; it is only inferable, symbolically, that it was intense, as the depth

below the sunlight surface denotes.

The religion of the Mandans consists in a belief in one great presiding good spirit,

who is observant of their destinies. Each individual selects for himself some animal,
or other object of personal devotion. This animal, or other creative object, becomes
his protector and intercessor with the Great Spirit. To please and propitiate it, every
attention is bestowed, as he wanders in the forest. Success in war, hunting, and
planting, is sought through this intercessor, who is ever regarded as his guardian spirit.

The rites of this guardian worship are generally secret, and the favor sought is through
the magic, or mj'sterious skill, or art, of the supplicant in simples and medicines.
Every operation of the laws of nature, which is not palpable to the senses, is deemed
mysterious and supernatural. By the ignorance of the darkened minds of the lower
class of Canadians, who were the first to be brought into contact with them, this

unseen action was called " a medicine." The Indians readily adoj)ted this erroneous
phrase, and are disposed to consider every phenomenon to be medical, which is
mysterious.
Information given to the late General William Clarke, in his expedition up the
Missouri, denotes that the Mandans have suffered greater vicissitudes of fortune than

most of the American tribes. About a century ago, they were settled on both banks
of the Missouri, some fifteen hundred miles above its mouth. They were then living

in nine villages, surrounded by circular walls of earth, without the adjunct of a ditch.

The ruins of one of the old villages observed in 1804, covered nearly eight acres, and
denoted a comparatively large population. Two of these villages were on the east,
and seven on the west side of the Missouri. They were first discovered and made
known to us, in this position, in 1772. (Mitchell's letter herewith.) They appear to
have been a hated tribe to the Dacotahs or Sioux, and Assineboins, who, from the
earliest traditionary times, carried on fierce war against them. Finding themselves
sorely pressed by this Avar, and having experienced the wasting inroads of the small-
pox, the two eastern villages united into one, and migrated up the river, to a point
opposite the Arickaras, 14-30 miles above the moutli. The same causes soon pressed the
other seven western villages, reducing tlieni to five; tlioy til^^f afterwards miijrated in a
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 249

body, and joined their tribes-meu in the Arickara country, and concentrated and
settled themselves in two large villages. Here they dwelt for a time, but were still

subject to the fierce attacks of their enemies ; and deeming the position unfavorable,
they removed higher up the river, and took possession of a precipitous and tenable
point of land, formed by an involution of the Missouri, where they formed one
compact village, in 1776. The eastern Mandaus had settled in two villages, but
finding the attacks of the Sioux hard to be resisted, united also in one village. The
two divisions of Mandan villages were still separated by the Missouri river, but seated
directly opposite each other, about three miles apart, including low lands.
The position is estimated to be 1600 miles from the junction of the Missouri with
the Mississippi. There they were visited by Lewis and Clarke, on the 27th October,
1804. This was a' memorable, and an auspicious event in their history; us the

intrepid American explorers determined to pass their first winter in this vicinity.
They built Fort Mandan a few miles distant, on a heavily-wooded piece of bottom-land,
which yielded trees of sufficient size for erecting quarters for themselves and the men.
They innnediately opened an intercourse with the Mandans, and established a friend-
ship with them, which was strengthened by the incidents of a winter's residence.

Cajjtain Clarke, on one occasion, marched out with a body of men, to defend them
against a murderous attack of the Sioux; and by this act of intrepidity secured

their highest respect, and gave them a practical assurance of the fidelity of his
counsels. In accordance with the policy of the government, he had counselled them
against the fatal policy of those wars which had reduced their population from nine

to two villages, and threatened their extinction. He recognised Poscopsahe, or Black

Wild Cat, as their first, and Kagonamok as their second chief, with their subordinates;
and distributed medals and flags, in accordance with these recognitions. Poscopsahe
responded to his advice proposing a general peace among the prairie tribes, and
admitted the good influences that must flow from this expedition through their
country, and across the Rocky Mountains. The expedition remained some five

months at Fort Mandan, and made a most favorable impression upon this tribe.

No estimate of the Mandan jx)pulation is given by Lewis and Clarke. It is a point

respecting which their chiefs seem to have been studiously silent. The population was
doubtless depressed from their former numbers, dating back to any period of their

separate points of residence on lower parts of the Missouri, and their pride and policy
alike forbade reference to it. Of all people, the Indians are the most uncomplaining
they can calmly and stoically see themselves decline, tribally and personally, but it is

a prime point of Indian character not to complain. It is also to be remarked, that the
whole aboriginal population of the United States has, at all periods of their history,
felt a strong repugnance to be numbered.
The Mandans are reported by the Indian Bureau, in 1836 prior to the date — of tljt.-

—
commencement of these investigations on doubtful data, at 3200. There is no period

Ft. III. — 32
 '

250 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,

known to us, when they could have reached that number. The judgment of persons
best acquainted with them, phiccs their gross numbers, in 1S37, at 1600; an estimate
as high as could be well made, when the considerable annual losses to which they have
been subjected from war, are considered. The number of births among the prairie and
non-industrial tribes is at best but adequate, and often inadequate, on the average, to
repair the losses by deaths ; — estimating war, at all times, greatly to swell the list.

These losses carry the average above the ordinary list of Indian casualties.
Surrounded, as the Mandans were, by active enemie-s, and doomed, as they appear
to be, to extinction, they might have resisted their course of depopulation a long period,
had it not been for the re-occui-rence of small-pox among them, in the summer of 1837.
By this fatal calamity their numbers were reduced, in a few days, to less than one-
sixteenth of their whole number. One of the reports of the disaster reduced the
survivors to thirty-one, another to one hundred and twenty-five, another to one
hundred and forty-five. (Vide Vol. II., p. 239.) They were compelled to abandon their
villages, rendered pestilent by the decomposition of so great a number; and the
survivors at first fled to the Miunetarees, and afterwards established a small village a
few miles above the old site of Mandan. Mr. T. A. Culbertson, who visited the upper
Mississippi in 1850, puts them in that year at fifty lodges, and one hundred and fifty

souls.' By the report of Col. D. D. Mitchell, Superintendent of Indian Aflairs, dated

two years later, which is hereto appended, the present number of the Mandans is

shown to he three hundred and eighty-five.

The physical peculiarities described by Col. Mitchell, as well as the traditions stated
by him, are worthy of careful examination. The late Dr. Samuel George Morton, who
had elaborately examined the physiology of the Indian tribes, exjw'esses the opinion
(Vol. II., p. 322) that the grey hair of the Mandan denotes only a morbid state of it,

analogous to that which supervenes in Albinos, and consequently that it does not take
the case out of the operation of the general laws of the development of human hair.
Four Mandan skulls in his extensive collection of Crania, in the Academy of Natural
Sciences, at Philadelphia, whose admeasurements have been taken by Mr. Phillips,
agreeably to Dr. Morton's system, give for that tribe an average facial angle of 74°, and
an internal capacity of 801 cubic inches. (Vol. II., p. 335.) The highest average
facial angle and internal capacity of the crania of any of our groups of tribes in the
United States, is found to exist in the Iroquois, being respectively 70°, and 88 cubic
inches, denoting the Mandans to have an inferior intellectual development to that
celebrated group.
The origin of the Mandans has been a subject creating some diversity of opinion.
In 1804-5, during the ascent of Lewis and Clarke's expedition, there lived four
miles below the Mandan village, at a place called Mahaha, seated on a high plain
at the mouth of Knife river, the remnant of a tribe called Ahahways, or "people

'
Fifth Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute, p. 143.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 251

wlio dwell on a hill." They Avcrc called by the French, Soulier Noir, or Black Shoes,
and by the Mandans, Wattasoons. This people, though regarded as a distinct tribe,

appear to have many characteristics in their manners and history, in perfect accordance
with the Mandans. They dwelt near them, at lower points of the Missouri, and wen*
driven off, along with the Mandans, by the Siou.xs and Assineboins, hy whom the
greater part of them were put to death. They coincide with thom in their religious

beliefs, and in their manners and customs, and were ever on good terms with them, and
their allies, the Minnetarees. It is affirmed of the Wattasoons (Alcido's Geography,
article Ahahaways) that they claim to have once been a part of the Absaroka, or Crow
nation, whom they still acknowledge as relations. They understand the language of
the Minnetarees, their near neighbors and friends; and it is presumed that they are
atSliated to the latter.

The Minnetarees were found in their present jiosition by Lewis and Clarke. The}'
are the Gros Ventres and Pouch Indians of the French, and the Big Bellies and Fall
Indians of the Hudson's Bay traders. The accounts given to these explorers, put them
at 600 warriors, or 3000 souls, on the Missouri, in 1804. Mandan tradition asserts that
the Minnetarees came out of the water to the east, and settled near them, when they
occupied their position at the nine villages; that they were a numei'ous people, and
settled thera.selves on the southern banks of the Missouri. While thus seated, a feud

arose among them, and a separation took place ; two bands of them went into the
l)lains, under separate leaders, and \vere known by the name of Crow and Paunch
Indians. The other bands moved up the Missouri, concurrently with themselves, to
their present position. In these migrations, the Minnetarees and Mandans had the
same friends and the same enemies.
This tradition the Minnetarees proper do not confirm. True to the general Indian
principle of local origins and independency, which is a mere backer of title to the lands
everywhere, they assert that they grew out of the ground where they now live. They
also assert that the Metahartas, or Minnetarees of the Willows, whose language is the
same, with little variations, came out and rejoined them from the plains, which gives
confirmation to the Mandan tradition of their former dispersion while living below,

near the nine villages.

Lewis and Clarke were informed that the Minnetarees were a part of the Fall
Indians, who occupj^ the country between the Missouri, at Mandan, and the great
Saskatchawine river of Hudson's Bay.
Mackenzie applies the term Fall Indians, or Big Bellies, to a tribe living on the south
fork of the Saskatchawine, extending from that branch south-east across the plains
from latitude 47° 32" north, to longitude 101° west, to the .south bend of the Assine
boin river.' He places the number of men at 700; an estimate which, if we assume

'
Voyages from Montreal through the continent of North America, &c. London Edition, p. 61-67, Introd
252 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
half this number to be heads of famiUes, would give a gross population of 1750, which,
added to the cognate Minnetarees on the Missouri, before given, would denote a gross
Minnetaree population of 4750. These estimates were made respectively in 1790 and
1804, although Mackenzie did not pubhsh his work till 1801, nor Lewis and Clarke
till 1814.
The Fall Indians are not to be confounded with the Sitkeas, consisting of Blackfeet,
Piegan and Blood Indians, or Pawkees, who occu^jy the main Saskatchawine, reaching
over southerly to the great bend of the Missouri. It is seen, from Umprevill's vocab-
ulary, that the two languages are distinct, and they are proved by Mr. Gallatin,

(vide Archseologia, Vol. II., p. 373,) to have no words whatever in common.

From a vocabulary of the Minnetarees, collected by Mr. Say, in Major Long's first

expedition, this language is perceived to have analogies with the Upsaroka, or Crow
language. But, by a comparison of the Minnetaree and Mandan annexed (2.), there is

but a slight resemblance between the inflections of these two languages, and a wide
disagreement in radicals. Hitherto, our means of examining the Mandan language
have been confined to ten compound words; being the names of chiefs who signed
the treaty of July, 1825, which are extracted by Mr. Gallatin, at p. 379, Vol. II.

Archseologia Americana. A full vocabulary of the Mandan, consisting of three

hundred words, (vide § IX.,) has recently been received from Colonel Mitchell, of St.

Louis, which enables us to speak with more confidence of its character, and the position
of this tribe among the Missouri Indians. This vocabulary has been prepared by Mr.
James Kipp, an intelligent person, who has been, for a long time, engaged in commerce
with the tribes of the upper Missouri, and is well versed in the Mandan and Minne-
taree dialects.
By the table of the classification of the Indian languages, prepared by Mr. Gallatin
in 1836, and herewith first published from the manuscript, the Mandans are

arranged under his 10th, or Sioux family; the latter term corresponding, generally,
with the " Dacotah group" of these investigations. We are still without a vocabulary
of the Upsaroka language, except the short and fragmentary one of Mr. Say, in Long's
First Expedition. But from the present cultivated state of the Dacotah language,
and from Mr. Kipp's ample vocabulary of the Mandan, we are inclined to believe that
this language cannot retain the position assigned to it by Mr. Gallatin, from very

scanty materials of comparison in the Sioux or Dacotah group. At the same time,

the probabilities are also lessoned by its being cognate with the Upsaroka, to which its

resemblances do not appear to he greater than mere propinquity of position would

expose it. From the want of a full vocabulary of the Upsaroka, above referred to,

this question cannot be satisfactorily settled; but the annexed comparisons (1.) go far
to denote the claims of the Mandans to independency of linguistic position among the
tribes of the Missouri. At the same time, it admits of little doubt that the Upsarokas
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 253

owe their origin to the Missouri Valley; from which, by the fortunes of war, or
enterprise, they have in past times fled to the foot and spurs of the Rocky Mountains.
I annex to these remarks a letter of Colonel Mitchell, the present Superintendent
of United States Indian Ail'airs on that important frontier, to which his knowledge
of the tribes of Missouri, and the Plains generally, and his good judgment of the
Indian character and movements in those bleak latitudes, give great weight.

Washingtox, January 28, 1852.

Sir: — In compliance with your request, I furnish you with a brief history of the
Mandan Indians. The early portion of their historj', I gather from the narration of
Mr. Mackintosh ; who, it seems, belonged to, or was in some way connected with the
French Trading Company, as far back as 1772. According to his narration, he set
out from Montreal, in the summer of 1773, crossed over the country to the Missouri
river, and arrived at one of the Mandan villages on Christmas day. He gives a long,
and somewhat romantic description of the manner in which he was received, and
dwells at some length upon the greatness of the Mandan population, their superior
intelligence, and prowess in war. He says, at that time the Mandans occupied nine
large towns lying contiguous, and could, at short notice, muster 15,000 mounted
Avarriors. I am inclined to think that the statistics of the author whom I have quoted
are somewhat exaggerated ; and at the time he visited the Missouri, the Mandans were
not so numerous as he represents. There are, however, the ruins of five villages in

the neighborhood of the present village, which were evidently, at one time, occupied
by the Mandans; and judging from the space which these "deserted villages" cover,
they must have been powerful communities; at least so far as numbers could make
them powerful.
As far as we can learn, the Mandans seem to have been a warlike people ; so much
so, as to cause the neighboring tribes, the Sioux, Cheyennes, Assineboins, Crows, and
other smaller tribes, to unite in a crusade against them. The operations of this
military alliance against the Mandans (according to Indian history) were prosecuted
with great \\qov for three years ; the Mandans, in the mean time, being driven from
village to village, until the different bands became concentrated at the place which
they now occupy. This village is situated on a high projecting cliff on the banks of
the Missouri ; the rocky barrier being an impregnable fortification for about two-thirds
of the circular space occupied by their dirt lodges ; the remaining space opening on the
plains was strongly fortified, and in this position they were enabled to defend them-
selves against the combined forces of their numerous enemies. The Mandans were,
however, not content to act on the defensive ; but continued to send out, annually,
war-parties against the Sioux, and other tribes by whom they were surrounded. In
these warlike excur.<ions, they lost many of their bravest young men. which jDrevented
any increase of population. They remained in this independent position until the
254 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
summer of 1837, when an enemy, far more formidable than the Sioux, or other
neighboring tribes, made his appearance I alkide to the small-pox, introduced among
:

them, as well as the other prairie tribes, during that year. This fell pestilence swept

off about one-half of all the prairie tribes, excepting the Crows and jNIandans. The
former escaped entirely by fleeing to the Rocky Mountains, and interdicting all com-
munications with either whites or Indians, for more than a year. The Mandans
remained in their ancient village, trusting to the potency of their " great medicine,"
and were almost entirely annihilated.
When the small-pox disappeared from the country, the once-powerful nation of
Mandans was reduced to 125 souls! and these consisted mostly of women and children.
The Arickaras (a neighboring and friendly tribe) moved in and took possession of
the village ; they were thus, for the tiuie being, protected against their relentless
enemies, the Sioux. Mandan children grew up, and intermarried, the popu-
As the
lation rapidly increased; so much so, that in 1847 the remnants of the tribe gathered

together, and built a town or village for themselves, where they now reside on friendly
terms with their neighbor.s, and are rapidly increasing in population. They now
luimber about 385 souls.

The Mandans are a proud, high-toned tribe, and could not bear the idea of losing their
name and nationality bj' being amalgamated with the Arickaras or any other nation.
There are great diversities of opinion as to what tribe or tribes the Mandans
originally belonged. I am inclined to believe they are a distinct tribe, or at least their
relationship to other tribes is .so very remote, that it cannot now be traced. In their
language, manners, customs, and mode of life, they are altogether different from the
Indians occupying that region of country ; and in fact differing from any Indians on
the cuntinent of America, so far as my observation extends ; and I have some know-
ledge of a large majority of the existing tribes.
Apart from their peculiar language and habits, there is a physical peculiarity. A
large portion of the Mandans have grey hair, and blue or light brown eyes, with a
Jewish cast of features. It is nothing uncommon to see children of both sexes, from
five to six years of age, with hair perfectly grey. They are also much fairer than
the prairie or mountain tribes; though this may be somewhat attributable to the fact
of their living in dirt lodges, and less exposed to the sun than the prairie tribes.

Information as to some of their peculiar customs can be found in the Journal of Lewis
and Clarke. The scenes described by Catlin, existed almost entirely in the fertile
nnagination of that gentleman.
Very respectfully,

Your obedient servant,

D. D. Mitchell,
Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq. Sup't. Ind. Affairs.

WasldiKjton Citj, D. C.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 255

At a subsequent period, namely, lltli August, 1852, the same gentleman trans-
mitted me the vocabulary of the Mandau language, to which allusion has been made.
" You know," he observes, " I always contended that Mr. Gallatin was in eri'or, in
supposing the Mandau and Sioux descended from the same stock. Mr. Kipp, who
has been well acquainted with both tribes, for upwards of thirty years, and speaks
both languages with great fluency and correctness, fully concurs with me in opinion.
There ai'e a few words, that are somewhat similar in sound ; but this Mr. Kij^p accounts
for by the foct of the Sioux and Mandans having been neighbors from time immemo-
rial, and, during intervals of peace, visiting and intermarrying with each other."
The existence of the syllable " sub," in the Mandan language, and in the apparent
sense in which we employ this Latin j^reposition, as signifying a less or subordinate

degree, is a peculiarity which has not been found in any other Indian language in
North America. It is noticed as a mere anomaly in Indian syllables, and not as
denoting a foreign derivation. Thus, man, in the Mandan, is numankosh ; boy,
subnumankosh ; woman, mihi ;
girl, submihi. The syllable is quite frequent, and
always in this apparent sense. Another peculiarity is the sound of the Greek ipselon,
as it is stronglj' heard in German, which may be represented by y y.

(10 Upsaroka. Mandan.

Good . Eetshick Shish.

Bad . Kabbeeaik Yiggosh.
Bison . Beeshay Ptihnde (cow).
Bull . Cheeraj^ay Perok<5.

Beaver Beerappay Warappe.

Tobacco Opay Manash(5.
Fear . Namatay Tehansh.
Mountain Amay-thee-bay .... Aparash-yteksh.
Elk . Eecheereecaty .... Umpa.
Knife . Mitsee Mahi.
Near . Ashkay Ashgash.
Friend Sheeka Manuka.
To eat Baboushmeek .... Woruth.
Little . Eerokatay Yamahe.
Y. Woman Meekatay Submihe.
Water Meenee Minc^.

Fire . Beeday Warade.

Wood. Monay Mana.
Elver . Anshay Passanhe.
Horse . Neecheeray Umpa manyse (like an elk).
256 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
Upsaroka. Mandan.
No. . Baraytah Migosh.
Strong Batsatsh. Zihush.

(2-) Mandan. Minnetaree.

Wolf . Harate Saijah.
Man . Numankosh Matsa.
Arm . Aad6 Arrougli.
Bear . Mato Labpeetze.
Bird . Mareksuke Sacauga.
Boy . Subnumankosh .... Shikauga.
Neck . Itaino Apeeh.
Bison . Peroke Keeeerepee.
Beaver "Warappe Meerapa.

5. MIGRATION OF THE lOWAS.

[With a Map.]

The lowas are noticed in the earlier French accounts of the Mississippi Valley. It

is questionable whether they were known to the early Spanish adventurers who visited
the lower part of that valley. The name " Ayennes," which appears in the narrative
of Cabaca de Vaca's wanderings through Arkansas, after the unfortunate expedition
of Narvaez in 1527,' may, possibly, be an early reference to them. Their history,
along with tlie other tribes of the Great Prairie, or Dacotah group, assigns them an
origin in the south-west. The French usually called them Ayouas or Ajoues — an
orthography which very well restores the existing sounds of the name.
In Alcedo's Spanish Geography, under the name of Ajoues, they are mentioned as
a tribe of Louisiana, for whose government a garrison had been kept on the Missouri.
Mr. Irvin and Mr. Hamilton, to whose joint jjaper herewith annexed, attention is

invited, are missionaries on the Missouri river, to the Iowa and a party of the Sac
tribe. They are in the service of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, which
is located, as its central point of action, in the city of New York, under the super-
intendence, for many years past, of Walter Lowrie, Esq.
The original outlines of the Indian map which is herewith exhibited, (Plate 30,) is

due to those gentlemen, and is a singularly interesting document in Iowa history. It

was drawn in the rough, by Waw-non-que-skoon-a, with a Ijlack-lead-jjencil, on a large

sheet of white paper, furnished at tlie mission-house, and has been reduced in size, and
its rigid lines adapted to the surveys of the public lauds on the Missouri and Missis-

'
Buckinfrliam Smith's Trans.
>-.
."J
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 257

sippi. It furnishes a practical and affirmative reply to query No. 31, on the capacity
of the Indians to execute geographical charts. The original is retained in the Indian
Bureau.
Tlie object of Vv^aw-non-que-skoon-a was to denote the places where the Towas had
lived during the sixteen migrations which preceded their residence at their present

location, the Missouri; and, in truth, it nearly exhausts their history. The marks to

denote a fixed residence, are a symbol for a lodge. These are carefully preserved,
with their exact i-elative position. Their order, as given, is also preserved by figures.

Could eras be affixed to these residences, it would give entire accuracy to the modem
part of their history.
As it is, it depicts some curious facts in the history of predatory and erratic tribes,

showing how they sometimes crossed their own track, and demonstrates the immense
distances to which they rove.

The earliest da,te to which their recollection extends, as indicated by location No. 1,

is at the junction of Rock river with the Mississippi. This was, maulfestlj". In or very
near Winnebago territory, and confirms the ti'adltions of several of the Missouri tribes,
(vide Fletcher's paper.) From this point they migrated down the Mississippi to the
river Des Moines, and fixed themselves at No. 2, on its south fork. They next made
an extraordinary migration, abandoning the Mississippi and all Its upper tributaries,

and ascending the Missouri to a point of land formed by a small stream, on its east

shore, called by the Indians Fish creek, which flows in from the direction of, and not
far from, the celebrated Red Pipe stone quarry, on the heights of the Coteau des
Prairies. No. 3.

They next descended the Missouri to the junction of the Nebraska, or Great Platte
river,with that stream. No. 4. They settled on the west bank, keeping the buffalo
ranges on their west. They next migrated still lower down the Missouri, and fixed
themselves on the head-waters of the Little Platte river. No. 5.

From this location, when circumstances had rendered another change desirable, they
returned to the Mississippi, and located themselves at the mouth of Salt river. No. 6.

Here passed another period. The}^ next ascended the Mississippi, and settled on its

east bank, at the junction of a stream in the present area of Illinois. No. 7. Their
next migration carried them still higher on that shore, to the junction of another
stream, No. 8, which Is well nigh to their original starting point at No. 1.

The}' receded again to the south and west, first fixing themselves on Salt river, No.

9, above their prior site. No. G, and afterwards changing their location to Its very-

source. No. 10. They then passed, evidently by land, to the higher forks of the river

Charlton, of Missouri, No. 11, and next descended that stream to near Its mouth.
No. 12. The next two migrations of this tribe were to the west vaUey of the Grand
river, and then to its forks. No. 14. Still continuing their general migrations to the
south and west, they chose the east bank of the Missouri, opposite the present site of
Pt. III.— .33
258 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
Fort Leaveuworth, No. 15, aud finally settled on the west bank of the Missouri,
between the mouth of the Wolf and Great Namahaw, No. 16, where they now reside.

These migrations are deemed to be all of quite modern date, not exceeding the

probable period to which well-known tradition could reach. They do not, it would
seem, aspire to the area of their ancient residence on the lower and upper Iowa rivers,
and about the i-egion of St. Anthony's fells. (See Prescott's paper.)

We are taught something by these migrations. They were probably determined by

the facility of procuring food. They relied, ever, greatly on the deer, elk, and buffalo.

As these species are subject to changes, it is probable they carried the Indians with
them. It is not probable that their locations were of long continuance at a place.
Not over a dozen years at a location, on the average. It might be longer at some places,
and less at others. This would not give a period of more than 180 years, before their
arrival at their present place. Marquette found them, in 10 73, at the mouth of the
Des Moines. This, it is seen, was their first location.

It is not probable that the game-pursuing Indians were more fixed in their ancient,
than in their modern locations. Indeed, the very reverse is 'true ; for the modern
hunter tribes avail themselves of the proximity of military posts, and out-settlements,
to guard themselves from the approaches of hostile bands.
The population of the lowas, as given at early dates, is very uniform, having
evidently been copied by one writer from another. In some ancient MS. data in the
Royal Marine Office, at Paris, which were submitted to the inspection of the American
Minister (General Cass) in 1842, their numbers were put down, for about 17.30, at
1100. When Colonel Bouquet marched over the Alleglianies against the western
Indians, in 1764, the same numbers are used. Each of these dates assigns their resi-
dence to the Missouri, and there had, evidently, no recent information been received.
The French alone were at that time in communication with them, and their alliance
with the western Indians, in this war, made it impracticable to obtain further data.
By the official returns transmitted to the Indian Bureau, in 1848, they are stated at
a fraction under 750 souls. They are, from the subjoined report, 8ul>jectcd to the

influence of ardent spirits, and other deteriorating causes. The vital statistics furnished

in 1848, give 55 births, and 90 deaths; an unusual sickness having supervened. 100
men are put down as hunters, and 60 as agriculturists; 33 children attended school,
and 10 could speak the English language. They possessed 150 horses; the whole
number adhered to their native religion ; two persons were pledged to temperance.

They received a little over $7000 annuity, in coin, and could muster 150 warriors.
They possessed a council-house, a school and church, and two missionaries, and
assistants, beneficially employed to teach and reclaim them.
Messrs. Hamilton and Irvin are engaged, as the practical duties of their mission
permit, in the investigation of the Iowa language, which is a well-marked dialect of
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 250

the generic Diicotah group, and liiive nearly completed a grammar and dictionary of
that tongue. (For remarks upon it, see Section IX.)

The lowas first entered into treaty relations with the United States, September 16,
1815. Their original right to the soil, Avith that of all the western tribes, is fully

acknowledged. They have ceded considerable portions of territory. The whole annual
sum required to fulfd treaty obligations with them, in 1851, was $7875. (Vide Part
II., p. 569.)
The Iowa tribe gives name to one of the States of the Union ; a territory of great
beauty of surface and exuberant fertility, abounding in water-power, and possessing a
fine climate.

6. IOWA AND SAC TRIBES.

BY REV. S. ir. IRVIN, AND REV. WM. HAMILTON.

[Introductory Note. —From information derived from the Sac and Fox delegation, who visited

Washington in the summer of 1852, the. Sacs number, at this time, thirteen hundred souls; the
Foxes about seven hundred. The tribe still retains its love of savage life and manners, beyond
almost all others of the removed Indians on our borders. They dislike schools, missionaries, and
even dwellings ; and many of them yearn to go further west, that they may be still more distant

from civilization, as well as nearer the buffalo, and other game. Their efforts at cultivation have
been very feeble, though they inhabit a fine country, well adapted to successful agriculture. The
tribe has a fund of $30,000.]

Iowa and Sac Mission, Feb. 1, 1848.

Sir : —Your circular of July 17th, together with the numerous queries on the Indian
character and condition, reached us in due time. We were much gratified in contem-
plating the interest manifested by the Department in behalf of the poor Indians, and
felt ourselves not only honored, but privileged in being invited to lend our mite to
this desirable object. You were pleased to address us separately ; but to better pro-
mote our object, with more ease to ourselves, we have concluded to res^jond jointly.

We have for more than ten years been associated in the mission work, under the
direction of the same society, and part of the time li\ang as one family. As ^-ou are
2)erhaps aware, we are under the direction of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign
Missions, in New York, of which Walter Lowrie, Esq., is Corresponding Secretary.
Our mission was commenced in 1837.
The time has fully come when we should have all our affairs relative to the Indian
subject ready to send to you, and we at first thought that we would be certainly
prepared by this time, but we find ourselves much disappointed in this. The busines.s

of the mission, and the boarding-school, and the press, and preparations for it, have
260 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
carried us along with almost unconscious raj^idity. As it is, we propose to send on all

we have in readiness that Avill be of any use or interest, and that we will continue our

researches on the queries as fast and far as we can, until the first of April ; sending
you a few sheets at a time, as we may get them prepared. If we should not get

through the subject by that time, and a continuation of them after that will be of any
use, we will, as time and means may allow, continue to send on. If, on the contrary,
their continuation after this date will not be of any advantage, j'ou will be so good as
to let us know.
We will only add a few general remarks, which may be kept in mind in examining
what we may send you, and to which we may refer in what we write.

1st. Our acquaintance is mainly with the lowas : though the Missouri band of Sacs
have been our neighbors, yet they have refused our instructions, and kept their
distance, so that we know but little comparatively of their real character, though they

have always treated us Avith much respect. These, however, being a branch of the
Mississippi tribes, and also of the same family with the Potawatomies, Kickapoos, and
others, their character will, no doubt, be fully set before you from other sources.

2d. We will take up your questions in order, placing the number only in the margin
on the left hand, and answer them as briefly as we can, to render any satisfaction

waiving all those which do not refer to our tribes, and such as we cannot answer with
a good degree of certainty, to ourselves.
3d. In tracing their history, religion, &c., it will be exceedingly difficult to proceed

with certainty and satisfaction, from the difference we find in the notions of diflterent

individuals : e. g. to-da}' we will sit down with an old Indian, who will enter into a

plausible detail of their history, or religious belief, or some traditions of their fathers.

Another of the same age and patriarchal rights will give quite a dift'erent statement

about the same things ; or perhaps the same individual would to-morrow give his own
jstory quite a different shade. This is the reason Avhy the reports of the transient
observers vary so much. It requires long acquaintance, and close observation, to arrive

at anything like just conclusions on these points; and it is only by collecting

different and conflicting notions, and balancing them, that we can find which prevails.

4 th. The lowas are probably but a remnant of a once numerous and considerable
nation, which has dwindled down to the present few; and these have lost much of their

pure native character, if we may so term it. As their numbers diminish before the
whites, so also are their native characteristics destroyed. Indeed, they complain of this
themselves, that they are losing the great medicine of their fiithers, that they do not now
worship as they once did, and that much of their Jn'story and character is lost. It will

be .seen, therefore, that our inquiries will be attended with some difficulty ; but what
we can get worthy of credence we will cheerfully forward, hoping that it may serve

a little to promote the benevolent design of the Department.

You will find herewith a copy of our elementary book, in the Iowa language, the
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 261

first that wc have done at the station ; some answers to a few of the first questions,

and also to the last, on the subject of language ; also a sheet just from the press,

belonging to a little work in the form of a grammar of the Iowa language. This work
will reach over, perhaps, 150 pages of the size before you. We did hope to have it

through the press by this time, but having no help in printing, could not. We will

send you the sheets as they get through the press, at least until we get through the
" parts of speech," and if sj^ared to complete it, send 30U a full copy.
We will also mail herewith a hymn, and question-book, and also a few prayers, all

of which have been prepared and printed at this station. Wishing you every blessing,

and especially that you may have abundant success in carrying out your benevolent
designs for the good of the poor neglected and down-trodden Indians, we are,

Hon. Sir,

Your obedient servants,

S. M. Irvin.
Wm. Hamilton.

History.

"1. — What facts can be stated, from tradition, respecting the origin, early history

and migrations of the tribe ; and what are the principal incidents known, or remem-
bered since A. D. 1492? Can they communicate anything on this head, of ancient

date, which is entitled to respect ? What is the earliest event, or name, in their origin
or progress, which is preserved by tradition, and from what stock of men have they
sprung ?
But little Avorthy of credit can be gathered with regard to their origin and early
history. Some, professing to be wise, among them, enter into long details of these
subjects ; but on examining more closely, and comparing views, it involves all their

statements in complete doubt. The more honest, and not the less intelligent, agree in
saying that the true history of the Towas is in a great degree lost, and that nothing of
their early history is any longer correctly known. The notion of their having
descended from animals, seems to prevail, (which will he more fully given uirder their
"religion,") and that all the tribes of Indians were originally one; that to obtain
subsistence they scattered in fomilies, and in this way became distinct tribes. The
place where they lived, when all in one tribe, was on an island, or at least across a

large water, towards the east, or sunrise. They crossed this w^ater by skin canoes, and
swimming. How long they were in crossing, or whether the water was salt or fresh,
they do not know. No remarkable event of antiquity, worthy of note, is remembered
by them.
262 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
" 2. —By what name are they called, among themselves, and by what name, or

names, are they known among other tribes ; and what is the meaning of these
respective names ? State the various synonyms. Where did the tribe dwell, at the
earliest date ; what was its probable number, and the extent of territory occupied or
claimed by it ? How have their location, numbers, and extent of lands or territories,

varied since the earliest known period ; and what are the general facts, on these heads,
"
at the present time ?

Tlie lowas are, among themselves, and also among the neighboring tribes, called
"Pa^hu-cha," or " Dusty-nose." When they sepai'ated from the first Indian tribe, or

family, to hunt game, their first location was near the mouth of a river, where there
were large sand-bars, from which the wind blew quantities of sand or dust upon their
faces, from which they were called Pa-liu-chas or Dusty-noses. Here an old Iowa
Indian, about sixty years old or more, speaks :
" About sixty-six years ago, we lived

on a river, which runs from a lake to the Mississippi, from the east, and on the east
i^ide of that river. Our fathers and great fathers lived there for a long time, as long

as they could recollect. At that time we had about four hundred men fit to go to
war, butwe were then small to what we had been. Our fathers say, as long as they
can we have been diminishing. We owned all the land east of the Missis-
recollect,

sippi. Whatever ground Ave made tracks through, it was ours. Our fathers saw
white men on the lakes about 120 years ago; do not know where they came from.
About the same time we first got guns. We were afraid of them at first, they seemed
like the " Great Spirit." Our fathers also, at the same time, for the first I'eceived iron,

axes, hoes, kettles, and woollen blankets. We, the old men of our nation, first saw
white men between forty and fifty years ago, near the mouth of the Missouri."

" 3. —Are they of opinion they were created by the Great Spirit on the lands, or
are they conquerors, or possessors through the events of war, or from other causes ?

Can they recollect the first interview with whites, or Europeans — the first sale of

lands, or treaty made by them — the introduction of fire-arms, woollen clothing,

cooking vessels of metal, ardent spirits, the first place of trade, or any other prominent
facts in their hi.story?"

Nothing except what is conveyed in the preceding. They do not claim to have
obtained lands by great conquest.

" 4. — Have they any tradition of the creation, or the deluge, or of their ancestors
having lived in other lands, or having had knowledge of any quadrupeds which are
foreign to America, or crossed any large waters, in their migration ? Is there any
idea developed among them by tradition, allegory, or otherwise, that white people, or
a more civilized race, had occupied the continent before them ?

Of the flood, hear the Indians :

—
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 263

" Our fathers tell us, that a long time ago, it rained a long time perhaps twenty or
;

thirty days ; and all animals and all Indians were drowned. The Great Spirit then
made another man and woman out of reil clay, and we came from them. Do n't know
what became of the whites in the Hood they may have been saved in boats or canoes.
:

The Great Spirit UAd our fathers all this, or told the first man he made." No know-
ledge of a more enlightened race living in this country before them.

"5. — Have they any name for America? If there be no direct term applicable to
"
the entire continent, search their oral traditions in the hope of detecting the name ?
Nothing to be found.

"6. — Did they, before the discovery, live in a greater degree of peace with each
other — had they formed any ancient leagues ; and if so, of what tribes did they
consist, how long did these leagues last, and when and how were they broken ? Did
they build any forts or mounds in their ancient wars, or were the earth-Avorks we
find in the West erected before they arrived ; and by whom, in their opinion, were
these works erected ?

It would seem from their traditions that they have always been at war with each
other; and indeed it would seem that it is fear, or considerations of policy alone, which
prevents them from going to war with other nations; even those with which they have
the greatest affinity. They had made treaties with other nations before they saw the
whites ; but they were always driven to it from fear, and hence those leagues were
usually broken, even by the party first proposing peace, as soon as their strength
would justify. The low as, however, have not upon record any important treaty with
neighboring tribes, nor any noted violation of treaties made.
The manner in which their fathers made treaties was as follows. The nation
desiring to make peace would collect all their principal men, and travel together until
they came in sight of the enemy's village. They would then stop, and send forward
into the village a single individual, bearing the peace-pipe, stem foremost, wailing as

he went. The remaining company of the peace party would then follow at some
distance. The pipe-bearer, on reaching the village, would be conducted by some one
to the first chief's house. A favorable reception would be indicated by the chief thus
visited, by taking a whifi of smoke from the extended pipe. Should he refuse, it was
always considered hazardous to the chief himself; as it is supposed that such a refusal
exposes him to an angry visitation of the Great Spirit, in taking away the life of the
chief or some of his family. When the pipe-bearer has been thus received, as is

always the case from the foregoing consideration, the whole peace company are received
in the first chiefs lodge, and manifestations of friendship exchanged by shaking the
right hand, while the left is passed down the other arm, from the shoulder, and
rubbed forcibly over the breast.' They also eat and stay several days together.

'
This is an unconscious reply to No. 184.
264 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
They Lave not made any great fortifications or breast-works, nor can they give any
explanation of the great earth-works of the country, except that there is an allusion
to a groat fortification in one of their sacred songs, which appears to have been made
or controlled by some of their great fathers.

" 7. — What events have happened, in their history, of which they feel proud, or
by which they have been cast down ? What tribes have they conquered, or been
coiaquered lay, and who have been their great men ? Have they suffered any great
calamity in past times, as from great floods, or wild beasts, from epidemic or
"
pestilential diseases, or from fierce and sudden assailants ?

The greatest victory in the recollection of the lowas was about forty-five years ago,

when they say they destroyed thirty houses of the Osages with all their inhabitants.
Their greatest loss was thirty-three years ago. Twenty men were killed, and three
women taken prisoners by the Sioux. Forty-five years ago, just after the Osage
victory, the small-pox took off about one hundred men — women and children not
counted. Thirty-three years ago, they lost about sixty men, besides women and
children, with a disorder like the small-pox, perhaps measles or scarlet fever. Thirty-
six years ago, they felt the shock of an earthquake; — one very considerable, and
several less severe shocks.

"8. —Who is their ruling chief? Who are their present most noted chiefs, speakers,
or war captains ? State their names, and give brief sketches of their lives. When
"
did the tribe reach their present location, and under what circumstances ?

White Cloud, known among the Indians by the name of Wi-e-wa-ha, or good dispo-
sition, is the first chief of the Iowa tribe. His father is spoken of as a great man
among the lowas ; noted mainly for his courage and generosity. His son, the jai-esent

chief, is not remarkable for any trait except an insatiable thirst for spirits. Indians
usually indulge in drunkenness only occasionally, as opportunity and influence may
fiivor such indulgences ; but he is more sottish, and is disjiosed to keep it by him all

the time. Very regardless of the interests of his nation, and much more notorious
for keeping bad company than for repelling the iri'egulai'ities of the vagrant of the
nation. A man of no brilliancy of mind, or firmness of character; though great
pains have been taken to make a contrary impression on the minds of strangers by a
favorite interpreter, and a few others, hanging upon him for pecuniary considerations.
Has sustained his influence in his nation, heretofore, by purchasing large quantities of
goods and provisions on the credit of the nation, and giving them to a few braves (so
called) and favorites in the tribe. Since the most wise and most just arrangement of
the Department in dividing the annuity equally among the heads of families, has been
adopted, it is liard to see how ho will sustain himself Most likely he will sink to the

level which he ought to occupy. Offers no encouragement to the school. Has three
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 265

wives, and sometimes four. A m;iu of middle size, one eye out from the constant use
of liquor, about 35 or 3G years of age ; a poor speaker, and says but little in council
usually.
Narche-uing-a, or No-heartrof-fear, is the second chief of the lowas, and the principal
business-man of the nation. He is at this time chief speaker. Not remarkable for
strength of mind, but under good influence will always be a fine man. Shows some
concern for the welfare of his people, a friend to the whites, and anxious to have his
people adopt their customs. Very friendly to education. The school and mission
owe much to him for his friendship and influence; he has always been their fast
friend. A man of good appearance ; has but one wife, with whom he has always lived
in as much domestic happiness as perhaps is ever enjoyed among savages. Is almost
45 years of age.

Neu-mon-ga, or Walking-rain, is the third chief; a man of most dignified and fine
appearance, and of a shrewd and cunning mind. Modest and well-behaved among
the whites — ambitious and selfish among his people, and generally of doubtful repu-
tation ; though perhaps the most observing and calculating among the chiefs, and a
ready speaker. Near 50 years of age has one ; wife, with whom he has lived agreeably
for a long time.

Waw-mo-moka, or "Thief," is the fourth chief, but a young man who takes but
little part in tlie business affairs of the nation. A young man of a very fine disposi-

tion, and perhaps the only chief of the tribe not known to have ever been drunk.
For his sobriety, he has received a neat temperance medal, sent from some friends in
England to those of the nation worthy of them. Of good apijearance, over 20 years

of age, and has one wife.

He-wa-tho-cha, or One-who-sheds-his-hair, is regarded as the fifth chief of the tribe
quite deaf, and has but little mind. If he undertakes to speak in council, it is only to
repeat something said by a predecessor. About 50 years of age, common appearance,
one Avife, and one son. A few others claim to be chiefs, but are not recognised as such
by the nation. Would it not be well for government, as fast as the condition of the
tribes may allow of it, to put down this system of chiefship altogether? This, no
doubt, will and must be the final issue in the event of their improvement, allied as
they are to our republican government ; but might not this power be commenced much
sooner, through the agency of our government ? It would be a great spur to the rising

generation, and a check to the existing tyrannical authorities.

At this time there is not any conspicuous " brave," or speaker, among the lowas.
A few years ago their great orator died. He was regarded by both Indians and whites
.as a very great speaker. The following brief and well-authenticated speech of his
agrees well with this nation's oratorical powers. He once conducted a war party
against the Osages, but Avithout any success. On their way home, weary and
dispirited, they passed near where were some white emigrants, and finding their horses
Pt. III. — 34
266 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
some distance from their houses, conchided to steal them, and ride home. The whites
discovered the theft, and by a pushed march, soon overtook the Indians with the stolen
horses. This speaker being head of the band, it fell upon him to reconcile the diffi-

culty, which he did hy at once, on hearing of the approach of the whites, turning to
meet them in the most friendly mannei", and, as soon as he could obtain audience,
addressing them in substance as follows : " You are our friends and brothers, Ave are
glad to see you. We are friends to the whites, and we know their ways. We know
their way is, that when a friend or brother is in distress, they allow him to take such
things as he needs to help him out of distress without asking for it, if it is necessary.
We were weary and in distress to get home to our friends and families, and we took
your horses as friends, intending to send tliem back as soon as we would get home.
We know these horses are yours; we do not claim them, but we just borrowed them
in our distress, feeling that we were all friends." The argument appears to have been
sufficient, and a compromise was at once made. Few men, under the excitement of
such an occasion, would have been able to adopt such a course. His name was Wa-
charmon-ya, or One-who-kills-as-he-walks. He died two years ago, about sixty years
of age, of good size, and most intellectual and noble appearance.

"9. — Does the tribe speak one or more dialects, or are there several languages
spoken, or incorporated in it, requiring more than one interpreter, in transacting

business with them ? Are there aged persons who can state their traditions ?

There is but one language spoken in the Iowa tribe, and one interpreter answers all

purposes. Their language is of the same family with the Winnebagoes, Kansas,
Omahas, Punkas, Osages, and others.

There are a few aged persons who pretend to be able to state their traditions with
great accuracy ; but we find it is not the most pretending that is the most correct, or
to be relied on. We hope, however, to find enough from various sources to be able to
give about all that is existent on this subject.

International Rank and Relations.

" 10. — What rank and relationship does the tribe bear to other tribes ? Do their
traditions assign them a superior or inferior position in the political scale of the
tribes ; and is this relationship sanctioned by the traditions of other tribes ? To
what mode can we resort to settle discordant pretensions to original rank and affinities

of blood?"
The rank and relationship of the tribes is difficult to find, as the}- seem to be quite

mdepcndent of each other, and each one disposed to claim superiority. At present,

however, the lowas do not seem to be very ambitious as to superiority of rank in this
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 2G7

respect; but tlie traditions of their fatliers would make tliem to have been superior to

many nations, and equal to the greatest, though it does not seem that they ever
claimed for themselves superiority over all nations, either in numbers or -wisdom.'

Their pretensions to equality with other great nations is, however, disputed by some
of the neighboring nations, and a very inferior position in the scale of nations assigned
them. The Sacs say that they found the lowas a small band, driven before their
enemies, and that it was through kindness extended from the Sac nation, that the

lowas exist. The lowas, in return, say that they found the Sacs a small band of men
only, almost exterminated by the Siou.v, that they took them and gave them wives, and
that, but for them, the Sac nation would have been e.xtinct long ago. It will be
difficult to adopt any successful mode to reconcile these discordant pretensions to
original rank. As they, as tribes, have always^ lived more or less adjacent, perhaps
a detail of the views of each nation, witli regard to the strength and powers of all
surrounding nations, regardless of -vhat they might claim for themselves, might show
Avhat nation or nations have bc(.'.i , iiporiors, at least in certain districts, or among
neighboring tribes. The relation, rank, and friendship of the tribes are not expressed

by the terms " brother, father," &c. The language is doubtless the most reliable means
of tracing the original affinity of these scattered people. There is, however, another
process, which, if rightly pursued, might throw great light on the origin of these
people, as well as on their clouded history. Let the religious ceremonies of each
principal tribe be carefully and particularly drawn out in detail, and diligently
compared. This would lead to something more to be relied on, than the vague
traditions of more modern times, most of which have sprung from vain bravadoes who
told their own stories, and who are often regardless of truth. Their religion they held
sacred, and their ceremonies are taught from father to son, and they have not been
altered in the least, for at least many generations. They neither add to nor diminish
from these, nor does it appear that they are in the habit of forming new ones. This
would be going more to the law originally written on their hearts, if allowed the
expression, than anywhere else, and upon this we might more rely. These ceremonies
and songs are much more numerous than is generally supposed, and reference is had to

many things which can be found nowhere else ; e.. g., see the inquiries after the cause

of the strange earth-works in this country — nothing direct or indirect could be

found, while on that subject. It was afterwards, however, found that there was a
and wood fort, built and commanded by some great one
direct allusion to a great earth

of their ancestors.' Tims many things might be got in this way, and in no other,
which would throw light on their history and character, and by carefully comparing
these, some clue might be obtained to their origin. Such an investigation would

' They are a branch of the Hochungara type of the Dacotahs. —

H. R. S.
' Not so. The Sacs, in 1712, lived at Saginaw, in Michigan. The lowas never east of Wisconsin. — H. R. S
' This is a Winnebago tradition
268 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
probably settle the question whether they are of Jewish descent. It is difficult to

think that they are the descendants of Abraham, in view of the difficulties in the

way ; but in their manners and customs we see many analogies, besides the fact that

we have in this school, and at tins time, two boys, one of about seven, and one of about
four years old, who have been circumcised. These boys are half-breeds, said to be

from the '"

Blackfeet tribe." Their father may have been a Jew, and had it done, but

we know not. We may in future have an opportunity of getting more light on

this subject.'

The foregoing method would require much time and research, but it would not be
necessary to trace out the mummery of each little band or division, in such an inquiry,

only the leading tribes in each family of language. It would also be attended

with some difficulty from two causes. 1st, the want of competent and faithful inter-

preters ; for it must be borne in mind, that many interpreters who can do well in

ordinary things, know nothing scarcely of their religion, for it has almost an inde-
pendent vocabulary of its ovm. 2d, There is a great delicacy on the part of those

most skilled in these things, to communicate fully and freely on these subjects,
particularly to strangers. They fear that it may bring upon themselves, or on their

nation, some great calamity. Still, however, pecuniary inducements could be brought
to bear on this point, so that enough might be had to throw much light on their dark
history and origin.

"11. —Are there belts of wampum, quippas, or monuments of any kind, such as

heaps of stone, &c., to prove the former existence of alliances, leagues, or treaties
among the tribes ? If so, describe them, and the places where they are to be found."

No monuments, mounds, piles of earth or stones, or wampum, to mark the existence

of former alliances or treaties with neighboring tribes. The " peace-pipe," so common
among Indians, is the only external used on such occasions.

" 12. —What is the badge, or, as it has been called, the totem of the tribe — or if it

consist of separate clans, or primary families, what is the number of these clans, and
"
what is the badge of each ?

There is no badge, or totem, peculiar to the Iowa tribe, except the peculiar cut of
the hair; and even this is not peculiar to the Iowa alone, for other adjacent ti'ibes cut

the hair in the very same style.

The Iowa tribe is divided into primary clans ; these clans bear the title or name of
the particular animal or bird^ from which they are supposed to have sprung. The

'
This was subsequently investigated, at my request : vide letter appended.
' This direct aflBrmativc reply query Number 12, which has just been negatived by the respondent, is
to

doubtless owing to a misapprehension of the Algonquin word "totem," which means the clan-marks of these
very animals and birds. — H. II. S.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 269

lowas recognize eight leading families, though some of them are now extinct. These
families are,

1st, tlie Eagle family.

2cl, " Pigeon "
3d,. " Wolf «

;
4th, " Bear "
5th, " Elk "

6th, " Beaver "

7th, " Biiflfalo "
8th, " Snake "

These families are known severally in the tribe by the particular manner in which
their hair is cut : 1st, the Eagle family, is marked by two locks of hair on the front
part of the head, and one on the back part left long : 3d, Wolf, scattered branches of
hair left to grow promiscuously over the head, representing islands, whence this family

is supposed to have sprung : 4th, Bear, one side of the hair of the head left to grow
much longer than the other : 7th, Buflalo, a strip of hair left long from the front to
the rear part of the head, with two branches on each side to represent horns.
The other families, with their peculiar badges, are lost. This manner of cutting
hair is confined to the male children; as soon as they are grown, they adopt the
common ftishion of the tribe, which is to shave off all the hair except a small braid,
or scalp-lock, left near the top of the head, with a small formation of cut hair sur-
rounding it about two inches on the front and sides, and extending down the back of
the head. This cutting is usually done about once a year, and is said, by them, to be

of great advantage in expelling troublesome vermin.

"13. — Have geographical features, within the memory of tradition, or the abun-
dance or scarcity of game, had anything to do with the division and multiplication of
tribes and dialects, either among the Atlantic or Western tribes?"
According game has had much to do with dividing the
to tradition, the scarcity of

tribes. Rivalship and ambition among

and war leaders, has no doubt had
chieftains,

also much to do in this affair. Divisions of this kind now exist among several of the
frontier ti'ibes, within the recollection of many who are now living. This was perhaps
one cause of the small band of Sacs now on this river (Missouri) breaking off from
the main band on the Mississippi. There is also a small band of lowas separated from
the main body, and living now on the Nemahaw river (of the Missouri), who broke
off from the same cause.

"14. —What great geographical features, if any, in North America, such as

the Mississippi river, Alleghany mountains, &c., are alluded to, in their traditions, of
the original rank and movements of the tribe : and was the general track of their
migrations, from or towards the north or the east?"
270 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
The Great Lakes east and north-east, perhaps Baffin's bay also, and the Mississippi
river, are the only important geographical lineaments which appear to be referred to
in their traditions ; and hence their general movements in emigrating have been west

or south-west.'

Geography.
" 15. —Have the Indians any just ideas of the natural divisions of the earth into
"
continents, seas, and islands ? What ideas have they of the form of the earth ?

No correct ideas. They can hardly conceive of the earth being a globe ; conse-

quently they have very confused notions of the process which causes day and night
and the seasons.

" 16. —What are the chief rivers in tlie territory or district occupied by the tribe?"
The Mis.souri river is the eastern or north-eastern boundary of the lands of both
the Sacs and lowas. This stream requires no description, being already well known.
The Great Nemahaw bounds the lowas on the north. This stream is not far from
thirty yards wide, deep, sluggish, and mazy, and can be forded in but few places.

" 17. — Are there any large springs or lakes in the district, and what is their charac-
"
ter, size, and average depth ; and into what streams have they outlets ?

No lakes of size worthy of note on the lands of either of the nations. Some fine

springs, but not large enough for driving machinery.

" 18. — What is the general character of the surface of the country occupied by the
tribe? Is it hilly or level — fertile or sterile; abundant or scanty in Avood and water
— abounding or restricted in the extent of its natural meadows or prairies ?
"

Beautifully diversified with gentle hills and plains, most of which are fit for cultiva-

tion, except on the immediate blufls of the Missouri. The slopes inclining to the

Nemahaw are usually gentle enough for cultivation, and the streams extensive. Soil

generally very fertile; timber very scarce; springs of water and running brooks rather
abundant. No restriction in the extent and resources of the prairies or natural
meadows of the country. The main products of Indian agriculture are corn, beans,
pumpkins, melons, &c. The soil is also well adapted to the growth of wheat, hemj),
tobacco, oats, potatoes, &c.
'•'19. —Are cattle and stock easily raised — do the prairies and woods afford an
abundant supply of herbage spontaneously — are wells of water to be had at moderate
?
depths, where the surface denies springs or streams

'
Tlii." concurs with tbe Winnebago traditions. — H. R. S.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 271

Cattle and stock raised with great ease. Winters are often cold for cattle, but dry
and fine. A superabundance of herbage, and pasturage fine. The Oregon Battalion
passed by us, remaining nearly two weeks in our vicinity, with over 4000 animals
to subsist upon the prairie grass ; and a month after they left, we could not see the
places where they had been, so abundantly and rapidly does the grass grow in the
summer.
Water can be had by digging at from twenty to thirty feet usually. St. Joseph's,

twenty-five or thirty miles distant, afibrds a market ; but the great misfortune is, our
poor people here have nothing to take to market.

"20. —Has the old practice of the Indians of burning the prairies to facilitate
hunting, had the effect to injure the surface of the soil, or to circumscribe, to any
extent, the native forests ?

This subject seems not to have been observed by the Indians so as to state anything
satisfactory upon it.

''21. — Arc Ij.; J >;::y extensive barrens, deserts, or swamps, reclaimable or irreclaim-
able, and Avhat effects do they produce on the health of the country, and do they offer

any serious obstacles to the construction of roads ?

None of any consequence, either to district roads, or endanger health. Marshy

ground is always, by the Indians themselves, regarded as unhealthy; this, with a
desire to be able more readily to see the approach of an enemy, causes them usually to
select high grounds for villages and encampments, except in the winter season, when
places are chosen sheltered, by hills or woodlands, from the winds.

" 22. — Is the quantity of arable land diminished by large areas of arid mountain,
"
or of volcanic tracts of country ?

See the foregoing.

" 23. — Is the climate generally dry or humid ? Does the heat of the weather vary
greatly, or is it distributed, through the different seasons, with regularity and equa^
I
bility ? What winds prevail ? Is it much subject to storms of rain with heavy
thunder, or tornadoes?"
The climate is generally dry and most beautiful, with clear and almost constant
sunshine, but the temperature exceedingly variable, the thermometer at times falling
40° in a few hours, and again rising with the same rapidity. There are also great

extremes in the general character of the seasons. Extremes of heat, cold, wet, and
dry, for a long time together. The present winter is very remarkable for being warm.
We have pursued our avocations in the office much of the winter without fire. Four
years ago the winter was as remarkable for cold.
272 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
South winds generally prevail. Frequent storms of thunder and rain in the summer,
with occasional tornadoes of great violence, generally attended with hail, and tremen-
dous displays of electricity. These, however, are not generally very extensive, being
narrow and soon exhausted.

" 24. —Does the district produce any salt springs of value ; any caves, yielding salt-
"
petre earth ; or any beds of gypsum, or plaster of paris, or of marl ?

None of these things have yet been discovered in this district, though the Indians
find, east of the Missouri, (we know not exactly where,) sulphur in quite a pure state.
We have seen specimens, but have none at hand ; if we procure any, we will forward
them as opportunity may oflfer.

" 25. —Has the country any known beds of stone coal?"
Small beds of coal appear in several places, but not opened or examined to any
extent.

" 26. —What is the general character and value of the animal productions of the
district? What species of quadrupeds most abound?"
Scarcely any wild animals to be found. A few deer, turkeys, prairie wolves, and
occasionally a large grey wolf, may be found. Though, according to the Indian
account, the streams once abounded with beaver, otters, and other furred animals, none
are to be found now ; farther north and south, there are said to be some panthers and
badgers. No grizzly bear known or seen near this for many years. The buflalo, which,
only forty years ago, abounded as far down the Missouri as St. Charles, is already
driven 150 or 200 miles beyond us. All this great destruction of native game is

doubtless owing, in a great measure, to the fur trade. The beaver and buflalo seem
to recede more rapidly than most other animals, before the advance of civilization.

" 27. —Do the Indian traditions make any mention of larger or gigantic animals in
former periods ? Is there any allusion to the mastodon, megalonyx, or any of the
extinct races, whose tusks, or bones, naturalists fi^id imbedded in clay, or submerged
"
in morasses ?

None, so far, has as yet been discovered, nor is it likely there will be, as the Indians
never explore those regions where such things are usually found.

" 28. —What species are we to understand by the story, on this head, told to Mr.
Jefierson, or by the names Ya^ga-sho, Quis-quis, Wm-de-go, Bosh-cardosh, or others,
which are heard in various dialects?"
Not acquainted with these stories.

" 29. —Have they any peculiar opinions, or striking traditions, respecting the serpent,
wolf, turtle, grizzly bear, or eagle, whose devices are used as symbols on their arms, or
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 2T3

dwellings, and how do such opinions influence their acts on meeting these species in
the forest ?

No remarlcable traditions respecting any of these animals, though it would seem

that they pay a kind of religious adoration to some animals, reptiles, and birds. Thei'e
is a small bird, a species of the hawk, which they never kill, except to obtain some
portions of its body, to put with their sacred medicine. They say it inhabits the rocky
cliffs of mountains, and is very difficult to take ; that it has a remarkable faculty of
remaining a long time upon the wing. This faculty seems to obtain for it the respect
of the Indians, as it seems to soar with ease toward what they suppose is the land of
the blessed.
Many of the Indians do not kill snakes ;
particularly such individuals as profess to
be " snake doctors." If they meet a snake, particularly the rattlesnake, they usually
stop and talk to it, and make it some offering or present, such as tobacco, or such
things as may be at hand ;
propose friendship and peace between the snakes and the
children of the nations, &c., &c. Soon after the lowas commenced to build their
village near the mouth of Wolf river, in 1837, a youth of the nation came into
the village, and reported that he had seen a rattlesnake on the point of a hill near the
village. The great snake doctor of the village immediately went out, taking some
tobacco and such articles with him ; and on finding the snake, made his presents, had
a long talk, and on his return to his people, told them that now they might travel
about in safety, as peace was made with the snakes.
The devices of bears, buffaloes, &c., found on skins, horsewhips, saddles, war-clubs,
&c., are only a kind of heraldry, or hieroglyphic record of their adventures in
killing such animals. The joui'neys of war-parties are sometimes recorded in the
same way.

" 30. — Have they any tradition respecting the first introduction of the horse upon
"
this continent ?

None.

"31. — Are they expert in drawing maps or charts of the rivers, or sections of

country, which they inhabit ? State their capacities on this subject, denoting whether
these rude drawings are accurate, and whether they evince any knowledge of the laws
of proportion, and transmit, if you can, specimens of them.
See the accompanying map, dra^vn by an Iowa, herewith enclosed. (Plate 30.)

Antiquities.
" 32. — Are there any antique works, or remains of any kind, which are the result of

human industry in ancient times, in your district ? And what traditions, or opinions,

have the tribes, on the subject?"

Pt. III. — 35
274 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
None, except some very small mounds on a high prairie, in view of both the Wolf
and Missouri rivers ; which, however, are pretty certainly known to be the remains of
earth houses, built by the Pawnees, or perhaps some other tribe in the habit of using

such I'esidences. Tlie mounds, consequently, are very small. There is also a curiously

formed circular trench, or ditch, on the south side of Wolf river. The earth appears
to have been excavated, some depth below the surface, to considerable width, in the

form of a ring, enclosing an area of perhaps half an acre. As there is the appearance
of having been a village near this, the Indians say that this circular formation was a
play-ground, as the Pawnees, they say, are now in the habit of forming such rings, in
which to perform a certain sort of play for amusement. All this has been told to us,
as we have neither seen the ring itself, nor been acquainted with the usages of the
Pawnees. But we have had it from relialjle sources.

" 33. —What is generally thought by

"
men of reflection, to be the probable origin and
purpose of the western mounds ?

Upon this we cannot give any useful ideas, and there are none in our vicinity that

we can describe.

" 34. —Ancient fortifications. 35. —Circular works. 36. —Imitative mounds."
None of these things in our district.

" 37. —Does the level surface of the prairie country, which is now partially overrun

by forest, preserve any traces of a plan or design, as of ancient furrows or garden-

?
beds
Nothing of this kind has been observed.

" 38. — Is there any ancient or noted mark on rocks, or any artificial orifice or
excavation in the earth, or other land-mark known in local tradition, which denotes
"
historical events ?

None, that are known of

"39. — What is the general character of the antique implements, ornaments, or

utensils of earthen-ware found in 3'our district of the country ? 40. — If pipes are

found, what is the material — is it stone, steatite, or clay ?

"

Nothing of the kind found or known. It might be remarked that this country is

very new, so far as occupancy by the whites extends ; consequently such things, being
naturally imbedded below the surface, cannot soon appear. It is said, however, that
about three miles below St. Joseph's, in the State of Missouri, near the bottom of a
very high hill, called " King Hill," (on the top of which are the evident remains of a
fortification,) are three Ijroken pieces of potter's ware, of very rude and curious
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 275

lorination, and evidently the work of an ancient and very rude people ; but we have
not seen any .specimens, but believe that they exist.

"41. —How many kinds of utensils of stone were there? How Avas the axe usually
formed, and from what materials ? What was the shape and construction of the stone
tomahawk? Was it always crescent-shaped, and pointed?
No information on the subject. All the instruments used by our Indians are
obtained from the whites, except bows, wooden bowls and ladles, and their wooden
mortars for beating corn. They can give no account of the implements used by their
fathers, nor have any of them been handed down, or kept in their families.

"42. — Manufacture of darts, arrow-points, and other missiles. What was the
"
process of manipulation of these often delicately wrought articles ?

The arrow-points now in use, are of iron obtained from the whites, and those made
expressly for going to war are sometimes bearded, and are called " angry arrows." It
does not appear to be a trade : eacli one seems to be able to make for himself in

proportion to his necessities. The file is the principal instrument used in manufac-
turing these points. As the country is new and but little cultivated, but few have
yet been found ; and those found do not differ materially from the common flint arrow-
point generally found in the Eastern States.

"43. —What species of sea-shells

"
have been found, in ancient graves or mounds, at
remote points from the ocean ?

None found here.

"44. — Shell-coin, wampum, ancient currency?"

Nothing clear on this subject.

"45. —Was iron, copper, tin, or any other metal, used by the aboriginal tribes in

America, for the purposes of art, prior to the discovery of the continent by Columbus ?"
No mineral improved, refined, or used by these Indians, so far as we know. The
arm-bands, &c., found here, have all been obtained from the whites.

"46. —Do the rocks of America, or any ancient architectural structures, disclose any
ancient alphabet, hieroglyphics, or system of picture-writing, capable of interpretation,
?
which promises to reflect light on the obscure periods of American history
Nothing discovered in this region.

Astronomy.
On entering upon the subject of astronomy, and several others ot like character,
(and indeed I may say the whole Indian history,) we find it very difficult to obtain
276 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
what may be regarded as a correct s^niopsis of the views of the tribe on any particular
point ;
particularly subjects that are obscure, and require the exercise of the mind.
Each one appears to have his own views, which, in many points, differ from others,
and, in some particular, may differ from all others. Hence, to give the notions of one

in full, without consulting others, would be unfoir. It is therefore necessary, in order

to give a fair statement of what may be regarded as the prevaihng notion of a tribe,

on any subject doubtful and abstruse to them, to examine many different individuals,

and compare their views. To do justice to all the subjects brought forward in these

inquiries, would require years of close labor and attention. Other duties forbid us
attending to this subject as we could wish, and as would make it more satisfactory and
useful to you. We have therefore to advance slowly, but will try to embody what
may be regarded as standards of their notions on these various subjects.

" 47. —The earth and its motions. What is the amount of their knowledge on
"
this

subject ? Do they believe the earth to be a plane, a globe, or a semi-circle ?

Very limited and confused. No idea of more than one continent. They have
always thought that the earth was an island, surrounded on all sides by water. On
inquiring what was on the other side of the water, the answer was " water." Cannot
conceive of it having much, if any relation to the planets, except that we derive our

heat from the sun ; but how the sun, earth, and moon are retained in their respective

places, cannot understand. Thought that the ea,rth was flat, and did not think of it

being round, until told so by the whites. A notion prevails among some of the lowas,

that the stars are a sort of living creatures like men. This arises from the following
tradition. "Long when very young, observed
ago, a child, a certain star in the

heavens, which he regarded more than all others. As he grew up, his attachments for

the star increased, and his mind became more and more set upon it. When able, he went
out to hunt, and while travelling, weary and alone, not having very good success, this
favorite star came down to him, and conversed with him, and conducted him to a place

where he found bear, and plenty of game. After this he was always a great hunter."

"48. —Have they any idea of the universe, or other creations in the field of space,
"
which have in their belief been made by the Great Spirit ?

All things visible were created, they think, by the Great Spirit ; but cannot extend

their thoughts, without much aid, to other systems in the vast field of space beyond

our own globe.

 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 277

7. HOCHUNGARA FAMILY OF THE DACOTAH GROUP.

The name of Puants, as the cognomen for an Indian tribe, first appears in the French
missionary authors, in 1669. The people on whom they bestowed it, Uved on Green
Bay of Wisconsin, and the bay itself was called after the tribe. By the Algonquins
they were called Wee-ni-bee-gog, (phi- animate,) a term which has long been
anglicized under the form of Winnebagoes, (plu.) The original is founded on two
Algonquin words, namely, weenud, turl^d, or foul, and nibeeg, the plural form for

water. The same radicals are employed in the terms Winnipeg, and Winnepeag,
names for northern lakes, in which the meaning is simply, turbid water. It is found

that both these lakes have a stratum of whitish muddy clay at their bottoms, which is

disturbed by high wands, giving the waters a whitish hue, and imparting more or less
turbidity. The termination in o, in the w^ord Winnebago, stands in the place of the

accusative, and renders the term personal.

By the tribe itself they are called Hochungara, which is said to mean Trout nation,

and sometimes Horoji, or Fish-eaters. They have always maintained the character
of manly brave men, and appear to have formerly exercised a considerable influence
among the surrounding tribes. Their language shows them to belong to the great
Dacotah stock of the west, and they were found in the van of that group of families
of tribes, being the only one of its number who had crossed the Mississippi below
]\Iinnesota, in their progress eastward.

The Winnebagoes are a tribe of good stature, and a manly air and bearing, and
coincide wdth the other tribes of Indian race in the United States, in possessing the
characteristic straight black hair, black glistening eyes, and red skins. They have
maintained their position as a tribe of independent feelings and national pride, during
all the earlier periods of our acquaintance with them.
This claim of the Hochungaras to the possession of considerable mental capacity, is

sustained by the cranial admeasurements Avhich I have recently caused to be made at

the Academy of Natural Sciences, at Philadelphia, (Vol. II. p. 335, of these Inquiries.)
In these examinations they are placed at 89 cubic inches internal capacity, and 79°
facial angle, on the skulls examined.
How long they had maintained their position at Green Bay before the arrival of the
French, we know not. But they had receded from it towards the west, before the
visit of Carver, in 1766, who found them on Fox river. Father AUouez says that it

was a tradition in his days, that they had been almost destroyed, about 1640, by the
Illinois. They have kept on good terms, within the^ period of history, with the Sacs
and Foxes, the once noted and erratic Mascoutins, the Menomonies, Ottowa.=!, Chippe-
was, and Potawatomies, denoting a wise and considerate policy on the part of their chiefs.
278 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
Their own traditions, and the accounts we have gathered from some of the tribes on
the Missouri, denote them tx) be the ancestors of the lowas, Missouries, Otoes, and
Oraahaws.
Their earliest traditions relate to their residence at Red Banks —an ancient location
on the east shore of Green bay — and to trade with the French. They have a tradi-
tion that they once built a fort ; an event which a^Dpears to have made a general
impression on the tribe, and which may, without improbabilitj^, be connected with the
finding of the arcliEeological remains of an ancient work on Rock river ;^ — perhaps,
Avith the war with the Illinois, mentioned by Allouez. Geographically considered, they
are the aborigines of central Wisconsin.
The Wisconsin, the Rock, and the Wolf rivers, flowed from this central height east,
west, and .south, and gave them the advantage of descending on their enemies at will.
The French found them in league with the Menomonies; and these two powers gave
.shelter to the flying Sacs and Foxes, when they were finally expelled from lower
Michigan. The event of this flight was not completed till the commencement of the
Pontiac war — so late as the year 1760. With the French, notwithstanding the recep-
tion of these two fugitive tribes, they maintained friendly I'elations, and traded uninter-
ruptedly. With the Chippewas, Ottowas, Potawatomies, Kickapoos, Mascoutins, and
other tribes of the Algonquin group of families, who surrounded their possessions north,

cast, and south-east, the}- also kept on general terms of friendship; a point that
required great address, as the Sacs and Foxes seemed to have been cut loose from
their ancient natui'al Algonquin affinities, and were perjsetually making inroads on these
tribes, particularly on the Chippewas of Lake Supei'ioi', whom they united with the
Sioux in opposing. Tradition rej^reseuts the Sacs and Foxes to have engaged in

battles against the Chippewas, at Lac View Desert, Lac du Flambeau, and the Falls of
St. Croix, and Francis River, on the upper Mississippi. They were defeated, along
with the Sioux, by the Chippewas under Wabojeeg, in a great battle at the Falls of
St. Croix. To preserve their relations with the French, under these circumstances,
required skill and diplomacy; but in this, they had the great body of the Siou.v, their
relatives, immediately west of them on the Mis.sissippi, to sustain them.
On the fall of the French power in Canada, in 1760, they were slow and cautious
in entering into intimate relations with Great Britain. But the French had left the
elements of their influence with the western Indians, in the metif population, which
resulted from an amalgamation of the Canadian and the Indian female. This power
was conciliated by the English agents and commanding officers, avIio thus mollified the
Indian resentments, and replaced them by confidence in the conquerors.
The Winnebagoes were firm in their new fealty. They opened their country to
English traders; and when the Americans rose, in 1776, to assert a new nationality,

'
Called, with pedantry, and an entire disregard of Indian history, Aztalan.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT, 279

the Winnebagoes sided with the Crown. In all the local questions of jurisdiction,

at Prairie du Chien, Green Bay, and Michillimackinac, they were arrayed, without a
single exception, on the side of the British authorities.

When the question of fealty assumed a new vitality, by the war of 1812, the same
preferences prevailed. They sided with the CroAvn and flag of the Red Cross against

the Americans. They helped to defeat Colonel Croghan at Michillimackinac, Colonel

Dudley at the rapids of the Miami, and General Winchester at the river Raisin. They
were brought into the field of action by Colonel Robert Dixon and Mr. Crawford, two
prominent traders of leading minds and influence, who then resided at Prairie du
Chien and St. Peter's. They hovered, with the other hostile lake tribes, around the

beleaguered garrison of Detroit, and helped to render its forests vocal with the war-
whoop. And they returned, in 1815, like the other tribes, to their positions in the

north-western forests of Wisconsin, upper Michigan, Iowa, and Illinois, rather chap-

fallen, to reflect that they had not in reality been fighting.for their own independence,
but merely to assist one white power to sustain itself against another. This was
acknowledged at a public conference at Drummond island, in 1816, by the noted
chief Waubasha.
In 1812, they had listened to the false revelations of the Shawnee prophet of the
Wabash, Elksottawa, and his more celebrated brother Tecuraseh, who told them, along

with the whole mass of the western Indians, that the time had arrived for driving
back the Americans in their progress westward, and for regaining, under the British
standard, their lost dominion in the West. They accordingl}^ contributed their
auxiliaries in the bloody battles fought in lower Michigffn and Ohio, in the, to them,
delusive war that ensued. They, like the other Indians, reduced their population

thereby ; lost every practical and promised object, were wholly deserted, or unrecog-
nised in the treaty of Ghent, with the extended groups of tribes of the Dacotahs
and Algonquins, and returned to their homes gloomy and sour-minded against the
Americans. They assumed some insolence, in the years immediately following, to
travellers in the Fox and Wisconsin valleys. Hoo-choop, a stern chief at the outlet of
Winnebago lake, assumed to be the keeper of the Fox river valley, and levied tribute,
in some cases, for the privilege of ascent.

,- In the fall of 1821, a young Winnebago Indian, called Ke-taw-kah, killed Dr.
Madison, of the United States army, by shooting him from a horse, under circum-
stances which gave the act the air of great cruelty, as it was wholly unprovoked.
The murderer was promptly arrested, tried, and executed. The act was disavowed by
the nation, and led to no interruption of peaceful relations. Deeds of this kind have
not been of frequent occurrence with this tribe.
For some years after the war of' 1812, in which the pohtical hopes of all the tribes
were wrecked, they were looked upon with distrust by travellers. But with the
exception of the death of Dr. Madison, and that of another man named Ulric, at Green
280 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
Bay, the}- gave vent to few passionate outbreaks, and the tribes preserved peaceful
relations with the United States. x\ll the lake tribes had been misled by the war of
1812, supjwsiug that its results, through their adherence to the mother country, would
be to restore to them their hunting-grounds west of the Alleghanies, or, at least, to set

bounds and metes to the encroachments of the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic races. And
when the contrary was made known to them, and they began to comprehend it, most
of the tribes retired from the field of conflict to their native woods, like a bear who
had been robbed of her cubs.

The Winnebagoes were not, therefore, peculiar in their moodiness in the elevated and
central parts of Wisconsin, their old home and hunting-grounds after this war. The
history of their dealings with the American government is brief and definite. They
remained undisturbed masters of their territory in the centre of Wisconsin till recently.
The first indication that they could not permanently remain there was, j)erhaps, given
by the exjjedition to explore the country, in 1820. Tliey gazed at that expedition
silently, as not understanding it. Their first treaty with the United States was signed
June 3d, 1816, about five months after the treaty of Ghent, in which they pledged
themselves to peace, confirmed all prior grants to the British, French, and Spanish
governments, and agreed to restore prisoners. On the 19th of August, 1825, and the
11th of August, 1827, they adjusted, at Prairie du Chien, and Butte des Morts, with
the other tribes, and with the United States, their territorial boundaries. Their lingering
surliness to the United States, and the unfriendly feeling produced by the war of 1812,
broke out at Prairie du Chien, on the Mississippi, in the summer of 1827, when they
fired on a barge descending that stream, and committed other outrages. This brought
upon them the prompt movement of troops from St. Louis, which checked their
outbreak ; and Hoo-choop, their princii)al chief in east Wisconsin, with thirteen other
principal men, affixed their signatures to the treaty of the 11th of August, 1827.

In the year 1828, the discovery of valuable lead-mines in their territory, north of
Rock river, led the inhabitants of the frontiers of Illinois to pass over, and commence
mining operations in that quarter. This produced alarms and collisions on both sides,

which were settled by the treaty of Green Bay, of August 12th, 1828, by which a
temporary line of boundary was established, and 20,000 dollars allowed them for
depredations.
On the 1st of August, 1829, they ceded a tract south of the Wisconsin river, includ-
ing the mineral district, for the consideration of 540,000 dollars, payable in coin, in
tliirty annual equal instalments : in addition, large appropriations were made for
agricultural purposes, the introduction of smiths and agents, and the pa3ment of claims.
In 1831-2 they unwisely connected themselves in a clandestine participation of some
of the bands, with the schemes and dreams of Black Hawk. The war witli the Sacs

and Foxes was wnged exclusively on the Winnebago territory; they, at its close, ceded

all their remaining land in Wisconsin, lying south of the Wisconsin and Fox rivers; and
accepted, in exchange for it, a tract west of the Mississippi, in Iowa, called the Neutral
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 281

Ground. The sum of 270,000 dollars, payable in coin, in twenty-seven annual pay-
ments of 10,000 each, was granted, to equalize the exchange of territory. By this
treaty stipulations Avere made for the introduction of schools, the removal of shops and
agencies, and their advance in agriculture and civilization. The treaty, which was
concluded at Rock Island on the 15th of September, 1833, was one of great benefit to
the tribe, who prospered and increased in population under its execution. The
remarks of Mr. Lowry on this subject. Vol. II. p. 5^G, are referred to.

One of the worst acts flowing from their connection with the Sac war, and which
stains their character by its atrocity, was the assassination of Mr. Pierre Pacquette,
the interpreter at the agency, on the Wisconsin Portage. He was a man of Winnebago
lineage, and was reputed to be one of the best friends and counsellors of the nation.
By a treaty concluded on the 1st of November, 1837, they agreed to remove to the
Neutral Ground, the United States stipulating to transfer there the privileges for their
civilization, and to establish manual labor schools for their instruction.
On the 23d of October, 1839, Goveiiior Lucas of Iowa, reports that an exploring
party of them had arrived in that Territory in the spring of that year, to the alarm
of Keokuk, the head Fox chief, who complained of the movement, and requested that
they might be sent south of the Missouri.
The Winnebagoes themselves disliked the removal, neither could they be induced
to go south. The Commissioner, in his report of November 28, 1840, remarks, that
after some of the contiguous bands had passed over the Mississippi, the rest manifested

so much aversion to quitting their old homes in Wisconsin, that the emigration was
committed to General Atkinson, who, eventually, extended the time to the spring of
1841. Great eflforts were required, however, to overcome their reluctance to remove
to the Neutral Ground. In September, 1840, the aged chief Karamanee, Weenoshaik,
and other chiefs, made speeches to the Agent strenuously opposing it. At length the
government determined to remove the agency, schools, and shops, to Turkey river, and
directed the next annuities to be paid there. The nation still clung, as with a death-
grasp, to the hills and valleys of Wisconsin, but these steps were effective. Governor
Dodge reports that the effects of their remaining in Wisconsin, since the large increase
of their annuities under the treaty of 1837, were demoralizing, and that they began
rapidly to depopulate.
Mr. Lowry remarks, in 1842, that the depopulation from indulgence, drink, and dis-

ease, which had attended the removal, had been very great and demoralizing. He says
that the number of children to each female in the tribe did not exceed the average of
one ; and that wretchedness and bloodshed were of so frequent occurrence as to cease
to excite attention. Thirty-nine persons had perished in this way in a short time, and
sometimes two or three were stabbed to death in a night.'
Under this arrangement, subsequent removals were made to the stipulated grounds in

Report of D. Lowry, September 30th, 1842.

m. — .86
'

Pt.
282 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
Iowa, till the whole tribe had migrated. During a period of ten or twelve years,
while they occupied the Neutral Ground, they appear to have augmented iu their
numbers and means, and improved in habits.
It is observed by Mr. David Lowry, on the 15th of February, 1848, that their

numerical strength increased while they were on the Neutral Ground, and has been
in the process of increasing since they removed west of the Mississippi. There was a
visible change in habits of cleanliness, and their opinions underwent a marked change
respecting the subject of labor, so that the females were no longer expected or

allowed alone to work in their fields.

On the loth of October, 1846, in a treaty concluded with authorized delegates, the
tribe ceded the " Neutral Ground " in Iowa, and agreed to accept an adequate tract of
country north of the river St. Peter's, on the upper Mississippi. By this treaty, one
hundred and ninety thousand dollars were agreed to be paid them in various forms, of

which sum, the interest of eighty-five thousand dollars, at five per cent., was directed
to be paid to them in annuities, during a period of thirty years.
In conformity with this treaty, the tribe has been removed to a tract on the upper
Mississippi, fronting on the same, between the Watab and Crow-Wing rivers ; which
tractwas purchased from the Chippewas by the treaty of the 2d of August, 1847.
The seat of the agency is established at Long Prairie river, where buildings and shops
have been put up for them, and extensive fields fenced and ploughed by the farmers
appointed to teach them agriculture. Some difficulties have been encountered in
inducing the entire tribe to concentrate on this position, and in overcoming the erratic
liabits of the tribe. But it is believed that these causes have been entirely overcome.
The earliest notice we have of the Winnebago population, is one found at Paris, in
a manuscript list of Indian tribes, prepared hy Mons. Chaurignerie, in 1736. He puts
the Puants or Winnebagoes, at eighty warriors and seven hundred souls.
It is to be remembered, in relation to these small numbers, that Allouez had reported
them to have been almost destroyed by the Illinois, at a prior period. In the estimates
published by Colonel Boquet, in the narrative of his march west of the AUeghanies,
in 1764, they are put down at 700 warrioi's, an evident mistake. Pike, the first

American author on the subject, estimates the entire Winnebago population, in 1806,
at 2000. In the tables accompanying the plan of removal west of the Mississippi,
communicated to Congress on the 27th of January, 1825, they are given at 5800 ;
' an
exaggeration, if Pike be correct, since, by pi-inciples of Indian reproduction, they could
not have increased 3800 in twenty years, with the war of 1812 intervening.
In the project for a reorganization of the Indian Department, submitted by General
P. B. Porter, in 1829, this estimate is repeated.^ In the statement of tribes east of
the Mississippi, transmitted with the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, in
1836, the number is reduced to 4500. This number is repeated in the tables of the

'
Dnc. 21, 18th Congress, 2d Session. ' Doc. 17, 20th Congress, 2d Session, House of Representatives.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 283

Commissioner's report for December 1, 1837, there having evidently been no effort to

obtain new or correct estimates, witliiu the year. The same stereotype figures appear
in the official reports for 1839, and for 1840. It is not till the official report of
November 16, 1842, that their number, from actual census on the Neutral Ground, is

given, and they are found to be 2183; j'et the old estimate of 4500 is still given as the
total population, east From the precision with which this census of 2183 is
and west.
given by the Agent, and the known fact that all the Winnebagoes had then emigrated,
it is believed to embrace the whole Winnebago population.
In the tables accompanying the report of November 25, 1844, the old estimate of
;
4500 again reappears, with the census number, 2183 ' leaving it to be inferred, either

that in the two years from 1842 to 1844, there had not been a death or birth in the
Winnebago nation, or that no attention had been paid to the topic. The same
statements are served to Congress in the fall of 1845/ but they are omitted in the

report of 1846.
In the autumn of that year, several eminent citizens of New York, apprehending
that but little reliance could be placed on the vital and general statistics, and other
information respecting the Indian tribes, addressed a memorial to Congress, suggesting
the collection and preparation of more full and authentic information. A clause was
inserted in one of the acts, directing the Secretary of War to call the attention of the

Agents on the frontier to the subject. The result was so encouraging, as it is shown
in Doc. No. 33, House of Representatives, 29th Congress, 2d Session, that in the act

reorganizing the Department, passed March 3d, 1847, Congi'ess made provision for

taking a census of the whole number of tribes within the boundaries of the United
States.

The Winnebago population was reported in lists of families, as accurately taken

from the pay-rolls, and from personal inspection by J. E. Fletcher, Esq., their Agent
in 1848. These returns, which are published in Part I., page 498, designate the
separate bands into which the tribe is geographically divided; indicating families,
sexes, and ages. The total strength of the tribe, as shown in its new location on the

tracts purchased from the Chippewas on the upper Mississippi, is 2531. Of this

number, 1244 are men, 1202 women, including the children. Of these, there were
about 400 souls who would not permanently remove to the new site on Long Prairie
river, and who scattered south among the tribes on the Missouri. Replies of the
Agent are also given to the queries directed to be circulated, discussing important

points in their history, traditions, manners, and customs, which are believed to be
entitled to every credence ; they are, in part, herewith given.
The language of the Winnebagoes, as given by Mr. Lowry, is a peculiar modification
of the generic Dacotah, with the sound of r very conspicuously used.

'
Report of 1844, p. 21. "
Report of 1845, p. 13.
284 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,

8. WINNEBAGOES.
by j. e. fletcheb, esq., v. s. indian agent.

Office Indian Sub-agent,

Turkey River, March 7th, 1848.
Sir : — I have the honor to enclose herewith such answers as I have been able to
prepare to a few of the queries enclosed with your circular of July last.

I regret that I have not been able to comply with the request contained in said
circular, that answers should be furnished by the 1st of February last. I intended
to answer all of the queries which are appUcable to the tribe under my charge, and
with this view I conversed with most of the old chiefs, and accompanied by the
Agency interpreter, visited the oldest persons of the tribe at their lodges, to collect

information respecting the history and traditions of the tribe, but on examination of
my notes I am unwilling to forward them to the Department until I shall have tested
their correctness by availing myself of the services of a more competent interpreter.'
I requested Mr. S. B. Lowry to furnish me answers to several chapters of your
queries, which he consented to do ; and has obligingly submitted replies relative to
crime, hunting, and language, which you will please find enclosed herewith, together
with his letter accompanying. (Vide Future Prospects, Vols. II. and III.)

I shall employ all the time I can spare from indispensable duties, in preparing other
answers required ; and will forward them as early as possible.
I have the honor to be,

Very res^Dcctfully, your obt. servt.

J. E. Fletcher,
Indian Sub-agent.

Dancing and Amusements.

" 208. — Is dancing a national trait of the tribe ?

"

Dancing is a national trait of this tribe, and is a part of their religious, social, and
military system.
The war-dance is celebrated before starting on a war-path ; but although this tribe
has not, for several years past, been engaged in war, this dance is still kept up, and
frequently practised. The object of this seems to be the same as that sought to be

'
These papers have subsequently been received, having been revised and re-examined by Mr. Fletcher, and
will be submitted, in full, in Vol. IV. — H. R. S.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 285

effected by martial music and military reviews among the whites ; namely, to keep alive
a martial spirit, and "in peace prepare for war." The old warriors sometimes join this

dance ; but usually only the middle-aged and young men engage in it : occasionally boys
are allowed to join in it. Women do not engage in the war-dance, but encourage it by
their presence as spectators. The dancers appear in their war-costume, with a weapon,
or something to represent a weapon, in their hands. The musicians are seated around
a flag in the centre : the music consists of drums, rattles, and singing. When the music
commences, the dancers spring into the ring, and dance promiscuously, brandishing
their weapons, and making menacing gestures. This exercise is violent, and cannot
be long sustained Avithout rest. Occasionally a warrior will step forward, and go
through a pantomime of the discovery, ambuscade, attack, killing, and scalping of an
enemy ; another will give a history of his exploits, and accompany the recital with
appropriate gestures.
When an officer of the government, or any distinguished person, visits their village,
they assemble and dance ; this is done ostensibly as an honor, but in reality with the
expectation of receiving a present.
The scalp-dance affords a striking illustration of the vindictive and bloodthirsty
spirit of the savage, and the means by which this spirit is imbibed and cherished in
their children. I have witnessed but one dance of this kind. In the spring of 18-31, a
large party of Chippewa Indians were encamped near the Winnebago Agency ; five of

their warriors left the camp secretly, went into the country of the Sioux, and in the
night surprised and murdered, in a most barbai'ous manner, a family consisting of two
men, one woman, and two children, and took their scalps. I saw them on their
return, remonstrated with them, and told them that their Great Father would be
displeased when he heard of their conduct ; they made this reply :
" Last year we had
a talk with our fixther, Governor Ramsay, and our brothers the Long Knives ; they
told us that we must not go to war; that if the Sioux made war on us, they would be
punished a short time after we had this talk,
: our enemy came to our village at Otter-
tail lake,when our wai'riors were on a hunt, and killed several of our women and
children we sent word to our brothers, the Long Knives, and asked them to avenge
:

our wrongs, according to their promises we have waited a long time, and nothing has
:

been done for us the spirits of our dead could not rest, and we concluded to avenge
;

them ourselves, and have done so. Our father, you know that we speak the truth."
They had spoken truth, and I could only say, in reply, that if they had made Avar
on men, their equals, I could not blame them, but that they had disgraced themselves,
in the estimation of all brave men, by murdering unoffending Avomen and children
and that the Great angry with them for such cruelty.
Spirit Avould be

The Indians being noAv assembled, they proceeded with their dance the scalps were ;

hung up on sticks set in the ground, and men, women, and children, danced around
them; occasionally the Avomen and children Avould take a scalp and carry it round thf
286 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
ring. This dance was continued for hours, with great excitement. One of the
Chippewas killed his man with a spear; finding it difficult to extricate his weapon on
account of the barb, he cut out a piece of flesh with his knife, and brought it home,
still adhering to the spear ; this flesh was cut in pieces, and given to the boys, who ate

it raw.
The funeral dance is performed at the grave, when a sacrifice is made for the dead.
They dance around the grave to the music of the drum and singing.
The pipe-dance, and other convivial dances, are joined in with spirit and glee by the
old and young. The women in dancing have but one motion; they spring on the
toes, both feet together; the body erect, and hands by the side. The men bound on
the right and left foot alternately, with the body slightly bent forward.

The Medicine Feast. (Plate 31.)

This feast is an ancient custom or ceremony ; it is accompanied with dancing, and

is sometimes called the medicine dance. The members or communicants of this feast

constitute a society having secrets known only to the initiated. Gentlemen of the
Masonic fraternity have discovered unmistakeable evidence that there is a similarity
between the secret signs used by the members of this society, and those of Free-masons
like them they have a secret in common with societies of the same order, wherever
located; and like them, have different degrees, with secrets belonging to each
respectivel}', in the same society; but, unlike Free-masons, they admit women and
children to membership.
They have no regular or stated times for holding this feast ; and all the members do
not attend at the same time, but only such as are invited by the master of the feast.

Persons desirous of joining this society will, in some cases, use the most rigid economy
ibr years, to enable them to lay up goods to pay the initiating fee. This fee is not
fixed at any stipulated amount; those who join pay according to their ability.

Sometimes goods to the amount of two and three hundred dollars are given by an
iudividual. Goods given for this purpose generally consist of blankets, broadcloths,
calicoes, wampum, and trinkets, and are given to the medicine men, who perform the
ceremony of initiating the member. When one or more persons make application to
join the society, preparations are made for a feast and dance, which is held in an

arched lodge, or bower, constructed of poles, and covered with tent-cloth and other
materials. The bower is made to conform to the number of persons to be
size of the

invited, and this number depends much on the ability of the person who makes the
feast. The widtli of a l)ower is about sixteen feet, the length varying from ten to

seventy-five yards. The members of the society sit on each side of the bower, the
centre being reserved for dancing. Candidates for admission into this society are
.•.-'..>;vo(] to fast tliree days previous to being initiated. At some period during this
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 287

fast tliey are taken by the old medicine men to some secluded secret spot, and
instructed in the doctrines and mysteries of the society ; and it is said that the
candidates ai'e during this fast subjected to a severe sweating process, by covering
them with blankets, and steaming them with herbs ; the truth of this saying is not
here vouched for, but the appearance of the candidate, Avhen brought forward to be
initiated in public, corroborates it.

The public ceremony of initiation usually takes place about 11 o'clock, A. M. The
public exercises of dancing, singing, praying, and exhorting, which precede the
initiations, commence the previous morning. Before the candidates are brought
forward, the ground through the centre of the bower is carpeted with blankets and
broadcloth laid over the blankets. The candidates are then led forward and placed
on their knees upon the carpet, near one end of the bower, and facing the opposite
end. Some eight or ten medicine men then march in single file round the bower with
their medical bags in their hands. Each time they perform the circuit they halt, and
one of them makes a short address : this is repeated until all have spoken. They
then form a circle and lay their medicine bags on the carpet before them. Then they
commence retching and making efforts to vomit ; bending over until their heads come
nearly in contact with their medicine bags, on which they vomit, or deposit from their
mouth a small white sea-shell about the size of a bean ; this they call the medicine stone,
and claim that it is carried in the stomach and vomited up on these occasions. These
stones they put in the mouth of their medicine bags, and take their position at the end
of the bower opposite to and facing the candidates. They then advance in line, as
many abreast as there are candidates; holding their medicine bags before them with both
hands, they dance forward slowly at first, and uttering low guttural sounds as they
approach the candidates, their step and voice increasing in energy, until with a violent
" Ough !
" they thrust their medicine bags at their breasts. Instantly, as if struck with
an electric shock, the candidates fall prostrate on their faces — their limbs extended —
their muscles rigid and quivering in every fibre. Blankets are now thrown over them,
and they are suffered to lie thus a few moments : as soon as they show signs of recov-
ering from tlie shock, they are assisted to their feet and led forward. Medicine bags
are then put in their hands, and medicine stones in their mouths; they are now
medicine men or women, as the case may be, in full commiuiion and fellowship. The
new members, in company with the old, now go round the bower in single file, knock-
ing members down promiscuously by thrusting their medicine bags at them, (Plate 31.)
After continuing this exercise for some time, refreshments are brought in, of which
they all partake. Dog's flesh is always a component part of the dish served on these
occasions. After partaking of the feast, they geuei-ally continue the dance and other
exercises for several hours. The drum and rattle are the musical instruments used at
this feast. The most perfect order and decorum is observed throughout the entire
ceremony. The members of this society are remarkably strict in their attendance at
288 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
this feast : nothing but sickness is admitted as an excuse for not complying with an
invitation to attend. Members sometimes travel fifty miles, and even further, to be
present at a feast, when invited.

The secret of the society is kept sacred. It is remarkable, that neither want nor a
thirst for whiskey will tempt the members of this society to part with their medicine
bags.

Whether these medicine men possess the secret of mesmerism or magnetic influence,
or whether the whole system is a humbug and imposition, is difficult to determine. A
careful observation of the ceremonies of this order for six years has been unable to

detect the imposition, if there be one ; and it is unreasonable to suppose that an

imposition of this character could be practised for centuries without detection. There
is no doubt that the tribe generally believe that their medicine men possess great power.

9. OBSERVATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT

ERIES.

Recent research denotes that the word Catawba' is not of much antiquity, and
cannot be relied on as a guide or clue in the investigation of their early history. It

appears to have been bestowed, before the middle of the 17th century, by some tribe
speaking the Algonquin language, in which the final syllables, awba, mean male.
The Catawbas possessed, from the earliest notices, a fixed character for indomitable

courage and consumm.ate art in forest life.

By an apparently authentic manuscrijit memoir of their traditions, in the official

archives of South Carolina, a copy of which is herewith submitted, they are stated to
be a northern tribe, having been driven, about 1650, under a very perilous state of
their afiairs, from the line of the great lakes, by their inveterate enemies, the
Connewangoes.
Connewango river enters the Alleghany river on the north, from the Great Valley,
and is the ultimate outlet of Chatauque lake, through which an important ancient line

of Indian portages existed to lake Erie. It draws its waters within seven miles of
the southern borders of that lake. The Indians who occupied it were Seneca Iroquois,
and bore, it appears from this tradition, the local appellation of Connewangoes. The
Connewango is a copious stream, and is one of the true sources of the Ohio.^ The
descendants of this branch of Senecas, who also occupied the Olean fork, constitute

the modern band of Corn-planter, and still live near Warren, on the Alleghany,

'
There is a probability that the old spelling of this name embraced a w for a i in the final syllable. See
Evans's map of ITTiS.
' Agreeably to the Indian view, in which the Alleghany river is, to this day, called Gheo by the Senecas.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 289

others at Teonegono, or Coldspring, on the reserve of the Senecas, secured by the

treaty of 1842.
The date given in the Carolina tradition, to the flight of the Catawbas from the
north, coincides, within five years, with the last war and defeat of the Eries, agreeably
to Le Moino.' This war broke out afresh in IGo-T. In that war, the intrepid mis-
sionary to the Iroquois whom I have named, visited the Onondaga country. On the
9th of that month, agreeably to his journal, his ears were startled by a dismal wail,
which the Iroquois set up for the loss of three men, who liad been killed by the Eries,
"about a day's journey from the latter;" i. e. Onondaga. They had also taken
prisoner, and put to death, a great chief, called Annencraos.
In a formal address, which he subsequently makes to the Iroquois, on his mission to
their country, and the French policy generally, he consoles them, in the Indian
figurative language, for the loss of the Seneca chief taken by the Eries ; and with the
symbolic gift of a tomahawk to each of four cantons, he approves the renewal of the
war by their cantons against the Eries, and concludes his address by urging them
never to lie in wait, on the lakes, for any nation of the Algonquin or Huron stocks,
while on their journey to the capital of New France.
It is clear that this renewal of the war against the Erie or Cat nation, was agreeable
to the French. The latter never had any mission among them, and they were regarded
as their enemies. Charlevoi.K places their final defeat and expulsion in 1655,^ only
three years after the renewal of the war named by Le Moine. The tradition that they
encountei'ed the adverse influence of the French, in being driven south — that is, the
power of the French Indians, so called — is a feature coincident with facts otherwise
obtained.
That the Eries should send forays into the Iroquois countrj^, east of the Genesee
river, such as that mentioned by Le Moine, favors the idea that their residence was not
remote. When Le Salle arrived on the Niagara river, in the beginning of 1679,
twenty-seven years after Le Moine's trip to Onondaga, the Senecas occupied the entire
southern banks of Niagara river, and the shores of Lake Erie, as high, at least, as the
portage through the Chatauque and Connewango. The Attionandarons, or Neuter
nation, were then unknown ; and the destruction of the Eries was a tradition. Both
tribes had fallen before the rising Iroquois power. The Neutral nation is not by any
means to be confounded with the Eries, the latter of whom made forays, under their
connivance, deep into western New York. But it is manifest that they were a cognate
people. Cusic, in his Tuscarora pamphlet, places the Neutral nation, at an early day,
on the Niagara ridge, and declares distinctly, that the neutrality which distinguished
them for years, was at length violated, which brought upon them the ire of the Iroquois.

It is stated by the French missionaries,^ that the principal village of this nation was

'
Notes on the Iroquois, p. 332. '
History of New France. ^ Arch. Amer. Vol. II., p. 76.

Pt. IIL — 37
 290 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
taken in 1651, when the tribe was destroyed, those who were not killed in battle being
• either incorporated with the Senecas, or dispersed.
Ila-sa^no-au-da,' an educated Seneca chief, and a person well acquainted with the
Iroquois history, in a communication, a part of which is hereto appended, is inclined
to believe that the Cat tribe must have been the same as the Neuter nation ; they only,
however, spoke a kindred dialect, and concurred in a policy, at first kept secret, but
afterwards being revealed, brought the whole power of the Iroquois on their backs,
leading to their extirpation. From all authorities, the two tribes at least spoke a kin-
dred dialect, namelj', a dialect of the Wyandot branch of the Iroquois. It is fair to

infer that they were closely affiliated. If so, the territory of the Neuter nation offered a
point of treacherous concealment for the egress of occasional small marauding parties,
who crossed the Genesee, in their secret and isolated inroads, in the manner mentioned
by Le Moine, in 1653. The discovery of this treachery, by the reigning chieftainess, at
the old stronghold of Kinuka, on the Niagara ridge, is distinctly stated by Cusic.^ It

led to their downfiill. Their treachery brought down the immediate vengeance of the
Iroquois, who The war against them was
attacked and carried their chief position.
finished in two years, that
by 1655, when, it is inferible, the survivors joined the
is,

Eries, on the sources of the Alleghany, and in the Ohio valley. Here, however, they
were pursued by the conquering Iroquois, who, the very next year, (1656,) began their
war against the Eries, or, as the Iroquois called them, Attionandarons. It is perceived,

from the missionary relations, that this war with the Eries was ended in two years;
so that by a vigorous prosecution of
hostilities with these two cousin-bands, for four

years, or by another authority, (which dates the taking of the queen's hold at Kinuka,
in 1651,) six years, they had conquered and subdued these two tribes. So completely
had their destruction and dispersion been effected, that neither the Neuter nation nor
the Eries appear to have had a place in Indian history since, at least by these names.
But a more serious war, with a more considerable and also remotely affiliated

people, now arose. The Andastes, or Guandostagues, occupied the area lying imme-
diately west from the residence of the Neuter nation, between the Niagara river and
Buffalo creek, extending west to the heads of the Alleghany.
They were, it is believed, called Kahquas by the Senecas. It is Inferible from
Cusic, and from the French missionary authors, that the Andastes or Kahquas, who
were of remote kindred blood, sympathised in the destruction of the Eries and
Attiondarons, and gave them secret aid in the war. The Iroquois now tuimed ujjon
them with the uplifted tomahawk. A bloody and long-continued war ensued, which
was not terminated till 1672 — full sixteen years from its commencement —when they
also were subdued and expelled from the southern shore of lake Erie. There is no
evidence now, but old ditches and embankments, and antiquarian relics, to show that
these tribes had ever inhabited the country.

'
Mr. Parker S. Ely. '
History of the Six Nations.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 291

The Iroquuis, who, by expelhng the Neutral nation, and another tribe, the Mi.ssih-

t^agies, from the Ontario borders, had .spread west of the Genesee, now extended their,

residence up the southern shore of hike Erie, from Deoseawa to the sources of the
Alleghany, and to the Cuyahoga and Sandusky bay and river; the latter of which was, as
we are informed by Lewis Evans, subsecjuently assigned to the Qnaghtogies or Wyandots.
The war with the Andastes or Kahijuas was of such a character that Iroquois
tradition distinctly retains its memory. It was so marked a trium^ih of Iroquois
bravery, that eighty years have still left some of its leading incidents fresh in the minds
of the Senecas. When I visited the Iroquois cantons in 1845, to take their census,

under the authority of the legislature of New York, I called the attention of the
Senecas at Tonawanda, and on the Buffalo creek, and at Catteragas, and Alleghany
reservations, to this subject. It was from them that I learned that the people with
Avhom their ancestors fought, and who so stoutly resisted their arms in the ancient

homestead of the Andastes, were called by them Kahquas.

Agreeably to the traditions of Hayekdiokun or Black-snake,' important battles were
fought on the Deosewa or Buffalo, and on the Eighteen-mile creeks, at both of which
the Kahquas were defeated. They showed me some of the monuments of these
defeats. The survivors fled, and w^ei-e pursued to the Alleghany, called by them Oheo,
where they took shelter on an island, and partly through a finesse of the Senecas,

w'ere again defeated, and finally lied down the Alleghany river, and have never since
appeared.
It is precisely at this point that the Carolina tradition of the Catawbas picks up the
history of that enigmatical people, who exist as an anomaly in the southern Indian
philology. Admitting their flight through the Alleghany river, from lake Erie, under
the name denoted, and the vindiction with which they were pursued by the Connewango
Senecas, as events which are satisfactorily established by concurrent Indian tradition,

it only remains to determine whether the Catawbas are descendants of the Attionan-
darons or Neuters, the Eries or Cat nation, or the Andastes or Kahquas. The
tradition of the year 1650, in the Carolina MSS., best agrees, in its general import,
with the era of the subjugation of the Neuter nation of Niagara, and of the Eries of
lake Erie. By one authoi'ity, the assault of the main citadel of the Neuters took place
in 1651, and all the authorities coincide in fixing on 1655 as tlie termination of the
war with the last tribe. The war with the Kahquas began the next year; but their

expulsion did not occur until the lapse of some sixteen or seventeen years. In the
mean time, the remnants of the two first conquered nations fled, as this document
states, at first to Virginia and finally to the Carolinas.

That the Eries lived in the Ohio Valley before their final defeat, is quite certain.
Mr. Jefferson, in his notices of the Indian tribes of the south, ^ not only affirms this

'
Notes on the Iroquois, p. 318. * Notes on Virginia
292 ,
TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
tradition, but couples it with the assertion tliat thej spoke a language cognate with the
Iroquois, and its affiliated branch, the Monacan, or Tuscarora.
Lewis Evans published his celebrated map of the British colonies in 1755,' just a

century after the reputed expulsion of the Eries. In his analysis preceding it, he
describes the Eries as having inhabited the Ohio and its branches, by certain
boundaries, from which they had been expelled by the Senecas and their western allies.

In this destructive contest, a part of the tribe were either extirpated, or incorporated
in the Seneca tribe, or driven, indefinitely, westward.
The name of Catawbas, or Cuttawas, appears to have originated here. The map
contains a line called " the common path to the Cuttawa country," which starts on the
bank of the Ohio, opposite the mouth of the Scioto river, and runs to the head of the
Kentucky river, which was an important point in all the early Indian migrations. This
line denotes the ancient war-path between the northern and southern Indians.

It is perceived, froni a survey of our Indian history, that the Iroquois language had,
at the remotest era, elements remaining in some of the tribes occupying the slopes and
summits of the southern Alleghanies or Appalachians. Of these, Mr. Jefierson
enumerates all the Monacan dialects. The Tuscaroras, Nottow^ays, Tuteloes, Meherrics,
Chowans, and Wyanokes, were included in this class. Nottowa, or Nadowa, is the
Algonquin term for an Iroquois ; and it may be conjectured that these elements of
tribal developments were left behind in the original Iroquois migrations to the north.
The Tuscaroras were received into the Iroquois confederacy, after their ill-judged
and most untoward rebellion against North Carolina, in 1712. The Tuteloes and
Meherrics were subsequently received and allotted lands with the Cayugas.^ The
Nottoways remained in Virginia. From a vocabulary of their language, which Mr.
Jefferson transmitted to Mr. Duponceau, the latter immediately determined that it

belonged to the Iroquois stock.

From a comparison of the Catawba language with the Woccoa, as recorded by
Lawson, it is seen to be a dialect of that stock. Lawson, who travelled in 1700-1,
from Charleston, South Carolina, to Pamlico Sound, by an interior .route, mentions
among the Indian ti'ibes he found, the Kadapaws, a word in Avhich w^e may probably
lecognize the modern cognomen of Catawba. This was more than half a century
after the date of the defeat of the Eries and Attionandarons. In a subsequent part of
his journey, he states an instance of the undying vengeance with which the Senecas
and Oneidas followed these fragments of tribes into this remote quarter.
With these preliminary remarks, the Carolina manuscript, to which attention has
Ijeen directed, will be the better understood.

'
Evans's Analysis and Map. Philadelphia, 1735, B. Franklin, Printer. 1 vol. 4to. 32 pages.
' Mohawk tradition, from Mrs. Carr, a daughter of Brant; given to me in 1844.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 293

10. CAROLINA MANUSCRIPT RESPECTING THE ORIGIN

OF THE CATAWBAS.
The Catawbas were a Canadian tribe. The Connewangos were their hereditary
enemies, and, with the aid of the French, were likely at last to overwhelm them.
The Catawbas, judging correctly of their perilous condition, determined on a removal
to the vicinity of the English settlements. They set out from their ancient homes,
about the year 1650, crossed the St. Lawrence,' probably near Detroit, and bore for the
head-waters of the Kentucky river. The Connewangos all the time kept in full

pursuit. The fugitives, embarrassed with their women and children, saw that their
enemies would overtake them, chose a position near the sources of the Kentucky, and
then awaited the onset of their more powerful adversai'ies. Turning therefore upon
their pursuers, with the energy desperation sometimes inspires, they gave them a
terrible overthrow.' This little nation, after their great victory, without proper regard

to policy, di\dded into two bands, and remained on the Kentucky, which was called by
the hunters the Catawba, and were in time absorbed into the great families of the
Chickasaws and Choctaws. The other band settled in Bottetourt county, Virginia,

upon a stream afterwards called Catawba creek. They remained there but a few years ;

their hunters pressing on to the south, discovered the Catawba river, in South Carolina,
(Eswa Tavora,) and the entire Virginia band (about 1660) came in a body to eflfect

a permanent settlement on that stream. Tradition states that the Cherokees, who
assumed to be the true aborigines of the country, considering the Catawbas as invaders

of their soil and freehold, marched in great force to meet them at or near the old

nation ford, and a battle ensued between these brave and determined people, which
lasted nearly an entire day. In the early part of the engagement, the Catawbas,
having small-arms, gained a decided advantage ; but in the latter part, the Cherokees
changed the fortune of the battle, by superior numbers. It is said the Cherokees lost

1100 men, and the Catawbas about 1000. Victory was suspended, but the parties
remained on the field, and it was expected the strife would be renewed on the following
day. Early, however, in the morning, the Cherokees sent a deputation to the Cataw-
bas, lauding their bravery, saluting them as brothers, and offering them a settlement
anywhere uj^on the north-east side of the river. Hostilities ceased, a permanent peace
was agreed upon, and to preserve it. Broad river was established as the dividing line

south-westwardly, and the intermediate country declared neutral gi'ound. Tradition

holds that a pile of stones, monumental of the battle, was erected on the ground where
it occurred. No account of this contest appears in any printed work, from Adair to
Ramsay, or in any authentic manuscript. It is certain, however, that the Catawba.s
did settle on the north-east of the Catawba river, that they had fire-arms, that th'.-

The St. Lawrence proper heads in lake Ontario.

294 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
country between the Broad river aud the Catawba was occupied by neither nation,
presented fewer marks of ownership than any other portion of the State, and that
Broad river was called by the Catawbas, Eswau Iluppeday, or Luie river. The two
latter circumstances indicate a treaty, and in all probability the result of a bloody

contest and a drawn battle.

The division of the tribe, as it came out of Canada, and the Cherokee war, will

account for a large diminution of the numbers of the Catawba nation. They were
scarcely settled in their ne^v abode, when they fell upon a band of the Wassaws, who
occupied the country about the Wassaw and,Cane creek, in the district of Lancaster.

There, it is said, after a noble resistance in their stronghold, the remains of which are
still to be seen on Colonel Stewart's plantation, on the Wassaw creek, they (the

Wassaws) were cut off to a man. The conduct of the Catawbas towards the Wassaws,

furnishes the only disparagement I have ever heard of the national chai-acter of that
people. The northern Indians, acting under French influence, occasionally hung upon
the Catawba settlements, and carried on against them a sort of predatory and irregular
warfare. A few warriors, from time to time, fell in these guerilla contests, which were
kept up for many years. The hatred of the French towards the Catawbas, may be

learned from the fact that, as late as 1753, the Canadian authorities determined to
extirpate them; and that the Connewangos declared, in a great council at Albany,

which was held about this time, that they never would make friends with the

Catawbas, while the grass grew or the waters ran.

When Colonel Barnwell, about the year 1720, was sent against the Tuscaroras, who
had broken up New Berne, then just founded by the Baron De Graffenreidt, upwards
of 100 Catawbas accompanied him. A few warriors fell in the prosecution of that

admirably conducted expedition. In the campaign against the Cherokees, during the
Governorship of H. W. Littleson, undertaken without cause, except the gratification
of his Excellency's heartless and guilty vanity, about 100 Catawbas marched under
the Colonial flag, and several fell in different skirmishes. The campaign, as it deserved
to be, was disgraceful and unsuccessful. About 1753, Governor Dinwiddle sent a
message to the Catawbas, to induce them to unite their forces with the militia under
the command of Colonel Washington. They promptly agreed to do so, but were
restrained by the Carolina governor (Glen), who reminded them that peace was their
true policy, as they were a little nation so much had their ranks been thinned, even
;

at that early day, by war. In an attack upon Sullivan's island, a full company of
Catawbas, under the conunand of Colonel Thompson, participated in its defence. But
us the British general on Long island entertained strange suspicions about the Colonel's

i8-pounder, the loss of the Catawbas was inconsiderable. A company of Catawbas

marched under Colonel Williamson, in his Cherokee expedition during which, a few ;

uf their brave men perislicd. The Catawbas were always ready to engage in the

American service, and always acquitted tlietnselves like brave soldiers. The nation
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 295

was greatly reduced, in the early stage of the Revolution, by the small-pox. The
Indians resolved to adopt a practice common to all the original tribes, of steaming
themselves for the cure of this disease, almost into a state of fusion, and then plunging
into the river. By this malpractice, hundreds of them died. Indeed, the woods were
offensive with the dead bodies of the Indians ; and dogs, wolves, and vultures were so
busy, for months, in banqueting on them, that they would scarcely retreat from their
prey, when approached by any one. In fact, so greatly were the Catawbas thinned
by this malady, that at the close of the war, by the advice of their white friends, they
invited the Cheraw Indians to move up, and form a union with them. The present
nation is about equally composed of Catawbas and Cheraws. They have lived in great
harmon3^ The Cheraws have retained their own language, but ordinarily use the
Catawba.
Among the causes which tended to diminish the numbers of the Catawba nation,
may be mentioned their wars and slvirmishes, on their own account, and their adhesion
to the military fortunes of their white friends; the ravages of the small-pox; the
intemperate use of ardent spirits, by all ages and both sexes ; the loss of their game,
by the encroachments of the white hunters ; the assassination of King Hagler, by a few
Shawneos, about 1760 (so imjiortant is the life of an individual sometimes to a whole
people) ; the fact of their being encii'cled on every side, and mixed in with a vastly
more powerful and energetic race, whereby a distressing sense of inferiority and
depression has been kept up among them; and, added to all, impolitic legislation,

which gave them peiTnission to lease their lands for long periods, securing to them a
miserable subsistence, which exempted them from labor.
In the year 1735 the nation had in reservation only thirty acres of their large and
fertile territor}'-, not a foot of which was in cultivation. In the history of South
Carolina, Ramsay solemnly invokes the people of South Carolina to cherish this small
remnant of a noble race, always the friends of the Carolinians, and ready to peril all

for their safety. They never have shed a drop of American blood, nor stolen property
to the value of a cent. They have lost every thing but their honesty. Hagler was a
great man, and the nation still speak of him with much feeling. They have never
looked up since his death. Hagler was succeeded by King Prow, or Frow, who
reigned but a short time. On his death, General Newriver, who had gained a splendid
victory on New river, in Virginia, over the northern Indians, was called to rule over
them ; they having determined, in imitation of their white brethren, to repudiate

royalty. He was succeeded by General Scott, and by Colonel Ayres. Scott was a
considerable man. The Catawba language proper is a pretty good one ; it corresponds
in its general structure with the other aboriginal tongues of North America, which,
Adelung says, are highly artificial and ingenious. The old set of Catawbas were a
likel}' people; Major Cantry, for example, was a noble specimen of a man; and the
wife of Joe Scott was a perfect Venus. Almost all my books and manuscripts were
29G TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
lost on my passage from Charleston to Mobile. I have, consequently, been obliged to
speak from memory; and I have no doubt, often am wrong as to dates. If your
glorious State would purchase for this people (who make a strong appeal to the
sympathies of every Carolinian) a good tract of land in a healthy part of the State,
and place over them a white man of decided responsibility as their patron, to direct

their conduct and settle their differences, they would do better than they have done
for fifty years. If they love a man, he may make them do any thing, even toil for a

livelihood, and keep decently sober. This would be doing a great deal ; should this
policy be pursued, the funeral yew will not be fixed over the last Catawba for a
century.

11. HISTOEY, LANGUAGE, AND ARCHiEOLOGY OF THE

PIMOS OF THE RIVER GILA, NEW MEXICO.

The earliest Spanish accounts of this peoj^le locate the tribe in the Gila Valley,
very nearly in the same position which they now occupy. This is about 240 miles
above the present site of fort Yuma, at the junction of the Gila and Colorado rivers.

They are at present intimately associated with the Coco Maricopas. This association
has produced a general concurrence in manners and customs, dress, modes of living,
the same kind of houses, and the same good and general policy ; but the language
is different ; and the latter are an entirely distinct tribe, having, agreeably to their own
traditions, come to their present position from the west. Their union with the Pimos
is recent.

The Pimos assert that their ancestors migrated to their present position from the
east, or as they phrase it, the rising sun.' Like most of the Indian tribes, mingling
fable with fact, and without analytical powers sufficiently strong to separate them,
they assert that their first parent was caught up to heaven. After this, those of the
tribe that remained on earth wandered west, and fixed their abode on the Gila.
The men and women of the Pimos and Coco Maricopas, have the custom of
wearing long hair reaching to their waists. They put it up in twists, and sometimes
coil it around their heads ; with others, it is allowed to hang down the back. In front
it is cut straight across the forehead, where it hangs in a thick mass, and protects their
eyes from the glare of the sun. The .sexes practise this custom alike, the only
perceptible difference being, that the males wear their hair the longest. It grows
very thick. They sometimes put it up as a turban, with a kind of clay, which serves
to give permanency to the coil or folds of this sjiecies of tiara.

With respect to their history, it may be suggested, tliat, prior to the era of the

'
Report of Captain A. R. Johnston, U. S. A. Ex. Doc, No. 41, p. 601. Washington, 1847.
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 297

Spanish, the country they now occupy was inhahited by the Navajoes, or Moquls, wlio
have passed nortli to their present positions. It is among the early traditions which
are recorded by some of the Spanish missionaries, that the " Casas Grande " which
stand upon Pimo territory, were erected by the Navajoes. Recent reports of the
expedition of Col. Donophan, denote that such structures are yet to be observed among
that people.
During the recent residence of Buckingham Smith, Esq., as Secretary of the
American Legation in Mexico, this gentleman copied sundry documents from a collec-

tion of thirty-two manuscript volumes in the Archivo-General of the city of Mexico,

made by order of the King of Spain, about the close of the last century. Of these,
he has furnished for this work the following translations respecting the history of this
tribe ; of their predecessors in the occupancy of the Pimo country ; and of the erec-
tion, 1)y a nation from the north of the Gila, of the Casas Grande.

(A.) From the Diary of Francisco Garces.' (1775.)

§ 121. As soon as the sun rose, there came the three Indians of Zuni, to whom I

said that I would not now go to their towns, as the Yavipais would not accompany
me ; and I could no longer return by the Moqui, fearing what might happen to me
from theui, should I go back without the Yavipais. I was informed that the Yutas
Avere the friends of the Spaniards, as well also as the Yavipais; but the journey
was long, and even an escort and animals ("habio") necessary; of all of which there
was need, and there were many doubts of getting any inNew Mexico; for the
Governor, or the Commandant Rivera, might hold perhaps my incursion pernicious,
and in no degree for the service of the king ;
particularly might he do so, as it had
not been expressly ordered by your excellency. At last I wrote to the father minister
of Zuni, although I did not know his name, informing him of my arrival at that

town, and of the bad reception the people had given me in contrast with that by other
nations, and charging him to send the letter, or a copy of it, to the Governor and the
Reverend Father the Custodian, to whom I greatly commended myself.
Those of Zuni went with this letter for me ; and in a short time came my ancient
Yavipai, with a chief of the village, urging me to go on and see the towns of the
Moqui, where they would give me food, since they would not do so where I was. I
saddled the mule, and accompanied by two Indians and by many staring boys and
girls, I went down the side of the town to the east, where they showed me the road
to the other towns. I hesitated to go, for want of company ; but my ancient Yavipai

'
The friar had been ordered by the viceroy Bucarali to proceed with a companion, the father Eyarch, in com
pany with father Font and Colonel Anza, to the river Colorado, and to wait there till the return of the two last
from San Francisco, to which they were destined.

Pt. III. — 38
298 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
said to me, that I and the mule were hungry, and that he would wait for me there five
days ; for he had not jet done selling the mezcal and the other things he brought.
Accordingly, I made up my mind to go alone, and entered on a very sandy plain,

extending a great wa}' to the south. On one side and the other I saw many fields of
maize and beans ("frijol"), and many males occupied at their work. I went up
another table-land, and on it found two 3'oung herdsmen watching sheep, and a woman
with her axe, looking for wood. They ran away on drawing near me; from which I
saw the ill will of that people to be general and considering the evil known better
;

than the good to be discovered, and that in the end my friends the Yavipais were at
Oraibe, I determined to go back and return over the three leagues traversed.
At night I entered the Moqui, astonished at the sight of the many people on the
roofs of the houses, looking at me as I passed with my mule, in search of the corner
of the preceding night, which, after making some turns, I found.

In this town were two kinds of people, and two languages ; the first is seen in the
color and stature of the males and females, the secoiid in their different manner of
singing. Some are of a color clear and somewhat red, and are good looking; and
others are small, black, and ugly.' When they go out of town, they appear in clothing
like Spaniards, wearing dressed skins, tight sleeves, pantaloons, boots and shoes. Their
arms are "xavas" and lances. In town they wear shoes, and sleeves of colored cotton,
(" manta pinta,") and a black blanket, of the sort they make. The women wear
tunics as low as the ancle, without sleeves, and a black or white shawl over the head,
like a square mantilla ; the tunic confined by a belt, usually of a variety of colors.
They do not pounce or paint themselves, nor did I see beads on them, or ear-rings.
The old women wear the hair in two braids, and the young women in a tuft over each
ear, or altogether drawn to one side, taking much care of it.

Notwithstanding that they did not favor me, I formed the idea that there were
many good people among them, and that the bad were only those who governed. There
might have been other reasons for this beside that of not Avishing to be baptized, or of
admitting Spaniards into their country ; like that of knowing that I had come from
the Tamajabs and from the Yumas, friends of their enemies, and consequently holding
me as the spy of the Yavipais, Tejua, and Chemeguabas. They also knew that I
came from, and was a minister among, the Pimas, with whom they were at war, as I
had been told by the Indians of my mission, and because of this and the ruins which
are found on the river Gila, I have suspected that anciently the Moquis extended

'
These passages were read in the Spanish to Jose Maria, an educated Indian of New Jlexico, a Tejua,
visiting Washington this summer; who, after conversing a moment with his companions in their native tongue,
stated that they had the knowledge, from tradition, that a part of the people of Galisteo, a long time ago, went
.,) Moqui, and others to Santo Domingo. The red people, he said, were the Tcjuas, and the black, the old
inhabitants of the place. Galistcn, he continued, is a ruin; its Indian name is Tanoque : the translation is,

"the lower settlement." The language they spoke was very like ours, but not the same. — Tr.
 IIISTUKY, AND GOVERNMENT. 299

as far as there. I asked of some old 8abaipiiris of iny mission, many years ago, wlio
had made those houses which were fallen down, and the earthen-ware that is found,
broken in various places, on the river Gila ; for neither the Pimas nor Apaches know
how to make such. They answered me, the Moquis only know how to make those
things ; and they added, that these neighboring Apaches are not related among them-
selves, that there are some much farther to the north, where they used to go, long

since, to fight; but had never been up into the plateau whei'e they lived. This
information was confirmed, in that the Yavipais took out for me a bowl of earthen, like
the cups ("cows") found in the house of Montezuma; and I asking them whence they
had gotten it, they said that in the Moqui there is much of that ware. As I did not

go into a house, I could not see any in them ; but from below I saw on the azoteas
some large colored pots. So likewise the Gila Pimas have told me that anciently the
Apaches came from the house, which is called of Montezuma, to give them battle ; and
it being certain that those whom we know for Apaches have no house or fixed habita-
tion, I am inclined to think that they were the Moquinos who came to fight, the which
made war upon by the Pimas, who have ever been numerous and brave, and that they
ibrsook these habitations of the river Gila, as they have that ruined town which I
ibund before coming to Moqui, retiring to where they now live, in that advantageous
^josition, defended as it is with so many precautions against every attack.
Within the town there was no water, but on the side to the east, I saw an abundant
spring, with a descending stairs of stone, and curbing of the same. In my corner I
rested that night, and my mule was taken by the Yavipais to the pen of the preceding
day.

(B.) From the Diary of Fr. Pedro Font. (1775.)

On the 31st, the Commandant having determined that the people should rest for the
day, we have had time to go and examine the great house which they call that of
Montezuma, situated a league from the river Gila, and distant from the lagune some
three leagues to the east-south-east, whither we have been accompanied by some
Indians and the Governor of Utirituc, Avho, on the way, related to us a history or
tradition which those Indians preserve from their forefathers on the subject of that
house, the whole of which amounts to fables mixed confusedly with some Catholic truths.
I took an observation from this place of the great house, marked on the map with
the letter A,^ and found it to be in 33° 3-5', and thus I say : in the Casa Grande of
the river Gila, the 31st day of October, of the year 1775, the meridional altitude of the
inferior limb of the sun 42-25°. We observed this edifice and its vestiges with all

'
The diary is accompanied with a map, drawn with great particularity, by the Father. — Tb.
300 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
care; the iconograpbic plan of it I give here;' and for its being better understood I

give the following descrijition and explanation.

The Casa Grande, or Palace of Montezuma, may have, according to the accounts
and scant information there are of it which the Indians give, an antiquity of five

hundred years ; for it appears that its foundation was laid by the Mexicans, when in
their transmigration the devil took them through many lands, until arriving at the
promised country of Mexico, where, in their extensive settlements, they raised edifices

and planted a population. The place on which the house stands is level, separated
from the river Gila to the distance of a league ; the remains of the houses which formed
the town extending more than a league to the eastward, and to the other points. All
this ground is strewn with pieces of pots, jars, plates, &c. ; some coarse, and others
colored of a variety of tints — white, blue, red, &c. ; a sign that it was once thickly
inhabited, and by a people distinct from the Pimas of the Gila, as these know not how
to make like ware. We made an exact survey of the edifice and its position ; we took
its measurement with a lance for the moment, which T afterwards reduced to geometri-
cal feet, and is, a little more or less, the following.
The house is square, and sets exactly to the four cardinal points. About it are
some ruins indicating a fence or wall which enclosed the house and other buildings,
remarkable at the corners, where there appears to have been a structure like an
interior castle or watch-toAver ; for at the corner which stands to the south-west, there

is a piece up, with its divisions and one story. The exterior wall of the house is four
hundred and twenty feet from north to south, and two hundred and sixty feet from
east to west. The interior is composed of five halls : three in the middle, of equal
size, and one at each extreme, of greater length. The three are twenty-six feet from
north to south, and from east to west ten feet. The two at the ends are twelve feet
from north to south, and thirty-eight from east to west. In height they are eleven
feet, and in this are equal. The doors of communication are five feet high and two
feet wide ; are nearly all of the same size, excepting the four first, being the four outer,
which appear to be as wide again. The thickness of the walls is four feet : they are
well enclosed ; those of the exterior are six feet. The house had a measurement on
the outside from north to south, of seventy feet, and from east to west of fifty. The
walls are scarped from without. Before the door on the east side, there is, apart from
the house, another room, which is from north to south twenty-six feet, and from east
to west eighteen feet, exclusive of the thickness of the walls. The wood-work was
of pine, from what could be seen ; and the nearest ridge of pines is some twenty-five
leagues distant, which has also some mesquite. The entire structure is of earth, and,
according to appearances, the tapia was made in blocks of different sizes. A very
large canal leads up, a good distance, from the river, from which the population were
supplied, and which is now much filled up. It is evident, however, that the edifice

Not existing with the manuscript in the Archives. — Tr

 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 801

has had three stories, and if that be true which could be gleaned from the Indians, and
from the marks which were to be seen, there had been four ; the lower floor of the
house having been below, like that of a cellar. To give light to the rooms, there are
only to be seen the doors and some round holes in the middle of the walls which look
to the east and west ; and the Indians said, that through those holes, which are some-
Avhat large, the prince, whom they called the Bitter Ahan, looked out to salute the
sun when it rose and set. No appearances of stairs were found; from which Ave
judged that they had been consumed by the fire which had been set to the building
by the Apaches.
On the first day of November, we sallied from the lagoon at half after nine o'clock
in the morning, and at one in the afternoon we arrived at the town of San Juan
Capistrans de Virtud, having travelled in a course to the west-north-west. The
Indians, calculated at about a thousand in number, received us in two lines, the men
on one side, and the women on the other ; and we having dismounted, they all came
to salute and shake hands with us — first the men and afterwards the women showing ;

great satisfaction at seeing us. They gave us an entertainment under a great arbor
which they made for the purpose ; before which, although they were heathen, they set
up a large cross, and afterwards brought water to the camp for the people. These
Gila Pimas are gentle and comely.

(C.) From the Diary of an Expedition made by the Ensign

Juan Mateo Monge, in the Month of November, 1697.
On the 17th, having heard mass as on the sabbath, leaving the plain by the mud
holes of that river, which is capacious enough for a ship to sail in, and is shaded by
the thick foliage of groves, we proceeded to the west, and ever in sight of the river
along a little ridge, from the summit of Avhich we saw to the east the same mountain
of Florida where the Apache enemy are accustomed to reside, and where, on another
occasion, they were fought ; and to the west we saw also the Casas Grande, which,
from being at the distance of seventeen leagues, appeared to be castles ; and travelling
always through woods bearing the medicinal fruit of the jojobe, at the end of eight
leagues we arrived at a round green hill, which appeared like a garden and cliffs, with
a crystalline and cold spring of water on its top, which, leaping up in jets, irrigated all

the sides. We called it San Gregoris Jaumalturgo; and taking some refreshment, we
came down into the plain and valley of the river, and having travelled two leagues,
we slept, keeping watch.
On the 18th, we continued to the west over an extensive plain, sterile and without
pasture; and at the end of five miles, we discovered, on the other side of the river,
other houses and edifices. The sergeant, Juan Bautista de Escalante. swam o\ er with
302 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
two companions to examine them ; and they said that the walls were two yards
('• varas") in thickness, like those of a fort, and that there were other ruins about, but
all of ancient date. We went on to the west, and at the end of four more leagues, we
arrived, at mid-day, at Casas Grande, within which mass was said by Father Rino,
who had travelled to that place fasting.
There was one great edifice, with the principal I'oom in the middle, of four stories,

and the adjoining rooms on its four sides, of three stories, with the walls two yards in
thickness, of strong mortar and clay, so smooth and shining within, that they
appeared like burnished tablets, and so polished that they shone like the earthen of
Puebla. The windows are square and very true, are without hinges or bolts, (" sin
quicios ni atravesados,") were made with a mould and arch, the same as the doors,

although narrow, and in this particular might be recognized to be the work of Indians.
It is thirty-six paces in length, and twenty-one in width, of good symmetry, as the
following design, with the ground-plan, will show.

tri

At the distance of the shot of an arquebuss, twelve other houses are to be seen,
also half-fallen; having tliick walls, and all the ceilings burnt, except in the lower
room of one house, which is of round timbers, smooth and not thick, which appeared
to be of cedar or savin, and over them sticks (otales) of very equal size, and a cake
of mortar and hard clay, making a roof or ceiling of great ingenuity. In the environs
are to be seen many other ruins, and heaps of broken earth, which circumscribe it two
leagues, with much broken earthen-ware of plates, and pots of fine clay, painted of
many colours, and which resemble the jars of Guadalajara, in New Spain. It may be
inferred that the population or city of this body politic was very large; and that it

was one of government, is shown by a main canal, which comes from the river by the
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 303

plain, running around for the distance of three leagues, and enclosing the inhabitants
in its area, being in breadth ten varas, and about four in depth, through which per-
haps was directed one-half the volume of the river, in such a manner that it might
serve for a defensive moat as well as to supply the wards with water, and irrigate the

plantations in the adjacencies. The guides said that, at the distance of a day's
journey, there are a variety of other edifices of the same construction toward the
nortli, on the opposite side of the river, on another stream which flows to unite with
this, and which they call Verde, built by a people who came from the region of the
north, the chief of whom was called the Siba ; which name, according to its definition

in their language, is the Bitter man, or the Cruel ; and that because of the sanguinary
wars he held against the Apaches, and twenty other nations confederated with them.
Many being killed on both sides, the country was abandoned ; a portion of the inhabi-
tants, dissatisfied, separated and returned to the north, whence they had come years
before, and the rest went to the east and south. From this information we judge —
and it is probable —that they are the ancestry of the Mexican nation, which is accord-

ing to their structures and vestiges ; and are like those that are spoken of as existing

in the 34th degree of latitude, and in the environs of the fort of Janos, in 29 degrees,
which are also called Cu?as Grande, and man}- others, of which we have notices, to

be seen as far up as the 37th and 40th degrees north. On the margin of the river,
distant one league from the Casas Grande, we found a town in which we counted
130 souls. * * *

Having heard mass on the 19th, we continued towards the west, over sterile plains.

On all the grounds about these buildings, there is not a single pasture ; but appear as
if they had been strewn with salt. Having traversed four leagues, we arrived at :i

town, Tusonimon ; which is so named from a great heap of horns, from the wild or
sylvan sheep, which appears like a hill, and from the numbers that there are of the
animals, they make the common subsistence of the inhabitants. From what can be
seen from the highest of those houses, there appears to be a country of more than a
hundred thousand hastas in extent. '

The heathen Indians received us with jubilee, giving of their provision to the
soldiers; and we counted two hundred persons, who were gentle and affable. Remain-
ing there to sleep, the Father and I instructed them, through the interpreters, in the
mysteries of our Holy Faith ; on which they besought us that there might be baptized
fifteen of their children, and seven sick adults.

'
The measure of a lance, about three yards in length. Tr.
304 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,

(D.) From the Anonymous MS. of a Jesuit, who, it is said in

THE Preface, lived many Years as a Missionary in the
Country he describes. The Work is entitled, "Descrip-
cioN Geographica, Natural y Curiosa, de la Provincia
DE SoNORA. PoR UN AMIGO DEL SerVICIO DE DiOS, Y DEL
Key Nuestra Senor. Ano de 1764."
This copious river, Gila, rises in 36° of latitude, and in rather more than 2C8° of
longitude, in that part of the region which looks to the south from the mountain
called El Mogollun, the country of the Apaches. It comes out through the narrow
passages, or from a long chasm in a place called Todos Santos, and afterwards traverses
the valley of Santa Lucia, from which, as well as from the opposite side, on the north,
it receives a small stream. Its course from its rising, is toward the south-west, although
afterwards it is chiefly to the west, with the exception that in places, in consequence
of the interposition of different ridges, it takes a course somewhat to the south and

north-west; in which flow it runs to the east and west, through all the country of the

Apaches (" Apacheria"), forming most fertile vales ; some like the vale of Florida, over

twenty leagues in width, for more than the distance of a hundred leagues. At the

end of forty-si.K leagues from its origin, the river of San Francisco unites with it,

which rises in the same mountain of Mogoll6n, where it looks to the north, near the

granaries ("troges") of the Apaches, and runs in a direction south-west, among sharp
ridges, until coming to the Gila, at its entrance into the vale of Florida, about the

distance of six leagues, and leaving, some ten leagues to the left, the mud springs in

the mountains of Florida, which range with it, it comes out of that valley and country
of the Apaches, breaking its way through some very precipitous mountains, at whose
sides come to unite with it the river San Pedro, in the manner I have before described.
Those granaries, the Spanish force discovered, in its march for the general campaign
in theyear 1737, on the road to Acoine, and were well provided with grain.
From this junction, the Gila pursuing its stated course for the matter of twenty
leagues, it leaves on the left, at the distance of a league, the Casa Grande, which they
call that of Montezuma, from a tradition current among the Indians and Spaniards, of

its having been one of the habitations where, in their wide transmigrations, the

Mexicans rested. That building is of four stories, which are still standing ; its ceiling

is of the beams of cedar, or "hazcal," the walls of a material very solid, which appears
to be the best of mortar. It is divided into many rooms and lodgings, of sufficient

size to accommodate in them a travelling court.

At the distance of three leagues from this house, and to the right of the river, there
is another hou.'^e, but now much demolished, from the ruins of which it is inferred that

it was of much finer material than the first. In the neighborhood of these houses, for
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 305

some leagues in every direction, wlieresoever the ground is turned, are to be found
fragments of pottery of a very fine quality, and of a variety of color. From a very large
canal, higher up the river, still open for the distance of some two leagues, we are left

to conclude that the people could not have moved very rapidly in passing here, as it

appears to have supplied a city with water, and irrigated many leagues of the rich
country of those beautiful plains. About the distance of half a league from that house,
to the west, may be found a lake which empties into the river; and although its volume
is not large, its depth is greater than it has been able to sound with the many strings

that could be tied together.

These Pimas tell of another liouse, of a design and make more strange, which they
say is to be found farther up on that river; its figure is that of a kind of labyriiith,
the form of which, as the Indians trace it on the sand, is in the manner given in the

accompanying cut ; but it appears more likely to have been a house for recreation,
than for a great lord to reside in.

To other buildings of greater extension, more art and symmetry, I have heard the
Father Ygnacio Xavier Keller refer, although I do not recollect in what part of his
apostolic missions they were seen. I know that his reverence said that they came to

a straight line in front, were built alike, and were nearly half a league in length, and
the width appeared to him nearly as great ; the whole divided into equal squares, and
each house three or four stories in height, although then much disfigured from having

fallen in many places ; but that at one of the angles still was standing an edifice of a

larger size, in the form of a castle or palace, of five or six stories in altitude. The
canal, like that already described, the father said it not only passed along the front,
but before it reached the houses, it was divided into many branches, through which
the water might be admitted into all the streets, perhaps to cleanse them in their
waste places at pleasure, as is done at Turin and other cities of Europe, and was even
in Mexico in times past. This last Casa Grande is on the other side of the river, and
may be the same with that which before is spoken of; for all who have seen it agree
that it is the ruins, not of one structure only, but a place once extensively inhabited.
Pt. III. — 39
306 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
Between those Casas Grande inhabit the Pimas on one and the other margin of the
Gila : the towns of that people, which occupy ten leagues of the mild vale along it,

with some islands, abound in wheat, maize, &c., and yield so much cotton, to whom
also Ls referred the fabrication of the finest kind of pottery, which is found at one of
the archaeological indications of the Gila valley.

12. MOQUI TRIBE OP NEW MEXICO.

In the month of August, 1852, a message reached the President of the United
States,by a delegation of the Pueblos of Tesuque in New Mexico, offering him friend-
ship and intercommunication; and opening, symbolically, a road from the Moqui
country to Washington. This message, of which the leading points were communi-
cated by figures or symbols, having fulfilled its object, and being gazed at as a curiosity
in saloons, where ambassadors from higher courts are received, was referred to me, as
falling more specifically within the cognizance of my inquiries.

This unique diplomatic pacquet consists of several articles of symbolic import. The
first is the official and ceremonial offer of the peace-pipe. This is symbolized by a
joint of the maize, five and a half inches long, and half an inch in diameter. The
hollow of the tube isby leaves of a plant which represents tobacco. It is
filled

stopped, to secure the weed from falling out, by the downy yellow under plumage of
some small bird. Externall}^, around the centre of the stalk, is a tie of white cotton

twisted string of four strands, (not twisted by the distaff,) holding, at its end, a small

tuft of the before-mentioned downy yellow feathers, and a small wiry feather of the
same species. The interpreter has written on this, " The pipe to be smoked by the
President." The object is represented in the following cut, (A.)

A.

The second symljol consists of two small columnar round pieces of wood, four and a
half inches long, and four-tenths in diameter, terminating in a cone. The cone is one
and a lialf inches long, and colored black; the rest of the pieces are blue; a peace color
among the Indians soutli. it seems, as well ;is north. This color has the appearance
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 307

of being produced by the carbonate of copper mixed with ahiminous earth ; and
reminds one strongly of the bkie chxys of the Dacotahs. The wood, when cut, is

white, compact, and of a peculiar species. A notch is cut at one end of one of the
pieces, and colored yellow. A shuck of the maize, one end of which, rolled in the
shape of a cone, is bound up by cotton strings, with a small bird's feather, in the
manner of the symbolic pipe. There is also tied up with the symljolic sticks, one of the
secondary feathers and bits of down of a Ijird of dingy color. The feather is naturally
tipped with white. Together with this, the tie holds a couple of sticks of a native
plant, or small seed of the prairie grass, perhaps. It may, together with the husk of
the maize, be emblematic of their cultivation. The whole of the tie represents the
Moquis. The following cut (B) represents this symbol.

B. C.

The third object is, in every respect, like Fig. B, and symbolizes the President of th<}

United States. A colored cotton cord, four feet long, unites these symbols. Six inches
of this cord is small and white. At the point of its being tied to the long colored cord
there is a bunch of small bird's feathers. This bunch, which sj'^mbolizes the geogra-

phical position of the Navajoes, with respect to Washington, consists of the feathers
of six species, the colors of which are pure white, blue, bro\vn, mottled, yellow,
and dark, like the pigeon-hawk, and white, tipped with brown. (See the preceding
cut, C.)

The interpreter appends to these material effigies, or devices, the following remarks.
These two figures represent the Moqui people and the President; the cord is the
road which separates them ; the feather tied to the cord is the meeting point ; that
308 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION,
part of the cord which is white is intended to signify the distance between the Presi-
dent and the place of meeting ; and that part which is stained is the distance between

the Moqui and the same point. Your Excellency will perceive that the distance

between the Moqui and place of meeting is short, while the other is very long.

The last object of this communication from the high plains of New Mexico, is the

most curious, and the most strongly indicative of the wild, superstitious notions of
the Moqui mind. It consists of a small quantity of wild honey, wrapped up in a

wrapper or inner fold of the husk of the maize, as represented in Figure E. It is

accompanied by these remarks

"A charm to call down rain from heaven. — To produce the effect desired, the

President must take a piece of the shuck which contains wild honey, chew it, and spit

it upon the ground which needs rain ; and the Moquis assure him that it will come.".

It is thus perceived that the superstitions of the Moquis are identified with those
of the erratic hunter tribes who occupy the continent north of their position on the

elevated heights of New Mexico —a position which they have apparently occupied
since the earliest discoveries of the Spaniards.

In 1540, Coronada, with 150 horsemen, and 200 footmen, having united his forces
at Compostella. set out by the order of Mendoza, the viceroy of Mexico, to verify the
 HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 309

wild stories of cities and towns, silver and gold, and a high civilization, which had
reached him, by runners, as existing in the region north of the Gila, which now bears
the name of New Mexico. They were accompanied by 800 Indians, and took with
them 150 European cows, and a large flock of sheep, to serve as food. This fact is

alluded to for the purpose of adding, that the latter were probably the origin of the
immense flocks of sheep at present possessed by the Moquis and Navajoes. Three
hundred and twelve years have served greatly to multiply this species ; and every
year has probably only further convinced them of the importance and value of this
animal, which is easily raised, in supplying them with sustenance. It has also given
them the material for the manufacture of blankets ; an article which they make, as
we are informed, without the use of the distaff, but by a peculiar application of their
native ingenuity.
But neither the raising of sheep, nor the making of blankets, have lifted from their
minds the dark veil of ignorance and superstition, nor divested them of a beUef in
the degrading doctrines of magic, which mark the unreclaimed savage, wherever he
dwells.
VI. INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY
AND CHARACTER. C.

(SU)
 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND
CHARACTER.

SYNOPSIS OF PAPERS.

A. ORAL FICTIONS.

1. Hiawatha; an Iroquois Tradition. By Abraham Le Fort.

2. The Little Monedo, or Boy-man ; an Odjibwa Tale. By Ba-bahm-wa-wa-gezhig-equa.
3. Trapping in Heaven ; a Wyandot Tradition of 1637. By Paul Le Jeune.
4. The Great Snake of Canandaguia Lake ; an Iroquois Tradition. By John M. Bradford, Esq.

5. Shingebiss ; a Chippewa Allegory.

B. POETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIAN MIND.

6. Song of the Okogis. By Ba-bahm-wa-wa-gezhig-equa.

7. Hawk Chant. By James Riley.

A. ORAL FICTIONS.
The capacity of the human mind to recuperate and amuse itself by fictitious recitals

during states of repose, after scenes of toil and danger, is one of its most striking
original developments ; and we perceive traces of it in the earliest passages of human
history. Sometimes allegory is employed. This trait was early obsen'ed by the
missionaries to the North American Indians ; and although lost sight of in the popular
accounts of the tribes for a long time, it is found to characterize, so far as inquiries go.
Pt. m. — 40 (313)
314 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY
the leading stocks of the United States. How far it may be traced west and south, it

may be premature to inquire.

The tale of " Trapping in Heaven," now introduced, is gleaned from the missionary
recoi'ds of New France, in 1636. It has some features in common with the tale of tlie

l3oy who caught the sun in a snare, found among the Algonquins, in 1822.' We arc

informed that these oral tales are confined in their utterance by the Indians to tlio

winter season ; the reason for which is a mythological belief, as expressed by an aged
Indian of Lake Michigan (Vide Denionology, § XII.), that the ground is then covered
with a mantle of snow, and the genii, who are believed to inhabit all parts of the

earth, cannot then hear the narratives in which their names are sometimes made free

with.
In these imaginative relations of the Indian wigwam, allegory takes its widest range,
and it is as singular as it is unexpected, to find that symbols sometimes conceal
important moral truths. Thus, an individual, prefigured as the head of a family of
liawks, one of the latter of whom is so unlucky as to break a wing, is made to ujihold

fraternal affection, by a line of self-sacrifice and prudential conduct, for a whole season
of want, which is a pattern for human imitation. A warrior's soul travels from the

field of battle, to discover whether its loss, in the shape of a brave man slain, will be
missed and lamented as much as is usually supposed. An esteemed wife and sister

return, as ghosts or spirits, to the earth, disguised in human form, to learn whctiior

the regrets expressed for their untimely death were real and lively testimonials of
human woe, such as society professes, generally, to feel on these occasions.^ These are
touches of delicate irony on the sincerity of the professions of society, which are
little to be looked for among savages.
The history of the American tribes soon enters the shadowy and gorgeous precincts
of mythology, where the imagination has free scope in accounting for the origin and
rise of nations, institutions, and customs. None of the tribes are so destitute of

imagination as not to have something of this sort to cover many a wide hiatus in their
history.

1. Hiawatha, or, the Origin of the Onondaga Council-Fire. =

Tarentawago taught the Six Nations arts and knowledge. He had a canoe which
would move without paddles. It was only necessary to will it, to compel it to go. With
this he ascended the streams and lakes. He taught the people to raise corn and beans,
removed obstructions from their water-courses, and made their fishing-grounds clear.

'
Algic Researches. ^ Ibid.
' Derived from the verbal narratiuns of the late Abraham Le Fort, an Onondaga chief, who was a graduate,
it is believed, of Geneva College.
 AND CHARACTER. 315

He helped them to get the mastery over the great monsters which oven-an the country,
and thus prepared the forests for their hunters. His wisdom was as great an his power.
The people listened to him with admiration, and followed his advice gladly. There
was nothing in which he did not excel good hunters, brave warriors, and eloquent
orators.

He gave them wise instructions for observing the laws and maxims of the Great
Spirit. Having done these thing.s, he laid aside the high powers of his public mission,
and resolved to set them an example of how they should live.

For this purpose, he selected a beautiful spot on the southern shore of one of the
lesser and minuter lakes, which is called Tioto (Cross lake) by the natives, to this day.

Here he erected his lodge, planted his field of corn, kept by him his magic canoe, and
selected a wife. In relinquishing his former position, as a subordinate power to the
Great Spirit, he also dropped his name, and, according to his present situation, took

that of Hiawatha, meaning a person of very great wisdom, which the people sponta^
neously bestowed on him.
He now lived in a degree of respect scarcely inferior to that which he before
possessed. His words and counsels were implicitly obeyed. The people flocked to
him from all quarters, for advice and instruction. Such persons as had been promi-
nent in following his precepts, he favored, and they became eminent on the war-path
and in the council-room.

When Hiawatha assumed the duties of an individual, at Tioto, he carefully drew

out from the water his beautiful talismanic canoe, which had served for horses and
chariot, in his initial excursions through the Iroquois territories, and it was carefully
secured on land, and never used except in his journeys to attend the general councils.
He had elected to become a member of the Onondaga tribe, and chose the residence
of this people, in the shady recesses of their fruitful valley, as the central jjoint oi'

their government.

After the termination of his higher mission from above, years passed awa}' in
prosperity, and the Onondagas assumed an elevated rank, for their wisdom and
learning, among the other tribes, and there was not one of these which did not jdeld
its assent to their high privilege of lighting the general council-fire.
Suddenly there arose a great alarm at the invasion of a ferocious band of warriors
from the north of the Great Lakes. As the}^ advanced, an indiscriminate slaughter
was made of men, women, and children. Destruction threatened to be alike the fate
of those who boldly resisted, or quietlj^ submitted. The public alarm was extreme.
Hiawatha advised them not to waste their efforts in a desultory manner, but to call a

general council of all the tribes that could be gathered together from the east to the
Avest; and he appointed the meeting to take place on an eminence on the banks of
Onondaga lake.

Accordingly aU the chief men assembled at this spot. The occasion brought togethei
316 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY
vast multitudes of men, women, and children ; for there was an expectation of some
great deliverance. Three days had already elapsed, and there began to be a general
anxiety lest Hiawatha should not arrive. Messengers were despatched for him to

Tioto, who found him in a pensive mood, to whom he communicated his strong
presentiments that evil betided his attendance. These were overruled by the strong
representations of the messengers, and he again put his wonderful vessel in its

element, and set out for the council, taking his only daughter with him. She timidly
took her seat in the stern, with a light paddle, to give direction to the vessel ; for

the strength of the current of the Seneca river was sufficient to give velocity to the
motion till arriving at So-hah-hi, the Onondaga outlet. At this point the powerful

exertions of the aged chief were required, till they entered on the bright bosom of the
Onondaga.
The grand council, that was to avert the threatened danger, was quickly in sight,

and sent up its shouts of welcome, as the venerated man approached, and landed in
front of the assemblage. An ascent led up the banks of the lake to the place occupied
by the council. As he walked up this, a loud sound was heard in the air above, as if

caused by some rushing current of wind. Instantly the eyes of all were directed
upward to the sky, where a spot of matter was discovered descending rapidly, and
every instant enlarging in its size and velocity. Terror and alarm were the first

impulses, for it appeared to be descending into their midst, and they scattered in
confusion.
Hiawatha, as soon as he had gained the eminence, stood still, and caused his

daughter to do the same ; deeming it cowardly to fly, and impossible, if it were

attempted, to divert the designs of the Great Spirit. The descending object had now
assumed a more definite aspect, and as it came down, revealed the shape of a gigantic

white bird, with wide extended and pointed wings, which came down, swifter and
swifter, with a mighty swoop, and crushed the girl to the earth. Not a muscle was
moved in the face of Hiawatha. His daughter lay dead before him, but the great and
mysterious white bird was also destroyed by the shock. Such had been the violence
of the concussion, that it had completely buried its beak and head in the ground. But
the most wonderful sight was the carcase of the prostrated bird, Avhich was covered
with beautiful plumes of snow-white shining feathers. Each warrior stepped up, and
decorated himself with a plume. And it hence became a custom to assume this kind
of feathers on the war-path. Succeeding generations substituted the plumes of the
white lieron, which led this bird to be greatly esteemed.
But yet a greater wonder ensued. On removing the carcase of the bird, not a human
trace could be discovered of the daughter. She had completely vanished. At this

tlie father was greatly afflicted in spirits, and disconsolate. But he roused himself, as

from a lethargy, and walked to the he.ad of the council with a dignified air, covered
with his simple robe of wolf-skins; taking his seat with the chief warriors and
 AND CHARACTER. 317

counsellors, and listening with attentive gravity to the plans of the different speakers.

One day was given to these discussions ; on the next day, he arose and said :

My friends and brothers ;

you are members of many tribes, and have come from
a great distance. We have met to promote the common interest, and our mutual
safety. How shall it be accomplished ? To oppose these northern hordes in tribes
singly, while we are at variance often with each other, is impossible. By uniting in a
common band of brotherhood, Ave may hope to succeed. Let this be done, and we
shall drive the enemy from our land. Listen to me by tribes.
You (the Mohawks), who are sitting under the shadow of the Great Tree, whose
roots sink deep in the earth, and whose branches spread wide around, shall be the first
nation, because you are warlike and mighty.
You (the Oneidas), who recline your bodies against the Everlasting Stone, that
cannot be moved, shall be the second nation, because you always give wise counsel.
You (the Onondagas), who have your habitation at the foot of the Great Hills, and
are overshadowed by their crags, shall be the third nation, because you are all greatly
gifted in speech.

You (the Senecas), whose dwelling is in the Dark Forest, and whose home is?

everywhere, shall be the fourth nation, because of your superior cunning in hunting.
And you (the Cayugas), the people who live in the Open Country, and possess much
wisdom, shall be the fifth nation, because you understand better the art of raising com
and beans, and making houses.
Unite, you five nations, and have one common interest, and no foe shall disturb
and subdue you. You, the people who ai-e as the feeble bushes, and you, who are a
fishing people, may place yourselves under our protection, and we will defend you.
And you of the south and of the west may do the same, and we will protect you. We
earnestly desire the alliance and friendship of you all.

Brothers, if we unite in this great bond, the Great Spirit will smile upon us, and
we shall be free, prosperous, and haj^py. But if we I'emain as we are, we shall be
subject to his frown. We shall be enslaved, ruined, perhaps annihilated. We may
perish under the war-storm, and our names be no longer i-emembered by good men, nor
be repeated in the dance and song.
Brothers, these are the words of Hiawatha. I have said it. I am done.
The next day the plan of union was again considered, and adopted by the council.
Conceiving this to be the accomplishment of his mission to the Iroquois, the tutelar patron
of this rising confederacy addressed them in a speech ehiiborate with wise counsels, and
then announced his withdrawal to the skies. At its conclusion, he Avent down to the
shore, and assumed his seat in his mystical vessel. Sweet music was heard in the air
at the same moment, and as its cadence floated in the ears of the wondering multitude,
it rose in the air, higher and higher, till it vanished from the sight, and disappeared in
the celestial regions inhabited only by Owayneo and his hosts.
318
'
INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY

2. The Little Monedo, or Boy- Man.

A CHIPPEWA TALE.

There was once a little boy, remarkable for the smallness of his stature, living
alone with his sister, who was older than himself They were orphans, and lived in

a beautiful spot on a lake shore; and many large and picturesque rocks were scattered
around their rural habitation. The boy was not only very small, but he never grew
larger as he advanced in years. There had never been seen a dwarf among
before,

his people, and they looked on him as a very insiguificant being. Some thought him
one of those little creations whom they call puk-wud-jinine, or fairies of the hills, who
are seen to dance along over the ground, as light as the down of thistle. But the
most of them said, "Nay, Ave all know this little fellow; he eats and drinks, like one
of ourselves, and Ave kncAV his fother." But the spirits, seeing him despised, had
compassion on him, and determined him great poAver. to give

One day in Avinter, he asked his sister to make him a ball to play Avith along the

shore, on the clear ice she made one, but cautioned him not
; to go too far. Off he

A\eut, in high glee, throAving his ball before him, and running after it full speed, and
he Avent as fast as his ball. At last, it flcAv to a great distance ; he folloAved it as

quick as he could, and after running for some time, he saw four dark substances on
the ice, straight before liim. When he came up to the spot, he Avas surprised to see
four large tall men lying on the ice, spearing fish ; the one nearest to him looked up,

and iu turn Avas surprised to see such a diminutive being, and calling to his brothers
said, "Tia! look, see Avhat a Httle felloAv is here!" After they had all looked a

moment, they resumed their position, and covered their heads, intent on searching for

fish. The boy thought to himself, " These men are so large and tall, that they treat

nie Avith contempt, because I am little of stature; but I Avill teach them, notwith-

standing, that I am not to be treated so lightly." After they were covered up, the

boy saw that they had each a large trout lying beside them he slyly took the one ;

nearest him, and placing his fingers in the gills, and tossing his ball before him, ran
off at full speed. When the man to Avhom the fish belonged looked up, he saAV his
trout sliding aAvay, as if of itself, at a great rate ; the boy being so small he could not

lie distinguished from the fish. He addres.sed his brothers, and said, "See how that
tinv boy has stolen my fish ; Avluit a shame it is he should do so !" The boy reached
home, and told his sister to go out and get the fish he had brought. She exclaimed,
" VVliere could 30U have got it? I hope you have not stolen it?" "Oh! no," he

)-eplied, " I found it on the ice." " Hoav," persisted the sister, " could you have got it

there?" " No matter," said the boy; "go and cook it." He disdained to answer her

again, but thought he would one day teach her hoAV to appreciate him. She Avent to
 AND CHARACTER. 319

the place where he said he had left the fish ; and there, indeed, she found a monstrous
trout. She did as she was bid, and cooked it for that da^'s consumption.
Next morning, he went off again, as at first, and when he came near the large men,
who fished every day, he threw his ball with such force that it rolled into the ice-hole

of the man of whom he had As he happened to raise him-

stolon the fish the day before.

self at the time, the boy said, Nejee (friend), pray hand me my ball." " No indeed,"
'•

answered the man, " I shall not " and he thrust the ball under the ice. The boy
;

took hold of his arm, broke it in two in a moment, and threw him t» one side he ;

then picked up his ball, which had bounded back from under the ice, and tossed it as

usual before him, outstripping its speed. He got home, and remained within till next
morning. The man whose arm he had broken halloed out to his brothers, told them
his case, and deplored
his fate. They hurried to their brother, and as loud as they
could roar, threatened vengeance on the morrow as they knew the boy's speed was ;

too great for them to overtake him, and he was already almost out of sight. The boy
heard their threats, and awaited their coming, in perfect indifference.
The four brothers the next morning prepared to take their revenge. Their old
mother begged theai not to go :
'"
Better," said she, " that only one should suffer, than
;
that all should perish ; for he must be a Monedo, or he could not perform such feats
but her sons would not listen ; and taking their wounded brother along, started for the

boy's lodge, having learnt that he lived at the place of rocks. The boy's sister thought

she heard the noise of snow-shoes on the crusted snow, at a distance advancing,
and she then saw the tall men coming straight to their lodge, or rather cave, for
they lived in a large rock ; and she ran in in great fear, and told her brother the fact.

He said, " Why do you mind them? give me something to eat." " How can you think

of eating at such a time ?" she replied. " Do as I bid you," he continued, " and be
quick." She then gave hiiu his dish, which was a large mis-qua-dau (turtle) shell, and
he commenced eating; just then the men came to the door, and were about lifting the

curtain placed there, when the boy-man turned his dish upside down, and immediately
the door was closed with stone. The men tried hard to crack it with their clubs
and at length succeeded in making a slight opening, when one of them peeped in with

one eye ; the boy-man shot his arrow into his eye and brain, and he dropped down
( dead. The others, not knowing what had happened to their brother, did the same ;

and all fell in like manner, from their curiosity being so great to see what the boy was
about. After they were all killed, the boy-man told his sister to go out and see them
she opened the door, but fearing they were not dead, turned back hastily and told her
fears to her brother. He then went out and hacked them into small pieces, saying,
" Henceforth let no man be larger than you are now." So men became of their
present size.

"When spring advanced, the boy-man said to his sister, '•

Make me a new set of arrows
and bows." She obeyed, as he never did any thing himself that required manual
320 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY
labor, though he provided for their sustenance. After she made them, she again
cautioned him not to shoot into the lake; but regardless of all admonition, he on
purpose shot his arrow into the lake, and waded some distance till he got into deep
water, and paddled about for his arrow, so as to attract the attention of his sister ; she
came in haste to the shore, calling him to return ; but instead of minding her, he
;
called out, " Ma-mis-quan-ge-gun-a, be wau-wa-coos-zhe-shin " that is, You of the red
fins, come and swallow me. Immediately that monstrous fish came and swallowed
him ; and seeing his sister standing on the shore in despair, he halloed out to her,
;
'•'
Me-zush-ke-zin-ance " she wondered what he meant, but on reflection thought it

must be an old moccasin ; she accordingly tied the old moccasin to a string, and
fastened it to a tree near the water's edge. The fish said to the boy-man under water,
" "What is that floating The boy-man said to the fish, " Go take hold of it, and
? "

swallow it as fast as you can." The fish darted towards the old shoe, and swallowed
it ; the boy-man laughed to himself, but said nothing till the fish was fairly caught ; he
then took hold of the line, and began to pull himself and fish to shore. The sister,

who was watching, was surprised to see so large a fish ; and hauling it ashore, she

took her knife and commenced cutting it open, when, lo ! she heard her brother's voice
inside of the fish, saying, " Make haste and release me from this nasty place." His
sister was in such baste that she almost hit his head with the knife, but succeeded in

making an opening large enough for her brother to get out. When he was fairly

released, he told his sister to cut up the fish, and dry it, as it would last a long time
for their sustenance ; and insisted that she should never again doubt his ability in any
way. So ends the story.

3. Trapping in Heaven.
A WYANDOT STORY.

In 1637, Paul le Jeune was a missionary to the Indian tribes who yet remained
near the island of Hochelaga, on the St. Lawrence. He was the first of that devoted

band of teachers, the history of whose labors constitutes so celebrated a figure in the

settlement of New France. Although Canada had been discovered by Cartier in 1534,

scarcely thirty years had elapsed since the first efforts to found settlements. The
people amongst whom he labored, were the original tribe who occupied Hochelaga
on Cartier's first visit to that place in 1535. There is full evidence that this tribe
liad stood at the head of that celebrated nation, on whom the French bestowed the

Iiido-Gallic name of Iroquois —a name which had for its root-form the national

exclamation of " Yo-liah !

It was on that occasion of the initial visit of the adventurous mariner of St. Malo,
whoii these Indians carried him to tlie highest elevation upon their island, around which
 AND CHARACTER. 321

the St. Lawrence poured its divided waters, that he bestowed upon it the name of Mont
Royal, which it has since borne.
Le Jeune was surprised to observe that the natives were in the habit of entertaining
themselves by fanciful tales, which, in a people who made war and hunting their

boast, constituted a curious branch of mental phenomena.

" I have heai'd them," he observes, " relate a great many fables ; at least I presume
that the most intelligent among them consider these tales as fables. I will relate a

single one, w^liich seems to be very ridiculous. They tell a story that a man and
a woman being in the woods, a bear came and fell upon the man and strangled him
and eat him. A hare of wonderful size fell upon the woman and devoured her. He
did not, however, touch her child which she bore in her womb, and of which she was
near lying-in. A woman passing by this place shortly after this carnage, was much
astonished at seeing this child living ; she took it, brought it up as her son, calling him
however her little brother, to whom she gave the name of Tcha-ka-bech. This child
never increased in size, remaining always like a child in swaddling-clothes ; but he
attained such a wonderful strength, that the trees served for arrows to his bow. I

should be too long in relating all the adventures of this man-child : he killed the bear
which had devoured his father, and found still in its stomach his beard quite entire.

He also killed the big hare which had eaten his mother, whom he recognized by the
locks of hair which he found in his belly. This big hare was some genii of the day
for they call one of these genii, who, they say, was a great babbler, by the name of
Mich-ta-bou-chion ; that is to say, big hare. In short, this Tcha-ka^bech, wishing to

go to heaven, climbed up a tree : being almost at the top, he blew upon this tree,
Avhich shot up and grew larger when this little dwarf blew upon it; the higher he
climbed the more he blew, and the higher and larger the tree grew ; so that he got to

heaven, where he found the prettiest country that could be imagined. Everything in

it was bewitching; the land excellent and the trees very beautiful. Having examined
everything well, he came back to bring the news of all these to his sister, so as to induce

her to go up to heaven and stay there for ever. He came down therefore by this tree,

building cabins (wigwams) every here and there in its branches, where he might rest
his sister whilst going up again. His sister, at first, was obstinate, but he described to

lier so glowingly the beauty of that country, that she took heart to surmount the
difficulty of the journey. She brought with her her little nephew, and climbed up
this tree, Tcha-ka-bech following behind so as to catch them if they should fall. At
each stopping place they always found their wigwam ready made, which was a great
comfort to them. At last they got to heaven ; and in order that nobody- might follow
them, this child broke oflf the stem of the tree prett}- low down, so that nobody could
get to heaven by it. After having much admired the country, Tcha-ka-bech went off
to set his snares, or, as others call them, traps ; in the hope, perhaps, of catching some
animal. At night, on rising to go and see to his traps, he saw them all on fire, and did
Pt. HI. — 41
322 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY
not dare to go near them. He returned to his sister and said to her, '
Sister ! I do not
know wliat it is in my traps ; I can see nothing but a big fire, which I did not dare to

go near to.' His sister, suspecting what it was, said to him, 'Oh brother! what a
misfortune ! assuredly' 3'ou luive caught the sun in the trap : go quick and let him
out ;
perhaps in travelling b}' night he has fallen into it unawares.' Tcha-ka-bech,
much astonished, went back, and having looked carefully, found that in truth he had
caught the sun in the trap. He tried to get him out, but did not dare to go near him.
He found By a lucky chance a little mouse, caught it, blew upon it, and made it become
so big that he made use of it to unbend his traps and let the sun out ; who, finding
himself freed, continued his course as usual.' Whilst he was detained in these traps,
the day failed down here on earth. To say how long ago, or what is become of this

child, is what they do not and cannot know.

" I have only allowed myself to say, that the Mahometans believe that the moon
once fell from heaven and Ijroke. Mahomet, desiring to rej^air this accident, took it,

put it into his sleeve, and by this movement mended it and sent it back to its place.

This story of the moon is as credible as the one I have just told you of the sun. In
conclusion, Beati ucuU qui viJeiit quae nos videmus. Happy are they whom the good-
ness of God has called to a knowledge of the truth."

4. The Geeat Snake of Canandaigua Lake: an Iroquois

Tradition.

BY JOHN M. BRADFORD, KSQ.

[In communicating this little legend of Seneca tradition, the writer remarks, under the date of
Geneva, June 15th, 1852, "that he has no hope that it will be new to investigators of Indian
history, but yet believes that, in its simple and undistorted shape, it might afford some new aspect.
It has appeared," he says, "in various shapes, on various occasions. As it is now communicated
to you, it has, for its authority, the old settlers of this region, and is founded on Indian tradition."]

A LONG time ago, from the jjosom of the Nundowaga hill, where it looks down upon
the waters of the Canandaigua lal<e, emerged the founders of the Seneca nation, who,
seeing that the land was fair and goodly, on that hill took up their abode. And there
they dwelt for many years, and occupying themselves entirely in such pursuits as were
necessary for their livelihood, from very small beginnings, they increased to a numerous
family. No hostile tribe disturljed their repose — nothing alarmed, nothing harassed
them — peace reigned among the people of the hill.

'
This incident will remind the rcador of the tule of the sun-catcher in Oncotii, collected in 1822, among the
Chippewas.
 AND CHARACTER. 32^

One day some children, playing ^vithout the rude palisades which surrounded the
town, found and brought within a snake, very small, very beautiful, and apparently
harmless. Loved by the young, fondled by the old, cherished by all there, the snake

remained and grew; so rapidly indeed, that the arrows of the boys failing to supply the

demands of its increasing appetite, the hunters of the tribe day by day gave it some
portion of the results of their more successful chase. Thus kindly cared for, it became
great and strong, and then roaming through the forest, or plunging into the lake in
quest of its own food, it so thrived, that ere long it became of length so enormous, as

to be able quite to encircle the whole hill. Having attained this great size, it began
to manifest an irascible, wicked disposition, and this upon so many occasions, that the

people of the hill became greatly alarmed for their safety ; and being also oppressed

Avith the fear that, even if it did not actually consume them, it would, by its monstrous
consumption of game, reduce the tribe to stars-ation, it was resolved, in solemn
council, that the snake must die. The dawn of the next day was fixed upon for its

destruction.
Just as the day was breaking, the monstrous reptile was seen lying all around the
base of the hill, encircling the whole town with its length, closing every avenue of

escape, its huge jaws wide opening just before the gateway. Vigorously did the whole
tribe assail it; but neither arrows, spears, nor knives, could be made to penetrate its scaly

sides. Some of the people, frightened, endeavored to escape by climbing over it, but
were thrown violently back, rolled upon and crushed. Others, in their mad efforts,

rushing to its very jaws, were devoured. Terrified, the tribe recoiled, and did not
renew the attack till hunger gave them courage for a last desperate assault, in which
all perished, and were swallowed, except a woman and her two children, who escaped
into the forest while the monster, gorged with its horrible feast, was sleeping.

In her hiding place, the woman, by a vision, was instructed to make arrows of a
peculiar form, and taught how to use them eflfectually for the killing of the destroyer

of her tribe. Believing that the Great Spirit was her teacher, she made the arrows,

and carefully following the directions she had received, she confidently approached the

yet sleeping monster, and successfully planted the arrows in its heart. The snake in

its agony lashed the hill-side with its enonnous tail, tore deep gullies in the earth,
broke down the forest.s, and rolling down the slope, plunged into the lake. Here, in
the waters near the shore, it disgorged its many human victims, and then, with one
great convulsive throe, sank slowly to the bottom. Rejoiced at the death of her enemy,
the happy woman hastened with her children to the banks of the Canadesoga lake,
and from them sprang the powerful Seneca nation.
The Indians affirm that the rounded pebbles, of the size and shape of the human
head, to this day so numerous on the shores of the Canandaigua lake, are the petrified
skulls of the people of the hill, disgorged by the great snake in its death-agony.
324 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY

5. SiiiNGEBiss; A Chippewa Allegory.

There was once a poor mau, called Shingebiss, liviug alone in a solitary lodge, on
the shores of a deep bay, in a large lake. Now Shiugebiss, according to his name, was
a duck when he chose to be so, and a man the next moment : it was only necessary
to will himself one or the other. It was cold winter weather, and this duck ought to

have been long off with the rest of his tfibe towards the south, where the streams and
lakes are open all winter, and food is to be easily got. But the power he had of
changing himself into a man when he wished, made him linger a longer time, as the
shingebiss alwaj-s does, in the north, till every stream was frozen over, and the snow
laid deep over all the land.
The blasts of winter now howled fiercely around his poor bark wigwam, and he had
only four logs of wood to keep his fire during the whole winter. But he was a manly,
cheerful, and trustful man, who relied on himself, and cared very little for any body,
beyond treating all with kindness who called on him ; and he always had something
to ofier them to eat, which is a very great point of attention and respect among his

people.

How he managed to live no body knew. It was a perfect mystery to the wild

foresters around who visited him. For the ice was very thick on the streams, and the
weather was intensely cold. Yet in the coldest day, when every one thought he must
starve and freeze, he would go out to places where flags and reeds grew up through
the ice, and changing himself to a duck, pluck them up with his bill, and dive through
the orifice in quest of fish. In this way he supplied himself plentifully, and went
home to his lodge dragging strings of fish after him.

This independence of character, great hardihood, and power of resource, vexed

Kabibonocca, the god of the north-west, who sends cold and storms ; and he determined
to freeze him out, and kill him for his obstinacy. " Why, he must be a wonderful
man," says he ;
" he does not mind the coldest days, and seems to be as happy and
content as if it were the moon of strawberries (June). I will give him cold and cold
blasts to his heart's content." So saying, he poured forth tenfold colder blasts and
snow-drifts, and made the air so sharp that it seemed to have the keenness of a knife.

But still the fire of Shingebiss, poorly supplied, as it apparently was, did not go out.
He did not even put on more clothing, for he had but a single strip of skins about his
body ; and he was seen with this in the coldest days, walking on the ice and carrying
home loads of fish.

"Shall he withstand me?" said Kabibonocca, one day; "I will go and visit him, and
see wherein his great power lies. If my presence does not freeze him, he must be
made of rock." Accordingly, that very night, when the wind blew furiously, he came
 AND CHARACTER. 325

to his lodge door, and listened. Shingebiss had cooked his meal of fish, and finished
his sujiper, and was lying on his elbow before the fire, singing one of his songs.
Kabibonocca listened attentively, and plainly heard these words :
—
Kabibonocca, neej ininee,
We-ya, Ah-ya-ya-ia.
Kabibonocca, neej ininee,
We-ya, Ah-ya-ya-ia.
lau, neej ininee, aa-ia,
Shingebiss, ia-ya, &c.

Windy god, I know your plan,

You are but my fellow-man ;

Blow, you may, your coldest breeze,

Shingebiss you cannot freeze.
Sweep the strongest winds you can,
Shingebiss is still your man
Heigh for hfe, and ho for bliss,
"
Who so free as Shingebiss !

The hunter knew that Kabibonocca was at his door, but affected utter indifference,

and went on singing his songs and varying them to suit his humor. At length Kabi-
bonicca, not to be defeated in his object, entered the wigwam and took his seat without
saying a word, opposite to him. But Shingebiss put on an air of the most profound
repose. There was nothing to indicate, by a look or change of muscle, that he heard
the storm or felt sensible of the least cold. Nor did he, by his calm and easy manner,
evince a sense of the presence of his distinguished guest. But taking his poker, as if

no one was present, he got up and poked the fire to make it burn brighter, and then
resumed his reclining position again, singing out —
" Windy god, I know your plan,
You are but my fellow-man."

Very soon the tears began to flow down Kabibonocca's face, and increased so fast,

that he presently said to himself, " I cannot stand this ; the fellow wilt melt me if I

do not go out." He did so, leaving the imperturbable Shingebiss to the enjoyment of
his songs, but resolving at the same time, that he would put a stop to his music. He
poured forth intenser blasts, and made the air so cold, that it froze up every flag-orifice,

and increased the ice to such a thickness that it drove him from all his fishing-grounds.

Still, by great diligence and enterprise in going to very distant places, and deep water,
he contrived to get the means of subsistence, and managed to live. His four logs of

'
This is the true spirit of the original.
326 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY
wood gave liiui plenty of fire, aud the few
fish he got sufficed him, for he eat them

with great quietness and contentment. At last, Kabibonocca was compelled to give
up the contest. " He must be some Monedo (a spirit) I can neither freeze him nor
.

starve him. I will let him alone."

B. POETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIAN MIND.

War is a natural state of barbaric society. It is thus depicted by the earliest

writers, sacred and profane. In the earliest delineations of forest life, given of our
Indians, a few petty communities, with little differences of language and manners,
iii'e found to have assumed the powers of a nation, and by far the most prominent
evidence they have given of this nationality is seen to have been in the power to carry
on war against each other. In the few and fitful pauses of peace, the ancient tribes
are found to have been prone to recite, in some public manner, their exploits and feats

•jf daring; as if acts of bravery alone were godlike, and could not be sufficiently

praised. In this manner, the very earliest epochs of Indian history became filled

with the names of forest heroes, who were not long, in the partial traditionary history
of their descendants and kinsmen, in assuming the position of divinities and gods.
Time and history have not been sufficient, on this continent, to mature these antique
names of savage wars into names as familiar to ourselves as the classic forms of
Anmion, Mars, Saturn, and Hercules. But the process by which the Indian names
were eliminated from the verbiage of early languages and traditions, has been very
much the same. We observe this in the boastful and wild songs and mythologic
traditions of the Algonquins, the Iroquois, and other leading genera of tribes aud
tongues which have enacted the chief scenes in the panorama of Indian history.
It is known that the seasons of leisure and recreation of all the American tribes

are devoted, in no small part, to the songs and dances of their warlike deeds ; and in
this way they have fixed the public approbation strongly on military worth as the
chief attainment. Through the influence of these gatherings and festivities, a new
body of warriors is raised every decade, from the listening children who are to take
the places of their fathers and progenitors on the war-path. To do as their forefathers

did, is commendation beyond all praise. The songs are generally some wild boast of
prowess or achievement, or violent symbolic expression of power, and allusions to their

tutelary divinities, having for their theme triumph in battle. The chorus of these
chants consists, for the most part, of traditionary monosyllables, which appear to admit
often of transposition, and the utterance of which, at least, is so managed as to

permit the words to be sung in strains, to suit the music and dance. This music is

accurately kept, and the bars marked with full expression by the Indian ta-wtl-e-guu

and rattle, accompanying the voices of the choristers.

 AND CHARACTER. 327

No collections and translations of their forest or war choruses and songs have been
made, which at all do justice to the sentiiuents and ideas expressed. It is perhaps too
early in our literary history to expect such collections. The expressions of warriors
who join the dance with sharp yells, which are responded to by the actors already in
the ring of the listeners to heroic exploits, are, to a large extent, mnemonic, and are
intended to bring to mind known ideas and conceptions of war and bravery. Many
of them appeal to the names of carnivorous birds or quadrupeds which are employed
purely as symbols of speed, prowess, or carnage. All the concomitants of the Indian
war-path are presented to the mind. The hearers are expected to know the mythologi-
cal and necromantic theories and dogmas of the tribe, on which these expressions are
founded, and but for which knowledge the expressions would lack all their force and
pertinency.
Attention has been directed to this subject as one that is suited to illustrate Indian
character, and it is hoped that a collection of authentic materials respecting it may be
made among the tribes who yet rove the forests and prairies of the continent.
There is another department in which the feelings and sentiments of the Indian
tribes have been poetically expressed — it is the memory of the dead. A ftiUen warrior
is honored and lamented by the whole tribe ; the gathered village attends his funeral.
An address is uniformly made, which often partakes of the character of eulogy. A
speaker, or a counsellor, is buried and lamented with equal respect ; and the names
of their brave and wise men are remembered with tenacity. There is no subject,
perhaps, which calls forth more sympathy than the death of children.
In a subtle system of cosmogony and creative effort, in which concurring divinities
are recognised as having either performed a part, or as having, by antagonistic powers,
disturbed the work after it was completed, the whole universe (earth, planets, and
sky) is regarded indeed as animated, either in part, or symbolically. Each class of
creation is believed to have its representative deities, who have e3'es and ears open to
everything that exists, transpires, or is uttered. Viewed in this light, winds have
voices — the leaves of the trees utter a language — and even the earth is animated by

a crowd of spirits who have an influence on the affairs of men. Hence many of their
chants and songs, accompanied with music, have allusion to this wide and boundless
theory of created matter. In short, it may be affirmed that the Indians believe that
every element is a part of the great creative God.
Wherever Indian sentiment is expressed, there is a tendency to the pensive — the
reminiscent. It may be questioned whether hope is an ingredient of the Indian mind
all the tendency of reflection is directed towards the past. He is a man of remi-
niscences, rather than anticipations. Intellectualization has seldom enough influence
to prevail over the present, and still more rarely over the future. The consequence
is, that whenever the Indian relaxes his sternness and insensibility to external objects,
and softens into feeling and sentiment, the mind is surrounded by fears of evil, and
despondency. To lament, and not to hope, is its charncteristic feature.
328 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY
If poetrj is ever destined to be developed in such minds, it mnst be of the com-
plaining and plaintive, or the desponding cast. Discarding the single topic of war,
such are, indeed, the specimens we possess; — words addressed a dying man — a to to

lost child — death — the fear of evil genii — or a sympathy with nature. Most of the
attempts to record poetic sentiments in the race have encountered difficulties, from the
employment of some forms of the Grecian metres ; or, still less adapted to it, English
laws of rhyme. They have neither. It is far better suited, as the expression of

strong poetic feeling, to the freedom of the Hebrew measure ; the repetitious style of
which reminds one of both the Indian sepulchral or burial chant, and eulogy. There
is indeed in the flow of their oratory, as well as songs, a strong tendency to the figure
of parallelism.
Ne-gau nis-sau — ne-gau nis-sau —
Kitchi-mau-li sau — ne-gau nis-sau.

I will kill — —
I will kill

The Americans — I will kill.^

Unattractive as the field is, there is yet something to be gleaned in it ; and its

gleaning is deemed to be within the object of these investigations, and worth the
expenditure of the effort. Its results are important as appreciating the true intellectual
state of the man, as a depressed family of the human race. The divine principles of
Christianity entitle them to the blessings provided for the whole race ; and the efforts

to bring these benighted branches of it to a knowledge of its merciful provisions,

should not be deemed as thrown away merely' because they are not immediately or
largely successful.
There is poetry in their very names of places : Ticonderoga, the place of the
separation of waters ; Dionderoga, the place of the inflowing of waters ; Saratoga, the
place of the bursting out of waters ; Ontario, a beautiful prospect of rocks, hills, and
waters ; Ohio, the beautiful river — these, and a thousand other names which are
familiar to the ear, denote a capacity for, and love of harmony in the collocation of

syllables expressive of poetic thought. But the great source of a future poetic fabric,

TO be erected on the frame-work of Indian words, when the Indian himself shall have
passed away, exists in their m3'thology, which provides, by a skilful cultivation of
personification, not only for every passion and affection of the human heart, but every
phenomenon of the skies, the air, and the earth. The Indian "has placed these
imaginary gods wherever, in the geography of the land, I'everence or awe is to be

inspired. Every mountain, lake, and waterfall is placed under such guardianship.
All nature, every class of the animal and vegetable creation, the very sounds of life,

the murmuring of the breeze, the dashing of water, every phenomenon of light or

electricity, is made intelligent of human events, and speaks the language of a god.

Notes to Ontwa.
 AND CHARACTER. 829

6. Song of the Okogis, or Frog in Spring.

BY BA-B AHM-W A-W A-QEZHIO-EQU A.

See how the white spirit presses us,

Presses us, — presses us, heavy and long;
Presses us down to the frost-bitten earth.'

Alas! you are heavy, ye spirits so white,

Alas! you are cold — you are cold — you are cold.
Ah ! cease, shining spirits that fell from the skies.

Ah ! cease so to crush us, and keep us in dread

Ah ! when will ye vanish, and Seegwun ^ return ?

7. Hawk Chant of the Saginaws.

BY JAMES RILEY.

The hawks turn their heads nimbly round;

They turn to look back on their flight.
The spirits of sun-place have whispered them words,
''

They fly with their messages swift,

They look as they fearfully go,

'
This is in allusion to the heavy beds of snow which, in the north, often lie late in the spring. ^
Spring.
' Robed in his mantle of snow from the sky,
See how the white spirit presses our breath; ,

Heavily, coldly, the masses they lie,

Sighing and panting, we struggle for breath.

oh spirit, who first in the air,

Spirit, !

The Great Master Monedo wondrously made;

Cease to be pressing the sons of his care,
And fly to the blue heights from whence ye have stiajed.

Then we shall cheerfully, praisingly sing,

Okdgis, Okogis, the heralds of spring.
First to announce to the winter-bound baU,
Sunshine, and verdure, and gladness, to all
* Geezhigong.

Pt. III. — 42
330 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY, ETC.
They look to the farthermost end of the world,
Their eyes glancing bright, and their beaks boding harm.*

This chant reveals a mythological notion in the belief of the Indians, that birds of
this family are intelligent of man's destiny. They beheve that they are harbingers of
good or evil, and often undertake to interpret their messages. Living in the open
atmosphere, where the Great Spirit is located, it is believed the falcon family possess
a mysterious knowledge of his will.

'
Birds ! ye wild birds whom the high gods have made,
And gifted with power of a wondrous kind,
Why turn ye so fearfully, shy, and dismayed.
To gaze on the heavens ye are leaving behind?

Come ye with news of a mystical cast.

Speaking of enemies crouched in the wood,

Who oa our people shall burst like a blast,

Heralding ruin, destruction, and blood ?

Come ye with messages sent from on high,

Warning of what the wide heavens shall pour,
Whirlwinds, tornadoes, or pestilence nigh.
Wailing, starvation, or death on our shore ?

Come ye with words from the Master of Life,

Bringing intelligence good in your track?
Ah, then, ye bright birds, with messages rife,
Why do you turn your heads, doubtingly, back?
VII. TOPICAL HISTORY. B.
 TOPICAL HISTORY.

SYNOPSIS OF PAPERS.
1. Upper Posts of Canada in 1778. By James Madison.
2. Western America beyond the Alleghanies, in 1785. Memoranda of a Journey in the
Western Parts of the United States of America. By Lewis Brantz.
3. Indian Life in the North-western Regions of the United States, in
1783 with an Introduc-;

tion by H. R. S. Being the Relation of the Voyages and Adventures of a Merchant

Voyager, &c. By John Baptiste Perrault.
4. Personal Narrative of a Journey in the Semi-Alpine Area of the Ozark Mountains of
Missouri and Arkansas, which were first traversed by De Soto, in 1541. By H. R. S.

1. UPPER POSTS OF CANADA IN 1778.

BT JAMES MADISON.

The following remarks are found among the unedited papers of Mr. Madison, iu his
peculiar handwriting. They were evidently the result of an interview with a trust-
worthy person, who, it is known, had passed years with the Indians in the capacity
of a trader, and who was well acquainted with the lake defences.
They serve to show
the carefuhiess with which information was sought on the subject, at a
peculiarly
trying period of the Revolutionary struggle.
These posts, with the exception of Niagara, were rather designed to keep the Indians
in check, than as capable of being defended against civilized armies.
That they were
in no fear of such armies is, however, improbable. Two years after the date of these
memoranda, namely, in 1780,' the post of Michillimackinac, which had remained in its

' Vide Personal Memoirs of thirty years' residence in the West, where this question is considered at largp.

(33.3)
334 TOPICAL HISTORY.
ancient position on the peninsula of Michigan, was removed to the island of that name,
in lake Huron, as being a better position to resist attacks from the land.
It was at these posts that the lake Indians, who sided against the Americans, were
supplied with arms and ammunition, to carry on their disastrous depredations against
the frontiers; and it was deemed an important object to learn their strength and
capacities of defence.

Account of the Upper Parts of Canada. By John Dodge.

Michilimakinac, at the head of lake Huron, is a small stockaded fort with a few
cannon and two block-houses. The garrison consists of eighty soldiers, commanded by
Major S. C. Deposter.
From Michilimakinac to lake St. Clair, where was formerly a small fort now evacu-
ated, is 280 miles. This lake is fifteen miles across. Nine mUes from the southern
extremity of it stands Detroit. This island ' is stockaded in with cedar. The pickets
are nine feet above and two and a half beneath the ground. It has several small
block-houses with cannon, and a ditch half-way round the citadel, eight feet wide and
five feet deep. The citadel and town is stockaded in the same manner. The settle-

ment, consisting of French, extends twenty or thirty miles along the straits. The
militia, including all able to bear arms, amounts to 850 : only one English captain
among them. Detroit is the general rendezvous of the savages.
From Detroit to lake Erie is eighteen miles. This lake is 280 miles across from
east to west. At the east end is Fort Erie, a small stockade fort, with two small
block-houses defended by two five-pounders. There are in lakes Erie and Huron four
armed vessels, one carrying sixteen six and four pounders ; the other three twelve-
pounders. There are three small merchant vessels occasionally used by the command-
ant as look-outs. Eighteen miles from the east end of the lake is Fort Slucher, where
is a command of men to guard the public stores and merchants' goods. The portage
at the falls of Niagara is eight miles. At nine miles' distance, on the east side of the
river, where it falls into lake Ontario, is Fort Niagara. This fort is naturally fortified.

The walls are built with stone and mortar, twelve feet high, with a trench on the back
part of it. The woods are cleared for a mUe behind it, where the ground is very level.

Here are two large block-houses, built with stone and mortar, with six twelve-pounders

in each. There are twelve twelve-pounders on the rampart, and ten mortars of diffe-

rent The garrison consists of 250 soldiers, commanded by Col. Powel. Col.
sizes.

Butler, who commands the savages and 100 volunteers, is also here when not harass-
ing the frontiers. Lake Ontario is 2G0 miles in extent. At the east end of it lies the
old Fort Cataraqui or Frontenac, now evacuated. Twelve miles down the river St.
Lawrence is Deer island, where are stationed 150 soldiers, without a fort. There are

Detroit ia nri tVio main

 TOPICAL HISTORY. 335

two vessels in lake Ontario, whicli mount eighteen six and eight pounders, besides a
few smaller ones carrying swivels, all very badly managed.
The whole regular force in Canada and the naval islands, including all the upper
posts, amounts to 5533.

A large river, the Outawas, flowing into the St. Lawrence, a little above Montreal,
heads so near lake Huron or the rivers running into it, that a communication might
be maintained between Canada and Detroit, and the more western and north-western
ports, even if the communication through the lakes Erie, Superior, and Ontario were
intercepted. The traders at present frequently transport their goods through that
channel.

2. MEMORANDA OF A JOURNEY IN THE WESTERN PARTS

OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN 1785;
TOGETHER WITH OBSERVATIONS MADE, AND AUTHENTIC INFORMATION RECEIVED,

By Lewis Brantz.
translated, in 1852, from the original german ms. of the author,

Bt Brantz Mater,
and presented by him, respectfully, to his friend,

The Hon. H. R. Schoolcraft:

TOGETHER WITH

CAPTAIN BRANTZ'S ORIGINAL VIEW OF PITTSBURG, IN 1790

Introductory Memoir.
The following Journal, written in the German language, from which I have carefully
translated it, came into my possession with the private papers of my valued friend,
Mr. Lewis Brantz, of Baltimore. I regard it as a most interesting memorial of the
Great West, sixty-seven years ago. It displays the resources, and denotes the pros-
pects of that magnificent region, as it then burst on the sight of an ardent, intelligent,
and well-educated youth of seventeen.
The full description he gives of the post at Fort Pitt, now Pittsburg — his interest-
ing sketch of that lonely frontier post — the narrative of his descent of the Oliio to
the Falls at Louisville — his continued journey thence to the mouth of the Cumber-
land, and up that river to Nash's Station, or Nashville — his perilous travel, with a
336 TOPICAL HISTORY.
caravan and pack-horses, through the wilderness of Kentucky, " the dark and bloody
ground," — to Baltimore, his minute itineraries, recording the travelUng posts that
then existed throughout those savage-haunted forests — his accurate topographical
descriptions of the regions he traversed ; their condition and resources, present as well

as prospective — are all highly valuable to the student of the history of those early
days; and, while they exhibit the hardy and intelligent energy of the young
adventurer, deserve preservation in some permanent record. I cannot but think that

such narratives are especially interesting at the present time, Avhen the great effort

of the day seems to be to connect the eg,st and the west by public works, and thus to

afford means of transportation for the rich productions which, in 1785, our young
traveller saw hidden in the then untrodden wilderness.

Mr. Brantz was a German. Born at Ludwigsburg, near Stiittgard, in Wirtemburg,

he was educated very thoroughly at Aarau, in Switzerland, where he was a schoolmate
of the late Professor Hassler, the distinguished chief of our Coast Survey. At Aarau
they formed an acquaintance, which was afterwards closely cemented by congenial
scientific pursuits in the country to which they emigrated.

Mr. Brantz came to this country in early life, with many other enterprising
Europeans, to push his fortunes. He was an accomplished linguist, and being, like
most German youths, thoroughly instructed in the branches needed for a practical life,

he soon attracted the attention of persons anxious to open a wider commerce with the
West than had yet been accomplished by the ordinary trading journeys of that day.
In addition to this, his enterprising employers desired to colonize with Germans, certain
lands they possessed in the wilderness ; and, accordingly, Mr. Brantz was despatched
in the double trust of leading these foreigners to their home among the savages, and
of examining the commercial resources of the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio.
Hence his journeys and his Journal. His picture of Fort Pitt, or Pittsburg, in 1790,
displays his remarkable accuracy. Every house at the fort is minutely delineated
and colored, in the original sketch in my possession ; and forty-five years afterwards,

sitting together on the hill opposite the modern and flourishing Pittsburg, I listened to
his narrative of adventures in the Avoods, saw him point out every place of historical

interest in a landscape which art and trade had so transformed, and learned the secret
of his patient, just, and firm intercourse with the Indians, which had enabled him,
while yet a boy, to deal with them successfully, and to pass unharmed through their
romantic fastnesses.
But Mr. Brantz was not destined to grow up in the West, or to pass his life amid its

bustling novelties. On his return to Baltimore, the stirring trade of that place after

the j)eace, led him into an active commercial career. Believing that the life of a sea-
man would strengthen his rather delicate constitution, and, desirous to be independent
•fco*

o 1

^ I
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 887

of others, lie soon comraauded his own \cs.sels, and sold his own cargoes, during many
years, in an extensive commerce with Europe and the Eastern and Western Indies.

He had bold adventures in the Mediterranean during the European wars, or when our
vessels went forth armed against Algerine pirates ; and once, through the courageous
management of Captain Jaheel Brenton, who afterwards became an admiral, and
was knighted, he narrowly escaped slaver}^ among the Moors, when wrecked near the
town of Oran, in Africa.
After many years spent in successful commerce, Mr. Brantz at last found time to
engage leisurely in his favorite scientific studies and pursuits. He devoted himself,
for a long time, to surveying the Patapsco river, its branches, and part of the Chesa-
peake Bay ; the engraved map of which is now found, by expert seamen, to be the
best that has hitherto been prepared. For ten or fifteen years he kept a Meteorological
Journal, the results of which he printed privately in a large volume of some 400
pages, deposited by me in the Collection of the Smithsonian Institution. It was the
first thoroughly systematic work of the kind undertaken and published in the United
States. At this period he also prepared a minute history of the growth of the trade
of Baltimore, and a most comprehensive analysis of the resources of that city and
vicinity, a work which I now possess in MS.
During the last ten years of his life, he made voyages to the west coast of South
America, to China, and to Mexico ; residing several years in the latter place. On his

return to Baltimore, he was soon desired to take the Presidency of the Philadelphia
and Baltimore Raih'oad, which, under his care, was quickly completed, and the inter-

course between the cities opened. He had just finished this road, in January, 1838,
when he suddenly died.

He was a most accomplished gentleman, of quiet and dignified manners

thoroughly versed in all he attempted to master, whether in literature, science,

commerce, or art. He was always a most instructive and entertaining companion.

His modesty kept him back from that public arena in which he might have won most
distinguished honors; and, dying, the last of his race, he left behind him no one
who bore his name, except the person who offers this humble tribute to his honored

memory.
Bbantz Mateb.
Baltimore, 2oth August, 1852.

Memoranda of a Journey in the Western Parts of the United

States of America, in 1785. By Lewis Brantz.

I DEPARTED from Baltimore, on the Patapsco river in Maryland, and passing through
Fredericktown, travelled towards Hagerstown, which is properly called Elizabethtown.
Pt. ni. — 48
8318 TOnCAL HISTORY.
Both these small settlements are situated in the same State, and are almost exclusively
peopled by Germans, who, like most of their countrymen, are much more wealthy and
laborious than the Americans. The soil increases in fertility as we approach Hagcrs-
town; and in its neighborhood, like that of the adjacent streams, is extraordinarily

rich, producing the cereal grains in abundance. The inhabitants carry their produce
to Baltimore, whence it is exported to the West Indies. The people lead the life of
a hardy and laborious peasantry —each one on his own independent plantation, except
such as dwell in small villages, and support themselves either by trade or b}' mechanical
operations.

Within eight miles of Hagerstown, in a north-eastern direction, and at a spot where

it would be least expected, though not very distant from the foot of the Blue Ridge, is

found a most extraordinary cavern. Its aperture is a very

.«!8^g;^g<i^S^^s»^ depressed or flat arch, but the entrance is nevertheless sufficiently
commodious ; l^eing nearly forty feet long, and eight feet high.

The interior of the cave is oval in shape ; its greatest length being three hundred
feet, and its breadth one hundred and thirty. In the midst of this fine vault, there is

a pyramidal stalagmitic rock, with smaller ones on both sides of it. These stalagmites,
like all the others within the cave, are formed by the drippings of petrifying water.
On the roof, numerous pendent stalactites are beheld, which daily increase in size and
number, and look like grotesque chandeliers. On the right side of the cavern, many
small basins have been scooped out, resembling irregular waves formed by a lofty
cascade. These basins are mostly filled with water of crystal clearness, whose surface,
however, is covered with a sort of adhesive scum, which remains on the hands when
dipped into it.

At the termination of this first chamber, there is a small opening, which affords
admittance to a sort of alley three hundred feet in length, and about seventy high.
As the air in this interior cavern is not so light, and possesses an e.xtremely drying
character, nothing is to be seen except some eighteen stalagmitic rocks, about thirty
feet high, together with pyramids, stalactitic sheets and columns, all of which are
formed by the petrifying fluids. The floor I'esembles a petrified river; while, in the
rear of this alley or avenue, a beautiful lakelet spreads out, over whose silent waters no
one has ever passed. Profound stillness reigns in this gloomy chamber, and not the
slightest motion or current is perceptible in its lake. One of our party fired a pistol

across the water, and the stunning echo reverberated far beyond its apparent limits,
while the smoke of the weapon floated back lazily after a quarter of an hour. The
darkness which reigns in this cavern, makes torches necessary. On the right side of
the alley just described, a similar one of about two hundred feet in length penetrates

the earth, but we found no water in it. The air of the cavern is truly heavy, and a
vapor seems constantly to pervade it.
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 839

Ou leaving Conococheague, I struck upun a inountaiii range and before passing it ;

entirely, and reaching its western termination, I travelled nearly

one hundred and

twenty English miles in a north-western direction. I crossed the North Mountain,

Sideling Hill, the Alleghanies, various spurs of the Appalachian chain, together
with

some other mountains, among whicli Laurel Hill is worthy of special mention. The
Alleghany Mountains divide the waters which flow eastwardly into the Atlantic Ocean,
from those which discharge themselves through the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico.
Almost all the fertile and well-watered valleys among these mountains are inhabited;

but the people, mostly Americans, are rougher and more uncultivated than those

dwelling further east. A region known as " The Glades," like a few other places on

the route, is settled by Germans. Wild beasts were formerly numerous in these

now almost entirely destroyed by the hunters. In one

mountain ranges, but they are
of the valleys, Bedford, a small town, is situated. Westwardly from these elevations,

the soil is well-watered and fertile, particularly that portion lying in the forks of the

Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, and another tolerably large region northwardly
and eastwardly. Thence it is still forty miles' journey to Fort Pitt, and the inhabitants

of that lonely place arc quite similar in character to those I have

just described.

Fort Pitt, formerly the strongest western fortification of the Americans, is situated

at the junction of the above-named two rivers. A small garrison is still retained

there, in order to keep up the fort ;

yet it is said, that next summer the troops will be

relieved, and the fort razed to the ground. A settlement, called Pittsburg, has been

commenced, and there are a considerable number of houses. The inhabitants live
but few
chiefly by traffic and entertaining travellers, though there
are, as yet,

mechanics.
at this place, from two elevated spots, is, in truth, the most
The view enjoyed
beautiful I ever beheld. Opposite the fort, and also at some distance towards the
which furnishes this valuable mineral in abundance.
Monongahela, is a coal-hill,

Generally, the country on the Ohio river and beyond it is rich in this useful gift of

nature.

During my sojourn at Fort Pitt, I twice made excursions by the Monongahela to

Red Stone Old Fort, which lies in this vicinity. I found this to be the best grain

country, yet its surface is not level, though it is not cut up by high mountains. It

contains many fine mill-streams and sites. The flour, which is made here in great

quantity, is exported to the Falls of the Ohio, to Illinois, and was sent even to New
was stopped. If this commerce of
Orleans, before the navigation of the Mississippi
the great stream should not be made free, (as we hope it will be,) I do not know what
Kentucky has
the inhabitants of this region will do with their cereal productions ;
for

abroad. I have
begun to require no longer her supplies of flour and provisions from
heard persons of experience, and who had made the adventure, declare, that gram,
340 TOPICAL HISTORY.
purchased here, could be transported as cheaply to New Orleans, as from Lancaster to
Philadelphia.
Red Stone is the spot from which emigrants from Virginia and Maryland embark
for Kentucky.^ I remained in this country until the end of April, and then descended
the Ohio. At that time the snow was three feet deep on the mountains, and at Fort
Pitt the trees and fields were still in their winter dress ; but when I had descended
the Ohio about sixty miles, I found the trees already becoming green, and the whole
bottoms covered with exquisite verdure. The magnificent Ohio, in its course towards
the south-west, before it discharges itself into the Mississippi, receives the following
considerable streams :
—On the south side. Little and Big Kanawha, Kentucky, Green,
Cumberland, and Tennessee or Cherokee. On the north side, the Muskingum, Scioto,
Big and Little Miami, and Wabash, said to be navigable near 900 miles.
Upon the Ohio, as well as upon the Mississippi, the "svind, during the spring,
commonly blows up the stream, and frequently Avith such violence, that it becomes
impossible for open boats to keep the middle of the river. This, of course, is of great

'
This is the site of the town of Brownsville, the head of the present steam navigation of the Mississippi
Valley nearest the eastern mountains ; and the spot, even at that early day of emigration, to which the
main trail over the AUeghanies had been directed. It was an attractive place to the whites, as it had evidently
been we may judge from the ingenious works with which the savages fortified it. This
to the Indians, as

post, known in border-story as " Red Stone Old Fort," became the rallying-point of the pioneers, and was

familiar to many an early settler as his place of embarkation for " the dark and bloody ground."
In western legends, the celebrated JMichael Cresap is connected with this stronghold. In those narratives
Crcsap is spoken of for his brave, hardy, and adventurous disposition, and awarded credit for often rescuing

the whites by a timely notice of the savages' approach, a knowledge of which he obtained by ceaseless vigilance
over their movements. It afforded me great pleasure to have it recently in my power to vindicate him com-
pletely from the charge of cruelty and murder, contained in the celebrated speech of the Indian Logan. When
Logan's kindred were slain at Yellow Creek, Cresap was not in the neighborhood, but on his way home to
Maryland, over the mountains.
Red Stone Old Fort was frequently Cresap's rendezvous as a trader, and thither he resorted with his people,
cither to interchange views and adopt plans for future ventures, or for repose in quieter times, when the red
men were lulled into inaction and the tomahawk and scalping-knife were temporarily buried. These were
periods of great conviviality. The days were spent in athletic exercises; and, in the evening, the sturdy
foresters, bivouacked around a fire of huge logs, recounted their adventures ; or if, perchance, a violin or jews-
harp was possessed by the foresters, it was occasionally introduced, and the monotony of the camp broken by a
boisterous "stag-dance."
Cresap's keen mind discovered, at that early day, that this location would become exceedingly valuable as
emigrants flowed in and the country was gradually opened. Accordingly he took measures to secure a " Vir-
ginia title" to several hundred acres, by what at that time was known as a "tomahawk improvement." Not
content, however, with "girdling" a few trees, and "blazing" others, he determined to insure his purpose; and
in order that his act and intention might not be misconstrued, he built a house of hewed logs, with a shingle

roof nailed on, which is believed to have been the first edifice of this kind in that part of our great domain west
of the mountains. I am not possessed of data to fix the precise date of this novel erection, but it is supposed
to have occurred about 1770, and the title of the property was continued in the Cresap family for many years,
but was finally disposed of to the brothers Thomas and Basil Brown, who emigrated from Maryland.
See B. Mayer's Discourse on the lives of Logan and Cresap. —Day's Pennsylvania Hist. Coll., p. 342, et. seq.,

md the American I'ioneer.

Brantz Mayer.
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 341

advantage to the ascending vessels, while it impedes so greatly the descending naviga-
tion, that even the stoutest oarsmen cannot force their vessels further than twenty-five
miles daily, whenever the breeze is particularly strong. The wind commonly begins to
blow about nine o'clock, A. M., and does not cease until about seven o'clock, P. M.
near three o'clock, P. M. it is usually most \nolent. I have observed waves in the

Ohio as large as those in the Chesapeake bay ; and I have been assured that they are
even higher and larger still in the Mississippi. The night season, accordingly, is the
best period for the descending navigation ;
3'et good care must be taken not to steer or

row, and to allow the boat to run its course with the strength of the stream, which
will always carry it through the deepest channels. I know of one boat, which, in
consequence of being rowed during the night, was run on the point of an island, upset,
and the whole cargo damaged; while, if the current had been allowed to have its

course, it would have carried the vessel around the island in perfect safety. My oAvn
boat was thus once run ashore in broad day. It is well, moreover, to traverse these

rivers during the night, and to land as seldom as possible, in order to escape the danger
of attack from Indians. Whenever it becomes absolutely necessary to go on shore, a
good watch should always be kept, as scarcely any boat, either before or since I
descended the river, has passed without being molested by the savages. In the boat
Avhich I have mentioned as having been wrecked on the island, before I arrived at the
Falls, one man was killed, and four mortally wounded by the Indians.

The Ohio river merits justly the epithet of '• beautiful," which has been bestowed on
it; in many places its scenery is melancholy, and in some even terrible, particulai'ly

when the wind is tempestuous. Wherever, along its margin, a mountain or hill rises

on one side of the river, the opposite shore is generally spread out in a valley, or
fruitful bottom. At some places, mountains of a considerable elevation are found on
both sides, while, at others, the land is perfectly level on either bank ; in the latter

places the river is straighter and broader, though, in the mountainous portion, it is

curbed into a narrower space, and is correspondently deeper.

From Fort Pitt to the mouth of the Great Kanawha river, the land on the Ohio is

very rich, and is settled on both sides by whites, who have established themselves in

the wilderness, in consequence of their un^villingness to live under the restraints of

law. They lead a savage life. Belo\y the mouth of the Kanawha, the land is no
longer so rich as that above, and is, moreover, overflowed oftener by the river, while,
of course, but few inhabitants have hitherto clustered in the bottoms. My journey
from Fort Pitt to the Falls consumed fourteen days. We travelled during three
nights, and fortunately nothing extraordinary occurred, though we had stormy weather
during the whole time. We met fifteen canoes, \vitli passengei-s, bound to Fort Pitt

from the Fulls.

34? TOPICAL HISTORY.
Louisville is located quite near the Falls. Some houses are already erected ;
yet
this lonely settlement resembles a desert more than a town. The district of which
Kentucky is a part, extends some distance back from the Ohio, and manj^ small towns
are already laid out in it. About sixty miles from the Falls, near Lexington, the

country is thickly settled ; this is also the case in the vicinity of Boonsborough,

Danville, Harrodsburg, and other similar places. More than 20,000 inhabitants are
already estimated to be settled in this region. This number may seem large, as it is
not yet twelve years since this region was begun to be generallj^ known. But the
American Avho was devoted to liberty, or, at least, to a life without the stringent
restraint of law, found in this remote wilderness a country suited to his tastes ; and it

is, therefore, not at all surprising that numei'ous followers have tracked him into the
forest, and that the inhabitants will continue increasing in still greater numbers. In
the beginning, Kentucky afforded, moreover, a refuge for many culprits who were
unable to dwell with safety in the more populous parts of the nation, where law was
vigilant. The industrious adventurer, greedy for independent wealth, also found here
a region capable of gratifying his desires ; and many land speculators are accordingly
circulating among the settlers.

The " Falls of the Oliio " is the only landing place at present ; and it abounds in
merchandise. All the export trade which this rich district can expect at some day to
realize, must be carried on with New Orleans ; but this is now prevented by the
Spaniards. The three counties of Lincoln, Jefferson, and Fayette, which compose
this district, have sent a petition to the Legislature of Virginia, soliciting a separation

from that State; and it is supposed that they will be erected into a new and
independent sovereignty.
" The Falls of the Ohio" ai'e about two miles in length. They are formed by a
I'ocky ledge, which crosses the river, and produces a small cascade ; but when the
waters are high, I am told that no portion of this fall can be seen ;
yet when the
waters have subsided, there is a channel by which boats are still enabled to pass this
dangerous point. Wlien the river is very low, four small islands are seen ; while at
an ordinary height of the stream, two only are visible. There are excellent pilots for

the passage, who carry almost every boat through in perfect safety; though if proper
skill is not used, serious accidents may easily occur.

After sojourning al)out a fortnight at the Falls, I embarked again on my boat in

order to reach the Cumberland. It required only five days' floating along the stream
TO enable me to enter the mouth of this river, — a distance of about 500 miles. We
were favored by most charming calm weather ; and we found no obstruction during
our whole journey, save from the Delawares, whom we frequently met on our way,
and found encamped at the moutli of the Wabash. This nation, the whole of whose
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 348

territory has been taken possession of by the whites, has now no home, and hve in the
country of the Chickasaws. They number now onl}' about five hundred warriors in
their band. We sold them some brandy for beaver-skins ; and we fortunately escaped
pa3-ing for tliem witli our lives. The Indians, in trading with strangers, are very
suspicious and distrustful; nor is it by any means judicious to sell them ardent spirits;

for they drink till they become drunk, when they know neither friends nor enemies,
and behave like wild beasts.

About 150 miles below the Falls, the country Ijecomes low, and nearly flat; while
the Ohio, as well as the Wabash, inundates a wide district. Below the Falls, the

Ohio is much wider, and its current not so strong.

The Cumber-land river has its source near the Kentucky, but thence, making
a curve, it runs in an entirely opposite direction ; and, after a course of about 500
miles, discharges its waters into the Ohio. When it is high, or even tolerably high,
it is navigable for more than 400 miles ; but when the stream is low, it cannot be
ascended more than 250. Its waters are said to be the quietest of all the western
rivers. After passing a day at its mouth, we commenced ascending the stream, with
the aid of eight oarsmen ; but we found the cui-rent much stronger than we expected,
and thus we passed fifteen days, laboring harder than galley-slaves, before arriving at
Nashville, which is about 211 miles from the mouth of the Cumberland. No navi-
gable streams discharge themselves into the Cumberland. The only considerable ones
are the Little river, the Red river, and the Harpeth. Between the embouchure of the
Cumberland and Nashville, there are some white settlements.
Nashville is a recently founded j^lace, and contains only two houses which in truth
merit that name ; the rest are only huts that formerly served as a sort of fortification
against Indian attacks.
It is only about five j-ears since this country was begun to be developed ; and in the
civilized portion of the Union, there are at present but few who know even its name.
During the war with the British, the inhabitants of this remote station suffered greatly
from the inroads of the Indians, and were almost exterminated, when the peace of
1783 released them at once from their dreadful sufferings and horrid anxiety. The
people resemble those whom I have already spoken of in Kentucky ; but their reputa-
,
tion, for some time past, has been rather worse than that of their northern neighbors.
It is said, however, that since they have come under the laws of North Carolina, their
deportment has improved. Some distinguished official personages, whose duty required
their continuance at this post, have in some degree polished these rough dwellers of
the wilderness, who, in their lonely and distant fastness, had in truth begun to live
very much like the Indians. Nevertheless, I am sorry to learn that magistrates are
occasionally found here with their ears cut off!

Furs are the .sole productions of this region with which the people supply their
844 TOPICAL HISTORY.
wants. The traders who supply them with merchandise are mostly Frenchmen, either
from Illinois, or the post of St. Vincennes. The Illinois traders obtain their dry-goods
from Michillimackinac, on lake Michigan, and their liquors from New Orleans ; while
the St. Vincennes people purchase their articles of traffic (which are generally of a sub-
stantial character) from Fort Detroit, between lakes Erie and Huron, and transport
them up the Miami, thence nine miles by land to the Wabash, and then down the
Wabash to the post at St. Vincennes. The greater portion of the inhabitants at these
two posts, live by the Indian trade. Like the population on the Cumberland, they
obtain furs from the savages by barter, and carry them to certain places, where they
traffic with them for suitable merchandise. The trade of the country on the Cumber-
land relies mainly on the free navigation of the Mississippi ; and, as I have already
remarked, it is unfortunately still closed against us. Without it, this region, as well

as that of Kentucky, will be badly what can it produce for its necessities, even
off; for

in time, save grain, provisions, tobacco, hemp, &c. and as all these are heavy articles ;

of trade, where can they be sent, except down that river to New Orleans? Yet it
seems not at all probable that a single place will be allowed to impede the progress of
two districts as large as those of which I am now writing. The cost of their supplies,
in this region, in consequence of the great distance from any other sea^port, must
therefore always be extremely high.
I may mention the following as the productions of the Cumberland country, no
others having been yet attempted — viz. : Indian-corn, which succeeds best in a virgin
soil:: —I have understood that, in good years, the crop has yielded more than one
hundred bushels per acre. Tobacco is also prolific in a new land, and it is reported
to resemble the best qualities of Virginia. Grain and vegetables grow extremely well
in soil that has been already tilled. Fine cotton can be made abundantly. Sheep,
which are easily raised, produce excellent wool. Horned beasts find their forage in
the woods in winter and summer, and fatten in both seasons. A certain kind of cane,
which remains green the whole winter, is extremely nourishing for the cattle. Cows
yield a very rich milk, and cheese is already made in large quantities ;
yet it is

scarcely to be expected that this means of feeding stock will long continue. In
Kentucky it has already ceased in many places. The inhabitants will soon be obhged
to engage in the cultivation of meadows, which they do not seem to understand.
Wood, suitable for building, is also one of the productions I may enumerate. There
is an abundant yield of oak, hickory, maple, (from which tree a quantity of sugar may
be extracted,) sycamore, poplar, red-cedar, and almost all other kinds of wood except
the fir-tree, which is found in but few locations. If this countiy were peopled with
men really fond of manual labor, and possessed, besides, a lucrative commerce, it might
become one of the most flourishing in the nation.

I was near forgetting the numerous salt springs, which are some of the most extra-
ordinary curiosities in this neighborhood. Salt is already made from them at Bullit's
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 345

Lick in Kentucky, about twenty-four miles from the Falls. It furnishes a sufficient

supply for Kentucky, and even exports some to the Cumberland. Tlie salt sells at the
salt-works for ten shillings of Virginia currency. On the Cumberland there are also a
number of these saline springs; yet they are not worked, the inhabitants preferring to
pay ten or twelve dollars for the Kentucky article, when they might produce the same
quantity for two dollars ! The principal springs are at French Lick, near Nashville
another, less known, situated on the Eed river, is very rich ; and besides these, there
are a number of other springs containing salt and sulphur, none of which are, how-
ever, used by the inhabitants except for their cattle, which fatten considerably by
drinking of them. Some of these springs rise and fall every twenty-four hours, and
hence it is supposed they communicate with the sea

I remained in Nashville until the 10th of December, when I returned to Baltimore

by land, accompanied by other travellers. During my stay on the Cumberland, I made
two excursions with surveyors into the wilderness, where I obtained an excellent
notion of the character, situation, and quality of the soil and territory. On my return
to Baltimore, I travelled with a pack-horse, in order to carry my provisions and corn
for myself and my beasts. We traversed an uninhabited region for about 140 miles,
a great portion of which is known as " Barrens," wherein nothing grows but grass,
which is greatly liked by the horses in spring. Here and there small trees and groves
of oaks are found, along the small streams and rivers. The land in these barrens is

commonly poor in comparison with that on the Cumberland ; however, it is beUeved

that it will produce good grain. Herds of bufialoes are found in these solitudes ; but
they have been considerably hunted by the woodsmen, and are diminishing in num-
ber. Varieties of elk and deer are found in numbers; yet during our journey
we saw but a single elk, and that, too, at a distance, though we found large numbers
of their bones.
Water is scarce in this region, and especially so at the end of summer. We rode,
on one occasion, twenty-four miles without finding a drop for our animals. The
streams rising therein, run but a short distance and disappear beneath the ground,
whence they re-appear again, after coursing along for some distance in their
subterranean concealment. The most reinarkable springs are the Roaring springs.
Dripping springs. Sink-hole springs, and Caving springs ; and of the latter, there is

one fifty feet below the surface of the earth. The most noteworthy rivers in the
country between the inhabited parts of Kentucky and the Cumberland, are the Big
Barren river and the Green river, into which the first debouches. Along the course of
these streams, as well as in other spots, there are stretches of land of remarkably good
character, and during this year some persons propose establishing settlements for the
accommodation of travellers.
Pt. in.—44
346 TOPICAL HISTORY.
The part of Kentucky through which I returned, belongs to the district I have
already described, and forms the southern portion thereof I arrived there on the 18th
of December, and I had to await the arrival of a caravan until the 26th. After we
had formed a train of about one hundred persons, we chose two chiefs to command us
during our perilous journey. On a route through an uninhabited wilderness of one
hundred and fifty miles, there are scarcely five miles in which travellers have not
been slain by Indians. The savages lie in ambush for the wayfarers on this abomi-
nable and almost impassable path, which is hardly wide enough for a horse, and attack
them at daybreak if they linger on the road, killing almost always the greater part
of the train, should it happen to be unjDrepared. Nevertheless it is quite astonishing
to observe the vast number of persons emigrating with their families to Kentucky.
We set forth on the 27tli of December, and, every night, we placed ten sentinels
who watched continually. We reached the Holston after six days' travel, without
the slightest mishap. As the country in this region is thickly settled, our caravan was
quickly dispersed. My horses, in consequence of their extreme fatigue and want of
forage, had suffered greatly, and required repose before I could venture to continue my
journey of five hundred miles further east. Accordingly, I left the high-road, in order
to reach a private dwelling, where I obtained good food and forage, and, at length, T
reached Baltimore, after a fresh start, in twenty days, without accident.

Ob ser vations .

The country along the Holston river, which has its sources in three spring-lieads,
viz.. North, Middle, and South Holston, produces extremely fine grain. Corn succeeds
only in good seasons. The soil, generally speaking, is not unconmionly good, though
there is no want of fine mill-streams and particularly good water. The river Holston

begins to be navigable at the junction of the north and south branches, and, after a
south-westerly course, it debouches in the Tennessee, which flows into the Ohio. The
" Muscle shoals " prevent the navigation of the Tennessee river by boats of deep
draft ; and, accordingly, it is only when the waters are high that it can be descended.
Eastwardly from the source of the Holston, lies New river, a portion of the great

Kanawha, which runs westwardly fi'om the Appalachian chain to the Ohio. Tt

appears to me that the land, eight or ten miles back from this river, is better than that

on the Holston. The only trade carried on here is on the Holston, and with Rich-
mond, in Virginia, where the inhabitants sell their butter, cheese, s.arsaparilla, ginseng,

snake-root, &c., and trade for merchandise in return. All transportation is made in

wagons, and, accordingly, is ver^- costly.

Eastwardly from the Alleghany mountains, at the sources of the Roanoke river,

which flows into the Atlantic Ocean, in North Carolina, and along the course of tliat

stream, the soil is of excellent quality. Much tobacco is raised there and taken to
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 347

Richmond. From this spot, between the North, Blue, and South mountains, to the

Potomac, the soil is almost invariably of the same quality. In the valleys, tobacco
and grain are cultivated, which are partly sold in Baltimore, and partly in Richmond.
Lexington, Staunton, Millerstown, Staufferstown, Newtown, and Winchester, lie on
the road, and in all these places many Germans are settled.
Efforts are now making to render the falls of the Potomac navigable, but I cannot
imagine that the present generation will derive much advantage from it.

Some Words from tJie Language of the Choctaws.

Howbeck A horse.

Chickamaw That is good.

Ohka Brandy.
Babashiela Salutation of welcome.
Tshiaffa One.
T0CC0I6 Two.
Detchend • . Three.
Osta Four.
Tashawe Five.
Annal^ Six.

Ontocol6 Seven.
Ondotchin^ Eight.
Tschacal^ Nine.
Toccola Ten.
Awa tschiaffa Eleven.
Awa toccol6 Twelve, and so on to nineteen.
Boccole toccol6 Twenty.
Boccole detchena Thirty, and so on to 100.

In the greater part of these words the accent is placed on the last syllable, which
almost always terminates with a vowel.
348 TOPICAL HISTORY,
From thence toIlagerstown 18 miles.
« " " Dr. Schnebley's
** " " Ronseg's
« « " McConnell's
« " " McDonnell's
" " " Crossings of Juniata
« « " Bedford
« « " Burnet's
« « « Grundlan's
« " " Spicher's
« « « Loud's
« « " Dr. Peter's
« " " Cherry's Mill
« " " Millerstown
« « " Ben Loud's
« " " Widow Myers
« " " Fort Pitt .

Total from Baltimore to Fort Pitt

 TOPICAL HISTORY. 349

From thence to the Little Miami River 65 miles,

" " " Licking River .

" " " Great Miami . 27

" " " Big Cone Creek 32
« « " Kentucky River 44
« « " Rapids of the Ohio 77
" « " Salt River 23
" " " Beginning of the low country 132
« « " The first of the Five Islands 38
« « " Green River . 27
" " " A large Island 58
« « " Wabash River 40
« " " The Great Cave 62
" " " Cumberland River 33
*< " " Tennessee River 12
" « " Fort Massac . 11
" " " Mouth of the Ohio 46

Total from the Big^ne Creek to the mouth of the Ohio 1172

Itinerary from (he Mouth of the Cumberland to Nashville, in the year

From the mouth to The Great Yellow Banks'

" thence " The Little YeUow Banks
" " " Little River .

« « " Red River

" « " Harpeth River and Shoals
" " " NashviUe

Total from the mouth of the Cumberland to Nashville

350 TOPICAL HISTORY.
From thence to tlie Little Barren Kiver .
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 351

From thence to Ellicott's Mills . 14 miles.

" " " Baltimore .

Total from Nashville to Baltimore, Md.

352 TOPICAL HISTORY.
and rapids of the St. Lawrence — the great chain of interior lakes from Ontario to
Superior, and the Lake of the Woods — the astonishing scenic display of the Falls of

Niagara — the Mississippi, reaching for three thousand miles, and receiving tributaries
like the Ohio, the Missouri, and the Arkansas, compared to which the Seine and the
Loire were mere brooks —these were but elements in the great hydrographic panorama
through which they swept by an easy stroke of the paddle. No wonder that a pea-
santry, and the adventurous bourgeois who led them, who were alike prone to be

absorbed by the sublime scenes before them, should, as if the murmuring cataracts

were but one great orchestra of nature, give vent to their gayety in chants and songs,
to which the rapid strokes of their paddles kept time.
To add to these excitements, they were guided in their adventurous trips by one of
the most picturesque races of mankind — the painted and plumed Indians, who, like
themselves, were eminently bent on the enjoyment of the present scene with little

thought for the future ; and it cannot be deemed surprising that the American wilder-
ness, and its freedom from restraints, had so many charms for the three classes who
supplied perpetual elements to the fur-trade : namely, the voyageur, the trader, and
the ambitious money-making bourgeois, who sought, in the fibre of the beaver, a
treasure more reliable than that which had eluded the grasp of De Soto.
Besides all this, the French decidedly liked the Indian race. They admired his
lofty step, keen eye, ready oratory, and independent, manly tone. They were more
than half inclined to agree to his mythology. They respected his wild and often

imposing mystical ceremonies, they assimilated with his manners, they chose their
wives of these foresters, and as one of the French ecclesiastics observes of his
countrymen, '•
they did not convert the Indians to the principles of Christianity, but
the Indians converted them."
Among those who were, in youth, smitten with the charms of Indian life and the
fur-trade, was the author of these " Relations." He was an educated young man, of
one of the best French families in the city of Quebec, where his kindred still hold

their rank and position in society. He went out, not in a menial capacity, but in the
quality of a clerk, and consequently a bourgeois. He hied to the then great centre
and metropoUs of Indian trade, Michillimackinac, and after some primary trips to the

much-admired region of the far-famed Illinois, he chose the North-west as the theatre of
his life and adventures ; and here he passed more tlian sixty j-ears of his long life. He
was always trustwoithy ; a man of urbanity and mildness, of good judgment, of a very
retentive memory, ingenious in mechanics, interesting in conversation. He had, at an
early period, married the daughter of one of the wild Indian sovereigns at the sources
of the Mississippi, by whom he had a numerous family.
Wlicn he was far advanced in life, finding him possessing good memory and to be

replete with anecdotes of Indian life, I invited hitn to pass a winter at my house at
Elnnvood, at a time wlion I was engaged in the study of the French language, Avith
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 353

the principles of whicli he was classically acciuainted. To these recitals of study he

always came into my room with his best coat on, and with the polite air and manners
of a court official who waits on the prime minister. At ray request, he recorded the

outlines of his early journeysand residences among the Indian tribes of those remote
regions ; and from these manuscripts, which are often illustrative of the Indian
it is

manners and customs, that I submit the following translations. They have laid among
my Indian papers twenty-five years. Mr. Perrault died at Sault Ste. Marie on the 12th
of November, 1844, aged, it is believed, eighty-five.

Indian Life in the North-west in 1783.

By John Baptists Perrault.

My deceased father was bom at Quebec, in 1732, being of a respectable family of

that city. He finished his studies at the age of twenty, under the French government,
who gave him a situation at the foundery of St. Maurice. After the taking of the

country by the English, he was stationed at Trois Rivieres, in the capacity of an

Inspector, under General Haldimand. In 1770, he commenced merchandizing at
Riviere du Loup, from whence I was sent, at a suitable age, in 1776, to the College of
Quebec, where I remained until 1782.
My father, having dealings with Mr. W. Kay of Montreal, sent me, about the middle

of March, 1783, to adjust them. Then I was first seized with the desire to travel,

seeing the preparations making by M. Marchisseaux, merchant-voyager, a friend of

my late father, who had recommended me to his house. I declared to my father my

intentions on the subject, and, with his consent, I returned to Montreal the first of
April, and agreed with that gentleman to go to the Illinois in the capacity of a clerk,

at the price of a thousand livres and twenty sols, being exempt from all servile labor;

to set out on the first intimation.

On the 16th of May, 1783, I received the orders I had long desired; for I had
figur'rd to myself the great advantages I should derive from that calling. M. March-
isfte-aux directed me to assemble the men whom he had engaged at Montreal for the

'Myage; namely, Sucharite, Quebec, St. Germain, Robert, Dupuis of Maskinong^,

Antoine and Francis Beauchemin, Menard, L. Lavell^ of Sorel and Yamaska to con- :

duct them to St. Francis, and take from the Wabanakis' two canoes, and bring them
to the house of M. Marchisseaux.

'
Eastlanders : from the Algonquin words walanoong, the east, and ahkee, earth ; a term bestowed by them,
and afterwards by the French, on certain tribes situated between the confines of New England and the river St.

Lawrence. The orthography of the word is not settled. It is generally Abenakie in old French authors. They
were chiefly located, in Charlevoix's time, at the Sant de Chandiere, opposite Sillery. The use of the term

itself is rather to be discouraged, as not sufficiently distinctive. It has been applied, by the Jtonomonees and
C jippewas of the present day, to the emigrant Iroquois from New York, settled at Green Bay. Tr. —
Pt. 111—45
354 TOPICAL HISTORY.
On the 12tli of May, at one o'clock in the morning, I took leave of my mother, who
px'essed me to take supper, but my heart was too full to permit me. I had, at the time,

a presentiment of what in reality took place before I again returned.' I withdrew

amidst a burst of tears, accompanied by theirs. I proceeded to St. Francis, to take the

canoes; and arrived at Montreal on the loth of May, at noon. On the 16th, I received
orders to go and conduct the equipages to La Chien, where the waters from the north
detained us till the 27th. On the next day we set out, and encamped at the lake of

Two Mountains on the 28th. Our canoes were loaded too heavy. Our bourgeois (a

term in general use among voyageurs for the master or propi'ietor of the adventure)
was obliged to get a third to lighten us. We continued our route in safet}', and with
little detention. The water was, however, so high as to compel our bourgeois to

engage two more hands ; one of whom deserted during the following night.
We arrived at Mackinac on the 28th of June, and remained there until the loth
of July, (this being the anniversary of the establishment of the fort on the Island,
which was owing to Governor St. Clair, who had been relieved the preceding year by
Captain Robinson.) As the merchants of Mackinac had not yet all their buildings,

(and consequently room was scarce,) M. Marchisseaux wanted to build a house with a
small store, to occupy on his return from the Illinois. After the buildings were done,
we continued our route towards La Baye (Green bay), with the intention of passing
by the way of Prairie des Chiens, where we sojourned two days. On the third, being
now en derive, we encamped at the Sauk village ^ at Turkey river, about sunset M. ;

Marchisseaux being necessitated to pass here, instead of the direct route from Mackinac
to St. Louis, by way of the Illinois, in order to collect his credits from the Indians.
We continued our route, and passed St. Louis duinng the night, fearing a seizure from
tlie Spaniards, who did not, at that time, suffer any persons to import merchandise
into Louisiana from Great Britain. We arrived at Kaos,^ then under the British
government, on the 11th of August. M. Marchisseaux hired two apartments in the

house of M. Soucier, in the village, to establish a store of French goods, and sold off
his Indian goods to M. Choteau, merchant of St. Louis, who equipped"" on the Missouri,
at an advance of 137 i per cent., payable in peltries; namely, beaver at one dollar per
pound; otters at one dollar and fifty cents; raccoons at twenty cents; bears at two
dollars ; deer-skins at fifty cents each ; and in the same proportion for other furs.

The winter of '8-3 was very severe ; there were two feet of snow ; and the crust so

strong that it bore men and dogs, so that deer were killed in the snow with the stroke

'
Alluding to the death of his mother.
' Now Ca.ssvillo, Iowa county, Wis. Mr. Perrault informs me that the Indian village had been established

by the Sauks and Foxes that year, they having left the Wisconsin in consequence of their disastrous war with
the Chippewas. — Tk. ^ Cahokia.
' To equip, in the patois of the North-west, is to furnish the travelling clerks with goods, provisions, &c., for
their trade with the natives. This is generally done on a year's credit, payable in furs. Tr.
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 856

of a hatchet, in a way which had not before been seen by the oklest inhabitants.

There was a bridge of ice opposite St. Louis, which held for an entire month, and gave

the Creoles and Spaniards the pleasure of visiting.

That year there were a number

of gentlemen from Montreal, who had stores at Cahokia; namely, Messrs. James Grant,

Meters, Tabeau, and Guillon, who had but little business,

on account of their having

But they revenged themselves by entering into the amusements

of
arrived too late.
indolent, and love dancing above every
the place for the Creoles are, in general,
;

other people. That year M. Crozat was commandant at St. Louis.

Alout the 15th of April, the packs from the Missouri arrived. Our bourgeois

settled his accounts with M. Choteau, and received seventy-four packs of furs. His
at Cahokia produced oOU Spanish dollars, and 400
pounds of tobacco. We
retail store ^

left Cahokia on the 4th of May, for Mackinac. My directions were to pass by Chicago,

having one barge and one canoe, and to await the arrival of
M. .Alarchisseaux at Little
way of Prairie des Chiens, to
Detroit,' in lake Michigan, he having gone by
the
After fourteen days' detention, he arrived, and
terminate his business with the Sauks.
Mackinac the beginning of July, where I found
continuing our route, we reached

myself at liberty.

In 1784, Mr. Alexander Kay came up from Montreal with two canoes, to enter the

Fond du Lac of lake Superior, and Leech lake. I closed with him, in the capacity of

was his intention to go in late, to avoid making credits

clerk, for Pine river.' It
engaged, rapidly, in order
and he resolved to send forward Mr. Harris, whom he had
Avild rice of the Indians, with directions to return and meet him at Fond
to purchase

du Lac, about the middle of August.

We left Mackinac on the 29th of August in two canoes, well loaded. Having no
person to serve as guide, who had knowledge of the route,
we were compelled to go
continual blowing of
round the peninsula of Kewywenon (lake Superior), where the
adverse ^yinds, together with rain, detained us a considerable
time. We reached La

Pointe on the 1st of November; being a fete, (All Saints' Day,) Mr. Kay invited us

party at his tent. Messrs.

all to a repast, and afterwards, in the evening, had a
Graverott wintered there. The next day we had a light wind
Laviollet, CaiUarge, and
rapidly, that we found it impossible to
in our favor, in the morning, but it increased so

go ashore at night. We passed the river Boule, without being able to enter, and in
overcast, and the weather
consequence were obliged to go on all night, the sky being
Two hours before day, we attempted to enter the river of Fond du Lac, but
cold.

in the mouth of Green bay, noted as an ancient camping-

•
Little Detroit is a passage between the islands
main main. It also, so to speak, a fork in the
traverse from to is
ground for boats and canoes, in making the
where the routes from Prairie du Chien, and from St. Louis, north,
towards Mackmac, unite. Tr. —
road,
Mississippi, something more than a
^
Of the upper Mississippi. This river enters, on the right bank of the
lakes and portages, with
day's journey, by water, below Sandy lake. It is connected, by a series of smaU

Leech lake. — Tr.

356 TOPICAL HISTORY.
the fury of the waves rendered it impossible, and in attempting to make a neighboring
bay, our canoes broke up on the waves. The goods were cast along the beach, scattered

here and there, for six arpents ' on either shore, all wet and freezing. At the time, I
could only deplore my fate. On the next day, with the aid of the men, I repaired
the canoes, and collected the dispersed pieces of goods ; but it was impossible to dry
everything, or to restore completely the damages of this misadventure. On the next
day, having entered the river, we saw, on doubling the point of the Little lake,^ a
wintering house. It was that of Mr. Default, come from the Grand Portage, a clerk
of the North-west Company. We stopped at his door. As Mr. Kay had indulged
himself with a glass in the morning, he now took a second, which put him into an ill
mood for receiving Mr. Default, who had come down to the beach to receive him, and
whom he treated with rudeness. But Mr. Sayer, seeing the true cause of his disorder,

kept silence, and gave him no information. The character of Mr. Kay was extrava-
gant, haughty, prompt, arrogant, enthusiastic, taking counsel from no one ; in fine,

harebrained. I had told him, some days before, that he should not conduct in that
manner, for we were about the same age. and I was on familiar terms with him for

two years before, he having dwelt near my father's house at Riviere du Loup, for the
purpose of engaging voyageurs for his brother William. Without reflection, he ordered
us to go to the Grand Portage, (of the river St. Louis.) I took the liberty to tell him
that his enterprise was ill-judged, that he had not taken provisions for the number of
mouths we had here, being ali'eady nearly exhausted ; that Mr. Harris had not arrived,

agreeably to expectation, and that it was now too late to go on. Mr. Default, fearing
that we should remain, and become a burthen to him, offered to furnish provisions for
several days ; but he thanked him, saying lie hoped very soon to see Mr. Harris.
We now departed at all hazards for the interior. The whole stock of provisions
now consisted of one bag of flour, one keg of butter, and one of sugar for his own use.

His retinue was composed of fourteen men, his savagesse, himself, and me, making
seventeen persons in all, and nothing to eat. To crown our misfortune, we now
encountered Mr. Harris, with three men, and an Indian called the Big Marten, with
nothing in his canoe but part of a barrel of salt meat. At this Mr. Kay was much
cast down. We encamped all together at the decharge ^ of the Grand Portage. Mr.
Kay requested Mr. Harris to render an account of the twenty pieces of goods he had
put in his hands to procure food (wild rice, and dried meat). He rei^lied that he had
seen very few Indians ; that the greater part of them had gone to pass the winter in
the prairies west of the Mississippi ; that they had no wild rice, the abundant rains
having destroyed it ; finally, that he had made some credits with the Indians, whom he

'
The aipent is a measure of length with the French, being 180 French feet.
' Immediately after entering the river St. Louis, of Fond du Lac, it expands into a lake, whose direction is

cransTerse to the general course of the river. — Tr.

' The point at which the goods are landed for the purpose of being carried around a fall or rapid. Te.
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 357

had supplied with the means of passing the winter; all of which was not very
satisfactory to Mr. Kay, -who saw himself without resources. T advised him to return

to Fond du Lac, and go up to the Indians on the first opening of the navigation, at
the time when they are rich in furs. But this gentleman would take advice from no
one, but determined to follow his own caprice. It was his will absolutely to go inland

and after drinking, he menaced his men with a pistol, if they refused to follow him.
His language to me was not without asperity; but I made no reply, knowing it would
not avail to remonstrate, and having no doubt but he sought the death of himself and
his men. His resolve being made, and Mr. Harris and his men only servaug further to
diminish our rations, we entered the Grand Portage forthwith. Mr. Kay determined
to take Mr. Harris and seven men, with Big Marten for his guide, and go in advance,
with the view of persuading the Indians to hunt for us, as moose were then abundant.
And he left me behind with the baggage, with a promise that he would soon furnish
me with provisions. The day after he left me, the snow fell over six inches in
depth. I had very little provisions to go on, but they would not increase by delay.
The day after the snow fell, an Indian arrived with a letter from Mr. Kay, who
informed me that he had determined to go to Pine river. He directed me to advance;

with the goods, as far as Savanne Portage, and, if possible, to pass the -winter there

and to send three men with the Indian (who had killed a moose, and brought me a
portion of it) to carry fifteen pieces, assorted for trade, to the portage aux Couteaux,^
where he would wait for them. I immediately complied with his order, by sending
oflF the men. "We were ourselves eleven days in getting to the Savanne, amidst ice
and snow, and with nothing to eat. We lived on the seed-pods of the wild rose, and
the sap of trees. I put the goods en cache ^ with two small interior canoes, at the
entrance of the Savanne Portage. I made a lodge with an oil-cloth, at the little lac

de la Pulse in the portage, where we lived many days on small tolibits;^ but they
were soon exhausted as the ice became thick. Our only resource now was racine de

guenouilla (flag-roots) , which we boiled ; and these we were necessitated to search at

the bottom of the little lake, or in a marsh amidst snow. This resource failing, we
were obliged to quit the place, for now it seemed as if all species of birds had flown
away. Each one went, by turn, to hunt ; but got nothing.
About Christmas, we could no longer resist our wants, and resolved to save ourselves
by going to Pine river, although reduced to a feeble state for the journey. We set out

'
So called from the argillite, in a vertical position, which forms the hanks of the river St. Louis at that
place. — Tr.
' To put en cache, is not always to hide, or conceal. The term is frequently used in a sense corresponding to
deposit, as when canoes are left at a portage. — Tr.
' The tolibi, or, as it is called by the Chippewas, tonibee, or odonabee, is a small kind of white fish found
in the northern waters, having the nether lip shortened, which is the characteristic indicated by the Indian
name, i. e. water-mouth. — Tr.
358 TOnCAL HISTORY.
to descend the west Savanne creek, which leads into Sandy lake, travelling on blanket

shoes, (soldiers de couvertes.) We saw, in a bay, the poles of an Indian lodge, where
they had encamped before the snow fell. I went a little, farther, and chanced to find

a frame for drying moose-skins, around the edges of which there was left a strip of
the dried skin. As we were hungry, we did not amuse ourselves by boiling it, but
forthwith roasted and eat it. We now proceeded across Sandy lake, to strike the
Mississippi, and follow down it. I was continually in hopes of meeting some one who
might eflectually encourage us.

On the following day, about noon, we arrived at the river Vaseuse, which was about
an arpent broad, shallow and open ; but we had no means of passing it. The men
forded it, without taking off their clothes. I took off mine, to preserve them dry, and
swam over. On assembling on the other side, it was cold, and the men struck up a
fire to warm themselves. At this moment our attention was arrested by hearing a gun
fired close to us. It was the Big Marten, in chase of a deer for Mr. Kay and Mr.
Harris. I was not slow in responding a shot, and in a moment he was with us. We
were very happy to see him, for we had taken a very bad route. He said to me
''
Friend, I Avas attracted hither by the shot you fired, being in chase of a deer, whom
I have killed." He sold it to me. And after dividing the meat, ayo were not long in

cooking it. We then slept.

I begged the Big Marten to conduct us to Mr. Kay's, to which he consented. And
taking the direct Indian path, about mid-day, we fell upon the entrance to Lac du
Lieore, throe leagues distant from Pine river. We there met three men of Mr. Pinot,
who They were come, in search of dried meat,
wintered, as a trader, near Mr. Kay.
to the lodge of Barrique'eau, (a Chippewa so called.) They presented us some of their
food en passant. About sunset, we arrived at Mr. Kay's house, at Pine river. He
Avas both pleased and surprised to see us, for he had despaired of us, not having been
able to get a guide to conduct his men. We now rested. It was about the commence-
ment of January when we arrived. I recounted all that had taken place, from the
time of his departure till our arrival, at which he seemed to be moved. I saw that
there was no good understanding between Mr. Harris and himself This was his own
fault, as, having no expei'ience in this sort of enterprise, he would do everything
out of liis own head.
He said to me, the day after our arrival, that he would be flattered to have me set

out, very soon, with three men and an Indian guide, to go and roniain at Savanne
portage, to await the opening of the navigation ; and descend, with the goods, to Sandy
lake, and there to await Mr. Harris and an Indian called Kitchemowa. Two days
after, we departed, each carrying forty-five pounds of dried meat. Mr. Kay told me,
as soon as I reached my post, to send back the Indian and two of the men ; that he
Avas going out with a party of Indians to pass the spring in my neighborhood. In fine,

it was the Indians who gave us our subsistence, although it Avas not Avithout pains, for
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 359

Mr. Harris liad not used all his efforts to get supplies, and Mr. Kay himself was
mortally hated by the Indians.
We reached the Savaune portage on the fourth day. Hunger now began to pinch

us. What had been eaten on the route and at my post, together with the provisions
necessary to carry the men back, had exhausted more than two-thirds of Avhat each
one originally had.' Independent of which, I had but little time to wait for the Indians,
who, I fancied, would soon supply me ; and in consequence, I wrote to Mr. Kay that
I should not keep the men, whom he might want to go to Sandy lake, and to send them
to me to remain during the severe snows, and finally, to bring to my house the goods left
in deposit, with the three canoes at the mouth of the Savanne. I sent back the men
the next day, being the 26th of January. On the 27th, I set to work with my man,
whose name was Lauzon, to cut the logs for building a house twelve feet long by ten
in breadth, which was finished on the 7th of February, when we entered it.

We had but little food at that time, but I expected relief very soon, which did not
however come ; for the Indians were dispersed one way or another, as is their cufetom,

and did not come together again for a long time, which reduced us, a second time, to
fasting. Lauzou became soweak that he could not raise himself without paiu. He
was a great smoker. I toldhim that it was the tobacco that caused his weakness, but
it was no time to give advice. It was with much difficulty I could chop and carry in

the wood necessary to keep us warm.

About the 20th of February, early in the morning, while I was cutting the ice to

set the nets, in front of our door, I cast up my e3-es and saw with surprise an otter
who had got upon a large stone and was eating a fish ; for it was seldom that this

animal was seen at this place. I ran to look for my gun. I fired, and killed it.

Lauzon was quite re-animated by this adventure. We prepared to broil it, and eat
heartily. Within an hour after, while I was cutting wood, having gone out with my
gun in my hand, for we were in constant apprehension of the Indians, who were
anthropophagi,^ I perceived an Indian approaching me. He came very nimbly, and
had half a fawn-skin of wild rice. We now feared death or some imminent danger.
But it turned out to be the Indian who had formerly served as our guide. He brought
me a letter from Mr. Kay, who gave me but sad news on the subject of his affairs.
/The Indian told me that he had started before the men, who were on the way with

'
On Mr. Perrault's reading the MS. to me, I asked him, as but five days, at most, had elapsed since leaving
Pine river with 185 pounds of dried meat, if it were possible that his three men, besides himself and the Indian,
had eaten so great a quantity of meat. He replied, " Yes "
!
that the men, having nothing else, eat an unusual
quantity; that they eat frequently through the day, and often got up at night to eat. — Tr.
* Tales of cannibalism are current among the northern voyageurs, who are generally more intent on raising the
fears or wonder of their auditors, than scrupulous of the authenticity of the facts, which they are content to relate

on the strength of hearsay. That the northern Indians have feasted on human flesh, under circumstances of great
excitement in war or hunger, is undoubted. But there are no facts to justify the conclusion that they preferred
human flesh as their ordinary diet. Tr.
360 TOPICAL HISTORY.
provisions, and -would arrive in the course of a couple of days. I sent him back the
next day. During the night of the same day, Mr. Harris's brother-in-law (an Indian)
arrived, from the neighborhood of the portage aux Couteaux. He had killed a bear,

which remained at his lodge. He gave me the tongue and the heart, and asked me to

go •with him with my man, to carry the carcase. I paid him in rum, and we set out

early the next morning. He out-walked us. We got the meat, and returned very
late, being greatly fatigued. About midnight, the Brechet^ arrived, and gave me the
half of a moose. The next day, the Big Marten came in and brought me an entire
moose. They both came with their families, to encamp and to have a drinking bout,
i^un bowson.) The same day, the men arrived with their charge, being well pleased to
see abundance of food. The Indians continued to come in day by day, and were
loaded with meat. I persuaded the brother of La Petite Rat^ to go across the country
to Mr. Kay, to advise him that I should keep the men at the portage until the snow
was gone. I put them to the trains to carry the goods and canoes from the httle lake
to the outer end of the portage.
The time of making sugar being now arrived, the Indians decided to make their
sugar in the vicinity of my post. When Mr. Kay received my letter, he determined
to come and join me, and to leave Mr. Harris with four lodges of Chippewas, to ascend
Pine river by water, on the first opening of the navigation. As the Indians had
retired to their sugar-camps (sucreries), I went to see them to apprizethem of Mr.
Kay's intended visit, which was verified on the third day after, when he arrived about
noon. He was well pleased to find everything in order at my post, and I was delighted
to see him again. He confided to me all the troubles he had had with the Indians,
and told me he would revenge himself on Cul Blanc,^ who had insulted him, although
he had, at the same time, beaten him, but that he would repay him on getting to Sandy
lake, as well as Le Cousin,'' a noted rogue, who had remained below with Mr. Harris,
and had spent all his time in going about, for mischievous purj30ses, among the Indians.
Now we had nothing to do, (the winter's hunt being over, and the Indians all gone
to their sugar-camps,) we were hapj^y in the enjoyment of tranquillity. I made a
canoe of wood, out of a pine tree suitable for the purpose. It was large enough to

contain two persons, with the necessary tackle. As Mr. Kay was desirous to reach
Sandy lake, I proposed to him to make the attempt; to which he readily assented.

'
Katawabata, or Parted Teeth.
Thirtj'-seven years afterwards, namely, in 1822, this man visited me at Sault Stc. Marie, being then a man
verging towards seventy. He told me' that he was a boy at the taking of old Mackinac, (1762.) The French,
he said, wished him to take up the war-club, but he refused. The English afterwards thanked him for this, and
requested him to raise the tomahawk in their favor, but he declined. The Americans afterwards thanked him
for this, nor did they ask him to go to war. They continually advised to peace, and, he adds, " I am a friend
to peace." Though not in the lineal line of the chiefs of Sandy lake, ho was regarded as a civil chief and
counsellor; and was respected both by the Indians and the traders. lie died at Sandy lake in 1828. Tr.
' Wah-zhusk-ons. The diminutive form of the word muskrat. Tr. ' AVah-biddt'-a, Whitcbottom. —Ta.
'
A male cousin, in Chippewa, is Natah-wis; a female cousin, N^-ne-moosh-sha. Tr.
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 361

We left the post about the 15th of April ; for the little river' opened very early. The
Indians had by tliis time come in, and were with us. The water being high, we ran
the rapid of the Pine portage ; Mr. Kay bid every one exert himself, but about half
way down the rapid, the canoe turning square about, filled, and upset; he lost his

baggage, and had been himself drowned, had not an Indian called le Petit Mort,'^ his

friend, swam to his relief lie had almost lost all recollection when he was brought
ashore.
We arrived, the next day, at Sandy lake, and made towards the fish-dam at its

entrance, before many Indians had got there ; for the place afforded a great resource

for fish. The Bras Cassi^,' chief of Sandy lake, was at the bottom of a bay, with
many others, mending their canoes, and we did not see them. But we encamped on
a peninsula at the entrance of the lake, where we had no sooner arrived, than the
Indians made us a visit each one carrying their beaver and dried meat, with a large
;

present of game from the chief, who sent word that he would visit us as soon as his
canoes were finished. We remained there from the 27th of April until the 2d of May,
trading with the Indians, who came in from all quarters, and waiting the arrival of
the men from Pine river. The same day, we heard a gun fired below and within an ;

hour after, Mig-a-zee (the Eagle) arrived. He had left Mr. Harris and his men
below. Mr. Kay said he would go to them, although somewhat fatigued the night
previous by the continual running of the Indians, as they arrived. On parting, he
told me to draw some rum, of which he took a stout drink ; and as he knew there was
no more rum at the post of Pine river, when he left Mr. Harris, he thought a dram
would be pleasing to him also; for which reason, he told me to fill one of the flagons
of his liquor-case, to take with him. He .also gave me orders to give the Indians no
drmk during his absence which was difficult, because they were already tipsy.
;

The Indians had given me the name of the Writer,'' which they were accustomed
to do to all whom they observed writing. As soon as Mr. Kay was gone, I did not
want for visits his savagesse remaining in the tent with me. A great many Indians
;

came in; among the number was Katawabada and Mong-ozid (Loon's Foot), who said
to me. Writer, give us rum I told them that I could not
! that I was not master. —
They tormented me a long time. The Loon's Foot threw to me a pair of metasses,
which he had got on credit, and had not paid for, (for he was a poor paymaster,)
demanding rum for them. I told him. No ! He then talked with Mr. Kay's woman,
who was tired of them, as well as myself. She begged me to give them a little, after

whicli they went out of the tent.

Within an hour after, Le Barrique'eau arrived, and told me that Mr. Harris and

'
West Savanne Sandy lake, and through this lake, of
creek, a tributary of the upper Mississippi. — Tr.
' Tshe-by-ains. The diminutive form of the word ghost. Tr. —
° Bii-koon-nik, Broken Arm. Tr. —
* 0-zhe-be-e-gad, lie who writes; or, O-zhe-b^-e-ga w'in-in-ne, writing-man. — Tr.
Pt. ITT. — 46
862 TOPICAL HISTORY.
Mr. Piiiot had actually arrived at the fish-dam. The Indians, one and all, set up a
shout of joy, and ran to the beach to receive them. They did not, however, meet
with a very good reception ; the flagon Mr. Kay had taken with him, having intoxi-
cated the Avhole party. They debarked ; and while Mr. Harris was getting his tent
pitched, Mr. Kay entered mine, and took a glass in my presence. Mr. Harris was
quite noisy. To complete the scene, the ferocity of Cul Blanc had returned. He had
persuaded Le Cousin to stab Mr. Kay in the course of the winter, saying to him, that

he had not courage enough to do it. The other gloried in being equal to the commis-
sion of a crime, which he had promised to perpetrate when they came together. The
Cul Blanc was sitting with many others on a hillock before the fire, smoking, directly
in front of Mr. Kay's tent. Le Cousin got up, and went towards the tent, at the

entrance of which he met Mr. Kay. Mr. Kay's bed was placed across, opposite the

pole supporting the tail-piece of his tent. The barrel of rum was behind the bed, in
the bottom of the tent. Mr. Kay saw him coming, as he was going to take a seat
beside me, on his bed. At this moment, Le Cousin entered. He tendered his hand,
and asked for rum. Mr. Kay, Avho did not like the man, answered " No ! You do not
pay your credits. You shall have none. Go out, immediately." With this, he took
him by the arm, and conducted him out of the tent. On turning round to re-enter,
the Indian, who was armed with a knife which he had concealed under a manteJef Je
calmande, gave him a stab on the back of the neck. He then retired towards the
camp-fire, which was surrounded by a great many Indians, and our men. I got up
immediately, on hearing the scream of his wife, whom I perceived in front of me.

"Have you been stabbed?" I inquired of Mr. Kay. "Yes," he replied, "but he shall
pay for it." So saying, he put his hand in the mess-basket, and drew out a large,
pointed table-knife, with which he sallied furiously from the tent, without my being
able to stop him. The Indians, seeing the knife in his hand, asked the cause of it.

He said that Le Cousin had stabbed him, and that he was in search of him to kill

him. But Le Cousin had taken refuge in his own lodge, which was near our camp.
Mr. Kay went towards the lodge. We ran after him, to prevent some fatal accident.
The tumult was, by this time, very great. Great numbers were collected from all

sides ; and all, both French and Indians, bereft of their reason, for it was in the midst

of a general carouse. In a moment, every one seized his arms; and there was a
motley display of knives, guns, axes, cudgels, war-clubs, lances, &c. I found myself
greatly at a nonplus, for I had not before witnessed such a scene. I saw so many
preparations, that I judged we should have a serious time.

Mr. Kay pursued Le Cousin, but before he could reach him, the passage to his lodge

was blocked up by the crowd. Le Cousin's mother asked him what he wanted.
"Englishman," said she, "do you come to kill me?" She made her way among the
crowd, armed with a small knife, and reached the spot where Mr. Kay was standing,

without any one's observing the knife ; for she came in an humljle attitude, imploring
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 363

Mr. Kay for the life of her son. In a moment, Mr. Kay cried out, in a loud voice,
"I am killed!" and lie fell. We entered, and found that she had struck him in the

side, making an incision of more than three inches. We now took him to his tent,
bathed in his blood. We laid him on his bed, which in a moment was soaking with
his blood.

At this moment, his friend, Le Petit M(jrt, who had been tipsy and gone to sleep,
started up. He ran to Mr. Kay's tent, where the first object he saw was his friend,
pale and quivering. He went and embraced him, amidst a flood of tears, saying, " My
friend, you are dead, but I survive to revenge you." In contemplating a calico night-
gown which Mr. Kay had on when he received his wound, and which was all bloody,
he could no longer restrain his anger. He took up the knife which Mr. Kay had at
the time he was wounded, which had l^een Ijrought back by his wife, who was present;
he sallied out of the tent to seek revenge —not of Le Cousin, who was the instrument,
but not the author of the murder —but of Cul Blanc, who was sitting before the fire,

smoking his pipe. He seized him by the scalp-lock, drew his body back with one arm,
exclaiming, " Die, thou dog !" and with the other hand he plunged the knife into his

breast, while Cul Blanc begged for mercy.

This scene of carnage put a stop to the drinking. The women spilled out all the

rum, of which there was still no small quantity in the different lodges. The stab Cul
Blanc had received did not prove mortal, notwithstanding the ghastliness of the
wound ; the knife ha^ang passed out through the flesh, without penetrating any vital
part. But the blood issued copiously, and disfigured him. His wife carried him off",

trailing his blood through the camp.

This tragedy being finished, Le Petit Mort re-entered the tent. He told his wife,

who had followed him, to go and search for certain roots, which he chewed and formed
into a cataplasm for the wound, after having applied his mouth to it, and sucked out
the extravasated blood; an operation which caused Mr. Kay great pain. He enjoyed
a httle ease during the remainder of the night, and following day. Petit Mort passed
the night opposite to his bed. The next day, he took off" the compress, and replaced
it by another ; after having once more sucked out the blood, and cleansed the wound.
The patient became so much exhausted by this dressing, that for the space of half an
hour he lost all recollection. When he regained his senses, he felt easier, and asked
for the Bras Casse, who had not yet heard what had happened ; for the Indians had
been occupied in drinking, and he had been getting ready to depart, having only
delayed a little to give some game to the Frenchmen. He came to the field of these

atrocities, entered Mr. Kay's tent, and gave him his hand, saying, " My friend, 3^our

misfortune has given me much pain. If I had been here, it would not have taken
place. One thing, however, consoles me. It is, that I had not gone off"; but you may
depend upon my best efforts to restore you." Mr. Kay accepted his offer; having
3G4 TOPICAL HISTORY.
confidence in liim, anil in liis skill in the medical art, in which he was very expert.
He resolved to take him along on his route to Mackinac, to take care of him.
On the 3d of May, the Bras Casse took him in hand, and began to apply his medi-
cines, which were found to be efficacious. After letting him repose a little, he told
him that he would cure him ; but in order to do this, he must bridle his appetites. He
must abstain from the use of pepper and salt on his food ; he must guard against
drinking, de ne point toucher de/emmes. The next day, Mr. Kay was a little better.

He sent for Mr. Harris and myself to come to his tent, to deliver his orders. He said
to us :
" Gentlemen : You see my situation. I do not know whether God will spare
my life or not. I have determined to leave you at all hazards, to set out for Mackinac,
with seven men, accompanied by the Bras Casse and his wife, to take care of me on
the road. Assort the remainder of the goods, and ascend to Leech lake, and wait
there for the return of the Pillagers, who are out in the prairies. In short, complete
the inland trade. Mr. Pinot is too feeble an opponent to do you much injury. I

confide in the capacity of you both." A few moments after, Mr. Harris went out,
AThen Mr. Kay said to me particularly, taking hold of my hand " My dear
: friend, you
understand the language of the Chippewas. Mr. Harris would go out with me, but
he must accomj^any you. He is a good trader, but he has, like myself and others, a
strong passion for drinking, which takes away his judgment. On these occasions
advise him. I will myself speak to him before my departure. Prepare everything to
facilitate our passage over the poi'tages, and along the lake (Suj)erior). I shall set out

to-morrow. I find myself better every day."

I left him with his physician, and went out to distribute the provisions and lading
for two inland canoes ; one for Mr. Kay, and the other for the four men who were to

take the furs from Pine river, consisting of 19 packs of 80 pounds each, and four packs
of deer-skins, to serve as seats for Mr. Kay's men. The next day, Mr. Kay was a
little better ; which diffused pleasure among us all. I constructed a litter (brancard)

for two men to carry him over the portages, and he set out the same day, being the
5th of jNi'ay, about two o'clock in the afternoon. Mr. Pinot also departed the same day,
to accompany him on the route. Bras Casse, and his wife, embarked about sunset.
They all encamped together on the straits of Sandy lake, at the entrance of West
Savanne creek of the portage. We heard no news from them on the 6th.
We now prepared to ascend the Mississippi to Leech lake. We had, all together,

three pieces of strouds, six pairs of blankets of each kind, one keg of powder, two
bags of lead and ball, a nest of kettles, the remainder of our net-thread and twine,
and three kegs of Jamaica spirits. The next day, being the 7th, we departed. We
with difficulty got to Swan i-iver, on account of the high water. The next day, about
noon, we found Indians encamped, namely ; Le Soliel, La Petite Corne, Champinios,

and Le Tirer au Blanc. We apprehended l)ad news for our trade, as they had
wintered in Swan river and Trout lake, which is a tributary of it. They had, how-
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 365

ever, made good hunts, and Avere rich in furs and dried meats. The first thing the}-
asked for was rum. We made a keg of rum into two, and began to trade. They
were not a long while in getting intoxicated.
Mr. Harris's wife, seeing her friends in a merry mind, took part with them, as well
as her husband, who, not having had occasion to drink on the route, profited of the
moment to get tipsy. Rattie, one of the men, came to me, and said to me that Mr.
Harris was drinking Avith the Indians. I tried, gently, to recall him to a sense of
propriety. But what reason is there in a drunken man ? Very little, truly ! After-
wards, I said to him, " Will you absolutely drink with the Indians ? I shall cross the
river, where they can ask for no more drink." I put this determination into imme-
diate execution ; had the canoes loaded, and traversed the Mississippi to get out of the
noise of dissipation. We had sold the two kegs of mixed rum, and the Indians still

had considerable in their lodges.

Late in the evenmg, the Petite Come cried out that Mr. Harris was seeking us. I
had the canoe put into the water, with four men, to fetch him. We were obliged to
bind his wife, in order to bring her on board. A short time after, quiet was restored,
and we went to bed. We passed the night in tranquillity. Next daj^,we had bad
weather, but embarked ; Mr. Harris being sullen, and out of humor. We had made
a good piece of our way {iine bonne xnpe) before he looked around for his dog. He
was missing. He then, in spite of his wife, went back to look for him, while we
remained waiting. He went quite to the Indian lodges, where he remained drinking
with them the rest of the day, and the following night. The next day I went after
him, on my way, returning with the dog. He was somewhat ashamed of himself, and
made some excuses. I told him that that was not to the purpose, but that he did
wrong to his reputation. We continued our way, and encamped near the entrance of
Deer river, below the Falls of Peeka^gamah." The next day we met Wacha, with
Mitanaskonce, his brother ; who gave us a bear (entire) which they had killed a little

above the Falls. We encamped at the entrance of the prairies at Oak Point. The
next day we went "on, and encamped at the Forks ^ of Lac Cedre Rouge, and Lac

'
Signifying the Turn, or Elbow; as the Mississippi, just above this fall, makes a sudden bend. The fall

itself interrupts the navigation, and a short portage is made around it. This portage lies over a stratum of what
Mr. Eaton denominates, granular quartz rock. It is moderately elevated above the river, which has worn its

passage over and through it; the river itself being very much compressed in width, and passing down a rugged
and inclined channel with a velocity which would, probably, prove fatal (unless in an uncommonly high state
of the water) to any boat or canoe which should attempt the passage. This stratum is the last rock seen in
place towards the north-west, in our journey to the sources of the Mississippi, in 1820. Its positive elevation
above the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson's Bay, according to approximate estimates made by me, tii
passant, during the expedition, is about r280 feet. Above this point, the Mississippi has its course through
extensive natural meadows, expanding sometimes into lakes, of which the most noted are, in the order of ascent,
Vaseu, Winnepeck, and Red Cedar ; Cassina, or Cass lake, is so named in compliment to Governor Cass. Tr.
^ The Forks here referred to, are formed by the junction of the Leech lake waters with those from th-
Cassinian sources of the Mississippi. — Tr.
366 TOPICAL HISTORY.
Vaseu; where we .saw Mr. KarManitowee/ who gave us the dried meat of a moose,
which we scaffolded with the bear's carcass we had before, to serve as food on our
descent. The Indian told us that the Pillagers had arrived at Leech lake, and were
preparing to go to Mackinac, and that thej had made successful hunts; which gave
us pleasure, in the hope that we should have their trade. We parted for that place
on the next day. Having entered the river (of Leech lake), we ascended into the
lake, and went to the point called the Otter's Tail.

As the Indians were numerous, and rogues when in liquor, Mr. Harris said to me :

" We shall do well not to take the rum to the Indians, but to say to them, '
Our drink
is at the entrance of the river, and is put aside for you, that you ma}^ make your
purchases, after which we shall go and get the liquor.' " No sooner said than done.
We kept about two gallons of ruin, and left about four kegs of mixed rum behind.
We were well received by the Indians, who had, however, been obliged to leave
a party on the road, on account of being followed by the Sioux. After letting them
know the terms on which we would exchange with them, they commenced trading,
giving in the first place the furs to pay for their rum, which we sold at thirty jjZws ^
per keg, to be estimated as follows : bears, one plus ; an otter, one plus ; three martens,
one plus ; a lynx, one plus ; fifteen muskrats, one plus ; a buffalo robe, two plus ; and
other furs in proportion. After finishing our trade, which occupied until the next day,
we had twenty-six interior packs, and still left in the hands of th',- 1 idians twenty
packs, which they brought out to Mackinac and Sault Ste. Marie. Tlie Indians of
Leech lake were, at that time, numerous, notwithstanding that they had sufiered
severely about two years before from the small-pox.^
The doy after closing our trade, we set out to descend to our cache ; for we had now
Ijut little meat; and we had got but two fawn-skins of wild rice from the Indians; a
scanty supply to take us to the Fond du Lac. Having rea,ched our cache, we found
nothing ; the large bear, the bear-skin, and the moose meat, having been eaten by
carcajoux *
and foxes. We were much dispirited on beholding this ; but what was
done it was useless to repine at. We came to the Savanne portage without accident
where, on the morning after our arrival, we were joined by Mr. J. Reaume, and Mr.
Piquet. The first had wintered at the foot of Red lake, in the North-west, {cote du
nord,) at Mr. Grant's fort, at the entry into Red river. The other had wintered at

'
Witch-Devil, or '\Vi/.;irJ-Devil, the tcrai beiog imlifForeiitly used by the Cliippcwas. — Tr.
^ A plus is a prime beiiver, or tbo worth of a beaver iu other furs. The eorrosponding term in the Chippewa
IS, abiraniinikwa. — Tk.
' This coincides with Sir Alexander M'Kcuzie, who, in his History of the Fur Trade, places the general
ravage of this fatal disease among the North-western Indians, about 1781-2. The Leech lake Indians have
increased in numbers within late years, having been exempted from disease, and living in a section of country
3 lelding an abundant supply of both wild rice aud animal food. Their strength was reported to me, in 1824,
at 1700 souls. — Tr.
* The ursus lusous, or wnlveriuc of the systems. — Tr.
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 36T

lake Patchatechambun, in Turtle portage, which was so named in the time of their
forefathers, on account of the Indians having consulted the turtle as an oracle. For
he always kept his head towards the enemy's country, to warn them that they must
be on their guard. But it was several years since he had ceased to give any oracular
indications.'

We informed Messrs. Reaume and Piquet that the Pillagers were on the road to
Mackinac. They determhied to await their arrival, after they should have made the
portage. We continued our route, and arrived at the Grand Portage of the Fond du
Lac, about six o'clock in the morning. Seeing a storm gathering, we encamped. In
a moment the storm burst. Mr. Piquet had much ado to encamp. The lightning
was very vivid, with heavy and frequent thunder-claps. Very little rain fell, but it
turned to hail, which increased in weight and size to nearly a ;
^
varying,
however, in shape, some of the particles being round, others pyramidal, angular, or
irregular;which put me, at the moment, as well as all who saw this phenomenon, in
great fear. The storm continued scarcely half an hour ;
yet, in that time, the hail
fell almost six inches in depth, and it was two days in melting. We were obliged to
sojourn on the portage, for the men could not travel
Eeaume the road. Mr.
encountered this storm on the portage aux Couteaux, Avith a party of Indians. The
day following, we moved forward, and on the fourteenth day encamped at the mouth
of the Fond du Lac river, being the 7th of June. We were there detained {degrades ')
by the ice.

The Indians informed us that Mr. Kay had passed a long time before, that he
Avas a little better, and had the appearance of being on the recovery. They
thought he had, by that time, passed Kewywenon. The Pillagers came in, day by
day, and encamped with us. The ice was so driven into the bay, that we could not
p-roceed. And we remained there seven days, without being able to pass out of the
river, with but little to eat. We were reduced to little jack-fish, which the Indians
gave us, and to the berries of the saccacomis,' until the 14th. On the 15th, the wind

' The Turtle portage referred to in the text, is on the line of communication between lake Winncpcck of the
Mississippi, and Rainy lake ; and be distinguished from the Turtle portage (of the same region) which
is to
connects upper Red Cedar, or Cass lake, with Red lake. On referring this passage to Mr. Perrault, for the
purpose of eliciting more fully the Indian superstition on the subject, he remarked that when the Chippewas
began to use the portage, they found on the height nf land, after leaving the Mississippi waters, and before
reaching those of Rainy lake, a small hillock, having the external figure of the turtle. They surrounded the
spot with painted poles, on which were hung such oflFerings as are made to spirits. These offerings were also
laid upon the and the precincts were thus rendered sacred.
hillock, Around this spot they seated themselves
to smoke. The oracle was addressed by the seer of the party ; and he uttered the responses, or gave such pre-
dictions as suited his purposes. Tr. —
^ Ilavmg doubts as to the
comparison used, I have thought best to suppress it. Tr.
' This term, in the sense here used, is peculiar to the north-western voyageurs. Tr. —
The arbutus uva ursa. The word saceacomis, which the author uses as the Indian name of this plant, is a
modification of theChippewa phrase sug-ga-kum-min-e-ganzh, being descriptive of a creeping vine, with berries,
having the property of holding by, or sticking to. Ap-pah-koos-se-gun is a general term for smoking niixturp.
368 TOPICAL HISTORY.
arose pretty bi-isk during the night, drove out the ice, and left a commodious passage
for us to go as far as the river Broule, where we encamped. We had left, of the goods,
one pound of sewing thread, and five bunches of small cord (maitre), which Mr. Bel'
had made into a small net, during our detention at Fond du Lac, and had not yet been
used. We set this net during the night, (in the mouth of the river,) and next
morning drew out some siskawettes,^ and several other kinds of fish. We proceeded
the next day, and made a good day's journey, encamping at Petit Peche, this side
(west) of La Pointe. We put out our net, but the ice was driven in so, that we were
obliged to remain the whole day, awaiting the dispersion of it. This took place at
night, and we continued our route early in the morning, having taken a few fish. We
got to La Pointe, where we were detained three days by contrary winds ; and during
this time, Le Gros Pied and his family assisted us in fishing. Although we had left

our small canoes on the Grand Portage (of Fond du Lac), and resumed our large
Mackinac canoe, the wind was too high to admit our crossing the bay to Point au
Froid. The next day, however, at an early hour, we crossed, and went to Montreal
river to encamp. In short, we encamped from river to river, until we reached L'Anse
(Kewywenon), where we waited two days before we could make the traverse. There
Messrs. R^aume and Piquet rejoined us, and we effected the crossing in company, on
the third day. Tliey took the lead of us the next day, because we were now obliged
to live by fishing. We got to White-fish point, after having entered all the intervening
rivers to fish, and encamped. The weather proving calm the next day, Ave crossed
over to Gros Cap, and we reached the Sault about three o'clock in the afternoon. We
remained thei'c the rest of that day and the next day, our men taking the opportunity

to regale themselves. We learned that Mr. Kay had passed the Sault ^ quite ill, and
that the Bras Casse, seeing that he would not follow his advice, and being ill-treated,
returned from Miner's river without being paid. It is probable we passed him in

crossing Kewywenon bay, or the islands of Huron bay.

and kinni-kinnick is the corresponding term with the Grand river Ottawas and southern Chippewas. The
latter term is a slight modification of the animate form of the verb to mix; the animate form of this verb having
its termination in ick, and the inanimate in ««. — Tr.
'
Mr. Harris is thus commonly called by the Canadians. It is a term to be traced to his Christian name of
William, through the nickname of Bill. This man is still (1830) living, at a very advanced age, and, like
most of the clerks, interpreters, and canoe-men of the North-west, who chance to live long, is in a state of

extreme indigence. For many years he has renounced entirely the use of ardent spirits. His recollection of
events is confused and imperfect, yet, at favorable moments, seems unimpaired. To the usual infirmities of age,
the loss of sight has lately been added. He is a native of Albany, New York, whence he was transferred to
the banks of the St. Lawrence, while quite young, and, by a series of adventures, passed a long life in the

north-western regions. — Tr.

* Sees-kow (Chippewa), plural in aig. A kind of trout, of an oily nature. — Tr.
" The definite article is applied, by the French, in north-western geography, in a manner that may not appear
very intelligible out of the precincts of the lakes. When they speak of Le Bayc, La Prairie, and Le Sault,
without any adjunct, Green Bay, Prairie dcs Chieiis, and Sault Ste. Marie, are respectively intended. In the
same manner, L'Ance is Kcweena, or Kewywenon bay, and La Pointe, Point Chegnimegnn, both of lake
Superior. — Tr.
 TOPICAL HISTORY. 369

We left the Sault on the third day. On reaching Point Detour the wind proved
favourable, and we determined to travel at night. But we had cause to repent of it
for the weather proved foul, and we got our packs wet. We spent the next day on
Gravel island in drying them. We arrived at Mackinac on the 24th of July, about
mid-day. While the men were employed in discharging the canoe, I went to Mr. Kay's
lodgings. I found him in considerable pain. He gave me his hand, saying, " I am
glad to see you. I am in a poor way. I have resolved to go down to Montreal, but
fear much the fatigues of the journey. Mr. Holt will arrange your business, to whom
you will address yourself to re-engage. As to Mr. Harris, it rests on my mind that he
was the cause of my misfortune."
Mr. Kay's business being soon closed, he went to Montreal, in the canoes, after Cap-
tain Robinson (then in command at Mackinac) had got a second operation performed
upon him by the port surgeon, which gave him great pain. At the lake of Two
Mountains a suppuration of his wound took place, and, in spite of all efforts, he died
at that place on the 28th of August, 1785.

[Note. — The Fourth Paper of this Section, stated in the Synopsis, is omitted.]

Pt. m.— 47
VIII. PHYSICAL TYPE OF THE
INDIAN RACE. B.

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 PHYSICAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE.

SYNOPSIS or PAPERS.
1. Unity of the Human Race.
2. Examination and Description of the Hair of the Head of the North American Indians, and
its Comparison with that of other Varieties of Men : with Diagrams of the Structure of the
Hair. By P. A. Browne, L L. D.

1. UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.

It will not, it is thought, be deemed out of place, in publishing the following
interesting scientific observations of Mr. Browne, detailing the results of his examina^
tions of the hair of the North American Indian, under the searching influence of the
microscope, to express the opinion which is entertained on the general law of species.
For it is by no means intended, in anything that has, or may he, published in these
investigations and collections of original matter, to make the topics introduced the
medium of expressing theoretical views and opinions ; far less of making the papers
the medium of theories which may appear to call in question the general judgment
of mankind, or the belief of the Christian world in the unity of the human species.

Microscopical examinations would seem to indicate that there are three principal
species of human hair, as denoted by the scrutiny and comparison of the physical struc-
ture and organization of specimens from the heads of the red, black, and white man.
Thought seems to be taken aback by so remarkable a disclosure in the already won-
derful progress of microscopical investigations. Human hair appears, to common
observation, a not very important part of the animal organization of tlie integumentary
covering of the cranium. Its chief design appears to have been to ornament and pro-
(373)
374 PHYSICAL TYPE OF
tect the head — that crowning part and finished glory of the created structure of man.
That it should be found, when viewed under magnifying power, to have been
impressed with very exact and perfect laws of organization, as in round, oval, or flat-

tened columns, with capillary tubes filled with fluids of difierent properties, and covered
with appendages analogous to scales, subject to the power of disease, &c., as these
examinations denote, is not contrary to those laws and forms of perfect geometrical
exactitude, order, and beauty, which naturalists perceive in every other department
of created nature. But, on the contrary, these new discoveries in the structure and

properties of human hair supply a series of novel and beautiful evidences of perfection
in the works of the Divine Finger. Linnaeus found the highest order and exactitude
in the number and shapes of a petal, or leaf Haiiy did the same in the angles of a
crystal, and Agassiz in tlie configuration of the minutest fish's scale ; or, to give a yet
more striking proof of the design of creation, we refer to Dalton's great discovery of

the Atomic theory. By the latter, the very elements of the universe are shown to be

governed by the most exact and fixed laws of combination, and each of the examples
referred to, is afiirmative of the principles of the most strict order and fixity of form
and exactitude of structure in natural history — an order and fixity which is found in
the organization of the human hair. This, Mr. Browne has demonstrated.
The late eminent Dr. Samuel George Morton has suggested that there have existed
" primordial " states of the physical organization. The introduction of this term
appears intended by him to denote a condition of primordial fixity in the physical
varieties of the human race, which was of a character so marked and generic, as to

insure the reproduction as fixed varieties, as they are observed in the general and
essential external lineaments and traits of the human race.

Analogies taken from the inferior orders of creation, animal and vegetable, and even
mineral, perhaps, if examined microscopically, as well as by the principles of
orictognosy, indicate that a species must consist in some new character or radical

development of the species-characterizing, or frame-type of the object, and not merely

in the evolvement of varieties. With respect to the animal creation, Buflfon has

well observed, that animals which do not possess this species-characterizing power do
not reproduce tliemselves ; and that if, as in the case of the mule, there be an apparent
new species, it is utterly without the capacity of reproductive perpetuation.
It is believed that these microscopical investigations of Mr. Browne make a decided
advance in Dr. Morton's but suggested theory of "primordial" conditions of the phy-
sical type. If a trinary distinction of the race is practicable, it would seem to be a
more natural and philosophical conclusion to consider the differences noticed as being

merely variform ; and if viewed in this light, they may be regarded as coming under
Dr. Morton's "primordial" states of the physical organization.
In his examination of the hair of the intermixed blood of the Indian race, Mr.
Browne has observed that tlie hair becomes what may be regarded as a mere genealo-
 THE INDIAN RACE. 375

gical feature, derived, as the color of the eyes, and other physical indicia, from either
of the parents, irregularly, or if by fixed laws, yet of so subtle a character that, like

resemblances in the occurrences of every-day life, in the children of mixtures of the

Saxon, Celtic, and other varieties of the human family, the chances of likeness are

wholly beyond the power of prediction.

There are some practical views of hybrid" life, (if this term may be applied with
'•

strict propriety to thehuman species,) respecting which, it is hoped to collect a body of

vital statistics of a new character, such as the average stature, weight, strength, &c.,
of the various Lidian and Indo-European men. With respect to longevity, a single

remark may now be made, namely, that the first generation of the mixed races derived
from the Indian stock, are comparatively short-lived. Few of the females who have
enjoyed every advantage of civilization, education, and refinement, reach to the age of
forty.

Two generations of ascending change from the Indian mother are completely suffi-

cient to alter every trait of the aboriginal, and to throw back the red variety into the
general fliaracter and stock of the highest grade of color and beauty of the human race.

The same period of ascending change, I am informed, on the side of the progenitor, is

equally sufficient to produce the complete return of the black man to the highest type

of the race. Like streams flowing into the ocean, there is a uniform standard
produced from these two genealogical elements. On the assumption of the truth of
the latter remark, a more conclusive proof of their original unity, agreeably to the
test of Buffon, could scarcely be offered.

2. EXAMINATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE HAIR OF

THE HEAD OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS,
AND ITS COMPARISON WITH THAT OF OTHER VA-
RIETIES OF MEN.
MADE BT P. A. BROWNE, LL.D., OF PHILADELPHIA.

My collection of Indian pile is, probably, the most extensive and valuable in
existence, including specimens from all the following groups, viz., Iroquois, Algonquins,
Dacotahs, and Appalachians ; and from nearly all the tribes now existing, belonging

to, or descended from, those groups.'

'
The difficulties experieuced iu making tliis collection can scarcely be imagined. Through the instrumentality
of the Hon. W. M. Meredith, then Secretary of the Treasury, and H. K. Schoolcraft, LL.D., and Historical
Indian Agent of the United States, I obtained, from the Hon. H. H. Stewart, then Secretary of the Interior,
circulars addressed to each agent, missionary, and teacher, in the service of the Department, within the LTnion
requesting their co-operation in collecting specimens of the pile of the heads of Indians. To these, answers

were received from Jonathan C. Fletcher, Esq., of the Winnebago Agency, and Nathaniel M. M'Lean, Esq., of
376 PHYSICAL TYPE OF
The examiiiatiou of the American Lidian pile includes, first, its general appearance.
It is long, straight, lank, and black colored, lacking lustre.

Long. The length of the hair of the heads of their females exceeds that of their
males.
The hair of Weeunkaw, a Winnebago female, specimen sent by Mr. Fletcher,
measures two feet six and a half inches.
That of the wife of Crane-ribs, of the same tribe, and sent by the same, one foot
seven inches.
That of a child of Little Hill, who is one of the principal chiefs of the Shegonics,
sent by the same, measures one foot three and a half inches.
That of a pure Choctaw female, sent by Dr. Nott, measures one foot four and a half
inches.

That of a female Sioux, sent by Mr. M'Clean, measures one foot eleven inches.

That of Bishekise, a pure Sac, a descendant of Black Hawk, sent by Mr. Symington,
measures one foot. Comparison. In my collection of Chinese hair specimens, I have
one, the name not mentioned, sent by Lieutenant Alonzo Davis, of the United States
Navy, which measures four feet three inches.

The hair of the head of the Chinese Tsou Chaoong, who exhibited in Philadelphia,
specimen presented by himself, measures four feet.

The hair of Asjunk, of Canton, specimen presented by Lieutenant Davis, measures

three feet eleven inches.
I have not in my possession any specimens of very long hair of the head of the oval-
haired species. I have some of the beard of the Hon. Richard Vaux, presented by
himself, which measures one foot eleven inches. The wool of the pure eccentrically
(jUiptical-shaped species (negro) seldom exceeds three inches in length. That the
American Indians trim the hair of their heads, is ascertained by inspection of the
specimens, where the anterior extremities of the stalks, (except those of young hairs,)
are found to be abrupt; whereas, if the hair was not cut, they would be pointed.'

the St. Peter's, Minnesota, Sub-agency. I next procured circulars from the Rev. C. C. Jones, Corresponding
Secretary of the Board of Home Missions, and Mr. Walter Lowrie, Corresponding Secretary of the Board of
Foreign Missions, of the Presbyterian church, to their missionaries. I have been favored with answers from
the Rev. P. Doughertj', of the Mackinac Mission, Michigan, the Rev. R. S. Symington, of Independence,
-Missouri, the Rev. William Hamilton, of St. Joseph's, Missouri, the Rev. E. M'Kinney, of Council Bluff, Iowa,
the Rev. R. L. M'Loughridge, of the Creek Agency, west Arkansas, and the Rev. J. E. C. Dorimus, Bayou
Grosse Tcte, Louisiana; and to these eight gentlemen, and to the Rev. A. Barnard, of Cass Lake, Minnesota,
(who was written to by my kinsman, Mr. William Ilarued, of New York,) and to my friend Josiah Nott, M. D.,
of Mobile, Alabama, I am indebted for this valuable part of my collection of pile; and to them I return my
sincere thanks.
'
Also, they have an instrument with which they pluck their beards. Mr. Hamilton says that it is a curled
wire, and that they generally carry it about them. Mr. M'Kinney remarks that, "they have, naturally, very
light beards ; that it is an almost invariable practice with them to pull it out ; that some of them carry, tied to

their persons, an instrument made for the purpose; and that he has often detected them in the process." He
adds, that " occasionally they cultivate moustaches, particularly on the under lip." [? imperial.]
 THE INDIAN RACE. 377

Straight and lank. The hair of the head of the pure American Indian is straight
and hank.
The hair of John Pringle, who is a son of Little Hill, one of the
principal chiefs of the Shegonic tribe, whose wife is a mixture of
pure Winnebago and Sioux, is a fine specimen of straight, lank,
Indian hair. (See Fig. 1.)
Some Indians are sensible of this peculiarity in their locks, and
even seem to understand that it is transmissible. An American
gentleman, who had remarkably black and straight hair, for his
species, was introduced to an Indian chief, who immediately pointed
to his hair, repeating the word " Indian." The gentleman, by way
of pleasantry, remarked that there was a tradition in his family
that his grandmother had once been chased by an Indian ; upon
which the chief replied, significantly, " He overtook hei'."

The hair of the American Indian must, necessarily, be straight

and lank, owing to its shape, as will be explained hereinafter.

By a mixture of species, this property is affected.

J. M. Strut, a pure Winnebago, aged 25, (specimen sent by Mr. Fig. 1.

Fletcher,) has straight, lank hair. What is the class to which his
wife belongs is not mentioned; but her hair^^oM's, indicating some
mixture of the blood of the white man, and the hair of their
child curls.
Michael St. Cyr, a di-Mestisin, Winnebago and French, (specimen
sent by the same,) has curled hair.

The hair of the Mulattins has, generally, a

crimped or undulated appearance. (See Fig. 2.)
With the Costins, as also with compound hy-
brids, the crisp or frizzled characteristic of the

wool of the eccentrically elliptical-piled species

is hardly ever perceptible, but sometimes it exhi-
bits itself in a peculiar manner ; see the lock of
hair of the tetra-di-Mulattin, Anna Varne,
(specimen sent by Mr. M'Louridge,) which, for
the space of about four inches, is straight and Fig. 3.
Fiff. 2.
lank; terminating abruptly in a curl. (See Fig. 3.)

Mr. J. L. Lyon, of Dubuque, Iowa, says that, " all male Indians of the present race, from Hudson's Bay to
the Rio Grande, have beards. When left to grow, it is confined principally to the chin ; but by those of pure
blood, in a savage state, is generally (and perhaps universally) plucked out by means of a spring, formed of a
coil of brass wire."

Pt. III. — 48
arS PHYSICAL TYPE OF
The spiral curl of the eccentrically elliptic

species is beautifully exhibited in the annexed

diagram of the stalk of the pile of the Bush-
man boy, who was brought from the Cape of
Good Hope. (See Fig. 4.)
Black colored. Pure American Indians have
hlach Jiair and black eyes. My cabinet furnishes
but a single example (if even this is an excep-
tion), in the red hair of Lucy Choate, (familiarly

called, on that account, Bed Lucy.) " She is

•"
pure Creek, as far as hnoion Mr. Loughridge,
Fig. 4. to whom I am indebted for this rare specimen,
sensibly adding, " but the red hair indicates a mixture of white, as Indians invariably
seem to have black eyes and black hair." The shape of this young lady's hair is

ajliiidrlcal, with the exception of one filament, which is ocal. It is also straight and

The wool of the pure eccentrical elliptic-piled species is black. I know of no

exception.
The pile of the oval-haired species, when not black nor colorless, has some shade of
red or brown ; and the progeny sometimes have hair of the color of one of the parents,
and sometimes the color of the other; and at others still, the color of their hair
resembles that of neither j^arent. I have been witness to several instances where the
liair of both father and mother was black, and that of the child "was red.

The colors of the pile of Mestisins are various and mutable.

Michael St. Cyr, a di-Mestisin, Winnebago and French, by his wife, a pure Winne-
bago, with straight black hair, has four children ; one, fourteen years of age, has

chestnut hair, brown complexion, and black eyes; another, aged twelve, has dark
chestnut hair, brown complexion, and black eyes ; the third, a brunette, has blackish-
brown hair and black eyes ; the fourth has blackish-brown hair, brown complexion,
and black eyes.
The sister of Michael St. Cyr is married to a Pole, and has one child that has blonde
hair and light eyes ; and another who has light brown hair, copper complexion, and
black eyes.
J. A. Alexander, an American, of light complexion, dark hair, and blue eyes, is

married to a hexarMestisin, Winnebago and French, and has two children ; one with
brown hair, a sallow complexion, and dark eyes ; and the other with flaxen hair,

brown complexion, and blue eyes. (Specimens of all the above sent by Mr. Fletcher.)
 THE INDIAN RACE. 379

Of the Loss of tue Coloring Matter of tue Indian Hair.

As a pure American Indian advances in years, the coloring matter of his pile
becomes less and less abundant, forming what is generally, but improperly, termed
"f/re^ hair." It is colorless hair.

A Winnebago female, aged 100, (her name not given by Mr. Fletcher, who sent the
specimen,) has hair of an entire ashy-white color.
Meshegenequa, a hexa-Mestiisin, French and Chippewa, a female, aged 80, (specimen
sent by Mr. Symington,) has hair entirely silver-white.
Catherine Myat, atetra-Mestisin, Winnebago and French, aged 80, (specimen sent by
Mr. Fletcher,) has about one-third of her hair silver-white.
Ashguagonabe, a pure Chippewa chief, aged 70, (specimen sent by Mr. Dougherty,)
has about one-half of his hair white.
It is probable that the American Indians do not turn (what is termed) grey, as
early as the oval-haired species.
Muhguhreh, a mixture of Ottawa and Chippewa, who is between 60 and 70, (speci-
men sent by Mr. Dougherty,) has only a few white hairs.
White-crane, a pure Kanzas, aged 60, (specimen presented by Mr. Hamilton,) has
no white hairs.

A pure Iowa, male, aged 60, name not mentioned, (presented by the same,) has a
few colorless hairs.

C^'egance, aged 60, mixture of Chippewa and Chippewa and Ottawa, (specimen sent

by Mr. Dougherty,) has a few white hairs.

Ahgasa, of the same tribe, (specimen presented by the same,) aged 60, has a few
white hairs.
Nawhekaw, a pure Winnebago chief, aged 58, (specimen sent by Mr. Fletcher,) has
about one-third white hairs.
Broad-face, a mixture of Winnebago and Menomonee and Sioux, aged 56, (sent by
the same,) has about one-half white hairs.
Kewagishkum, a mixture of Ottawa and Potawatomie, aged 50, has no white hairs.
tribes, whose ages, respectively, are something less than 50,
Five others, of different
have no colorless hairs.
Mr. Hamilton saw an Indian man, from 20 to 23 years old,who was partly grey,
and a boy of from 10 to 12 years old, who was quite grey. No specimens were for-
Avarded.

There are many cases mentioned in books, of the hair of the oval-piled man becom-
ing suddenly white, and I have several specimens in my cabinet which belong to that
category ; but I have no examples of this kind in regard to the hair of the American
Indian, unless the cases above referred to, as reported by Mr. Hamilton, may so be
considered.'

'
They may have been Albinos.
380 PHYSICAL TYPE OF

Lacking Lustre.
The hair of the head of the American Indian is deficient in lustre. This may be
owing, in part, at least, to a want of cleanliness ; for, although they grease their locks,
they appear to be seldom combed or washed. I have frequently found small fragments
of feathers and other foreign matters among the Lidian hair; not to mention some

other things still more exceptionable.

The presence or absence of lustre is a characteristic of some importance in the
examination and description of pile. There is a striking contrast between the dull
ash-colored hair of the aged Winnebago female, and the shining silver-white hair of

Meshegenequa, both above mentioned.

Particular Description of the American Indian Hair.

PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

There is no word in common use which includes hair and wool ; we have therefore

adopted the term pile, from pilus, a hair.

We have never seen an accurate definition of this integument. It may be described

as follows : it is a filamentous appendage of the skin of the mammalia, formed of
gelatine and protein, emanating from cells growing at its lower extremity only, con-

sisting of — First, a root, which is, for the most part, imbedded in the dermis, and
connected with vessels and nerves ; and Second, an unvital protruding stalk, termi-

nating at its inferior extremity in a button, and at its superior one in a point ; this

stalk is composed of. First, a squamose, imbricated cortex; Second, a fibrous inter-
mediate substance; and Third, a coloring matter. Pile possesses great ductility,

flexibility, elasticity, and tenacity; is highly electric — polarizes light — is of great

endurance — has but little hydroscopic properties — very little power to conduct caloric

—a very low specific gravity — no contractibility, and is of gradual and periodical

decidence.
The tegumentary appendages of the American Indian belong to this category.

Pile is divisible into liair and loool, which differ one from the other, as follows
First, in shape — hair being either cylindrical, cylindroidal, oval or ovoidal ; while
wool is eccentrically elliptical.

Second, in uniformity of shape of the same filament ; hair being, generally, of the

same shape throughout the filament, but wool is less uniform in this particular.
Third, in the formation of the cortex; the scales of which upon hair are less
numerous, and more depressed ; while those upon wool are more numerous, and less
depressed.
 THE INDIAN RACE. 381

Fourth, ill direction; hair being straight, flowing, or curled, while wool is crisped or
frizzled, and sometimes spirally curled. (See Fig. 4.)
Fifth, in inclination; hair issuing out of the epidermis at an oblique angle thereto;
but wool issues out of the epidermis at a right angle.
Sixth, in color; hair often assuming a variety of colors; but wool being generally
white, brown, or black.
Seventli, in uniformity of color in a single filament ; each separate filament of wool
being monochromatic; while that of hair of some of the lower animals is often
polychromatic.
Eighth, in dimensions; hair being generally longer, and of a greater diameter
than wool.
Ninth, in exuberance ; wool being generally produced in greater profusion than hair,
ujjon a given area of skin.

Tenth, in the apex; that of hair being more, and that of wool less pointed, in

proportion to their relative diameters.

Eleventh, in the disposition of the coloring matter; a hair (when perfect) having
its coloring matter in a central canal, which is not the case with the most perfect wool.
The covering of the head of the American Indian is liair ; it is in shape cylindrical
or cylindroidal — the scales are not numerous, and are depressed ; it is in direction
straight and lank ; it issues out of the epidermis at an oblique angle, and it has no
central canal for the coloi'ing matter, which is disseminated in the cortex or fibres. It
differs from the hair of the head of the white man, in these two respects ; that the
latter is, in shape, oval or ovoidal, and it has a central canal for the conveyance of
the coloring.
That peculiar lank appearance of the hair of the head of the American Indian is

owing to its cylindrical form. In all piles constructed according to the plan revealed
by the modem perfect examinations under the microscope, there are antagonizing
forces, viz. : that of the ductile and elastic fibres, to stretch and shrink, whenever acted
upon mechanically or chemically, and that of the non-ductile and inelastic cortex to

resist these forces. When the hair is cylindrical, the stretching and shrinking powers
are equal on all sides of the filament; which, (equality,) preserves the hair straight, and
gives it this lank appearance. But when the hair is oval, there are a greater number
of fibres upon the two flattened sides, than upon the ellipsoids; and there is, con-
sequently, a tendency to curve in that direction. Pass a cylindrical hair, from an
American Indian's head, between rollers, so that it will become flattened, and it will
immediately curl, according to the degree of depression.
Having once established this law, we are no longer at a loss to determine the sluqje
of the filaments from the appearance of the hair; if the pile hangs sti-aiijhth/ and lankli/,

we may safely pronounce that it is cyUndrical ; if it curls, it must be oval; if it has

spired curls, it is eccentrically elliptical.
382 PHYSICAL TYPE OF
In the following figure, (Fig. 5,) A represents the cylindrical, B the oval, and C the
eccentrically elUptical pile.

Fig. 5.

These are the general forms of pile. We must now notice some that are special.

As the figure recedes from A (the cylindrical), on its passage to B (the oval), it

becomes, first, cylindroidul (a), where the greatest diameter is less than k greater than
its smallest; and secondly, lesser owoldal, from a to B, where the greatest diameter
exceeds its smallest by more than i, but by less than § (or -J). As the figure recedes
from B (the oval), on its passage to C (the eccentrically elliptical), it becomes, first,

greater ovoidal, from B to b, where the greatest diameter exceeds that of its lesser by
more than §, (or i,) Ijut by less than i ; and secondly, eccentrically eWiT^toidal, from b
to C, where the greatest diameter exceeds that of its lesser by more than i, but by less

than J (or I).

We have seldom found a filament of pile, of the head, whose greatest diameter
exceeded that of its lesser by more than f

Some Examples of the Diameters of Piles according to (lie above Classes and Varieties.

Class I. Including the cylindrical and cylindroidal.

Variety 1. Cylindi'ical.

First, modern hairs.

Hair of the bead of a Choctaw American Indian, the specimen presented by

1.

Doctor J. Nott diameter 37, of an inch.

;

Of Big-water, American Indian chief, killed in battle, in Texas; specimen

2.

presented b}' Col. James Morgan diameter ^h. ;

3. Of Cai>o-co-mah, a male Sac Indian, a descendant of Black Hawk; specimen

presented by the Rev. R. S. Symington diameter ^hs. ;

Second, ancient hairs.

4. Hair from the head of a mummy found in the Temple of the Sun, near Lima,
Peru ; specimen presented by Prof Pancoast, of Philadelphia ; diameter sei.
5. Hair from the head of a iiuunmy found at Pachamack, Peru ; specimen presented
by Prof. S. G. Morton; diameter 112.
 THE INDIAN RACE. 383

6. Hair from the head of a mummy found at Arica, Peru ; specimen presented by
the same; diameter 33s.

7. Hair from a mummy found at Pisco, Peru ; specimen presented by the same
diameter jlg.

8. Hair from a mummy found in Mexico; specimen presented by the same;

diameter ^st.

9. Hair from a mummy found in Brazil ; specimen presented by the same ; diame-

ter asT-

Yarietij 2. QyWmlroidal,
1. Hair of the head of a Choctaw American Indian, (female;) specimen presented
by Doctor J. Nott, of Mobile; diameters, ^h by sin.

2. Hair of the head of the Chinese, Tsou Chaoong ; specimen presented by himself;
diameters, si? by ^k.
Class II. (Including oval and ovoidals.)
Variety 1. Oval.

1. The hair of the head of his Excellency, General George "Washington ; specimen
presented by Mr. Perrie; diametei's sis by ilg-
2. The hair of the head of his Excellency, General Andrew Jackson ; specimen
presented by the Hon. C. J. IngersoU; diameters, ^ts by sis-

3. The hair of the head of WiUiam F. Van Amringe, Esq., of New York ; specimen
presented by himself; diameters, siu by 3^.
Varietij 2. Lesser ovoidal.

1. Hair of the head of the Hon. John B. Gibson, Chief Justice of Pennsylvania;
specimen presented by himself; diameters, 337 by sh-
2. Hair of the head of the Hon. John Sergeant ; specimen presented by himself;
diameters, ^h by sk.
3. Hair of the head of Samuel S. Halderman, Esq., Professor of Natural History
in the University of Pennsylvania; specimen presented by himself; diameters, ih
by ih.
Variety 3. Greater ovoidal.

1. Hair of the head of Count Wass, of Hungary; specimen presented by Col.

f James Page, of Philadelphia; diameters, 2st by tts.
2. Hair of the head of the Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte specimen presented by ;

Prof John K. Mitchell, of Philadelphia; diameters, 335 by 4k.

3. Hair of the head of Prof Benjamin Silliman, the elder; specimen presented by
himself; diameters, 373 by sk-
Class HI. Eccentrically elliptical, and eccentrically elliptoidal.

Variety 1. Eccentrically elliptical.

1. The wool of Congo Billy, the manumitted slave of Col. S. B. Davis, of Wilming-
ton, Delaware; specimen presented by Col. Davis; diameters, 3^^ by ^ho-
384 PHYSICAL TYPE OF
2. The wool of the Bushman Boy, brought from the Cape of Good Hope by the
American Consul, M. Chase; specimen presented by Prof. C. Meigs, of Philadelphia;

diameters, sis by 555.

Variety 2. Eccentrically elUptoidal. (No examples.)
Mixture of Classes.
1. Of simple hybrids.
Variety 1. Mixture of white and black.
1. The hair of the head of a person supposed to be an equal mixture of black and
white; some ^h by ih, others, 375 by zh-
Variety 2. Mixture of black and Indian.
1. The hair of the head of Bartola, the female Aztec dwarf, exhibited in New
York, in February, 1852 ; specimen presented by Messrs. Kettel & Moore, of New
York ; diameters of some hairs, ^h, others, 374 by sue
Variety 3. Indian and white.
1. Hair of the head of Lucy Choate, aged 11, Creek American Indian and white;
specimen presented by the Rev. R. M. Loughridge; diameters of some hairs, jh,
and others ae? by 2So.

2. Compound hybrids.
1. Hair of the head of Hinten, late hair-dresser, of Philadelphia, whose
fatherwas white, and whose mother was the progeny of an Indian and Negress;
specimen presented by himself; diameters of some hairs, sh, others 357 by ttb, and
others still ih by rou.

2. Hair of the head of Tuh-duh-guh-mak-ke, a male Ottawa Indian, mixture with

Negro and white ; specimen presented by the Rev. P. Dougherty ; diameters of some
hairs, 535, others sh by soo, and others still, agg by shs.

3. The hair of the head of Ellen Perry man, who is i white, J Muscogee American

Indian, and i black ; specimen presented by the same ; diameters of some hairs, jIb,

others 4x0 by sh, and others still, 501; by ^h-

Of the different Parts of the Pile of the American Indians.

Of the Button. The inferior extremity of the stalk of pile is soft and cellular; it is

either spheroidal, ovoidal, spindle, pestle, or club-shaped, or amorphous. In the oval-

haired species, when the pile is healthy, this portion is generally spindle-shaped, white,
and either transparent or translucent. It had been called the " bulb ;" but as the
same name had also been given to the follicle, Henl^e, (who has given an elaborate
account of it,) calls it the " button." Fig. 6 gives a correct representation of the

button of one of the oval-haired species.

<>.
fil'.
 THE INDIAN RACE. 385

Now let the reader compare this with the following figures of the buttons of some
of the pure Indian tribes.

THE BUTTONS OP THE HAIR OF THE HEAD OP THE AMERICAN INDIAN.

Fig. 7. —Button of a Sac. Fig. 8. —Button of a Sac. Fig. 9. —Buttou of an Ottawa.

Fig. 10. — Button of a Winnebago. Fig. 11. —Button of a Winnebago. Fig. 12. —Button of a Sioux.

Pt. 111.-49
 PHYSICAL TYPE OF

Pig, 13_ Button of a Pawnee. Fig. 14. —Button of an Iowa. Fig. 15. — Button of an Otoe.

Fig. 16. — Button of au Omalia. Fig. 17. —Button of a Tetra-mono-Costin.

 THE INDIAN RAGE. 387

Fig. 18.—Button of a Tetra-mono-Costin. Figs. 19 and 20.— Button and Follicle of a Tetra-di-Mestisin.

Kg. 21. —ButtoD, Shaft, and Point of a new Hair, Fig. 22, B. — Shaft of the Hair of a Sac, drawn out
which has not penetrated the Epidermis. of the Button.
888 PHYSICAL TYPE OF
And to complete the comparison, I give the button of the wool of one of the pure
eccentrically elliptical species. (See Fig. 30, No. 3.)

Of the Shaft of the American Indmn Hair.

This portion of the stalk of pile, which extends from near the inferior extremity of

the button' to the apex of the stalk, may be examined under three heads, viz. : the

cortex, the intermediate fibres, and the centre.

Of (lie Cortex of the Hair of the American Indian.

The cortex of this hair, like that of the hair of the oval-piled species, is sqnamose ;
but the scales are less numerous, more rounded, and more depressed, than they are on
wool.
Fig. 23, A, represents the scales upon hair, and B, those on wool.

Fig. 23.

1 have an instrument with which I can plane a

shaving of cortex from the shaft of pile, as you would
plane a shaving from a piece of wood.
The annexed figure represents one of these shav-
Fig. 23.—B. ings. (See Fig. 23, B.)

Of the Fibres of the Hair of the American Indian.

Between the cortex and the centre of pile, are the fibres which constitute the
strength of the shaft
Fig. 24, A, represents the shaft of the hair of the Hon. Henry Clay ; and Fig. B, that
of a Choctaw Indian, (the specimen sent by Dr. Nott,) where the cortex has been
purposely artificially removed, leaving the fibres exposed to view.
These fibres of pile are supposed to be composed of fibrils of smaller dimensions.
See Fig. 25, which represents the disrupted hair of the eyebrow of one of the oval-
piled species, where fibres are exposed to view which have a diameter of less than
T0OB5 part of an inch.

'
I say, "from near the inferior extremity of the button," &c. ; for the lower part of the shaft may always
he drawn out of the button, and often is so withdrawn, leaving the button in the dermis of the head. The
following figure exhibits the shaft of a hair of an oval-piled man, with the inferior extremity thus pulled out
of the button.

Fij.'. '1-1.— A.
 THE INDIAN RACE.

Fig. 24.—A.

Fig. 25.

To assist the examination of the internal conformation, pile may be crushed. The
foUowing is a fragment of a hair wliich has undergone that operation.

Fig. 26.

Of the Centre of the Indian Hair.

The coloring matter of the hair of the oval-piled species (when there is any color-

ing matter) is found in a central canal ; but that of the hair of the American Indian,
and of the wool of the eccentrically elliptical species, is disseminated in the cortex and
the fibres.
390 PHYSICAL TYPE OF THE
I have an instrument with which I can cut a transverse section or disk of pile so
thinly, as to be viewed under the microscope as a transparent object. In
this way it can be ascertained where the coloring matter flows, or is

disseminated. The annexed figure represents a disk of a hair of the head

Fig. 27.
of Lucy Choate, before referred to.

The anterior termination of pile, in its normal state, is pointed; consequently,

young hairs that have not yet pierced the epidermis are always in that state ; and so

are all hairs that have not been cut or injured. But if the point be removed, that hair

remains for ever after abrupt, and does not grow pointed again, as M. Mandl has
supposed. (See Comptos Rendue, 1845.)
The following figure represents a fragment of the scalp of Big-water, (before referred
to,) with a pointed hair that had not pierced the epidermis.

Fig. 28.

Sometimes this termination is furcated, trifurcated, and even quadrufurcated. The

foUowino- figures exhibit these appearances : — A, represents the bifurcated hair of

the head of a lady of the oval-piled species. B, the bifurcated wool of Congo Billy, a

pure excentrically elliptical. C, the trifurcated hair of a Choctaw Indian. D, the

<|uadrufurcated pile of another Choctaw Indian.

Fig. 29.— D.
 THE INDIAN RACE. 391

Of tlw Follicle of the Hair of the American Indian.

The follicle or root ofpile, improperly called the "bulbe," must next be considered.

The follicle is imbedded in the dermis, and encloses the button, as in the following
figures may be seen. No. 1 shows the follicle and button of an oval-haired man.
No. 2, the same parts of an American Indian. No. 3, those of one of the excentrically
elliptical species.

Fig. 30.—No. 1. Fig. 30.—No. 2. Fig. 30.—No. 3.

Of the Ductility, Elasticity, and Tenacity of Indian Pile.

I have an instrument, of my own invention, with which I can take the ductility,

elasticity,^ and tenacity of pile, at one operation. With this " trichometer " I operated

upon the hair of the pure Chippewa, Ashquagonabe, diameter aig of an inch, (sent by
Mr. Dougherty,) with the following result.

With 320 grains, one inch of it stretched ia of an inch ; elasticity entire.^

" 670 " " -^ " minus in of an inch.

" " " " "
720 -5%

« " « " "

870 f« h%

'
Flexibility of pile includes elasticity ; for instance, when you bend a filament of pile to one side, the fibres
of the other side must elongate, or they would break.
' By this expression is meant that the hair returns to its original dimensions upon the removal of the weight.
It must be recollected that elasticity never exceeds the action, as irritability Joes ; but pile has no irritability.
392 PHYSICAL TYPE OF
With 920 grains, one inch of it stretched U of an inch ; elas. minus U of an inch.
" 970 " " U " " ig
" 1020 « « U « " U
« 1070 « « n " " 18
« " " " "
1120 « Iff

" 1170 it broke.

In order to institute a comparison of this Indian's hair with that of an oval-haired
man, I operated upon the hair of the Hon. John Sergeant, whose diameters are
ihi'X'sh^ah, one half of a cylindrical hair.

With 270 grains, one inch of it stretched -gu of an inch elasticity entire.'
" 290 " " " "
TO
" 330 " " 1^
" "
" 450 " « v\
" "
" 490 " « v'n
" "
" 530 " " ^ " minus ^V of an inch.
" 540 « « " "
v^ v%
" 550 " " " "
v% v%
" 580 " " -5%
" "
"
" 590 " " U " "
"
" 600 " « U " vo
" ^
" 620 " « U "
"
" 630 " « n " ^\
" « «
" 640 n " v%
" 650 " « " "
U
f«
« « "
" 670 " ff U
« « « "
680 " U i!
« " "
U
" 700 " M
" 710 " « .
18
" "
li
" 720 it broke.

The Weight of the Hair of the American Indian.

A fragment of a hair of an Amei'ican Indian, measuring exactly one inch, weighs

5B0 part of a grain.
The specific gravity of the hair of the American Indian is unascertained.

Incineration of the American Indian Hair.

I exposed ten grains of the hair of the head of an American Indian for thirty

minutes to the heat of an anthracite furnace, in a platina crucible ; the residue was a
black turgid mass, somewhat fibrous on the exterior, weighing two grains.

'
See note to preceding page.
 THE INDIAN RACE. 898

Upon being re-exposed to the same heat, in a Dutch crucible, for thirty more
minutes, (during the greater part of the time it was red-hot,) the residue was a black
powder, weighing less than a grain.

Of Albinos among the American Indians.

I have no specimen of the hair of an American Indian Albino ; but notice that
Wafer says that he saw many of them among the native American Indians of the
Isthmus of Darien ; and in Latham's Natural History of the Varieties of Mankind,
p. 395, it is stated that many of the Luni Indians of California are Albinos.

The Polarization of Light with the Hair of the American Indians.

I have not been able to succeed in polarizing light with the hair of the pure
American Indian.

Of Ancient American Indian Hair.

I have in my cabinet ancient Indian hair from the Temple of the Sun, near Lima,
Peru ; from Pachamach, Peru ; from Arica, Peru ; from Pisco, Peru ; from Mexico
and from the interior of Brazil. They are all cylindrical, straight, and lank ; and all,

except the Brazilian, of a very dark-brown color, (having, doubtless, been black :) the
BraziUan hair is black. As far as these specimens go, they tend to show that the
ancient Indians of America (the mound-builders ') were the same species of men as
the present American Indians.
I have some Egyptian mummy hair, presented by Mr. George R. GHddon, and Prof.

John K. Mitchell, M. D., which is oval.

I design to make a more particular examination, and give a minute description of

these ancient hairs at some future time.

'
The mound-builders were the ancestors of the existing Indian race. The theory of there having been
prior races of superior civilization and arts has no countenance from examinations made in this work. —H. R. 8.

pt. ni.— 50
IX. LANGUAGE. B.

(395)
 LANGUAGE.

SYNOPSIS OF PAPERS.

A. CLASSIFICATION OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGES.

1. A Letter, enclosing a Table of Generic Indian Families of Languages. By the late Hon.

Albert Gallatin.
2. A Reply to some of the Historical and Philological Topics of Investigation brought forward
in the foregoing Letter of Mr. Gallatin. By H. R. S.

B. PRINCIPLES OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGES.

3. An Analysis of the Pronominal and Verbal Forms of the Indian Languages ;
proposed by a

distinguished Foreigner. Anonymous.

4. Grammatical Comments on the preceding Queries. By H. R. S.
5. Observations on some of the Indian Dialects of Northern California. By G. Gibbs.

6. New Vocabularies of various Dialects and Languages.

A. CLASSIFICATION OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGES.

1 . A Letter enclosing a Table of Generic Indian 'Families of Languages.

By the late Hon. Albert Gallatin.

New York, 21s!! July, 1846.

Dear Sir : — I am very desirous to obtain vocabularies of the Comanches, Pahi-

Mahas, and other Indian tribes of Texas and head-waters of Ked river and Arkansas,

delegations of which are now at Washington. I do not want that of the Caddoes, nor
(397 ^
398 LANGUAGE.
of any uf the tribes which have been transferred from the eastern to the western side
of the Mississippi.
You may be generally apprized of my labors in that respect, but not of the extent

to which they have been carried. In the year 1826, having already collected many
materials, I applied to the War Department for such information as might have been
collected in the Indian Office; and this being very scanty, the Secretary, at my
request, sent a circular to the Indian agents, enclosing models of vocabularies, select

sentences, and grammatical queries. Mr. Barbour had never attended to that subject,
and was not a philologist. His circular and all the enclosures were drawn by me
and I enclose a printed copy, which, by looking at the notes appended thereto, will
explain the general plan and object for which the queries and sentences were selected.
Should it be deemed useful again to distribute some of these, I may send you about
twenty printed copies still in my bauds. I have none of those designated in the
(urcular as No. 3, which is not material, as it only showed what, at that time, was the
extent of my knowledge on that subject.

Complete, or nearly complete answers were received for the following languages :
—
Mohawk, Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Choctaw, and Caddo; and the late E. James
published a translation of the select sentences in the Ojibwa or Chippewa. Shorter
vocabularies were received from several other quarters by the Department, all which
Avere transmitted to me. I availed myself of all the publications within my reach
of the extensive manuscript collection of vocabularies by Mr. Duponceau ; of those of
the Harvard University ; of the Philadelphia Philosophical Society ; and in fact of every
learned Society in Boston, Worcester, New York, and Philadelphia. The result was,
" The Synopsis of the Indian Tribes of the United States, east of the Rocky Moun-
tains, &c.," published, in 1836, in the 2d volume of the American Antiquarian Society.
To this I presume that I may refer, as I presented a copy to the Congress Library, and
two to the War Department.
Although the vocabularies and grammatical notices of the few above-mentioned
tril)es were inserted at large in that Synopsis, I was, in preparing a general comparar
live vocaljulary, obliged to reduce the large one first proposed, to one of 180 words for
fifty-three tribes. Miscellaneous, but still extensive vocabularies were added for about
twenty other tribes.

Since that time, I had ceased to attend to that subject, and had received no other
additional information but complete vocabularies of the Black-Feet and of the Upsa-
rokas or Crows, communicated by Mr. Kenneth M'Kenzie, the agent of the St. Louis
Fur Company, who has resided near twenty years at the mouth of the Yellow Stone
river. But Mr. Hale, the Philologist of the Exploring Expedition, has now supplied
us with vocabularies of every tribe of the Oregon Territory withm the late treaty
boundaries of the United States, besides useful information respecting the languages of
the tribes of California and of those north of Fuca's Straits. He has also obtained
 LANGUAGE. 399

languages
from the missionaries, abridged grammars of tliree of the most important
and he has adopted my own vocabuLary of 180 words, which greatly facil-
of Oregon ;

the languages of that region with those of the Indians east of

itates the comparison of

the Stony Mountains.

Encouraged by this great accession, I am preparing for the press, 1st, a general, but

stillvery incomplete view of the grammar or structure of the several languages of

tlie

examined, seem to leave no

aborigines of America which, as far as they have
;
been
race 2d, a comparative vocabulary of the languages
doubt of the general unity of that :

tribes within the United States and north of their northern

boundaries ; to
of the
enabled to add specimens of those of California from the 32d to the 2d
4
which I am
I may hereafter submit to you some observations
respecting the
degree of latitude.
mode of obtaining more complete information respecting the
grammars, and will now

with a single exception, (at least so far as T know,) recourse must be

only say, that,
had for that purpose to the missionaries, who alone have a sufficient motive for study-
whom have the sufficient education and
ing those difficult languages, and but few of
talent to perform the task successfully. The exception is that of the Ojibwa language,

of which Mr. Schoolcraft, owing to particular circumstances, is able, if he can devote

to give a full and satisfactory grammar. At present it is only to the

his time to it,

vocabularies that I wish to draw your attention.

Of all the tribes within the United States, now or formerly li\'ing east of the Mis-

sissippi, I want the vocabularies of only three small ones, the Piankeshaw, which I
the Aliba-
know to be a dialect of the Miami, and two tribes of about 300 souls each,
at least a diffi?rent
mous and the Coosadas, incorporated with the Creeks, but speaking
dialect, if not language. Although the Seminoles are well known to the Muscogces,
they may, and probably do speak a distinct dialect, of which it would be det^irable
to have a vocabulary.
The only west of the Stony Mountains are with respect to Indians
deficiencies
to Russian and
north of the United States, and for supplying which I must apply
English authorities.
Where I am most defective is in the south-western portion of the country, between
of Texas, and those
the Mississippi and the Eocky Mountains, principally the tribes
of Red river and of the Arkansas river, south of the Pawnees
roving on the head-waters
and west of the Caddoes. I beg, therefore, leave to repeat my request that vocabularies

may be obtained of the languages of the Indian tribes from that quarter,
now at

Washington, principally of the Camanches and Pani-Mahaws.

I enclose, for that purpose, a short vocabulary of about
sixty-eight words, which I
which is extracted from that
have generally adopted for my intended publication, and
of 180 words. I have added the 112 words, which, together with the sixty-eight,
also
complete the said large vocabulary. The location or rango of the several tribes is

respectfully requested.
400 LANGUAGE.
I also enclose a general synopsis of the Indian tribes embraced in my plan, arranged

into families of language and languages, according to their vocabularies, and geogra-
phically, as they respectively stood when first coming into contact with the Europeans.
It may not be so fully understood without a map and explanations. But you will

perceive that I have vocabularies of more than 100 languages, reducible to about forty
families. Eight or ten of these cover nineteen-twentieths of the whole territory.

As this, if I live long enough to complete it, will be my last contribution to that

object, I naturally feel anxious to make it as full and as useful to those who may
succeed me, as possible. Permit me to add, that although I derived great assistance

from the materials collected, as above stated, by the War Department, the only expense
incurred by government was that of printing the circular and forms of the vocabularies
and grammatical queries which I have enclosed. I ask now for no other but analo-
gous assistance. I will publish the work at my own risk and expense. Should it

hereafter appear to be useful for the public service, to distribute copies amongst the
agents of the Indian Department, it may then subscribe for the necessary number.
I pray you to be kind enough to acknowledge the receipt of this communication,
and I have the honor to remain, respectfully,

Dear Sir,

W. Medill, Esq. Your obedient servant,

Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Albert Gallatin.
Washington.

Excuse the erasures, &c. I write with difBculty, and have at this moment no
amanuensis. — A. G.
 SYNOPSIS OF INDIAN TRIBES.

A. NORTHEEN, EXTENDING FROM THE ATLANTIC TO THE PACIFIC OCEAN.

EAST OF ROCKY MODNTAINS. WEST OF ROCKY MODNTAINS.

Eskimaux... Greenland. 3. Kotzebue's Sound... ? t> i.

I. 1.
^Behnngs o*_
• > •..
Straits.
Labrador.* 4. Tshuktchi
II. Athapaccas. 2. Hudson's Bay. 5. Kadiac Island, N. W. coast America.
Churchill's river, Hudson's Bay.* 8. Tahculi or Carriers (Harmon and Hale).
Copper Mine river,* &c. 9. Kenai, Cook's Inlet.
6. Cheppeyans. 10. Tlascani, near mouth of Columbia (Hale).
7. Sussees. 11. Umquas, south of do. (Hale).
Loucheux,* mouth Mackenzie's R., d'tful.

B. EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI.

Families.
402 LANGUAGE.

C. BETWEEN THE MISSISSIPPI AND THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.

Families.
 LANGUAGE. 403-

2. A Reply to some of the Historical and Philological

TOPICS OF Investigation brought forward in the fore-
going Letter of Mr. Gallatin.

Mr. Gallatin's efforts, in 1S4G, to obtain from the government a renewal of the
facilities for collecting vocabularies, which had been awarded to him in 1826, were not
Ijroductive of the success he had hoped, and to which they were entitled. His letter

was not, I believe, even answered. The gentleman to whom it was addressed had
given no attention to philological inquiries, and its importance was not appreciated ;

added to which, the era Avas one of official excitement, owing to the (then) recent

outbreak of the Mexican war, in consequence of which, the letter was probably over-
looked. However this may be, when I came into the office, early in 1847, I could not
find the letter, a friend having called my attention to its existence ; but it was referred

to me, late in December, 1848, as being pertinent to the subject of my inquiries.

The .synopsis of tribes enclosed in the letter of Mr. Gallatin, exhibits thirty-seven
families of language as occupying the continent north of the southern boundary line

of the United States, as it existed in 1846, extending from the Pacific to the Atlantic.
Of these generic families, vocabularies are requested to be furnished of but 'seventeen

tribes east of the Stony Mountains, extending northwardly through British America
to the shores of the Arctic ocean, and thence through Behring's Straits, along the .

Pacific coasts, to the mouth of the Columbia river.

Information is also solicited of the languages of the tribes occupying the south-

western angle of the United States, lying on the sources of the Arkansas and Red
rivers, and the plains of Texas.
With respect to the region west of the Mississippi, full vocabularies have been
obtained, from authentic sources, which are now published, of the languages of the
Arapahoe and Cheyenne, two warlike tribes who occupy the sources of the Platte and
Red rivers. A vocabulary of the Comanches of Texas, of 19.3 words, furnished by Mr.
Neighbors, and published in Part II. of this report, shows that leading tribe to speak
a language closely cognate with the Snakes, Bonacks, and Shoshonees of the Rocky
Mountains. Of the minor tribes of the Wacoes, Keechies, Towacoros, Lipans, Ionics,
and Anduicos, of Texas, we are still without vocabularies.
The Gros Ventres of the upper Missouri, the eleventh family of Mr. Gallatin's table,
are decided to be Minnetarees. The Minnetarees themselves, the sixty-first of his

Sioux family, (both Minnetarees proper, and Minnetarees of the Willows, with the
Mattasoons, or Ahahaways, of the Missouri,) are Upsarokas.
In the report' of Lieutenant J. W. Abert, United States Army, published in 1848,

a vocabulary of 226 words is given of the Cheyenne language, with its numerals to
twenty, an.d its decimals to 100. It is perceived that the latter differ wholly from the

'
Ex. Doc. 4i.
404 LANGUAGE.
Sioux, presenting some miil.ed analogies with the Algonquin numerals, but less

striking resemblances to its general vocabulary. In 1851, a full vocabulary of this

language, agreeably to the printed formula used in these collections, was obtained of
the delegation that visited Washington, and is hereto annexed, (D.) It is perceived

that it possesses the Algonquin pronominal sign of the first person, in its compound
terms. It is characterized, as a distinct dialect, by the frequent use of the letter v.

This letter is sometimes apparently employed in its interchangeable form, and also
sometimes for I. The withdrawal of this dialect from Mr. Gallatin's table, where it

is marked doubtful, is required. Col. W. H. Emory, United States Topographical

Engineers, has transmitted a valuable vocabulary of 150 words of the ancient Pimo
language of the valley of the Gila river, which is recorded in this volume.
By the vocabulary of the Arapahoes (E), now submitted, it is perceived to be a
cognate dialect of the Cheyenne. It has the distinctive sound of v ; it also possesses

the Algonquin pronominal sign of the first person, and coincides strikingly in its

numerals. This tribe, which numbers some 2500 souls, is not noticed in Mr. Gallatin's
table, or in his letter. Our acquaintance with the tribes at the base of the Stony
Mountains is becoming more intimate every year, and we must soon be in possession
of complete information for attempting their final classification.
The Piankeshaws, to whom allusion is made, formerly lived on the Wabash river,

and are one of the three divisions of the Miamies, into which the policy of Captain
Wells, the Agent, after the close of the Indian war, in 1793, decided the recognition
by the United States of the Miami nation.
The "Alibamous" are, agreeably to Le Clerc Milfort, an integral part of the
Muscogee nation. They are represented as such by So-ko-pe-chi, an aged Creek chief,

who, in 1848, reported their historical traditions to Mr. D. W. Eakins. (Vide Vol. I.,

p. 265.) Agreeably to this authority, the "Coosadas" were a part of the original
Creek stock who lived on the Coosa and Tuscaloosa branches of the Alabama river.

Benjamin Marshall, the second chief of the Creek nation, who visited Wasliington, with

a delegation of his people, in 1848, told me that the confederacy consisted, originally,
of Muscogees, Alabamas, Hitchetees, and some other bands or tribes, who, although
having dialectic difier^uces, spoke and understood one language ; and that this lan-

guage had the same general principles and sounds, excejit the elements of the Utchce
and Natchez, (VIII. and IX. of Mr. Gallatin's tables.) who were conquered and incor-

porated tribes.
By a vocabulary of the Seminole (F), collected by Captain J. C. Casey, U. S. A.,

this language is shown to be pure Muscogee. With amjile opportunities for deciding

the question, having been several years on official duty in Florida, he pronounces it

identical.

The Catawbas continue to be regarded as speaking a separate and distinct language.

Tradition, —which is put on record in Paper IX. of the section on Tribal Organization,
 LANGUAGE. 405

History, and Government, of the present volume (Vol. III.), — represents this tribe as

having originated in the west and north. They are stated to have been driven south
by the infuriated hostility of tlie Iroquois, and to have formed an alliance, eventually,
with the Cherokees, after having encouutei'ed that tribe in a sanguinary battle on the
grounds of their residence in the upper parts of South Carolina. This tradition traces
them as high as the Conawango fork of the Alleghany river and the banks of Lake
Erie, and we feel a confidence in stating that in this rapidly-declining tribe, now chiefly

in North Carolina, we behold the remnant of the defeated, long-lost, and celebrated
tribe of the Eries.' Mr. Jefterson, in his Notes on Virginia, states that the Eries were
driven by the Six Nations from the Ohio valley —a remark which appears to be

founded mainly on information contained in the "Geographical Analysis" of Lewis

Evans, published by Dr. Franklin, in Philadelphia, in 1754.
The enlargvuK lit of the boundaries of the United States, by New Mexico, southern
Utah, and California, has greatly increased and complicated the classification of the
Indian languages. And what seemed near the point of accomplishment in 1846, by the
collection of a few wanting vocabularies and grammars, is still a work which will require

time and labor. Fortunately', with the extension of our military posts, and the opera-
tions of tlie Indian Bureau in these regions, the me^ns of our information are rapidly
extended. In 1848, Lieutenant Whipple, U. S. Topographical Engineers, collected a
vocabulary of 217 words of the Yuma or Cuchan language of California. (Vol. II.,

p. 118. Nearly full vocabularies of the Cusha and Costos languages of central Cali-
fornia have been furnished by A. Johnson, United States Agent. (Vol. II., p. 404
to 508.)
Original vocabularies of three hundred and fift}^ words each have been published, on
uniform principles of orthography, of eight languages of the Algonquin grou]), and of
four of the Iroquois group ; in which, besides their fulness, the pronouns are carefully
distinguished from the verbs and substantives. Our means of comparison is further
enlarged by the Comanche, Sasitka, and other vocabularies, now exhibited. It is

designed to record, in like manner, in the future numbers of this work, complete
vocabularies, collected on uniform principles, of every important language in the
United States.
An expedition was authorized by the Indian Office, in 1851, to visit the tribes
of California situated north of the bay of San Francisco and west of the Sacra-
mento, extending to the boundary of Oregon Territory. George Gibbs, Esq.,
whose services were secured for that occasion, kept a journal of this expedition,
which is published in § IV., Physical Geography of the Indian Country. The
collected vocabularies of fifteen of the Indian tribes of that region are embraced
in the present volume. These have been collected by Mr. Gibbs. By this

'
Erie appears to be a Wyandot term, received and perpetuated, with clision.s, bj the French.
406 LANGUAGE.
accession, our meaus of judging of the native tongues of California are greatly
enlarged.
One of the most important additions to our recent vocabularies of the Indian lan-
guages, consists of the Mandan. Causes, which are not difficult to be imagined, had
prevented our obtaining any vocabulary at all of the language of this tribe. Mr.
Gallatin extracted a few names of chiefs from an Indian treaty concluded with that
tribe, on the Missouri, in 1825. These names were evidently, in part, a mixture of
Sioux and Minnetaree, and afforded no certain means of comparison. Mr. Kipp, who
transmitted the vocabulary of the Mandan, which is now for the first time published,
and who has long been practically f\iniiliar v/ith it, is of opinion that it is radically

different both from the Dacotah and the Minnetaree.

A vocabulary from the ancient line of Spanish discovery on the Eio Grande, has
been recently obtained from the delegation of Pueblo Indians, from Tusuque on the
Rio Grande. Many of the words in this vocabulaiy are monos^-Uabic, and suggest a
connection with Asiatic stocks, in which this feature is prominent.
Comparisons of the vocabularies of the ancient Indian languages of the continent,
with each other, and with yet-existing remnants of those stocks, denote the Pamptico
of North Carolina to have been a dialect of the Algonquin. No resemblances exist
between the Tuscarora, as spoken in that State at an early period, and the Woccoa.
But there are striking coincidences between the latter and the Catawba, giving con-
firmation to the historical opinion expressed by Mr. Lewis Evans and Mr. Jefferson, of

the retirement of the defeated Eries from the Ohio valley into North Carolina; and lead-
ing observers to conclude that this withdrawal arose from ancient and still-remembered
affinities of blood and language.
In addition to these accessions to our means of information, forms of vocabularies
and historical queries have been extensively distributed among persons of intelligence
in Texas, New Mexico, and Oregon, who are engaged in the service of the govern-
ment in those parts of the Union, as well as in other quarters; embracing the west
base of the Nevada, the elevated plains of New Mexico, and the Rocky Mountains
and the expectation is confidently entertained that the results will materially tend
to advance ethnological science. ^ Scanty and imperfect as our materials still are on
this subject, we can hardly hope to establish a general classification of those various
tribes within the Union which shall have a permanent character, until the record of
our vocabularies obtains more completeness.
The desire to classify the American languages, is an object of high intellectual
attainment. Every attemj)t of this kind is meritorious, and the literary public is under
deep obligations to every laborer in this field. It requires, however, materials which
were certainly not in existence in 183G, wlien the distinguished observer, to whose
letter this is, in part, a response, undertook it; nor have such materials yet been
''oUected. We cannot erect the edifice till these materials are accumulated ; and our
 LANGUAGE. 407

first duty is still demanded in rendering tLis preliminary labor ample and reliable.

It is a proof of the devotion and assiduity with which Mr. Gallatin commenced, in
his retirement, these researches, that the arduous pursuit of etymology, alone, with-

out a practical acquaintance with the languages, led him to offer the outlines

exhibited. Generalizations were difficult, and misconceptions in some of the details

inevitable, under the circumstances. It is by no means probable that the num-

ber of generic families is as great as it is represented. Principles of a more
generic character, in the root-forms of the vocabularies, the mutable sounds of the
vowels, and their effects upon the interchangeable consonants, in j uxtaposition, require

more enlarged groups of languages; discrepancies melt away under the power of
analysis; and the signs of the pronouns alone, draw into generic circles, languages
which have no other trace of affiliation. H. E. S.

B. PRINCIPLES OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGES.

2. An Analysis of Pronominal and Verbal Forms of the Indian
Languages, in the Exhibition of "Words and Forms of
Speech, prepared with a view to obtain their Equiva-
lents in various Indian Dialects."

One Un.
Two Deux.
Three Trois.

Four Quatre.
Five Cinq.
Six SLx.

Seven Sept.

Eight Huit.
Nine Neuf.
Ten Dix.
An Indian Un Indien.
A man Un homrae.
A woman Une femme.
A shoe Un Soulier.

A gun Un fusil.

I Je.
Thou Tu.
He H.
We (thou and I) Nous (tu et moi).
408 LANGUAGE.
We (lie and I) Nous (il et moi).

Ye Vous.
They Us.

This Indian Get Indien ci.

That Indian Get Indien 1^.

These Indians Ges Indiens.

Those Indians Ges Indien 1^.

This shoe Ce Soulier.

That gun Ge fusil.

These shoes Ges souliers.

Those guns Ges fusils.

"Which man? Lequel homme?

Which Indians? Quels Indiens?
Which gun? Quel fusil?
Which guns? Quels fusils?
Who (singular) ? Qui (singuUer) ?

Who (plural) ? Qui (pluriel) ?

Who gave it to him? Qui le lui adonn6 ?

Whom did he give it to? A qui I'a-til donn6?

What (thing) ? Quel (chose) ?

My son Mon fils.

My sons Mes fils.

His son Son fils.

His sons Ses fils.

Our (thy and my) son Notu (ton et mon) fils.

Our (his or her and my) sons . . . Nos (ses et mes) fils.

He is good II est ton (une personne).

It is good II est bon (une chose).
He is Tiot good II n'est pas bon (une personne).

It is not good II n'est pas bon (une chose).

That he may be good Qu'it soit bon (une personne).
That it may be good Qu'it soit bon (une chose).
He is arrived (by water) II est arriv6 (peur I'eau).

It is arrived (as a boat) II est arrive (comme un bateau).

I love him Je I'aime.
He loves me H m'aime.

I see him Je le vols.

He sees me II me voit.

I bring him Je I'amene.

I bring it Je I'apporte.
 LANGUAGE. 409

I bring it for him Je I'apporte pour lui.

He brings it for me II Tapporte pour moi.

I see him Je le vois.

I see his son Je vois son fils.

He lives II vit.

He causes him to live H le fait vivre.

He sees himself II se voit.

I hurt him Je lui fais mal.

I hurt myself Je me blesse.

I kill him Je le tue.

I kill a moose Je tue un cerf.

He kills himself II se tue.

He kills him for himself 11 le tue pour lui meme.

He kills it for himself II le tue pour lui meme.
They kill one another lis atrient I'un et I'autre.

They love one another II s'aiment I'un et I'autre.

They kill for one another H trient pour I'un et I'autre.

He drinks II boit.

He drinks often II boit souvent.

He walks II marche.
He is a great walker H marche beaucoup.
He steals H vole.

He is a thief II est un voleur.

I love him Je I'aime.

I do not love him Je ne I'aime pas.

He loves me II m'aime.
He does not love me II ne m'aime pas.
I love it Je I'aime.

I do not love it Je ne I'aime pas.

A husband Un raari.

I have a husband J'ai un mari.

I have not a husband Je n'ai pas un mari.
He is asleep II dort.

He feigns to be asleep H fait semblant de dermis.

He is drunk II est enivre.

He feigns to be drunk II fait semblant d'etre enivr^.

I suppose he is asleep Je suppose qu'il est endormit.
I suppose he is living Je suppose qu'il est vivant.

A snow shoe Un Soulier a niege.

I am snow shoe making Je fais dis souliers a ni^ge.
Pt. III.— 52
410 LANGUAGE.
I am a man Je suis un homme.
I am a woman Je suis une femme.
He lives II vit.

Life La vie.

He walks II se promene.
He walks a little II se promene un peu.
He eats II mange.
He eats a little II mange un peu.
Where art thou? Ou est tre?

Here I am Je suis ici.

Where is he ? Ou est il ?

He is here II est ici.

Where is his son? Oil est son fils?

His son is here Son fils est ici.

His son is not here Son fils n'est pas ici.

Where is my gun? Ou est mon fusil?

It is here II est ici.

It is not here II n'est pas ici.

Where is his gun? Oil est son fusil?

His gun is here Son fusil est ici.

His gun is not here Son fusil n'est pas ici.

Where do you put him ? Oil le mettez vous (une personne) ?

Where do you put it ? Oil le mettez vous (une chose) ?

I put him here Je le mets ici (une personne).

I put it here Je le mets ici (une chose).
I laid it here Je le pose ici.

He sits n est assis.

He lies II est couch6.

He goes II va.

Whence comes he? D'oir vient il.

Whither goes he ? Oil vient il.

A lake Un lac.

At the lake Au lac.

He comes from the lake II vient du lac.

He goes to the lake II va au lac.

How (what manner) ? Comment (dans quelle memiere) ?

When (past) ? Quand (pass6) ?

When (future)? Quand (futur) ?
Where? Oii?
How much ? Combien ?
 LANGUAGE. 4U
It is cold weather II fait froid.

It is hot weather II fait chaud.

A tent Une tente.

My tent Ma tente.

Thy tent Ta tente.

His tent Sa tente.

Our (thy and my) tent Notre (ta et ma) tente.

Our (his and my) tent Notre (sa et ma) tente.

Your tent Votre tente.

Their tent Leur tente.

At the tent A la tente.

At my tent A ma tente.
At thy tent A ta tente.
At his tent A sa tente.
At our (thy and my) tent A notre (ta et ma) tente.

At our (his and my) tent A notre (sa et ma) tente.

At your tent A votre tente.

At their tent A leur tente.
From the tent De la tente.

Yes Oui.

No .• • • Non.
I press him (with my hand) . . . . Je le presse (avec ma n^u-in) une personne.
I press it (with my hand) Je le presse (avec ma main) une chose.
I press him (with my foot) . . . . Je le presse (avec mon pied) une personne.
I press it (with my foot) Je le presse (avec mon pied) une chose.
I press him. (with my mouth) . . . Je le presse (avec ma bouche) une personne.
I press it {ynth. my mouth) . . . . Je le presse (avec ma bouche) une chose.
I press him (with force) Je le presse (avec force) une personne.
I press it (with force) Je le presse (avec force) une chose.
I blush Je rougis.
I cause him to blush Je le fais rougis.

I am ashamed J'ai honte.

I cause him to be ashamed (by my con-

duct) Je lui fais honte (par ma conduite)

I cause him to be ashamed (by my loords). Je lui fais honte (par mes paroles).
He says II dit.

I say to him Je lui dis.

He says to me H me dit.

I say to them Je leur dis.

They say to me lis me disent.

412 LANGUAGE.

Replies, in the Ojibwa Language, to the Preceding Analytical Forms.

Qjjgi Ningo che wa. (Paizhic.)

Two Neezh wa. (Neezh.)

Nis wa. (Nis-wa.)
'Plij.ee

Four Ne win.
Pive Nah nun.
gjx Ningoot was wa.
geven Neezh was wa.
Eight Shwas wa.
Nine Shon gus wa. (Shong.)

Ten Quaitch. (Metass-wa.)

An Indian Pai-zhik un nishinarba - - - -

A man Innini.

A woman Equa.

A shoe Muckasin.
^ gun Paush ki-ze gun.

I Neen.
Thou Keen.
He Ween
We (thou and I) Kena wind. (Keen gia neen.)

We (he and I) Kena wind. (Ween gia neen.) -

Ye Keenah wa.
They Weenah wa.
This Indian Mah-bah unnishinah-ba.
That Indian Ah owh unnishinah-ba.

These Indians Ogoowh unnishinah-baig.

Those Indians Ah gwee unnishinah-baig.

This shoe Mahn dan muckasin.
That gun Mahn dan paush ki-ze gun.
These shoes Mah min muckasenan.
Those guns Mah min paush ki-ze gun un.
Which man? Ah wa neen innini?
Which Indians? Ah-wa-na-nug unnishinah-baig?
Which gun? Wa go ^^^^ paush ki-ze gun?

Which guns ? Wa go nain paush ki-ze gun un ?

Who? (singular.) Ah wa nain?

Who? (plural.) Ah wa naisug?

The first equivalents, in enumeration, are the running and quick mode of counting.
 LANGUAGE. •
413

Who gave it to him? Ah wa nain kah me naud?

Whom did he give it to? Ah wa nain un kah me nah gin?
What (thing) ? Wa go nain (ahyche) ?

My son Ningwis.
My sons Ningwis-ug.
His son Oguis.
His sons Oguisun.
Our (thy and my) son Keen ah wind (kegwis gia neen) ningwis.
Our (his or her and my) sons . . . Keen ah wind (ween gia neen) ningAvis-ug.
He is good Mino bemah tezie 5.

It is good Ohnishe shin "

He is not good Kah ween menobemah tezie^ee - - 6.

It is not good Kah ween obnishe shin see non - - "

That lie may be good Ah pay dush menobemah tezid.

That it may be good Ah pay dush onisheshing.
He is arrived (by water) Keme shaw-gah.
It is arrived (as a boat) Kepah gah mish kah (me tigo chemaun).
I love him Ni sah gee ahn 7.

He loves me Ni sah gee ig --.---.-"

I see him Ni wah bahnahn.
He sees me Ni wah bahnig 8.

I bring him Nim be nahn.

I bring it Nimbetou 9.

I bring it for him Nim be tah wah "

He brings it for me Nim be tang ----------

I see him Newah bah mahn.
I see his son Newah bah mahn oguisau.
He lives Pemah tezie.
He causes him to live Ween oh be mah je aun - - - - 10.
He sees himself Wah bandizo.
I hurt him Newe sah gain dah me ah.
I hurt myself Newe sah gain dah e diz.

I kill him Nenisah 11;

I kill a moose Nenisah monze.
He kills himself Nisah de zo --------- 12.
He kills him for himself Onetamazonan 13.
He kills it for himself Onetah mah dizonan.
They kill one another Ween ah wah nisiotewug - - - - 14.
They love one another Ween ah wah sah gee iotewug - - 15.
They kill for one another Mah maysko nisetah mah te wug.
414 LANGUAGE. ^

He drinks Minequa.
He drinks often Ween mo zhug minequa - - - - 16.

He walks Ween pimosa.

He is a great walker Ween gitche netah pimosa.
He steals Ween kemotie.
He is a thief Ween kemotish kee.
I love him Nin sah gee ah'n 17.
I do not love him Kah ween neen ne sah gee ah see - "
He loves me Ween nin sah gee ig ----- "
He does 7wt love me Ween kah ne sah ge igo see - - - "
I love it Nin sah gee ton "

I do not love it Kah ween nin sah gee to seen - - "

A husband Wa nah ba me mind 18.
I have a husband Nin dah yah wah nin nah bame - "
I have not a husband Neen kah we vah nenah bame - - "
He is asleep Ween nebah.
He feigns to be asleep Ween neba kah zo.
He is drunk Ween kewush qua be.
He feigns to be drunk Ween kewush qua be kah zo.
I suppose he is asleep Nindcnain dum nezah.
I suppose he is living Nindenain dum pemah tize.
A snow shoe Ahgim.
I am snow shoe making Niudah gee me kay.
I am a man Nin de ni ni-ive ------- 19.
I am a woman ~
. . Nin de qua we "

He lives Pemah tize.

Life Pemah the-ioin- ------- 20.

He walks Ween pemosa.

He walks a little Ween pungie pemosa.
He eats Ween wesenie.
He eats a little Ween pungie wesinie.
Where art thou? Ah nin de ah yah yan? - . - - 21.

Here I am Oh oh raahn niudah yah - - - - "

Where is he? Ah nin de ah yaud?- ----- '•

He is here Oh oh mahn ali yah "

Where is his son? Ah nin de ouguisau ah yah nid? - "

His son is here Oguisan oh oh mahn ah yah Avun - "

His son is not here Oguisan kah omah ah yah see wun - "
Where is mi/ gun ? Ah neen de nim pash kize gun ?

It is here Oh ow a taig 22.

 LANGUAGE. 415

It is not here Kah ween oh mah ah tay see non - 22.

Where is his gun? Ah neen di ween opash kezegan?

His gun is here Ween opash keze gun ahyah nee - 23.

His gun is not here Ween opash keze gun kah omah ahyah
senini - 24.

Where do you put him ? Ah neen de ah said ?

Where do you put it? Ah neen de ah toyan?
I put him here Omah nin dah sah.
I put it here Omah nin dah ton.
I laid it here Omah nin ge ah ton.
He sits Ween nah mah dah be.
He lies Ween shinge shin.
He goes Ween mah chah 24.

Whence comes he? Ah neen de ween wainjebaud?

Whither goes he ? Ah neen de azhe mah chaud ?
A lake Sah gah e gan.

At the lake Sah gah e gan ing 25.

He comes from the lake Ween sah gah e gan ing onjebah.
He goes to the lake Ween sah gah e gan Lng ezhaw.
How (what manner) ? Ah neen kah e zhe way buk? or, In what
way did it take place ?

When (past) ? Ah neen ah pee kah e zhe way buk ? or

When did it occur ?

When (future) ? Ah neen ah pee wah e zhe way buk ? or

When will it occur ?

Where ? Ah neen de ?

How much ? Ah neen menik ?

It is cold weather Ke sinah wain dah gwut.

It is hot weather Ke zha tay wain dah gwut.
'A tent Pe bah ge wah yahn ay gamig - 26.

My tent Nin pe bah ge wah yahn ay gamig - "

Thy tent Kee pe bah ge wah yahn ay gamig - "

His tent Ween ope bage wah yahn ay gamig - "
Our (thy and my) tent Keen ah wind (keen gia neen nin) pe

bah ge wah yahn ay gamig.

Our (his and my) tent Keen ah wind (ween gia neen nim) pe
bah ge wah yahn ay gamig.
Your tent Keen kepe bah gee way yahn ay gamig.
Their tent Ween ah wah oh be bag ge wah yahn
ay gamigowah.
416 LANGUAGE.
At the tent Pe bah ge wah yahn ay ga megong.
At my tent Nim pe bah ge wah yahn ay gah
\mg-ong 27.

At thy tent Keen kepe bah ge wah yahn ay gah

vai^-ong - "

At his tent Ween ope bah ge wah yahn ay gah

meg-o?j(/
"

At our (thy and my) tent Kepe bu ge wah yahn ay gah voigon-ong
(keen gia neen) kepe huge wah
yahn ay gah migonan - - - - "
At our (his and my) tent Keen ah wind (ween gia neen) nim pe
bah ge wah yahn ay gah mig - "
At your tent Kepe bah ge wah yahn ay gah meg-on^ "
At their tent Obe bage wah yahn ay gah megow-
ong -- "
From the tent Onje pebah ge wah yahn ay gah meg-
ong "
Yes Aih.
No Kah ween.
I press Mm my hand) ....
(with Neninging nemah gonahn.
I press it (with my hand) . . . . . Neninging nemah gonon.
I press him (with my foot) .... Nesit ang nemah goosh kah wah.
I press it (with my foot) Nesit ang nemah goosh kan.
I press him (with my mouth) . . . Nindoniug nemah goosh kah wah.
I press it (with my mouth) .... Nindoning nemah goosh kau.
I press him (with force) Mush kah we ze wining nemah goosh
kah wah.
I press it (with force) Mush kah we ze wining nemah goosh kau.
I blush Nin dah gach.
I cause him to blush Neen sah nin do dah wah ahyah gid.

I am ashamed Nemain e saindam.

I cause him to be ashamed (by my con- Neen sah nin dotah wah may nesaindang
duct) onje nin de zhe way bosewin.
I cause him to be ashamed (by my words). Neen sah nin dotah wah may nesaindang
onje ne keke towinan.

He says Ween ekedo.

I say to him Neen nin de nah.

He says to me Ween nin dig.
T say to them Ween ah wah ninde nang.
They say to me Ween ah wah ninde goog.
 LANGUAGE. 417

4. Grammatical Comments on the preceding Analytical

Forms.

In these forms the French equivalents are added, with the view of more precisely
defining the forms themselves. Much reliance is had, in the Indian country, on persons
acting as interpreters, to whom the French is a vernacular language. The replies are

given, therefore, first in the French, and afterwards in the Ojibwa language.
1. There is no definite article in the language. The term pai-zhik stands for the
numeral " one," and is employed also in the sense of " an."

2. This inquiry is put as if with a knowledge, in the interrogator, that the Indian
language was wanting in the third person feminine. Such is the fact. The nomina^
tive, being a true epicene, requires no gender to be expressed by the objective. It is

completely satisfied, in its grammatical functions, by an indication of organic or

inorganic life — thus merging the distinction of gender. Gesenius says there was no
distinction in the third person among the Hebrews, in the era of the Pentateuch.
3. The inquiries do not bring out the duplicate " we," which exists in the language.
" Thou and I," and " he and I," are, respectively, keenowind, which means a plurality
of persons, consisting, in the order of thought, of " you or ye," (any plural number,) and
" myself." This is the inclusive form of " we." If it be intended to exclude himself,
the speaker employs the word neenowind, meaning " ye or you," (any plural number,)
without himself. This is the exclusive we " of the Ojibwa language.
'•'

The " we " is, therefore, inclusive or exclusive of the speaker ; and may include or
exclude two, or an indefinite number of persons. This principle is carried through-

out all the conjugations of the verbs. Is there any tiling in the Asiatic languages
like it?

4. Here the demonstrative pronoun " who," takes the ordinary inflection ug for plural.

5. The distinction between the two great animate and inanimate classes of nature,

the leading principle of the language, is here made by radically separate words. The
full meaning of the translated phrase is. He is a good person, and, It is a good thing.
6. The negative, in these senses, is conveyed by the particle " see," which is under-
stood.

The object that is sought by these questions is attained by the Indians without the
introduction of separate pronouns at all. " I, you, he," and " she," are expressions
avoided by the use of the personal term, izzi. Mino is the animate form of the adjec-
tive " good." Emah is, apparently, from ieah, which is declarative of existence. Tezie
is from izzi.

The same object is effected in the case of the neutral pronoun "it," which is superseded
by the impersonal term atta; or, in other cases, by the employment (as here seen; of im-
personal adjectives, as onisheshin, a word meaning that an inanimate substance is good.

Pt. III. — 53
418 LANGUAGE.
"He and it" are terms, therefore, which eaniiot be shown in apposition, in this

language, in the forms supposed.

7. '-Or her." The only genderic distinction, in the objective of the conjugations, is

between the personal and impersonal forms as a class. The infinitive of the verb, in

this instance, is saug. Before this word the indicative requires the personal pronouns
" I, thou, and he, or she," to be always prefixed. Ne is the pronoun " I," in this case.

Two increments of the compound are thus supplied :

" I love." To denote the object

requires a third increment, which is given in ah ; or, as the vowel is sometimes heard,
the broader sound of au. This denotes person, without indicating sex ; and is

equivalent to " him or her." This inflection appears to be a derivative from ieau, the
great leading verb of this language, meaning, as it is variously apphed, life, existence,

or vital possession, &c. To make this inflection coalesce with the infinitive saug,

euphony requires the connective e. The n final is the sign of the third person. Thus
we have the expression complete in ne-saug-e-ah-n, I-love-a-person- (he)
Reverse the action of the verb, and the objective member of it governs the phrase
namely, ne-saug-e-ig. Ig is an abbreviation, or short mode of pronouncing igoo, or

igieu, " them, those persons ;"

and when thus shortened, means one of their number : it

is equivalent to the pronoun " he," and the phrase must be literally construed back-
wards, —not ne-saug-e-ah, I love him ; but ne-saug-e-ig, me he loves.

8. Precisely the same pronominal principles are shown in the verb " to see." Its

radix is wahb or waub. "Wahbahm means "he sees (a person)," ah denotes the third
person, and the letter n is the objective sign of the third person.
9. The infinitive of the verb to bring, is neemb. The personal class of objects is

made by the inflection ah ;

(sometimes written au or aw.) The third person is

denoted by the ordinary sign n. The impersonal class of objects is made by toan.

Each of these inflections requires the connective vowel e.

10. The causative verb majeaun, is merely preceded by the full term for the third

person, ween, and the prepositional term obe thrown between.

11. Nisah, verb to kill. 12. Ezo, himself.

13. The preposition "for" does not exist as a separate word, or at all, I believe, in

the language.
14. De signifies the orifice of the alimentary canal. It is employed, in compound
terms, for the vital system. Hence nisi, to kill generally ; de, to Idll by entering the
vital system Ug is the ordinary animate plural of nouns ending in the vowel u,
in which sense it signifies " they," and answers to the pronoun singular, ween.

15. By prefixing the infinitive of the verb to love, (saug,) to the vital particle de,

and adding the plural wug, the same reciprocal action is given to the verb.
16. Mozh-ug is the adjective "often." Minequa, "he drinks;" wt'cn, "the third
person." The order of thought is, " he often drinks."

17. This question has been before put. The negative is made by the particle see

for the personal forms, which take an n in the impersonal " it."
 LANGUAGE. 419

18. Narbaini appears to bo the disassociate tei"in for liusljaiid. It has its root mani-
festly in aubai or iaubai, a male. Ne-na-baim, my husband. By the term wai-nah-
baim-e-mind, the speaker utters a sentence declaratory of this relationship.'
19. The inflection we, here makes the declarative. The letter d, in both sentences,

is one of those changes which appear to be easily introduced in a language not written.
Strictly, the terms should be written nin-enine-we and nin-c-qua-we ; but the utterance
of an accented e after n, naturally, it appears, introduces the sound of d, which is

contrary to etymolog}'.
20. The inflection win converts all verbs in the infinitive or the third person
singular, into substantives.

21. The substantive verb, which it is the purpose of these terms to bring out,
is written by the translator under each question, " ah-yah," the usual inflections for
tense and person being added. The true notation of this, as given in preceding pages,
(Vide Languages, A., Vol. II.,) is ieau.

22. Atta means a thing ; any inanimate thing. The ing gives the phrase a verbal
form. Ah-ow or oh-ow is the ordinary equivalent for " here." The syllable see per-

foi'ms its usual office of negation.

23. The word ah-yah here performs the office of "is."

24. The precise translation, which would be the ordinary reply in Indian life, is

rather. His gun, " the man's," is not here. Nothing is more frequent than this species

of verbiage with the Indians.

24. Ma-jah is the verb " to go."
25. Ing is an inflection which conveys the prepositional senses of " in, ou, at," to all

words requiring these meanings.

Sa-gi-e-gan-ing At the lake.
Ad-do-po-win-ing On the table.
Muk-kuk'-ing In the box or chest.
Muz-ze-ni-e-gun-iug In the book.
Pa-wa-t-ing At St. Mary's Falls.

26. Generally the replies give more information than is asked for. In this case the
sense is confined, appropriately, to a cloth tent, such as soldiers and bourgeois in the
Indian trade employ. But it is described as pitched on the land, or along shore
" aygaming."
27. The sense of " at," in these phrases, is given by the inflection ong. That of
" from," in the last phrase, is implied by the same inflection.

'
The Indian of those translations is by Mr. George Johnston, who is intimate with the idioms of the natives
as spoken. His orthography has not been changed at all when it expressed, accurately, the sounds. The syntax
has been restored where it was required, and the Indians held up to the grammatical rules which they have
themselves imposed, but which, in their careless and hasty conversations, they sometimes violate or slur over,
dropping inflections which are often necessary to perfect precision of thought.
420 LANGUAGE.

5. Observations on some of the Indian Dialects of Northern

California.

BT G. GIBBS.

Any one who has ever attempted the acquisition of a foreign tongue, can appreciate
the difficulty of catching, at first, the pronunciation of its words. This, alone, renders
it no light task to reduce to writing languages containing sounds so uncouth and
unfamiliar to our ears as those of the Indians. The labor, however, only commences
here. Nice attention, and the habit of observation can, in a measure, overcome it

Ijut many of those sounds are not susceptible of representation by any characters of
our alphabet, and there ard others which present shades of distinction just attainable
by an arbitrary use of them. In the collection of the following vocabularies, all care
and attention possible was given to convey the words as they presented themselves to

the writer ; but it is probable that the signs employed will, nevertheless, in many cases,

carry a diiferent idea to others. I have preferred to adopt the Spanish sound of the
vowels, when used singly, as being more definite than the English. Thus a is pro-
nounced as in "father;" e as a in "mare;" i as e in "key;" u as oo in "coop;" y,

when a vowel, retaining, however, the English sound. Ai has the sound of i, long
ei that of a in " lay." The acute accent, except when placed over a final vowel,
denotes that the stress is upon that syllable.

Beyond the mere difficulty of catching or conveying sounds, others have arisen from
the cii'cumstances attending our march, from the want of interpreters sufficiently

understanding the various languages and dialects, and from the character of the Indians
themselves. The expedition was necessarily, in every respect, a reconnoissance ; for

with regard to almost all the country traversed, no reliable information, as to either
its geography or its inhabitants, could be obtained beforehand. During the few and
short intervals of halt, there were so many objects of passing importance to be attended
to, that leisure for careful revision was seldom had. The very brief and limited inter-
course between the whites and Indians, away from their own settlements, had allowed
them no opportunity of thoroughly acquiring any one tongue, and the means of inquiry

were not only very limited, but of very uncertain relia"bility. Finally, the impatience

of restraint of the Indians, and their fixtigue at a continued stretch of attention,

prevented as detailed an examination as was to be desired.

It is, however, still hoped that these vocabularies will add something of value to the

stock of information possessed on the subject, and that at least they will affi)rd the
groundwork of a more correct investigation hereafter. The words are the same as

those on which most of the comparisons of Indian languages heretofore made, have
been founded.
 LANGUAGE. 421

TcHO-KO-YEM and Cop-eii. I have not yet been able to ascertain, to my own satis-

faction, the number of languages or dialects formerly existing in the country to the
north of the bays of San Francisco and San Pablo, between the straits of Karquines
and the coast, and extendmg up to Russian river and the mountains below Clear lake.
There certainly were sevei'al, differing sufficiently to deserve comparison. The southern
extremity of the peninsula, as far up as the mission of San Rafael, according to the
best information I could obtain, was occupied by a tribe called by the Spaniards Tula-
res. They are said to be nearly extinct, and I have not met with any of them. Above
the mission, and occupying the countrj^ upon the coast, and in the valleys of Petaloma
and Sonoma, extending as far north as Santa Rosa, and eastward to Susqual, was a
second, and apparently much more numerous one. In Petaloma valley, the original
inhabitants are reduced to almost nothing, and they have been replaced by the Indians
of Suisun, from the bay of that name, above Benicia. Of their language, an example
is given in that of the Tcho-ko-yem baud of Sonoma valley. It was obtained from an
Indian who spoke Spanish, and is as correct as it made at a single interview.
could be
Sonoma, it should be remarked, was not originally the name of a district, but of a chief,
and was conferred upon the valley now called by that name, by the Spaniards. The
lower part of Napa valley, and the country around the straits of Karquines, were said
to have been occupied by another tribe. To the north of these, in the mountains on the
heads of Napa, Putos, and Cache creeks, there were still other bands, speaking other
dialects; but probably of very limited numbers. Of these, one, the Copeh, spoken
by the inhabitants of Putos creek, is given below. (See the vocabularies annexed.)
This account, however, is by no means reliable or distinct, and the inquiry should be

pursued hereafter. The diminution of all the various tribes living in the neighborhood
of the old settlements, and the corruption or commingling of their several tongues,
render any investigation a difficult one, and require time to carry out.

KuLA-XAPO. The name of one of the Clear lake bands. The language is spoken
by all the tribes occupying the large valley. This vocabulary was recei^ed from an
Indian who accompanied the expedition as a servant of Dr. J. S. Griffin, United States
Army, and who acted as an interpreter with his people. It was carefully taken down,
and under more favorable circumstances than any of the others. An attempt was
made in this case, as well as in that of the Tcho-ko-^em, to obtain the conjugation of
a verb, but without any intelligible result. The affinity of the tribes on the upper
waters of Russian and Eel rivers to the lake Indians, will be noticed, and it seems
probable that this valley was the former seat whence the others have emigrated.
Yu-KAi, on Russian river,
Chow-e-shak, and
Batem-da-k.\i-ee, on heads of Eel river. The last is not the name of a band, but
of a valley occupied by several of them, whose names we could not learn. These
three were all obtained through the medium of our Clear lake Indian, who translated
42a LANGUAGE.
to the respecti\-e parties wliat he received, in Spanish. As much care as practicable
was given to putting them down correctly ; but their only value is probably in showing
tlie extent of the language of the lake.
Wee-yot, and
Wisu-OSK. The first is the name given to Eel river, by the Indians at its mouth,
and here applied to their dialect of that common to the river, and to Humboldt bay.
The vocabulary is far from perfect ; less from the difficulty of conveying the idea — for

on my return I obtained a very good interpreter —than from the very indistinct utter-

ance of the Indians. The second is the name given to the Bay and Mad river Indians

by those of Eel river. This was the dialect of the upper part of the baj^ and was
received from quite an intelligent young man. The general language, as elsewhere
mentioned, seems to extend from Cape Mendocino to Mad river, and as far back into
the interior as the foot of the first range of mountains.
Weits-pek. The name of the principal band on the Klamath, at the junction of
the Trinity. This language prevails from a few miles above that point, to the coast
but does not extend f\ir from the river on either side. The constant recurrence of the
letter r in this and the other languages of this district, will be at once noticed as a

distinction from the Oi'egon tongues. In many words and proper names, it is sounded
Avitli a distinct and forcible roll. The /, however, another Shibboleth to the Oregon-
ians, is unknown here also.
Hoo-PAH. This, which is the name given by the Weits-pek, and other Klamath
Indians, to the lower part of the Trinity and its inhabitants, I have retained for their

language. The words were taken down as repeated by a young chief; but as the
translatiou waseffected through the medium of the Weits-pek, the meaning may have

sufiered in some cases. This language extends to the South Fork.

Tah-le-wah. The few words of this tongue were obtained, not from one of the tribe,
but from a Schr^gon or Serragoin Indian, of a band lower down on the Klamath, who
partially understood it. His memory appeared, however, very defective, and little

reliance can be jilaced on their accuracy. They may serve, however, to connect tliis

with other tongues more certainly known.

Eh-nek. The name of a band at the mouth of the Salmon, or Quoratem river.
Tliis latter name may perhaps be considered as proper to give to the family, should it
be held one. The language reaches from Bluff creek, the upper boundary of the
PoliHk, to about Clear creek, thirty or forty miles above the Salmon ; varying, how-
ever, somewhat from point to point. On the Salmon, it is said by some to extend to

the sources ; hy others, only to the forks. The name of Peh-tsik, " above," is the
term by which the collective tribe is known by the lower Indians.
Watsa-he'-wa. This is one of the Scott's river bands of the Shaste family. The
language prevails from Clear creek up the Klamath, probably to the neighborhood of
file lakes; though, as in the last case, there is a difference in dialect at the extremes.
 LANGUAGE. 423

The vocabulary may be relied on with some certainty, as several Indians assisted in
giving it ; the Oregon jargon being used in communicating with them.
How-TE-TE'-on. This was collected at Scott's valley, from some Indians who came
over from the Kogue's river ferry, where they lived. Nothing further is known with
respect to it.

Nabil-tse. Probably, also, a Rogue's river tongue. It was received from a young
Indian Avhom we found at the upper ferry on the Klamath. Whether the word
Nabil-tse referred to his particular band, I could not decide. Neither of the last two
languages belong to California ; but as the communication between Rogue's river and
the Klamath is constant, they have been introduced as perhaps throwing light on the
relations of the different tribes. It may not be out of place to remark that the inter-
course of the whites with the Indians, perhaps more than their own among one
another, tends to the conventional introduction into common use of certain words.
The jargon, as may be supposed, is already in some degree familiar to the Shastes
and it has been remarked in the Journal that the words "mawitch," and "pappoose,"
were found as far down as Humboldt bay. In like manner, another jargon is gradu-
ally forming, between the bay and the lower Klamath. The word " schoyeh," which

on Eel river means icldte, and at the Forks, good, is now used everywhere in the latter
signification. "Ai-e-queh,"/rte»f/, common apparently to both, is the universal hail
among all the river Indians. "Moos-moos" has been introduced from Oregon for cattle

and heef, and " pivu" invented as the name of fire-arms, &c. It is sometimes the case,
therefore, that the true origin of a word is mistaken from this cause also.
424 LANGUAGE.

H H

cc
 LANGUAGE. 425

a c a := '3 s
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Pt. TIL— 54
426 LANGUAGE,

3 ^ A
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 LANGUAGE. 427

58 .1: a -^ 'd ^ -^ r3 B
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428 LANGUAGE.

125

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•130 LANGUAGE.

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 LANGUAGE. 431

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432 LANGUAGE.

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 LANGUAGE. 433

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434 LANGUAGE.

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 LANGUAGE. 43n

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436 LANGUAGE.

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438 LANGUAGE.

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440 LANGUAGE.

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 LANGUAGE. 441

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Pt. III.— 56
442 LANGUAGE.

a 2

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 LANGUAGE, 443

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444 LANGUAGE.

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 LANGUAGE. 445

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446 LANGUAGE.

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 LANGUAGE. 447

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448 LANGUAGE.

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 LANGUAGE. 449

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Pt. III.—57
450 LANGUAGE.

^ g ^ J J ^ j3
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 LANGUAGE. 4ol

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o s o o § so a s a -s s >-> S
p^ H Ph « ji
2 ? Ah !/i Ph O wSh:?P50K^H!^ [i, p^ pq hS fi( 2
452 LANGUAGE.

g ^ ja

^ ^^ ^ :B ^
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i a

t> w t* h^? ;?; z >» o o 12; O 6 X g g 6 g o

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pqpfqp;wSO(i(Pftt»tli-?PH Plh S P4 W W O CO H H CO ^^ A
 LANGUAGE. 453

-^5
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PM EH W H O W g tn M ph o Pm o HMPkMPMfi^PHeH

rt c3 o "^ ta. ?; o _H "

a .a .a o 'i O a^ .a m .a (S

- ?
4.J4 LANGUAGE.

2 rS -=<
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p -^
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pqrtOKr-iOcoccpSOr-iOWa i:
Ph^POWmcoPhcqPi-iHH
 LANGUAGE. 45f

ja ^ 3 -a
456 LANGUAGE.

a o o -«5 w OSoWoSSg-< <1<1|>g<10>^S

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 LANGUAGE. 457

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>-. P to to 60 &)

^^ p ^ ^ o H w ph a S^ShOoWhSS^^I-^^

c -i tn

H H H H H H H HWCn^^H^-^rt
Pt. III.—jS
458
LANGUAGE.

ja ^ ,a ^ -d -g
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,rt )0 O O O O O O
S
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 LANGUAGE. 459

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to to bC to tiO bO to to to to 60
ci a) aJ
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460 LANGUAGE.

VOCAEULARY OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE PIMO INDIANS,

ON THE RIO GILA, NEW MEXICO.

El Paso, Ajyril Uih, 1852.

The following list of words of the Pimo language was obtained through the medium
of a Coco-Maricopa interpreter.
To express the vowel sounds in syllabication, the rules laid down in Schoolcraft's

circular, entitled " Comparative Vocabulary of the Languages of the Indian Tribes of
the United States," were followed. From the same source the list of words was also
taken.
C. C. PARRY.
For Major William H. Emory,
Chief Astronomer, Surveyor, and Head
Scientific Corps, IT. S. Bdy. Com.

Feoktera, near El Paso, April l^th, 1852.

Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq.
Dear Sir: — Enclosed is a comparative vocabulary of the Pimo language, com-
prising one hundred and fifty-three words, collected under my order by Dr. C. C. Parry,
Botanist to Boundary Commission, which I send you according to your request.
I will thank you to notify me of the receipt of this communication.
I am, very respectfully.
Your obt. servt.,

W. H. Emory,
Bt. Major, Ed. Sc. Corps Bdy. Survey.
 LANGUAGE. 461

ENOLISn. PIMO. ENGLISH. PIMO.

Angel Che6 o wak Friend Noo itch

]Man Hoo it ah Enemy Soi ik

Woman Hoo th Arrow Kaht

Boy Hah ree Bow Ou ku
Father Hoo ik uts Lance Ou ps

Mother Ghii its Axe Ah so

Son Hah an Gun Kah at

Brother See is Knife Vy eno

Sister See is Shoe Soosk

An Indian Ho up Shirt Entom khk

A white man Stoo ah Breech-cloth Tah toosh

Head Monk Tobacco Boef

Hair Pt mook Sky Ptchoo wick

Face With yoo se Sun Tah s

Scalp Moo kt Moon Mah sa

Ear Pt nah auk Star Ou on

Nose Tah nk Night Hoot

Mouth Cheen its Morning Es teush
Tongue Neu en Evening Hoot
Tooth Ptah an Spring Koo wich o

Beard Cheen yo Summer Sto5 an

Neck Koos wah Autumn Kah sah

Arm Pn oo vt Winter Eu wick

Shoulder Pt knot a vt Year El hi

Hand Mah ahtk Wind Tilh tu

Finger Mah ow patch Lightning Peu

Nail Too witch Thunder Whee um
Breast Pt pah so Eain Pt hoo ik
Body Ptchoo ook Snow Chi ah
Leg Hoo oom Fire Tahi
Navel Nativ ist cho Water Soo oot ik
Thigh Ee pt oom Earth Pt choo it

Knee Pkt oom River Akim ah

Foot Tet aght Hill Hoo tah

Toe Too itch Mountain Tu wak

Heart Ptefe pit ah Silver Whootah
Town Kah moo kee Gold Oro (Spanish)
House Aht a kee Maize 06 um
Door Sah ah rik Wheat Peil ki
462 LANGUAGE.
ENGLISH. PIMO. ENGLISH. PIMO.

Melon Ou ah Far off Moe uk

Squash Haht To-day Yu mo
Tree See vah tik To-morrow See ar dee

Wood Quahk By and by Ptoa par du

Grass Sah ak Yes Ah ah

Flower E6 vt No Ou ut

Bread Ptchumi Above Moe uk

Flour Ptchu wit Within Ye6 vahk

Meat Choo ik Something Ee mik

Deer Whiii Nothing Pee ah

Wolf Pau To eat Euto u

Dog Koks To drink Too a

Horse Kah with it To run Kah ma kee

Cow Hai ee ve To SCO Koo witch

Sheep Kah o wikt To hear Entom a kah

Duck Vah poo kt To speak Entomak

Crow Hah vn To strike Tomosoin

Fish Vah to To go Hee me

White Sto6 wah To die Mou

Black Stook To kill Tom wah
Red Sa wick Crying Soo wahk

Great Su koo its I am Soik

Small Lah ahst One Yuma ko

Strong See koo wig Two Koo ak

Weak See koik Three Vaik

Good Skeuik Four Kee ik

Bad Peo kivig Five Huit as

Handsome Skeuik Six Ptchoo ut

Dead Moo oo Seven Wha va

Life Ptkee Eight Kee kig

Cold Seu ipt Nine Umuchiko

Hot StOOQ Ten Ustimah

Salt On Eleven Vah su ma ko

I Ah an Twelve Vah su koo ak

He Yen tah Thirteen Vah su vaik

All Weuis Twenty Kook oh wistimah

Who Hahst cho Thirty Whik oh wistimah

Near Ala me ah One hundred Ciento (Spanish)

X. STATE OF INDIAN ART. B

(463)
 STATE OF INDIAN ART.

SYNOPSIS OF PAPERS.
1. Making Fire by Percussion.
2. Trituration of Maize.

3. Preparation of Flints for Arrow and Spear Heads.

4. Handicraft of the Oregon Indians.

1. MAKING FIRE BY PERCUSSION.

It is impossible to conceive of a state of early society, in the human race, at least,

in certain latitudes, in which they lived without the knowledge or use of fire. It is

certain that the Indian tribes of this continent, from Patagonia to Newfoundland, on
its first discovery, had the art of proctiring it by friction. Whether this art was
brought with them on their original migration, or discovered here, is not knoA\Ti. But
however this may be, they possessed it. Life, indeed, in the higher latitudes, could
not be endured without it.

The knowledge that caloric is an element of nature, existing in all matter, and can
be eliminated by human ingenuity, is of too high and refined a scope to allow the
supposition that mere savages should have undertaken experiments to attain it. And
hence, the presumption is I'ather that the origin of fire from percussion was an art of
the old world, which the adventurers brought with them. It is possible, however,

that the rubbing of two limbs of trees together, during a storm, should have elicited it,

whether before known to them or not.

It is by the violent and continued rubbing of two pieces of dry wood together, that
they procure fire. For this purpose, a dry rounded stick of wood is placed in a small
orifice in a stout block, or pieces of the same dry and hard material. A whirling motion
Pt. III. — 59 (-165^
466. STATE OF INDIAN ART.
is given to this upright stick by doubling a cord around it, and fastening each end of
it to the extremities of a bow held in the hand. The velocity of the revolutions given
to the turning stick by means of this bow, soon produces a flame at the point of
contact.
Two modes of conducting the operation are given. (Plate 28.) By the method in
use by the Dacotalis, a tabular piece of wood is held over a corresponding orifice, at the
end of the stick opposite to the incinerating point. (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.) By the Iroquois
method, the top of the upright stick is held by the hand, and steadiness of motion
secured by a perforated block a little above the point of contact at the heating orifice.

The gravity and centrifugal force of this block contributes to its efficacy. (Figs. B, 6,

7, 8, 9.) The Iroquois apply to it the descriptive name of Da-ya-ya-da-ga-ne-at-ha.

A piece of spunk is held, by an assistant, at the point of incineration, to catch the

flame.

We are informed by Mr. Wyeth,' that the operation is clumsily and painfully
performed by the Oregon tribes, by turning a shaft, based on an orifice of dry wood,
between the hands, bearing downward, till reaching its extremity, or point of ignition,
when the same operation is quickly and dexterously continued, by another operator,
until the result is attained.

2. Trituration of Maize.

The mode of pounding dry maize, by the grain-raising tribes, varied considerably.

It was a species of work left wholly to the women, who generally exercised their
ingenuity in its reduction. Where circumstances favored it, mortars and pestles of
stone were employed. The mortar was sometimes a depi'ession in the face of a rock,
or a detached block of stone. It was sometimes elaborately made. Frequently an
orifice was formed in wood, by burning in the surface in a circle, ami .':,- raping ofi' the
coal. By renewing the fire on the cleaned surface, a deep excavation was soon formed.
In this manner wooden bowls, and entire canoes, were formed out of suitably j^repared
trees.

But the perfection to which the homony-block was carried, consisted of a movable
wooden mortar, hollowed by fire, out of the end of a solid block, or section of a
liard wood tree, some two feet or thirty inches high. The pestle employed for this
consisted of a smoothly wrought piece of hard Avood, of four feet in length, rounded
off at each end, with a depression in the centre for the operator to take hold of. This
species of mortar and pestle, with the manner of using it, is shown in Plate 28, Figs.

C, 10, 11, and 12, being a receptacle for the saturated grain.

After the introduction of the iron a.xe, consequent on the discovery, the stumps of

'
Vol. I., p. 214.
 STATE OF INDIAN ART. 4G7

trees were excavated to serve this purpose; a practice wliich commended itself to the
early back settlers, who improved on the idea by attaching the wooden pestle to a
spring-pole, loaded in such a manner as to lift the pestle from the block with Ijut little
eflfort.

The preparation of green maize for the Indian table, constitutes a different branch
of forest art, which will be described hereafter.
In Fig. 1, Plate .33, we observe the family name of one of the owners of these
antique pestles, formerly used for crushing maize, ingeniously wrought, by a symbol,
on the head of the instrument. The substance employed is a species of grauwacke.
The symbol, or totemic device, is a deer, apparently the fawn. Its locality is Massa-
chusetts.

Fig. 2 is apparently the fleshing instrument of the north-east aboriginal hunters.

2. Preparation of Flints for Arrow and Spear Heads.

The skill displayed in this art, as it is exhibited by the tribes of the entire continent,
has excited admiration. The material employed is generally some form of horn-stone,
sometimes passing into flint. This mineral chert, by the English
is often called
mineralogists. No specimens have, however, been observed, where the substance is
gun-flint. The horn-stone is lesshard than common quartz, and can readily be broken
by contact with the latter. Experience has taught the Indian that some varieties of
horn-stone are less easily and regularly fractured than others, and that the tendency to
a conchoidal fracture is to be relied on in the softer varieties. It has also shown him
that the weathered, or surface fragments, are harder and less manageable than those
quarried from the rocks or mountains.
To break them, he seats himself on the gi-ound, and holds the lump on one of his
thighs, interposing some hard substance below it. When the blow is given, there is a
sufficient yielding in the piece to be fractured, not to endanger its being shivered into
fragments. Many are, however, lost. After the lump has been broken transversely,
it requires great skill and patience to chip the edges. Such is the art required in this
business, both in selecting and fracturing the stones, that it is found to be the employ-
ment of particular men, generally old men, who are laid aside from hunting, to make
arrow and spear heads.
The Aztecs and Peruvians generally employed obsidian for this purpose, which they
quarried from the volcanic mountains. It is found that the tribes of Oregon and
CaUfornia also emj^loy this delicate glassy substance, in the preparation of which they
evince the greatest skill. Nothing can exceed the art of some of the California arrows
which have been recently examined. And the wonder increases, when it is seen that
these tribes are, in other respects, quite inferior in their intellectual character, and
habits of subsistence and life, to the Mississippi valley and prairie Indians, who inhabit
the plains east of the Rocky Mountains.
468 STATEOFINDIANART.

4. Handicraft of the Oregon Tribes.

Nothing evinces more skill in the Oregon Indians than the manufacture of their
bows, arrows, and spears. The bow is usually made from elastic wood, horn, or bone,
very dexterously carved. Bows of horn are made of two pieces united in the centre
by means of fish-glue and the strong fibres of the deer's sinew.' Cedar is sometimes
employed. Several specimens of the Oregon bow are figured from the examination
of this species of ingenuity, from the Columbia river. (Vide Plate 34, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4,

5, 6.) The length of these bows varies from thirty to forty-four inches. The string

is of elk's or deer's sinews.

The arrow-points in Figs. 7 and 10, are wrought with much art, from obsidian.
Those of 8, 9, 15, 16, 17, 18, from nicely-worked bone. 16 and 17 are barbed, 9
and 18 bifurcated. These are intended for fish. Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, are bone arrow-
blades of nine inches in length.
The hook (Plate 35), for capturing the salmon and other of the larger species of
fish which ascend the Columbia, has exercised the ingenuity of its native tribes. In
No. 6 we observe the ordinary hook of bone, with a barb of two and a half inches
long, which is attached to a line of native hempen grass. After the introduction of
iron, a combination of bone and iron was adopted, as exhibited in No. 5, in which a
barb of iron four inches long is used. The opposite end is bone. But the perfection
of the art is represented in No. 4, where a hook of curiously-wrought cedar, seven
inches' curve, is met by a safety-prong of bone, of four and a half inches in length,
which is designed to secure the prey from the possibiUty of escape.
Figs. 1 and 2 represent native combs from the Columbia valley : Fig. 3, a pan of
wood, in which the figure of a bear is made the handle.

'
Tide Mr. Wyeth's description, Vol. I., p. 212.
 3EJI3Z3F!—rrs.

V,^jrrT-

•l/.nr (r ~I i lIXl ni

<<^>^

cz z

< 3
 3.'
Plate

"n«iBTi St Sens
DrtiVB from the on^alBTTrfapt.S.EasrraEui.lJS.A .

INDIAN IMPT.EMEUT
XI. PRESENT CONDITION AND
FUTURE PROSPECTS. B.

(469)
 PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE
PROSPECTS.

EDUCATION, CHRISTIANITY, AND THE ARTS.

These observations are introduced by the following letter, which may serve to denote

the opportunities the author has had for observing the habits and character of the
Indians beyond the line of the Mississippi. Although the subject principally before
him was a particular tribe seated in Iowa, at the time the remarks were made, they
were believed to be generally applicable to the whole number of tribes who are
brought within the influence of moral teaching. Too much stress may appear to be
laid on Christianity as the precursor of the arts and civilization, but it is believed
the experience of teachers of all denominations concurs in this view. The forest life

is so fascinating to the Indian, that he requires, as it were, to be wrested from it with

a strong hand. Maxims, however wise, fall quietly on his ear, and he is accustomed
to hear them placidly. But when he has been effectually disabused of his established

notions of futurity and the Indian paradise of sensualities, a new and powerful motive
is awakened in his mind by the promises of Christianity. H. R. S.

Winnebago School,
March Sth, 1848. .

Sir : — Herewith you have a few thoughts, thrown together as fragments of time
would pennit, in reply to your late inquiries ' respecting the aborigines of our country.
I shall try to extend my remarks after my return from the south.
Very respectfully,

Your obt. servt.

Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq. D. Lowrt.

'
Vide Vol. I., Appendix.
(471')
472 PRESENT CONDITION
" 266. —The cause of education. What are the promment facts in relation to this

important means of reclaiming and exalting the tribe ? What means have been found
most eflfective in the education of their children and youth? Have females duly
participated in these means, and has any part of such means been applied to such

branches as are essential to quaUfy them for the duties of mothers and housewives ?
Are the ancient prejudices of parents on the subject of education on the wane, and
what is the relative proportion of the young population who, in the last period of ten

?
years, have received the elements of an English education
Education, in its true meaning, is the only possible means of " reclaiming and recall-
ing the Indians," or any other people like them fallen into the savage state. It is to

be understood, however, that a jaroper education comprises religious, literary, and

physical instruction. Each branch has its appropriate work to perform in improving
and elevating a nation or individuals.
It is admitted that a kind of semi-civilization may result from an education in the
common application of the word, and that conveniences, and even luxuries, untasted
before, may follow. But for purposes of restraint and reformation, any and every
system that does not include religious instruction must be nugatory. Moral improve-
ment cannot be produced, nor moral restraint imposed, without the aid of an enlightened

cojiscieuce. But who would think of invigorating and guiding the actions of conscience

by imparting a knowledge of the mechanic arts ? What appeal is made to conscience,

or what moral principle impressed upon the heart, or what moral duty inculcated, by
teaching the art of making a table, a steamboat, or ship The same inquiry might be
?

extended to mathematics and all other human sciences. They are valuable for many
practical purposes, but were never intended to develop man's moral nature. I know
it will be difficult to present this subject, in all its force, to a person unacquainted with
the nature of religion, and who has not been in the habit of comparing nations possessing
it with those destitute of it. A mere glance at history, however, will be sufficient to

convince any one open to conviction, that those countries and ages which have been
most distinguished for science and the fine arts, and yet ignorant of the power of
religion, have been most distinguished for crime. Old Egypt was the cradle of science
and arts ; she could build her splendid cities, rear her wonderful pyramids, and ride in
her iron chariots, but had no means of removing superstition from the minds of her
])eople. Other nations followed in civil and literary refinement, but in their highest

glory they worslii2)ped thirty thousand gods, and the great mass of the jieople lived in
practices of vice, which it would jJoUute a Christian ear to name.
It is not known' that any effijrts to educate the American Indians, whei'e Christianity
(lid not form a prominent part of the system taught, have answered any valuable
purpose in the way of civilization.
In urging the neces.sity of the Christian religion, in order to "reclaim and txalt" a
barbarous people, I would make a distinction between true Christianity, and its
 AND FUTURE PROSPECTS. 473

erroneous and corrupt forms. Ancient Greece and Rome jDossessed a religion; so do the
present ignorant and profligate Turks ; so do some of the Indians on our frontiers ; but
no salutary influence is seen acting either upon the heart or life. Nothing but a restless

effort of a blind and guilty conscience to obtain peace and rest by unauthorized sacri-
fices and ceremonies.
I would also in this place allude to the importance of the wltole of Christianity to

national prosperity, to true civilization. The radical principles of the Bible should be

taught. If it were necessary for God to reveal that Book, it will not be sufficient for

the purposes intended to study detached parts of it. Personal salvation, it is true,

does not require a thorough knowledge of the entire Scriptures ; but in order to be
incorporated in a nation's literature, and to produce a sound national conscience, the
Bible must become that nation's text-book on the subject of morals.
The necessity of a religious education, as presented in the foregoing remarks, may
be admitted, while it may, at the same time, be urged that mere mental and physical
instruction should be first imparted, in order to prepare the way for religion. But it

yet remains to be pi'oved that a superficial state of mere social advancement, in which
cabins are built instead of wigwams, and clothing of the loins extended over the body,
affords any predisposition to the reception of the gospel. We find no feeling of this

kind in the semi-civilized state of China and India. The Society of Friends tried the
mere many years with our Indians, but without any valuable
civilizing process for

effect. The plan has been abandoned, or rather Christianit}" has been connected with
it, and the result has proved the wisdom of the change. The Mohawks of Upper
Canada enjoyed the means of mental improvement for forty years, but showed no
disposition to receive the gospel. Their abandonment to vice was proverbial, and their
heathen neighbors, seeing the effects produced, objected to all means of instruction
from the whites. Nothing is more common now than to hear it said that educated

Indians are worse than those in the ruder state. We are not to infer from this, how-
ever, even if it be true, that it is the tendency of mere intellectual knowledge to
corrupt, but that it has no power to purify. Thousands of American youth, who have
graduated at our colleges, are gi'eater curses to themselves and to the world than if

they had not been educated. But this is not to be charged upon the education, but to
its perversion. " Knowledge is power," and may be applied either to a good or bad
purpose. Like every other blessing of heaven, it may be abused. When in charge

of religion, it is a valuable handmaid, but when under the direction and control of a
depraved heart, it is a mighty engine for evil. The mere education of the intellect of
the red man gives hitn new facilities for intercourse with corrupt example, upon our
own frontier, and with bad white men in the Indian country; and it may sometimes
happen too, that the conduct even of the school-teachers, the farmers, and mechanics,
has but little tending to elevate and improve the morals of the savages.
In view of the importance of religion to the true civilization of the heathen, it has
Pt. III.— 60
474 PRESENT CONDITION
been a question whether it would not be better to commit all funds provided by treaty
stijiulatioiis for this improvement, to the direction and control of some missionary
board. I shall not undertake to settle this question, but will barely observe that
Christian character is indispensable to a successful religious teacher ; and if as good
teachers, and as industrious farmers, and as skilful mechanics and physicians, can be
found in the church, as out of it, I cannot see why persons of tried piety should not
always be employed to labor for the benefit of the Indians. This policy is now being
pursued by all missionary boards, and their success, in civilizing the heathen, is before

the world. If establishments succeed better under their care than under the super-

vision of the government, the result certainly affords an argument in favor of their

policy.

It has often occurred to me, that it would be proper for the government, in the
annual statement of persons in its employment with tlie Indians, to require the number
professing religion to be specified.
In reply to the inquiry, "What have been the most effective means" in the educa-

tion of "children and youth" among the Winnebagoes, I would observe, that the most
successful method of drawing the children into school, has been to leave it to the choice

of parents whether to let their children board and lodge at the institution, or draw
their rations every evening, and return to the wigwam. The latter plan has generally
been preferred by the Indians, and it has enabled a much greater number to enjoy the

benefits of the school. The usual course is pursued in the school, when giving instruc-
tion, which is observed with white children. " Females have duly participated in the

means" of improvement, and have received such instruction as was deemed proper to

qualify them for the discharge of domestic duties. The prejudice of the tribe against
their children being educated is not only " on the wane," Imt may be said to be over-
come. The relative proportion of the young population who have received the
elements of an EngUsh education, has just been reported to the Department by the
Sub- Agent.
The Winnebagoes have no native mechanics, but it is believed some of their youths
might be induced to learn at least the lighter mechanic arts.

"270. — The English language a means of civilization. To what extent is the

English language spoken, and English books read, and wliat is the tendency of opinion
and practice on this subject, in the tribe ? In giving replies to these queries, express
your opinions freely, and state any fact, or mode of procedure which, in your judgment,
would tend to advance the welfare or promote the happiness of the tribe. The general
question of the advance and reclamation of the tribes, as connected with the present
state of the Indian trade, has been examined in queries 95 to 105 inclusive. The
bearings of these interrogatories on their future state, and the obligations imposed on
the people and government of the Union by their jiosition in the scale of nations, are
 AND FUTURE PROSPECTS. 475

further callod out in an examination of some points in the legislation of Congress

respecting them, in queries 106 to 115; and the questions on the actual condition of
the tribes who are more advanced, and have set up new governments on the territories

assigned them west of the Mississippi, (queries 110 to 118,) are designed to completi;
this view of the changes wrought in the position of the tribes, since their discovery, about
A. D. 1600. It is important, as they advance, as many now do, in their means
of tliem

and population, and in the progress of education and agriculture, that we should scrutinize
the whole class of facts on which this advance depends, in order to give it the greater
impetus and permanency. In this view, the subject is commended to your general
reflection and scrutiny, in the following subjoined inquiries on their general history
and languages."
" The English language as a means of civilization." Our principal reliance should

be on the English language as a means of civilizing tlie Indians. Should they be

educated in their own language, they would still be Avithout books to read, for we
cannot suppose that our literature Avill ever be translated into the languages of all the
Indian tribes on our frontier. Better, therefore, introduce our own language among
them at once, which would give them access to pur books.

"343. — Is the Indian language adapted to purposes of Christianity ?" ".344. — Is

it adapted to any extent, and if so to what extent, to the purposes of history, poetry,
?
and general literature

To these inquiries I reply, that all unwritten languages must degenerate with the
nations by whom they are spoken. A nation's knowledge of loords never extends
beyond its knowledge of iJiingn ; consequently, as savages know but little of God, his
religion, or of human science, it is not to be supposed that their language affords
appropriate words for the expression of ideas on those subjects. While, therefore, I
would not discourage eftbrts to instruct the Indians in their own language, particularly
adults, who cannot be expected to learn, I am in favor of teaching the English lan-

guage in all schools established for their improvement. The same language spoken
by all the tribes, would at once prepare the way for amalgamation.
In view of the importance of the English language to the aborigines of our country,
I have more than once recommended the propriety of occasionally sending a few
Indian children, of both sexes, into white communities, to complete their education. It

is with them as it is with us —a foreign language may be understood so as to read it cor-

rectly, and yet the learner not be able to converse in it with ease. By placing children
among the whites for a time, where they would be obliged to converse in our language,
they would soon get the true pronunciation, and lose that tenacity for their own tongue
which all savages more or less feel. But as the Sub-Agent is writing on the language
of the Indians, I shall not extend my remarks on this subject.
476 PRESENT CONDITION
" 271.
— "Who were the earliest inhabitants of America? What is the light of tradi-
tion on this subject ? Were the ancestors of the present red race the Aborigines ?

What evidences exist, if any, of the occupancy of the country by man prior to the

arrival of the Indian or Aonic race ?

In view of the best light and information which I have been able to collect on the
subject, my opinion is that the earliest inhabitants of America were the descendants
of Ham, the youngest son of Noah ; and that the first settlement was made shortly
after the confusion of tongues, at the building of the tower of Babel. Moses tells us,

that about that period, " the Lord scattered the people abroad upon the face of the
whole earth." — Gen. ii. 8, 9. America, then, according to this portion of sacred
history, was at that time re-occupied by man ; for the writer could not have meant by
"all the earth," only about oue-lialf of it. It may be thought that the mechanic arts
and maritime skill were, at that age of the world, too much in their infancy to admit

of the emigration supposed. I see no difficulty on this ground. The ark had recently
been built, which outlived a storm of forty days. In view of such a pattern, there
was certainly mechanical genius enough to construct a sliip that would be able to

contend with the waves of a summer sea for a few weeks or months. The Hamites
were a sea^farmg people, and it is believed understood the use of the compass in
traversing the pathless deep. The remains of cities, and various other monuments,
evidently the work of the primitive race of the country, show no want of intellect or

mechanical skill.

But, after all, I am not sure that either a ship or compass was necessary to enable
the fii'st inhabitants of America to reach this continent. Many of the learned,

from Plato and Solon down to the present day, have ventured the speculation
that anciently both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans were interspersed with islands,
so that a passage to our continent was opposed by no serious obstacles. But
should these facilities for emigration be objected to, it would not be a heavy tax upon
one's industry to suppose that accidental causes, as they are sometimes unjustly termed,

might have laid the foundation for the first settlement in America after the flood.

Shipwrecks have sometimes given rise to the settlement of an island. An island first

occupied by a few shipwrecked English in 1589, was found 80 years afterwards to

contain a population of 1'2,000 souls, all the descendants of four mothers.
It is known, too, that Bhering's Straits bring the shores of the New and Old World
into the same vicinity, and would aflbrd an easy passage from the one to the other.

I will only add, in this communication, that a plain historical fact, under the sanction
of Divine inspiration, is not to be discredited because the writer has not given such
details as curiosity may prompt us to demand. Moses tells us that from the plains of
Shinar the people were dispersed over the whole earth. I do not doubt either his
integrity or accuracy.

After an examination of all the evidence to which access could be had, I am clearly
 AND FUTURE PROSPECTS. 477

of the opinion that the present "Red Race" have descended from the "Aborigines"
of America. This opinion, I know, is objected to by many who claim for uur Indians
a Hebrew origin. To this sentiment the writer himself Avas long inclined ; but on a
more thorough investigation he has given it up. The physical types of the two races
are entirely different; besides, it is more than probable that the long-lo.st tribes,
supposed to be the ancestors of our Indians, have mostly been discovered in Asia.
We learn from sacred history, that God of "one blood made all nations of men,"
Acts xvii. 26 ; and that previous to the wicked attempt to build the tower of Babel,
the human family were of "one language," Gen. xi. 1. But we now find the nations of

the earth differing both in speech, and in physical characteristics. The Bible accounts
for the different languages, Gen. xi. 7; but does not explain the cause of difference in
the human race. In the absence of any historic information on this topic, the learned
have indulged freely in speculation. Some have ascribed it to a direct act of our com-
mon Creator ; while others have attributed it to the operation of physical development,

such as climate, food, manner of living, &c. The latter is the opinion of the writer.

In classing the American Indians with the Ethiopian race, or descendants of Ham,
we are sustained by the highest human authority. Mr. Ledyard, in a letter to Mr.
Jefferson, speaks of the resemblance. Humboldt, and a score of other names, might
be added, were it necessary.'

But if the primitive race inhabiting America were so highly civilized, as their
monuments show, how shall we account for the degeneracy of the Indians, their
descendants? It might be asked, How shall we account for the degradation and
ignorance of the Hamites of Africa at the present day ? No one doubts that tlieir

ancestors enjoyed a high state of intellectual and moral cultivation.

" 282. —What connections do the United States Indians hold, ethnologically, to tho.=!e

of Mexico? Are there any proofs of affiliation in the grammars and vocabularies?
What lights are aflforded by history or tradition ? Was the valley of the Mississippi
probably settled at the period of the establishment of the Aztec empire, under the
predecessors of the Montezumas?"
The Indians from Mexico to Canada are evidently of one group. They resemble
each other in complexion, as well as in manners and customs. The only material
difference is in stature.

The first aboriginal settlements were, doubtless, formed in South America. The
course of emigration from thence was along the shores of the Pacific, and it is beheved
the valley of the Mississippi was finalh^ settled by emigrants from the west.
For the foregoing statements respecting the earliest inhabitants of America, &c., I

am principally indebted to Wiseman's Lectures, Bradford's Antiquities of America,

Flint's Indian Wars of the West, and a very ably written article which has recently
appeared in the Biblical Repository, from the pen of Dr. Lindsley, President of Nash

'
Theoretical views of this kind are left for observers to judge of. — H. K. S.
478 PRESENT CONDITION
ville University. Tn tliose works we have accounts of many ancient monuments and
traditions throwing light upon the character and condition of the first inhabitants of
America.

" 348. — Are you acquainted witli any material errors in the general or popular
accounts of oir Indian tribes? If so, please state them.
" In submitting the preceding queries on the several subjects named, it is not designed

to limit the inquiry to these particular forms. Called upon by the terms of the act to

embody materials illustrative of the history of the tribes, as well as their statistics,
the Department seeks to avail itself of the knowledge and experience of persons in
various parts of the country, to contribute their aid. The inquiry is placed on a broad

basis, that it may embrace the general grounds from which we are to judge the history

and condition, past and present, of the people whose benefit is sought by future legis-

lative provision ; and by the adoption of a course of public policy which shall best

subserve the higliest interests."

No nation or people upon earth have been more shamefully misrepresented than
our American Indians, and perhaps this circumstance has operated more than any
one thing to the injury of that unfortunate race.
A popular writer of England has described them as " animals of an inferior order,
incapable of acquiring religious knowledge, or of being trained to the functions of social
life." Writers of our own countrj^ may not have used this language, but they have
endorsed the sentiment, and it is at this moment so popular, that the public mind is

far from being disabused of it. Even the church feels it to some extent.
The Indians have been supposed to possess such a strong and innate propensity for

hunting, that all efforts to call their attention from the chase, and direct it into another

channel to obtain the means of subsistence, would be useless. The popular opinion is

that an Indian is born to be a hunter. This opinion I pronounce to be unphilosophical,

and contrary to matter of fact. That Indian children, at a very early period, receive

impressions in fixvor of this mode of living, I admit; but these impressions result from
example —they are not iiniute. The child of a mechanic shows an early disposition to
liundle and play with tools used by the father; but this does not prove that the boy
was born a mechanic. Impressions are made at a very early period, and when fixed,
are hard to eradicate. It has been recently remarked, by a distinguished writer of the
old world, that a child receives more ideas before he is six years old, than in all the

rest of his life. Dr. Dwight concurs with this opinion. The absurdity of an Indian's

being born a hunter, is too obvious to require argument to refute it. Yet a large

majority of those who can find time to think of the Indians at all, believe it; and it

has been published, from the '-North American Review" down to the village news-

])aper. It has found its way tt) the bench of the Supreme Court of the United States
— one of the judges of wliich expressed the opinion, not long since, that "the Indians
 AND FUTURE PROSPECTS. 479

are a doomed race" — and our to of halls legislation, and prevented the enactment of
good and salutary laws — and has quenched,
it in part, the buniing benevolence of the
chui'ch of God, and kept back the arm of missionary enterprise. Those who have
published this sentiment, as well as those who have believed it, ought to blush Avitli

shame. An intelligent human being " born a hunter

!
" As well might it be said a
man is bom a shoemaker, or cobbler. Does not everybody know that a white child,

taken captive by and I'aised among the Indians, becomes a hunter as readily as an
Indian child, and shows as much attachment to the chase ? It is equally certain that
an Indian child, taken into a white family remote from his tribe, soon adopts the
habits and amusements of white children, and shows no predisposition for the life of a

hunter. I have raised an Indian child in my family, who is now married, and living
in sight of the wigwams of her people, but has never accompanied them the first time
on a hunting excursion. I have now two Indian children in my familj^, who were
committed to my care by their mother, with her dying breath. Her last words were
to raise them as white children are raised. There is naturally no difference between
the innate propensities of the white and I'ed man. It is true, Indians have been
educated among the whites, and after returning to their own people, have retrograded
but have not white children too, after being recovered from the Indians, changed their
habits? In both cases, the change was produced by the pressure of circumstances.
It is often said, that it is easier for a white man to become an Indian, than for an
Indian to become a white man. True, all men are prone to degenerate. Besides,

there are obvious reasons why a white man should feel more happy with Indian habits
among the Indians, than an Indian could feel with the whites. The former is on a
perfect equality with his nation ; while the latter is not, and cannot be.

It has been supposed too that the Indians are a warlike people. But where is the
e^adence of this fact ? Is not all history against it ? With six hundred men, Cortez
conquered the natives of Mexico, numbering four millions of souls. They might have
destroyed their invaders with sticks and stones, had they possessed the courage of the
white man. Small settlements of our people were planted along the shores of the
Atlantic; the Indians sooner or later resisted them, but their want of success proved
that they were neither disposed nor accustomed to hard fighting. Hundreds of Indians
/ have attacked small companies of American traders on their way from Santa Fe, and
though mounted and well equipped for battle, have been easily repulsed. In one
instance, nine white men were assailed by sixty Pawnees, but the latter were soon
made to retreat in utter confusion. Our army against Black Hawk had Winnebagoes
in its ranks, but could never get but one of them into battle. Indian wars among
themselves show anything but courage. The Sioux and Chippewas and Sacs and Foxes
have been enemies for many
and thougli in the immediate vicinity of each other,
years,
have never fought a regular battle. Parties have marched up to defenceless encamp-
ments of women and children, and slaughtered them. The Pawnees have long been
480 PRESENT CONDITION, ETC.
at war with the Kanzas. The latter number about seventeen hundred souls, while
the former amount to near ten thousand. The tribes live only about one hundred
miles apart, so that with true spirit and feelings of war on the part of their enemies,
the weaker tribe might long since have been exterminated.
"We have been too long amused with falsehoods respecting the noble and warlike
character of the Red-man. He is just the reverse. He is no more born a warrior
than a hunter.
The Indians have been represented as a very happy people. " Simple, virtuous,

happy," &c., are epithets often applied to them by travellers. An officer of govern-
ment was not long since sent on a visit to the Winnebagoes. I accompanied him to
their wigwams. Some were playing cards, some eating, while others were sleeping.
The officer, seemingly in rapture, exclaimed, " These are the happiest people in the
view of human had never
!

world " I did not admire the gentleman's felicity. It

occurred to me before that the highest state of rational enjoyment was to be found in
the lowest state of degradation and vice. The ox, when filled with grass, and having
nothing to do but lie down in the shade and defend himself from the flies, is con-

tented ; but man is subject to intellectual and moral wants as well as ply-sical, and
must be miserable while these remain unredressed. He may laugh and seem to be

cheerful, but " the heart knoweth its own bitterness."

The Indians suffer greatly from hunger and from dissipation. As to domestic happi-

ness, there is no such thing among them. It is quite common for the husband to whip
the wife, and for the parties to prove unfaithful to each other. Polygamy too is a fruit-

ful source of jealousy and misery.

The Indians have been uniformly reported, by those who have travelled among them,
as predisposed to unusual taciturnity. This is a mistake. Silence may be observed in
presence of a strange white man, from jealousy, hatred, difficulty of intercommunica-
tion. Hunger, fatigue, &c., may produce for a time melancholy ; but in the absence
of these obstacles, the Indians are uncommonly loquacious.

Many have undertaken to enlighten the world on the subject of courtships among
the Indians. The young man seeking a partner, is said to whistle on a wooden flute
prepared for the purpose. His wishes are soon understood by others, and negotiations
preparatory to marriage follow. This fabulous story has often appeared in the news-
papers of tlie country, and recently made a part of a course of lectures delivered in
the United States and in Europe. I say fixbulous story, for it is without foundation in
fact. Negotiations preparatory to marriage, among the more wealthy Indians, are

often made by the parents of children, while the parties to be united are in infancy.
I have known as many as ten horses given by the father to purchase a wife for an
infant son. The parties thus engaged by the parents do not marry till they arrive at
a suitable age.
I admit that lewd young men sometimes play on the flute around wigwams to attract

attention for base purposes, but never with the honest intention of courtship.
XII. D^MONOLOGY, WITCH
CRAFT, AND MAGIC. A.

(481)

Pt. III.—61
DJIMONOLOGY, WITCHCRAFT, AND MAGIC

SYNOPSIS OP PAPERS.

1. Introductory Remarks on Magic, Witchcraft, and Daemonology of the American In-

dians. H. R. S.

2. Gods of the Dacotahs. By Captain S. Eastman, United States Army.

3. The Giant's Feast and Dance. By Captain S. Eastman, United States Army.
4. Magical Dances of the Ontonagons. With an original Pictograph of Oshkabaiwis. H. R. S.

6. Invulnerability and Invisibility from Magic Influences : a Tradition. H. R. S.

6. Genii Worship. H. R. S.

7. Pictographs from the Rocky Mountains. Figures by Lieutenant Gunnison, United States

Army.

1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON MAGIC, WITCHCRAFT,

AND DiEMONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.
We associate these terms, in coming to speak of that strong and general belief, and
those ceremonial practices of a hieratic or occult character, among the American
Indian tribes, wherein they recognize a subtle system of polytheism or spirit-worship.
Ideas of this kind are coeval with the history of the human race.

The ancients gave the name daemon to certain genii, or spirits, which appeared to
many for benign or hurtful purposes. The Platonic philosophers classified their

gods into three divisions: gods, da?mons, and heroes. Cicero calls the former, dii
majorum gentium. The Oneidas call the second class, klu-ne-o-lux, which conveys the
idea of a vicious spirit, being the same impression that is conveyed to Christians by the
modern definition of the word d«mon.
In Fig. 2, I., is depicted the form of one of the spirit-gods of the
Plate 57, Part
Chippewas of Lake Superior, of the present day, which much resembles the description
(483)
484 D^MONOLOGY, WITCHCRAFT,
of the ancient Dagon (thought to be from the Hebrew dag, a fish), the god of Ashdod.

Like it, the monster is half man, half fish. And the belief in its existence in the area

of that large body of fresh water, so renowned for its fish, may be deemed very natural,
without any attempt, which we do not commend, to connect it with the ancient
mythologies, however striking the resemblance.
The desire of men to pry into futurity, and to know, or influence, through the means
of genii, daemons, or spirits, the fates or fortunes of men, is one of the earliest developed
traits of the human mind. Moses declares, in Leviticus, "Thou shalt not suffer a

witch to live." This declaration is not conclusive that the inspired prophet believed
in witches ; but it is quite so, that such a belief was common to the Hebrew hosts whom
he had led from Egypt, where the practices of sorcery were rife,' and believed in, from
the highest and most learned, to the lowest and most ignorant classes of society. The
profession of the art of sorcery, it is to be inferred, Avas a cause of vain excitements

among the people, in their isolation in the wilderness, and led to waste of time,
and means squandered to gratify this false desire. It may be thought one of the prime
causes of that dissatisfaction, and those disturbances and outbreaks that marked the
history of the Exodus ; and it probably arrayed men against that higher and surer
means of knowledge and prophecy which it was his peculiar province and commission
to teach. Rendering the practice of sorcery criminal, was, therefore, the most efiectual
means of destroying it, and extirpating the evil from the camp.
Other legislators and law-givers have imitated his example. Montesquieu ranks
magic with heresy, seeing that the laws of his day made both penal in the highest
degree ; but he regards them in a very different view from that of the Hebrew sage
affirming that we ought to be very circumspect in laying the charge of magic and heresy
at the doors of men, since there was danger that they might be laid to the charge of

persons of the purest lives. The connection of the two crimes in one category is suflB-

cient to show that the philosopher, while he contended for human rights and the
clearest testimony, had attached to the crimes of heresy some doemoniacal traits —a
subtle piece of policy of the then defenders of the faith.
We are informed that in the days of Henry VIII. of England, it was enacted (Stat.

33, chap. 8) that all witchcraft and sorcerj^ should be declared felony, without the
Ijcnefit of clergy. In the time of James I. (Stat. 1, chap. 12,) the death penalty
is assigned " for invoking any evil spirit, or for consulting, entertaining, covenanting
with, employing, feeding, or rewarding any evil spirit ; or taking up any dead bodies
from their graves, to be used in any witchcraft, sorcery, charm, or enchantment; or
killing, or otherwise hurting any j^erson by such infernal arts." These acts are equally
indicative of the belief of both the common and educated classes of society. The con-

tinental nations Avere not a Avliit behind-hand in punishing this offence, and in limiting

'
Vide Paul, Janncs and Jambres.
ri:,f» ^K
 AND MAGIC. 485

their laws to the supposed measures of guilt, or the mariner in which it was profess-

edly exercised. And it ^\as not till George II. (Stat. 91, chap. 5) that prosecution for
conjuration, witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment, was inhibited.

When it is considered that the human mind, under its best phases, was so strongly

fettered by this superstitious belief of witchcraft, sorcery, and magic, it cannot be deemed
strange that similar delusions should have been found to prevail so universally among
the Indian tribes of this continent. And the fact only serves more conclusively to show
that the Indian mind is of an ancient stock of the human race, of an epoch when
a belief in magic and sorcery held midisputed SAvay, and Avhen it was distracted and
disturbed by polytheistic theories, and wild dogmas. This phasis of mind is considered
somewhat at length in remarks which have been submitted under the title, Mental
Type, Sect. IL, Part I.

The particular guise which the belief in the subtle dogmas of witchcraft, in all its

daemoniacal phases, assumed among the Indian tribes on the American continent, is

very characteristic and instructive ; and it is my design to put on record, from time
to time, details observed in the profoundest depths of the forest, and in the primitive

vaUeys of the West, where such doctrines and practices yet prevail.

2. GODS OF THE DACOTAHS.

Unk-ta-he (god of the water). The Dacotahs say that this god and its associates

are seen in their dreams. It is the master-spirit of all their juggling and superstitious
belief From it the medicine-men obtain their supernatural powers, and a great part
of their religion springs from this god.
Fig. A, Plate 36, representing the abode of this god and its associates, is explained

thus :
— The inner circle represents the sea, and Fig. 7 the principal god. Figs. 3, 4, 5,

and are its associates. Fig. 2 is an Indian. Fig. 8, comprehending the space between
the two circles, is the Avorld. Fig. 1 is a river with an Indian village on its banks.
Figs. 11 are doors through which the gods go out into the world. Fig. 9 represents

lightning, which the as.'=ociate gods use for defence. Figs. 10 are trees growing in the
woods and on the bank of the river.

The Indian who drew this diagram says that Unk-ta-he came out of the sea, and
took him from his village on the river in the spirit, before he was born, and carried
him down into the great deep. As he passed by the associate gods, each of them gave
him some advice, but when he got to the last one. Fig. 3, he received a drum, and was
told that when he struck it and used the language he had received from the gods of the

deep, everything would go as he washed. After receiving the last instruction, the
principal god of the water put him out on dry land, when he was born of a woman,
in flesh an Indian.
486 DiEMONOLOGY, WITCHCRAFT,
The advice that the Indian received from the gods while in the deep, he refused to
tell, for it is a part of their great medicine.
Fig. B rcpre-sents the god of the forest (chah-o-ter-dah) . This god lives in a tree
that grows on the highest eminences, and his house (Fig. 13) is at the foot of it.

When this god wants anything, he leaves his house and sits on a branch of the tree
(Fig. 12), which, they say, is as smooth as glass. By his power of attraction, he
draws around him all the birds of the forest, who act as guards and sentinels, and
inform him when anything approaches his residence, that he may prepare for defence.
This god and the god of thunder are mortal enemies, and often have severe combats,
in which the latter is most generally worsted. When the god of thunder comes racing
along, casting his lightning at the tree, in expectation of killing the god of the forest,
the latter, having been timely informed of his approach by his faithful sentinels (Figs.
14, 14), has retired to the water below. The god of thunder sends his lightning after
him at the foot of the tree, but coming in contact with the water, it is lost. The god
of the forest then ascends the tree, and hurls his lightning with such skill and force
at the god of thunder, as to bring him down a victim at his feet. There being a great
many gods of thunder, the killing of one now and then does not exterminate them.
The god of the forest being considered superior to the god of thunder, the latter
seldom attacks the former, but passes his abode at a great distance. The crooked line

in the hand of the god of the forest (Fig. 12) is a crooked gun, by which he can shoot
in any direction around the earth. Fig. 15 is one of the gods of thunder. Fig. C
represents the gods of thunder ; sometimes they are represented with a hawk's head.
The Dacotahs say that thunder is a large bird flying through the air, and the noise we
hear is the fluttering of the old and young birds. The old ones commence the noise,

and the young ones carry it on. The old one is wise, and will not injure the Indians,

but the young ones are foolish, and do all the mischief they can. Thus, if an Indian
is killed by lightning, they say the young rascals of thunder did it. They say that
once there was a bird of thunder killed, back of Little Crow's \dllage, on the Missis-
sippi river. It had a face like a man, with a nose like an eagle's bill ; his body was
long and slender. Its wings had four joints to each, which were painted in zig-zags to
represent lightning. The back of its head was red and rough, resembling a turkey.
Fig. D is the god of the grass, or god of the weeds (whitte-ko-kah-gah). The proper
translation of this word is, " to malce crazy." This god, they say, is formed from a
coarse kind of weed, called pajee-ko-tah, which has the power of giving them fits, or
making them craz}^ and also of giving them success in hunting. In his right hand he
holds a rattle of deex'-hoofs. There are sixty-four deei'-claws in this rattle, -or, as they
say, the deer-claws of eight deer. In his \el\ hand ho carries a bow and arrow ; and
althougli the arrow is made blunt by chewing it, still he can send it through the largest
animals. From his cap are streaks of liglitning, so brilliant as to dazzle the eyes of

animals, and thus enable him to approach close to them. In his mouth is a whistle.
LLl'AF E ©OAMU
 AND MAGIC. 487

which is used in the dance to invoke tlic assistance of this god. When the Indians have
had hick in hunting, they get up a dance to invoke the assistance of this god.
Fig. 3, Wo-hun-de-dan, or Aurora Borealis, or Old Woman, or Goddess of War. The
Dacotahs worsliip this god under the ahove names. When they are about going to
war, the war-cliief invokes this god, who appears to him as represented in Fig. E,
and instructs him how to act, where he will find the enemy, their condition, the suc-
cess and misfortunes that will attend the war-party. The goddess is represented with
hoops on her arms ; and as many of these as she throws on the ground, indicates the
number of scalps the party will take. If the party is to have bad luck, she will throw
to tlie ground as many broken arrows as there will be warriors killed and wounded.
The little balls running out from the cap (see Plate) represent tufts of down, which
the Indians wear on the head after having killed an enemy. The hatchet with a
fringe to it, is one which has killed an enemy. It is their custom always to fasten a
piece of an animal's skin to any implements used in war. The rays around the figure
represent the Aurora Borealis, which the goddess has forced up in honor of victory.
Fig. F, Eah, or Big-Mouth. This is another god that the Indians invoke to assist
them in their wars. He is represented with a big rattle in his hand. When the
Indians are on a war-party, the war-chief calls to his aid this god and another named
Schun-schun-ah, (Mirage, or the gUmmering of the sun,) to inform him of the where-
abouts of the enemy ; and they say that he seldom fails to receive the correct informa-
tion.

The Dacotahs have many other gods.

All the figures in Plate 36 were drawn bv an Indian.

3. THE GIANT'S FEAST AND DANCE.

This feast and dance is made in honor of an anti-natural god, which the Dacotahs
call Ha-o-kah or the Giant, who they believe to possess supernatural powers, and second
only to the Great Spirit. The Dacotahs have a party or clan in their tribe called the
Giant's party. This clan believe in the existence of this god, and occasionally give
a feast and dance in honor of him. This is performed by the men only, within a wig-
wam, around a fire, over which are kettles of meat boiling. They have no clothing
excepting a conical cap made of birch bark, streaked with paint to represent lightning,
and some strips of the same material around the loins, (.see Plate 37.) While hop
ping and singing around the kettles, they will thrust in their bare hands, and pull out
the pieces of meat and eat them while scalding hot. After the meat is all eaten, they
wall splash the hot water over their bare backs, all the time hopping around and sing-
ing out, " Oh, how !

cold it is " pretending that the hot water does not scald them, and
that the god will not allow any of his clan to be injured by it.
488 D^MONOLOGY, WITCHCRAFT,
It is presumed that previous to going to the feast they prepare themselves for it by
covering themselves with an astringent which they obtain from a root. This deadens

the cuticle, and thereby prevents the hot water from injuring them.
Plate 38 is a delineation of this curious ceremony, drawn by a Dacotah and explained
by him thus :

Fig. 1 is the wigwam in which the feast is given.

Fig. 2, the meat in the kettle.

Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6, are the number of the Giant's party dancing around the meat.

Figs. 8 and 9, bows and arrows.

Figs. 10 and 11, caps, the crooked lines representing lightning.

Figs. 12, 13, and 14, rattles made of deers' hoofs.

Fig. 15, pieces of the meat stuck up on sticks.

Fig. 16, a stone by which they invoke the Indian god.

Fig. 17, tufts of swan-down used in the ceremony.
Fig. 18, a row of grass representing the material with which they kindle their fire.

Fio-s. and 21, the members of the clan going out to dig the roots by which
19, 20,
they extinguish the fire, and the extract of which prevents the hot meat and water
from scalding them.
Plate 37 is a correct representation of this dance and feast.

4. MAGICAL DANCES OF THE ONTONAGONS.

It is well known to those who have investigated the subject, that magic had its

origin witii medicine ; and it is a striking fact in the history of the American Indians,
that this ancient connection is still maintained and practised by them. All their

remedies are exhibited under the supposed, influence of mysterious magical powers,
which are expected to perform their offices as much through the secret influence of the
Indian meda, or medical doctor, as the physical properties of the simple and compound
decoctions employed. For this purpose, incantations are employed, and the hand-
drum and rattles are appealed to, in order to awaken attention and stimulate belief.

The faith of the multitude in these practices is, in a great measure, proportioned to

their ignorance and credulity. They regard the rites and ceremonies with a degree of
respect and awe, as if every village muskikiwininee (medicine-man) was clothed with
all power, mystical and pathological. Jannes and Jambres, of Egyptian memory,
could not stand in higher respect than do the Indian doctors who dispense their skill

with drum and rattles. To give greater interest to the rites, and to excite deeper

feeling, a series of magic dances are arranged.

The arts of these mystical dances are considered so important to the leaders or pro-
fessors of this species of occult and hieratic knowledge, that they are recorded by the
"?'Di Tc t:
M 3

y n
 AND MAGIC. 489

symbolic characters (Plate 39, by Oshkabaiwis). These symbols are pictographs, diflfer-

ing little from the system of the Indian notation of ideas, of which specimens have
been given in Vol. I., § VI., in describing the medicine and wabeno chants, except
in their highly figurative character and less precise signification. They are to be

deemed, more exclusively, the records of magic and sorcery. In the practice of this
they are relied on to guide the leader in the order of his songs and incantations. The
words of the songs themselves, being unrecorded, there can be no attempt to connect

the symbols or devices with the terms actually employed on those occasions. To give

accuracy to the description of these orgies of the midnight wigwam, both the music and
the words committed to the operator's memory are required. Such is the highly
symbolic nature of the figures, and the want of consecutive flow in the ideas, that
much must remain in the mind of the operator and trick-maker, who professes to be

guided by the spirit and power of sorcery and magic.

If the system of dajmonology and the worship of genii has any more tangible forms
among the North American Indians, they have not been noticed. In these ceremonies
there is affected to be held in the mouth the materialized forms of disease, extracted

from the thorax and stomach ; birds are afiected to be reanimated with life ; and evil

genii to be expelled from various parts of the frame. Most of the tricks would be
pronounced very miserable exhibitions of necromancy and legerdemain, by persons
accustomed to the arts of operators in this line, in civilized life. But the exhibitions
are deemed very wonderful by the Indians, who regard them as manifestations of a

spiritual presence, and of the power and favor of the class of secret and personal
gods who favor the operator. He affects to converse, in a mystical manner, with the
spirits and gods, and to wield the power controlling the life and death of individuals.
Under these beliefs, his hold on these assemblies is of the deepest cast. They look up

to his wonderful exhibitions with awe and fear. They quail before them, and the

whole assembly of listeners are in a state of excitement that borders on plirenzy.

The chief of these occult arts is in a phrenzy himself, and as he shakes his magic
rattles, and beats his mysterious little tamborine, he fancies the heavens and the earth
are his listeners, and that the whole visible creation bows before him.
This will explain some of the violent devices employed, and will tend to show how
completely they sway the Indian mind. All our Indian tribes have, in the course of
their tribal historj^, been under the dominion of these sorcerers. The sorcerers are

regarded as men of great sanctity, wisdom, and self-denial. They affect to live poorly,

to be above selfish motives, to be in communion with the spirits of the elemental world,
and to be at all times under an influence which it would be the extreme of human
folly to resist. It was under such influences that the Shawnee prophet wielded such
an enlarged influence on the banks of the Wabash, in 1812. He assembled armies of
naked and painted Lidians at his command. He wielded their destinies, and became
tiie great exponent of Indian opinion on all subjects. To awake the Lidians of the
Pt. hi. — 62
490 D^MONOLOGY, WITCHCRAFT,
north, he told them, by his emissaries, that it would snow forty feet deep the next
winter. Those of the south he approached with elemental calamities of another kind,
which were suitable to their climate and position. I have found traces of his power
at the farthest points in the west, north, and south, where I have been and I am ;

convinced, from these extensive evidences of his influence, that he has, by assembling
large bodies of Indians together where they had no adequate sustenance, and where
they sank beneath the effects of climatic exposure, done more than any single abori-
ginal who has lived in America, to depopulate the Indian tribes.
The leading ideas of their magical and demoniacal devices, as herein exhibited, will
serve to show the scope and purport of these ceremonies. Fig. 2 denotes the medical

chief Oshkabaiwis, the leader of these dances. He holds in his hand a magic rattle, a
small tawaiegon or drum. He affects plenary power in the spirit-world. Every stroke
of his drum-stick reverberates through the Avorld. The lesser Indian gods hold their
breath at the exhibition of his power. Nothing can withstand him. His figures are
chosen from the phenomena of the universe. They are often of the most violent

and extravagant character, and it requires a native to interpret and understand

them.
From such sources of information, the following sketches are drawn. By Figs.

1, 2, 3, the mcda designates himself and his location. They constitute a sort of intro-

duction. Longitudinal marks, such as 11, 23, 35, 52, occupy the place of stops, or
bars. The first ten figures, from 4 to 11, denote his medical and magical skill. By 4,

he cures a man bleeding at the mouth ; by 5 and 6, a tree and moon, he shows his
knowledge of simples; by 7, a beaver, he applies his magical powers to trapping; by
8 and 10, a winged clean pebble, he shows his magical powers ; and not less so by 9, a
charmed arrow, that alike penetrates the earth and heavens.
The compartment B, of the next eleven figures, reveals a deeper chapter in magic.
No. 1 places the beaver in limbo ; 2, enables the marten to ascend a tree, an incredible
feat for the multitude. The eflficacy of his medicine in reaching the heart, and curing
it of a disease caused by a snake, is shown in Fig. 7. By G, a female in the lodge, his
power is shown to extend its universal influence there. No. 5, a man vomiting blood,
is under the power of his nostrums. In 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, a further view is given of his
power over great serpents (7 and 8) and strong-homed bears, who draw their powers
from the earth (12) and sky (11). In 13, he shows his power to cure to be as easy and
direct, as to take hold of a man's head by the hand. This is by his bear-power (14)

and magic-power (15).

The next compartment, C, of 11 figui'es, contains new exhibitions of his art. In
Fig. 1, a man is covered and burdened with gifts of goods. In 2, he is under lunar
influences; in 3, he takes hold of the sky (12) with one hand, and the earth (13)
with the other. In 5, sickness caused by a snake (6) produces vomiting. In 7, a
charmed arrow is fired in a circle. In 8, a black bear, his pride and spirit is appealed
 AND xMAGIC. 491

to. In 9, the ears (14) are symbolically opened to the entreaties of the heavens

(15). lu 10, a man is placed, as it were, in invisible durance : he is denoted by fine

lines. In 11, he assumes the shape and strength of a tempest or storm.

In compartment D, these boasts and evidences of magical and medical power are
continued. It is not necessary to recite them in detail. Some of the figures which
express new features may, however, be given. In Fig. G, the world is turned up-side-
down, and the meda stands on it. In 7, a white man's heart is exhibited. In 7,

the art of hunting is shown as influenced by plants. In 8, he strides the globe. In

12, he holds the influence over females, handling them as if they were little children.
In 9 and 10, his art extends to war ; one receives an arrow in his thigh, the other in
his breast. Compartment E, in Figs. 6, 7, 8, exhibits a medicine-woman in the act
of showing her peculiar wisdom in drinks and decoctions.

5. INVULNERABILITY AND INVISIBILITY.

A TRADITION OF MAGIC.

Ogim-a-wish, '
a very aged and blind chief of the west shore of Lake Michigan,
relates the following tradition, which will explain his beliefs. He says that the ancient
wars and atrocities of the Indians were very great, and that they were not sto]5ped, but

much multiphed by the coming of the whites. At length a general treaty of peace
was held, which was attended by the Indians and whites. A white man who had
learned the language spoke up and said, that the Indians appeared in the eyes of white
men, while in battle, like beasts of the forest and birds of prey, who continually
changed their shapes from one form to another, and w^ere so protected by a magic
agency that bullets had no effect upon them. He said that the cause of this was in
the employment of a plant, a preparation of which they applied to their bodies before
battle, called pezhikawusk.^ They not only used it in rubbing their bodies, but
sprinkled the decoction on their arms and implements, in order to enhance their
power and efficacy. They also carried the plant about them, as a protective, in
medicine-bas:s.

'
Ish is a derogative inflection in nouns, which is subject to the interposition of the sound of w before it,

when the purposes of euphony require it. When the inflection is given to the names of gods, spirits, or men
professing secret arts, the meaning is uniformly bad. The sense conveyed by it, when applied to a man, is

magician or wizard. In this case, it may be rendered wizard-chief.

^ Ushk, in the Chippewa, denotes a grass, weed, or woodless plant. By prefixing to this term the word for
bison, pezhike, we have the etymology — bufialo-grass. The introduction of the sound of ?r in this name, ia

necessary to prevent the succession of two vowels, in bringing together syllables in a compound.
492 D^MONOLOGY, WITCHCRAFT,
They believe that the use of this talismaiiic wash makes them invisible, and has
the power of warding off balls from fire-arms and other missiles. It is still used by the
tribes on war excursions, and its eificacy, together with their reliance upon their
guardian spirits, is such that they are rendered both invisible and invulnerable.

6. GENII WORSHIP.

Having inquired why it is that the Indians decline to relate their oral fictions at
any other time but the winter season, the reply given is stated in the following
summary of their belief on this point.
The genii and spirits who inhabit the solid ground are covered, during the winter
season, by beds of snow, and the lakes and rivers with ice, which make them insensi-

ble to hearing. The fanciful and grotesque tales that are told in the winter-lodge,

where the old and young are crowded together, often produce jeers and remarks from
the listeners, and create merriment which would be offensive to the genii if they were
overheard.
As soon as the spring opens freely, these tales cease. The earth is now reanimated.
The snows disappear, the lakes and rivers open, the birds return to their deserted

forests or streams, the leaves put forth, the shrubs and flowers spring up, as the warm
rays of the sun enter the cold soil, and all nature is revived and rejoices. It isnow
that the spirit-world in which the Indians live, assumes its most intense state of activ-

ity, and the red hunter, who believes himself dejDendent on the spirits and genii for

success in every path of life, is regardful of the least word which might give offence
to these newly-awakened powers. It is this belief that gives force to the song of the
Okogis, which is given in § VI., Vol. III., among the indications of a poetic develop-
ment. The children are told by their parents, that should they do so, the snakes,
toads, and reptiles, would visit them for their presumptuous irreverence.
The hunter, as he floats down the woodland stream, or enters some rock-defile

creating awe, in his land-excursions, lights his pipe to offer a pleasant oblation to the
surrounding and unknown gods, and never alludes to them but in a sedate and reverent
manner. If he were disposed to do otherwise, and indulge in vain asseverations, he

could not, for his very language is without an expression equivalent to an oath. And
in this he is more consistent with his belief than profane white men.
 AND MAGIC. 493

7. PICTOGKAPHS FROM THE FACES OF CLIFFS ON THE

ROCKY MOUNTAINS. (1 Plate.)
The system of medical magic — the belief in elementary gods of the air, mountains,
plains, and waters, and the prominent dogmas of doemonology or spirit-craft, entrusted
to the power of medas or priests, and professors of mystical arts — prevails over the
entire continent. Ideographic symbols are everywhere employed to express these
professed powers of mysterious art. These symbols were elaborated with more art
among the forest and Mississippi Valley tribes, who, from their better means of subsis-

tence, could dwell together in larger villages, and whose hearers and neophytes were,
consequently, able to support their medas and professed leaders and teachers in mystical
things, without these sacred functionaries being obliged to hunt, trap, or fish for them-

selves. The prairie tribes, extending to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, had also

the same general system of recording their arts, powers, and exploits, upon the skins
of animals, cliffs, trees, scrolls of bark, or rude tablets of wood.
We have now, (see Plate 42,) from the pencil of Lieutenant Gunnison, U. S. A.,

some of these pictographic symbols from the bleak and elevated summits of the Rocky
Mountains, where the exhibitions of the great elementary phenomena of the heavens
are on a scale of sublime grandeur which are often mysteriously enhanced by the
wonderful effects of mirage on those elevations.
Colonel Fremont, in his exploration of the Salt Lake Valley, in 1842, mentions the
striking phantasmagoric views which often started up before him, to the amazement of
the men. Further examples of the power of refraction to distort natural objects on
these elevated heights, are given by Captain Stansbury, U. S. A., in his recent report.

The philosophic causes of these effects are a total mystery to the Indian mind, and his
ready sohition of them is found in his subtle system of mythology and magic. Dreams
are to him ordinarily the revelations of the spirit-world ; and when his waking senses
are stimulated by such scenes, it need excite no surprise that he should attribute them
to supernatural causes, or that he should aim, sometimes, to perpetuate his impressions

by pictographs. Such evidences of spiritual and necromantic agencies among the peaks
and valleys of the mountains, we probably have before us, in the plate under examina-
tion.

Compared to the pictographs of the Mississippi Valley tribes, they reveal the same
generic system. The symbol of the Great Spirit, the sun, which is one of the most
ancient and general of all the symbols of the American tribes, is prominent (14 and
23) in both inscriptions. The chief leader and meda in the tribe, is depicted by the
usual emblems of authority, and by holding in his hand the magic rattle. Prophetic
and sacred power is assumed by the figure (B), whose head, by the apparent exaltation
494 D^MONOLOGY, WITCHCRAFT, ETC.
of the chief on his shoulders, is made to fill the canopy of heaven (Figs. 8 and 21).
The magic circles, on which he places one hand, remind the pictographic student of the
symbol 22, Plate 58, Vol. I., which is interpreted "Death's-head," and may be deemed
indicative of the operator's influence over life and death. By the symbol (Fig. 5),
these influc! -L's appear to be connected with the destructive cricket of Utah. The
two inscriptions, Manti and Little Salt Lake Valley, which are two hundred and
twenty miles apart, appear to be sui generis. The symbols of the Great Spirit (Figs. 4
and 23) are nearly identical. The magician (Figs. 6 and 20), —the latter of whom has
one hand and one wing, denoting the union of human and ornithological powers, — and
the emblem of authority over the heads of each (Figs. 19 and 8), are the same.
These resemblances, without attempting further to pursue them, are sufficient to denote
the similarity of the pictographic symbols o'f the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi

tribes.'

'
From Lieut. Gunnison's " Mormons," these pictographs appear to have been wrested to the absurd and
fihameful purposes of that lamentable instance of blind ignorance and fanaticism.
XIII. MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE
OF THE INDIAN. A.

(495)
 MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE INDIAN.

PRACTICE OF MEDICINE AMONG THE WINNEBAGOES.

Turkey River Sub- agency, Io\^a, April \st, 1848.

Sir : — I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note, requesting a reply
to the following queries, viz.
"1.—What are the diseases of this climate, and what are the diseases to which the
Winnebago Indians are most subject?"
"2. — What is the state of medical practice among them?"
" 3.— What is the state of their materia medica?"
In reply to the first query, I would say the Indians are subject to all, and the same
diseases that aflfect the whites.
During the summer and autumnal months, bilious diseases predominate ; in fact,

cases are rarely met in which the liver and spleen do not participate. The febrile

diseases are of a remittent or intermittent type. Continued fevers are rarely met,
except in cases where the former have been neglected, or injudiciously' treated. Typhus
fever, as a primary disease, is never seen. There is a greater tendency to gastro-
enteritis in fevers of this climate than is usually found in a more southern latitude.
During the winter and spring months, the diseases are generally of a highl}'^ inflam-
matory type. The most common are bilious pneumonia, pneumonia, pleuritis, bron-
chitis, tonsillitis, ottitis, and odontalgia.
Of the above, bilious pneumonia is the most frequent, and by far the most fatal
disease among the Indians.

2. As regards the 2:)ractice of medicine amongst them, it is a compound of supersti-

tion and ignorance. They are totally ignorant of the pathology of disea.se, and
equally so of its treatment. They have no knowledge of anatomy, nor any correct
idea of the circulation of the blood ; the maximum of their knowledge on this point
is that the blood runs in certain channels — arterial and venous : circulation is with
them the same thing.
" Medicine-men " are numerous among them, and each has his secret universal

panacea for all the diseases " that flesh is heir to." So far as I have been able to

observe, their medicines are of a mild character, the poisons being excluded as being
the work of the Evil Spirit in an attempt to imitate the Good Spirit, who created the
difierent fruits and grasses for the use of the Indians. Their remedies are exhibiterl
with but little reference to disease or the particular stages of the same.
Pt. lir._6.3 (497)
498 MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE.
The hot or vapor bath and the cold bath or cold affusions, and frequent blood-letting,
are the most powerful remedial agents in use. These powers are resorted to in every
disease attended with inward heat of the surface ; and the latter is an almost universal
remedy. The flint is used as the instrument for bleeding : a small scale is broken off

and tied to the end of a stick, and used as farmers use the lance in bleeding horses.

The vapor bath is prepared by covering a small lodge with blankets, in which the
patient is placed ; heated rocks are placed near him, on which water is poured, imme-
diately generating any required amount of vapor.
The cold bath is some natural stream, or spring, in which the patient is placed in

a sitting posture, the water coming up to his chin ; or, when such natural bath is

inconvenient, from distance, the patient is wraj^ped in blankets, and cold water poured

over him : this is continued according to the plea.sure of the operator. This coui'se

sometimes has a happy effect in cases of fever, but more generally the effect is conges-

tion of some of the important viscera, or brain.

In some cases of disease, they rely more on propitiatory offerings to the Bad Spirit,

and incantations, accompanied with the drum, rattle, and whistle, than on any internal
medicine.
Cupping is also a favorite remedy with them. This is performed with a horn of the
ox, using the mouth as a suction-pump ; the part being first scarified with a flint, or

with the point of a knife.

As regards their materia medica, but little is known to the whites, as a superstitious

mystery envelopes all their actions when attempting to cure the sick. I have been
much among them during the last two years, and have carefully observed their reme-
dies, and the effects, and am perfectly satisfied that they have no remedies of any
value not known and embraced in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States.

Their theory of ague and fever is, that it is the work of the "Bad Spirit;" — that
he blows his cold, and after, his hot breath upon them. This may be taken as a fair

specimen of their knowledge of the cause of disease. All their sacrifices and propi-
tiatory offerings are made to this spirit. I am not aware that offerings are ever

made to Manitou, or the Good Spirit. During seasons of unusual sickness, large
amounts of valuable goods are suspended on trees, or poles, in the vicinity of their

villages, as offerings to the Evil Spirit. Such was the case during the summer and
autumn of 1846. Dogs arc a favorite oflering.

Their superstitious notions are, liowever, grachially melting away before the light of
civilization ; and many of tliem have now discarded their own " medicine-men," and in

all, even the slightest indisposition, call on the government physician for medicine and
advice This is emphatically true, so far as the Agency band is concerned. Observa-
tion and experience liave convinced them that there is more safety in the doctor of the

white man, than their own; and few cases of disease occur in which he is not consulted.
I am, &c.,

F. Andros, Pkijs. to Wintichago Ltd.

XI Y. LITERATURE OF THE
INDIAN LANGUAGES. A.

(499)
 LITERATURE OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGES.

SYNOPSIS OF PAPERS.
1. Plan of a System of Geographical Names for the United States, founded on the Aboriginal
Languages. H. R. S.

2. A Description of the Aboriginal American Nomenclature. H. R. S.

1. PLAN OF A SYSTEM OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES FOR

THE UNITED STATES, FOUNDED ON THE ABORI-
GINAL LANGUAGES.
It does not appear that any distinctive generic name was bestowed by the aborigines
on the American continent.' They had not proceeded, in their knowledge of geograr
phy, from the concrete to the generic and abstract. Rivers, lakes, hills, mountains,
and plains, are suited, by their features, to attract the Indian's eye, which is ever
quick to perceive fancied resemblances to living objects in the animate creation, and
to detect their characteristic features. But the Indian was a poor generalizer ; and
knowing nothing of the true figure and divisions of the globe, he was not prepared, by
his knowledge, to speak of its division into continents, and of their relative positions.

The greater part of the tribes, and so far as vocabularies have been collected, all of
them, had names for the sea, which they believed, in its utmost extent, to encompass
the land. Hence, when pressed for a name for the continent, they denominated it an
island, or, The Island. It is generally called, in their dialects, the Island of the Great
Spirit.Their mythology and traditions regard it as the creation of the invisible
Owayneo, Wacondah, or the Great Monedo, or Wazhiod, the Maker. By the term
Hawaneo, the Iroquois denote the island of Neo, or the Great Spirit.

'
See Traditions of the lowas, Vol. III., p. 263.
C501)
502 LITERATUREOFTHE
Whilst the tribes failed to generalize their local knowledge of places, by the bestowal

of comprehensive terms, they were particular in giving names to their general features.

It is the testimony of all who have looked into this matter, that the Indian geographical

names are at once appropriate and euphonious. They often perpetuate some graphic
or peculiar characteristic, resemblance, or property. Thus, the name of Orinoco
describes a serpent which enfolds itself in circles within circles ; the term Mississippi

appears to imply not simply a great river, but a mass of congregated waters.
The tribes generally dwelt on the^ banks of rivers, which were denoted by an inflec-

tion to the root-form of its name ; as annah, annock, any, as heard in Susqueh-annah
Rappah-annock, and AUegh-any.
The Delawares employed the term ittuk for this purpose, in Lenapeh-ittuk, the

Delaware river ; and the Mohegans of New York, who were a closely cognate tribe,

did the same in their name for the Hudson, in the phrase Mohegan-ittuk. The trans-

lation of the first name is, Lenape river, and of the second, Mohegan river ; names
which had better have been retained.

The termination of atun, or atan, or ton, denotes a rapid stream or channel, as heard
in Manh'-atan. Sometimes this term is followed by a local inflection in uk, as Hous-

aton-uc; or hy ong, as in the Indian name of Detroit river, Wawe-atun-ong.

The New England tribes frequently made the local termination in ett, or etts, as in

Massachus-etts, Seaconn-et, Nantuck-et, Narragans-et. Locality was sometimes given,

in the wide-spread Algonquin bands, by the term ake, meaning land or earth, as in

Milw-aukie, Cox-ackie ; sometimes by allusion to a tree, as auk in Mont-auk, Mani-

tow-ac ; or oc and ac, as in Merrim-ack, Accom-ac, Potom-ac. Very frequently it was

made by the prepositional inflection ing, denoting at, in, or by, as in Wyom-ing, Wyar
lus-ing, Sing-sing, or as formerly heard in Wiscons-ing. The French sometimes softened

where they adopted an Indian word, or made one from

or modified the local inflections,

the Indian languages, by putting ois, as in Iroqu-ois, Sourig-ois, and Illin-ois.

These terminations to the names of rivers, in the Algonquin, generally took more
sonorous forms in the Iroquois, as io, in the word Oh-io and Ontar-io, where the termi-
nation implies admiration.
Many of the local terminations of the geographical names of this language are made
in oga, or aga, as heard in Onond-aga, Ti-oga, and Ticonder-oga. In other combina-
tions, this meaning is conveyed in ego, as Ots-ego, Osw-ego, and Ow-ego.
The southern tribes threw a difierent set of local terminations into our geographical
terminology, which are generally derived from the Muscogee or Chickasaw, or Choctaw
vocabularies. The inflection for a stream, in the Muscogee, is heard in oosa, as in the
words Tuscal-oosa, Tallap-oosa; or in hatchee, or hootchee, as in Coosa-hatchee, Tuckar

The adjective phrase qualifying this word is derived from monadud, bad, inanimate.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 50S

liatchee, and Cliatta-hootche. The tenniiiations in ia, as in Peor-ia, and Kaskask-ia, are
Algonquin.
In adopting the Indian names, there lias been, from the earliest times, a popular
regard to euphony. Sometimes their polysyllabic character has, on coming into use,
required elision, Avhich has consisted, generally, in dropping the first or last syllable, as
the short o before Niagara, and the local ng from Chicago. It is seldom that a whole
syllable has been dropped from an euphonious word, as co from Cocituate, or ono from
Ouosodus. The dropping of wa has, on the contrary, been an improvement of the sound
of sucli names as Poto-wa-mac, and the name of Chesapeake been sharpened up from
its apprehended sound of Chesabeag.
The general beauty,
euphon}-, or sonorousness of the Indian names have been
acknowledged, and a regret expressed that they are not adequate in their number to
supply the wants of a rapidly-settling and wide-spreading country. Doubtless, were
attention gi\;'n to the subject, many local names of aboriginal origin, fit for preserva-

tion, could hi' (nuud in the precincts of their former or present residence, which yet
remain in p:)^)!rar tradition. But it is questionable whether, under any aspect,
should the public taste demand it, the number would be found at all adequate to
the increasing demands of the rapidly-accumulating counties and townships of the
new States.

It is believed that a system of forming compound names may be introduced from

the Indian languages, which will embrace the advantages of euphony with appropriate-
ness of signification. The popular English ear is wedded to certain laws of quantity
and rhythmical flow, of which it is not always sensible, but which, on experiment
in the use of new names, it is not prepared to sacrifice. In a few instances, the very
quaintness of a short name of English compounds, causes it to be brought into popular
use, as in the term Penyan, which is a combination of the first sylhible in Pennsyl-

vania, and Yankee. In adopting others from foi'cign languages, euphony sometimes
leads to the dropping of a consonant essential to the foreign sound, as in Vermont,
from verd-mous or mont.
It is found that many aboriginal terms which are graphically descriptive in the

native dialects, fail in the necessary euphony and shortness necessary to their popular

adoption. The principles of the polysynthetic languages embrace the rule of concen-
trating, in their compounds, the full meaning of a Avord upon a single syllable, and
sometimes a single letter. Thus, in Algonquin, the particle be denotes water; wa, inan
imate motion ;
ga, personal action ; ac, a tree ; bic, a rock or metal. The syllable ti,

in Iroquois, constantly means water; tar, a rock; on, a hill; nee, a tree.
In the Natic or Massachusetts dialect, as given by Mr. Eliot, the negative form of
elementary words is inatta; the local inflection ett ; the adjective great, missi ; black,
inooi ; white, wompi.
In Creek, we-wah is water and hat-kee white, but in forming the compound for sea.
504 LITERATURE OF THE
the term is we-liat^kee, which means white water. Here the final syllable for water
is seen to be non-essential, and the terminal inflection for white, by a common mutation
of tlie vowel, is changed from kee to ka (short).

The Indian languages also contain generic syllables or particles in the shape of

inflections to nouns and verbs ; in the Algonquin, abo, a liquid ;

jegun, (or simply gun,)
an instrument; jewun, a current; wunzh, a plant; ong or onk, a place, &c.
By these concentrations, descriptive words become replete with meanings; but it

requires a very nice collocation and adjustment of syllables to attain the requisite
degree of euphony for the adoption of such compounds by foreign ears. Generally,
words of three syllables recommend themselves to tlie English ear for quantity, in
geographical names adopted from an Indian language, as heard in Oswego, Chicago,

Ohio, Monadnok, and Toronto. In these cases, it may be observed that the accent
is uniformly on the antepenultimate. In the terms Susquehannah, Rappahannock,
Ontai'io, Mississippi, Adirondak, Niagara, Ticonderoga, Michilimackinac, and Kay-
aderosseras, (consisting respectively, in their order, of four, five, and six syllables,)

there is something in the rapidity, and at the same time euphony of their flow,
which appears to have led to their early adoption; and these terms may be said
to stand as bulwarks in our aboriginal syllabication. In the word Oregon, the origin
(jf which is uncertain, the accent is on the first syllable. In the euphonious words
Missouri, Illinois, and Arkansas, which embrace aboriginal roots, we hear the sounds as

modified by the French orthoepy and enunciation, and the accent of the two latter
terms is disturbed by them. In Alleghany, the accent maintains its original place; in

the fine term Appalachian, which, it is apprehended, is founded on the Spanish-Indian

Appalache and Appalachia, the accent is thrown backward, as it is generally in adopted
aboriginal words of five or six syllables.
In the terms suggested in the following lists of words, intended to be introduced into
our geographical nomenclature, the principles of elision and concentration referred to,

liave been applied. The root^forms carry the entire signification to which they are
entitled, in the elementary vocabulary, after they have been divested, by analysis, of
tlieir adjuncts. Thus, in the Algonquin, the syllable ac stands for land, earth, ground,
.soil ; be for water, liquid ; bic for rock, stone, metal, hard mineral ; co for object ; ke
li)r country, precinct, or territory; os for pebble, loose stone, detritus; min, good; ia,

tlic term for a beautiful scene; na, a particle, which in compound words denotes
I'.xcellence ; oma, a large body of water ; non, a place ;
gan, a lake ; coda, a plain or
valley ; oda, a town, village, or cluster of houses, &c.
By taking the primary sellable of a word, as conveying the entire signification of
the word, and employing it as a nominative to other syllables, which are also made use
of in their concentrated forms, a class of words is formed, which are generally sliorter
than their parent form.s, more replete in their meanings, and securing, at the same time,
a more uniformly euphonious pronunciation. Quantity and accent being thus at com-
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 505

mand by these elisions and transpositions, the number of syllables of which a new
class of words shall consist, is a question to be predetermined. Expletive consonants,
harsh gutturals, and double inflections, the pests of Indian lexicography, are dropped,
and the selections made from syllables which abound in liquid and vowel sounds. For
it should be the object ever to preserve, as new elements in this peculiar branch of

American literature, not the harsh and barbarous, but the soft and sonorous sounds.

1. Terms from the Alfjonquin.

As a basis for these terms, Ave take, from the vocabulary of analyzed words, the
primary terms ad, ab, os, wud, pat, mo, at, seeb, gon, pew, chig, naig, ag, mon, tig, cos,

pen, mig, won ; meaning respectively deer, home, pebble, mountain, hill, spring, channel

or current, river, clay-land, iron, shore, sand, water's edge, corn, tree, grass, bird, eagle,
rose-bud. Subjecting these nominatives to the adjective expression ia, signifying

beautiful, fair, admirable, and placing the particle nac, land, earth, soil, in the objective,

and changing the latter for gan, a lake; bee, water; min, good ; na, excellent ; ma,
large water ; ock, forest, we have the following trisyllabic terms :

PRIMARY TERMS. GAN BEE MIN NA OCK

Deer Ad Ad ia nac gan bee luin na ock

Home Ab Ab ia nac gan bee min na ock

Pebble Os Os ia nac gan bee min na ock
Mountain Wud Wud ia nac gan bee min na ock
Hill Pat Pat ia nac gan bee min na ock
Spring Mo Mo ia nac gan bee min na ock
Current At At ia nac gan bee min na ock
River Seeb .. Seeb ia nac gan bee min na ock
Clay-land Gon.... Gon ia nac gan bee min na ock
Iron Pew.. Pew ia nac gan bee min na ock
Shore Chig.. Chig ia nac gan bee min na ock
Sand Naig .. Naig ia nac gan bee min na ock
Beach Ag ... Ag ia nac gan bee min na ock
Corn Mon.. Mon ia nac gan bee min na ock
Tree Tig Tig ia nac. gan bee min na ock
Grass Cos Cos ia nac gan bee min na ock
Bird Pen Pen ia nac gan bee min na ock
Eagle Mig Mig ia nac gan bee min na ock
Rose-bud Won Won ia nac gan bee min na ock

By reversing the action of the verb, or noun nominative, which the grammar
permits, and placing the objective syllable in the place of the nominative, a new set
of phrases is created, by which the meaning is changed from deer-land, home-land,
&c., to land of deer, land of home, &c. The number of the objective sj^Uables is as

various as their objects in nature. The whole class of animals, birds, reptiles, insects,

fishes ; the wide-spread phenomena of the heavens, of the forests and of the waters,
Pt. III.— 64
506 LITERATURE OF THE
supply words which are susceptible of being employed in the construction of new teiins.
As there are seventeen letters in the language, and each of these may be varied in its

syllabic powers fifteen times, as has been indicated at p. 359, Vol. II., there is a wide
range in this department. Not only can the objective be exchanged for the nomina-

tive, but the qualifying word admits of many euphonious exchanges ; and it may itself

be employed as an objective, and the nominative itself thrown in the body of terms as
a qualifying syllable ;
producing a set of words like those heard in Peoria and Kaskas-
kia, where the terminal syllable, ia, denotes fair or beautiful. In these terms the
syllable os, denoting pebble or drift, is the adjunct noun.
Ad6sia Fair deer land From Adic.
Ab6sia Fair home land " Abin.
Wudosia Fair mountain " Wudjoo.
Patosia Fair hill " Ishpatina.

Mos6sia Fair spring land " Mokitch.

At6sia Fair channel " Atun.
Seeb6sia Fair river " Seebee.
Gon6sia Fair arable land.
Ag6sia Fair shores.
Cosdsia Fair grass land.
If the terminal onie, or oma, as it is heard in Gitchig-oma, be employed, we have a
set of terms denoting water prosjjects.

Min-6-ma Good water.

Mos-6-ma Moose water.
Adik-6-ma Deer water (reindeer).

Mon-6-ma Spirit water.

Mok-6-ma Spring water.

Seeb-6-ma River water.
Cod-6-ma Plain or prairie water.
Tig-6-ma Tree water.
Cos-6-ma Grass water.
Ac-6-ma Rock water.

Az-6-ma Eagle water.

The particle na, as heard in Na-mikong (White-fish Point), and Na-geezhig, a man's
name, denotes excellent, abundant, surpassing. By taking this for the objective
syllable, and retaining the same nominative and the same qualifying syllable made use
)f above, the resulting terms are as follows :
—
Min-ia-na Good, fair, and excellent.
Ack-ia-na " " land.

Cos-id-na " " grass.

Az-id-na " " eagles.

Cod-iii-na " " plains.

Tig-ia-na " " trees.

Mon-ia-na . .
" " spirits.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 607

2. Terms from Uie Iroquois. {The, syllables CO, a cascade; Tl, water ; tar, rock ; ON,
lull; ASTO, a defile; are selected as exldbiting tlie transpositive capacities of this sonorous
language.)

(a.) Iroquois terminations in aiea, a valley or landscape.

Co-at-at-ea Valley below falls.

Ti-at-at-ea Well-watered valley.

Tar-at-at-ea Rocks of the valley.

On-at-at-ea Hills of the valley.

As-to-at-ea Narrow pass of a river in the valley.

(b.) Iroquois terminations in oga, a place.

Ti-ar-o-ga Place of water and rocks.
Os-ar-o-ga Place of the view of water and rocks.
On-tar-o-ga Place of hills and rocks.
Co-at-ar-o-ga Place of falls.

Ti-at-ar-o-ga Place of the watery vale.

Tar-at-ar-o-ga Place of the rocky vale.
Di-on-dar-o-ga Place of the inflowing of waters.

(c.) Iroquois terminations in io, beautiful.

Co-i-o Beautiful falls.

Te-i-o Beautiful waters.

On-ti-o Beautiful hills.

Tar-i-o Beautiful rocks.

Os-i Beautiful view.

(d.) Iroquois terminations in ara, path at a gorge.

Co-at-a-ra Cascade at a gorge.
Ti-at-a-ra Water at a gorge.

Tar-at-a-ra Rock at a gorge.

On-at-a-ra Hill at a gorge.

Con-at-a-ra Tree at a gorge.

3. Terms from the Appalachian Group of Languages. {The nominative syllables and
local infections selected under this Imad are chiefly from tlie Muscogee.)

Termination in hasse, a river ; dega, a plain ; and dilla, a little field.

A LITTLE FIELD.
508 LITERATURE OF THE
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 609

Terminations in MONT.

Cal-mont
610 LITERATURE OF THE

2. A DESCRIPTION OF THE ABORIGINAL AMERICAN

NOMENCLATURE, WITH ITS ETYMOLOGY.
ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED.

The following examples of the poetry of Indian thouglit in the bestowal of names,
are chiefly drawn from the departments of geography and history. Justice could hardly
be done to the subject, without embracing the recondite topic of their wide-spread
mythology ; nor, indeed, could either branch of these inquiries be made at all com-
2)lete, without extending it to the aboriginal biography. Savage nations, who live

without books, and whose lore and knowledge are necessarily verbal, and exist in the
memory of succeeding generations, are essentially swayed in their acts, and influenced
in all things, by their distinguished men. Their names of places and scenes, and the
effect their heroes have had on their history and power, can hardly be well examined,
without, to some extent, entering into their biography and theories, mythological and
theological. Their cliieft have not only been their wai'-captains and counsellors, and
thus kept up, orally, the chain of their history; but it is known that they have ever
been appealed to, by the respective nations, as furnishing examples of correct speaking
and pronunciation. Lideed, the history of the Indians, as appears to have been thought
by an eminent writer' on this topic, in the seventeenth century, can be but little more
than the connected biographies of their eminent men.
The historical and geographical facts communicated mth the names, may sometimes
])& thought to have been pursued too far, but could not well have been less ; and to

have remained silent on these heads, would have proved a manifest defect. For the
wide area of South America, whose tribes come into this brotherhood of names,
reliance has been had upon the work of De Alcedo.
It is believed that what is said in connection with the topics named, on the etymo-
logy and principles of the languages, will not be deemed out of place. The result of

his researches is submitted by the author, with a feeling somewhat akin to that of
literary paternity, which looks back with a kindly intei'est on years devoted to the

object of his cares, satisfied that if the results come short of conceptions of excel-
lence in a novel field of American literature, they cannot fail, he believes, from the
opportunities had of observing the man, or the time and assiduity bestowed on the
subject.

H. R. S.

Washington, Se2->t. 19, 1852.

'

Golden.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 611

ABORIGINAL NOMENCLATURE. A.

Abacaries, or Abacactes. — An Indian mission, seated on a lake of the same name,

on the waters of the river Madeira, Brazil. The Abacaries are stationary. They are

under the charge of the Carmelites, but retain many of the early peculiarities and
modes of life of their nation. They cultivate maize, and subsist on fish and tropical
fruits. The etymology of the name is not given.
Abacooche, or Coosa. —A I'iver taking its rise in Georgia; it flows into the State of
Alabama, after uniting with the Tallapoosa a few miles below Wetumpka, and forms the
river Alabama. The first fonii of orthography is now obsolete. The word is supposed
to be derived from Oscooche, one of the ancient bands of the Mucogulgee or Creek
nation.
Aba-inka. — In Choctaw history this is the name of the Supreme Being. Spiritual

existence is denoted by compound terms in all the American languages which have
been examined. In the mode of the manifestation, power, and ubiquity of the Supreme
Spirit and his satellites, a subtle doctrine of polytheism or spiri1>craft is developed as
a leading trait of the Indian mind. It is in the belief in a numerous class of inferior

powers or spirits, who are manifestations of the Supreme Deity, that the system of
guardian spirits or personal protectors rests. Each great group of languages has a
distinctname for the Deity. The Iroquois tribes recognize him by the name of
Neo Owayneo the Algonquins in the name Monedo the Dacotahs in Waconda,
or ; ;

and various tribes of the Appalachians in Aba^inka, &c. Each of these groups or
tribes is taught by their priesthood to look to the Great Spirit through objects in the
animal, mineral, or vegetable kingdoms, which are believed to be the temporary resi-
dences of sub-deities, possessing some portion of the Supreme Essence. But it is seen
that while this belief in subordinate agencies exists, all addresses, hymns, or prayers
made in their secret societies are directed exclusively to the great Spirit or Prime Deity.

The word inca, in this language, denotes father. The particle ab, in several of the

American languages, appears to be derived from the verb to abide, as in the Algonquin
abin, to abide. In the word Ala-ba-ma, the antepenultimate, agreeably to Milfort,
/has the same meaning of to abide or rest. In another class of words, as in Ab-in-oche,
a child, in the Algonquin, it implies originative, or more correctly perhaps, according
to Indian notions, generative power.
Abanes. — An unreclaimed ti'ibe of Indians living in the plains north of the

Orinoco, New Grenada. They are docile and of good disposition, but have shown no
desire to quit their precarious habits of life and subsistence.
Abangoui. — A settlement of the Guarani nation of Indians, on the river Taquani,
in Paraguay. These Indians were discovered in 1541, by Cabaca de Vaca, the
celebrated survivor of the unfortunate expedition of Narvaez to Florida in 1527.
512 LITERATURE OF THE
Abeicas, or Abecas. —A band of probably the Muscogee nation, living on the
Tombio-bee river, in 1750. They made knives of a very efficient kind from the hard

wood of the cane.

Abenakis. —A tribe of Indians formerly inhabiting the territory which now com-
prises a part of the States of Maine and New Hampshire. They were divided into

several sub-tribes, the best known of which are the Penobscots, Norridgewocks, and
Ameriscoggins. Abenakis is a geographical terra adopted by the French, denot-
ing the area occupied by this tribe on the first settlement of Canada. Having at an
early period received missionaries from Canada, they espoused the French interests
in the long contest between that province and the British colonists in New England,
and were engaged in hostilities with the latter until the conquest of Canada. A few
years previous to this event, about 1754, all but the Penobscots withdrew into Canada.
The population of the Penobscots is stated in the estimates accompanying the plan of
western removal, submitted to Congress by President Monroe, in 1825, at 277, and
the land owned by them at 92,160 acres.

The fullest vocabulary we possess of the Abenaki language, is furnished by the

manuscripts of Father Rale, the zealous missionary among the Norridgewocks, who
was killed fighting by their side. These papers were published a few years ago by the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, at Boston, under the direction of Mr. Picker-

ing. To the valuable data thus furnished, Mr. Gallatin has added a vocabulary of the
Penobscot dialect derived from other sources. He observes that the Abenaki language
has great affinities with the dialects of the other two nations east of the St. Lawrence,
namel}^, the Etchemins or Canoemen, and the Micmacs or Souriquois. He fixes their

geographical limits, in A. D. 1600, between the Kennebec and Piscataqua; observing

that Governor Sullivan had jjlaced it definitely at Saco, a point which is conceived to
be corroborated by the fact that the French writers speak of a tribe called Sokokies,
whom they locate in that particular quarter. This last tribe is also mentioned by
Colden, under the name of Sohokies, as living eastward of Boston ; and if, as seems
probable, the term Saco is derived from them, it is, perhaps, the strongest trace they
have left in the geography of New Hampshire.
In 1754, the Norridgewocks suffered a severe and total defeat from the New England
troops, losing their missionary Rale in the conflict; after which they migrated into
Lower Canada. There are, at present, a missionary and a teacher among them, in the

service of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. By a report

from the former, made in 1839, there are sixty persons returned as attending Protestant

woi'ship ; of which number, twenty-four are church members ; and twenty youths who
attend a daily school.
Abenaki is a term of obvious import. Wa-bun-ong is a tei'm denoting the east,

literally called a place of light. By dropping the local inflection in ong, and adding
the word aki, earth or land, the phrase Abenaki, Eastlander, is formed. The w is
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 613

dropped by tiie Frencli. They also, in early times, sometimes spelled the word Abe-
uaquies, in the plural, and sometimes Oubenakis. The Iroquois, according to Golden,

called them Oweuungas, along with the Pennacooks and other North-East Indians.
Some of the early English writers call them Tarrenteens, a term employed" by Wood,'
in contradistinction to the other New England tribes who did not use the letter r.

Abegiras. — An Indian mission situated on the river Curarai, thirty leagues from
its mouth, and 240 from Quito. It was founded in 1565 by the Jesuits under Lorenzo
Lucero.
Abernaquis. — A mode of orthography used by some writers in spelling Abenaquis,
or Abenakies.
Abipones. — An unreclaimed nation of Indians who inhabit the south shore of the
river Bermejo, in the province of Tecuman, Buenos Ayres. This nation is said, perhaps
vaguely, to have formerly numbered 100,000 souls ; but was, at the last accounts, about
A. D. 1800, much reduced. The}^ present some peculiar traits, living as nearly in a
state of nature as possible. The men go entirely naked, subsisting themselves by
hunting and fishing, and passing much of their time in idleness or war. The women
wear little ornamented aprons made of skins, called queyapi. Physically, the people
are well formed, of a lofty stature and bearing, robust, and good featured. They paint
their bodies profusely, and take great pains to inspire hardihood. For this purpose
they cut and scarify themselves from childhood ; they esteem tiger's flesh one of the
greatest dainties, believing its properties to infuse strength and valor. In Avar they
are most cruel, sticking their captives on the top of high poles, where, exposed to the
scorching rays of the sun, they are left to die the most horrid death.
They have no knowledge of God, of laws, or of policy, yet they believe in the
immortality of the soul, and in a land of future bliss, where dancing and diversions
shall prevail. Widows observe celibacy for a year, during which time they abstain
from fish. The females occupy themselves in sewing hides or spinning rude fabrics.
They conceal their husbands' knives during brawls, to prevent assassinations. They
rear but two or three children, killing all above this number.
Abisca. — A wild and picturesque region of Pei'u, lying east of the Andes, noted
from the earliest period for the number of barbarous tribes which occupy it. These
tribes have successfully resisted all attempts to subjugate and civilize them. They
withstood the power of the Inca Yupanqui to subdue them before the conquest. The
same result attended the effort of Pedro de Andria in 1538.
Abitanis. — A mountain Peru, whichof signifies, in the Queche tongue, ore of gold.
Abitegas. —A numerous, and warlike
fierce, tribe of Indians in Peru, of the original

Quetche stock, living in the pro\ance of Tarma, about sixty leagues east of the Andes.
Without fixed residences, or habits of industry, they roam in quest of game and food,

and are often in want and wretchedness.

'
New England Memorial.
Pt. III.— 65
514 LITERATURE OF THE
AiUTTiBi. — A lake on the source of Moose river of Hudson's bay, in the country of

the Montaignais, who are referred to in the original boundary-line established between
that territory and Canada. It is in lat. 48° 35'.

Abo, or Abou. — This term is heard in Algonquin mytholog}', in the words Chiabo,
Michabou, Manabosho. Wabose, in the various dialects of this language, signifies a

hare, or I'abbit. The Powhatans, in the time of Raleigh, called it Whapoos — a

pronunciation in which the broad o takes the sound of oo, and the usual interchange
between h and p is made. The Menomonees call the hare, wahpash; the Miarais,
mawpunza. Other cognate tribes differ yet more considerably.
Whatever be the allegory concealed under these different pronunciations of the word
in these names, it appears to possess no little importance in their mythology. The
great hare, which seems plainly meaot by it, appears to prefigure a great white spirit.

In the term Kick-a-poo, we perceive the same term; the h being changed to p, and
oo, as in the Powhatauese.
the broad o to In this word the nominative syllable, kick,
is from negick, an otter; and the inflection in ajaoo renders the meaning, otter's gliost.

The true meaning of abo, or wabo, appears to be a white sjjirit. The syllable os, in

wabos, appears to be derived from os, the primary word for father. Some of the
western tribes of Algonquins say that Manabosho was the first son of the Great Spirit,
or a raonedo, who, once on a time, came down to the earth. To know what this white
spirit, or white father, did in Algonquin mythology and cosmogony, it is only neces-
sary to read the acts of Manabosho and Chiabo, which see.

Abrauam, or Little Abkaham. —A Mohawk rakowana, or chief, who succeeded

King Hendric (so called) after the battle of Lake George, in 1755. He was of a mild
and pacific character, and noted as a speaker and orator. He espoused the cause of
the mother country on the breaking out of the American Revolution. He was present
at the last pacific meeting of Mohawks with the American Commissioners, at Albany,
in September, 1775, and drops from notice about that time. He was succeeded by
Brant, the terrible enemy of American liberty.
Absarokas, or Crows. —A tribe of the Rocky Mountains. The language of the Crow
nation of Indians embraces several tribes. Under the name of Minnetarees they live
along the western and southern banks of the higher Missouri. The Upsarokas occupy
the Yellow-Stone, extending westward to the foot and summits of the Rocky Mountains.
The precise extent of their territory, divisions into tribes, and numbers, are points very
imperfectly known, except through the casual and hasty notices of travellers. The
Mandans are found, latterly, to have some slight analogies with the Upsarokas ; also
the Mattasoons or Ahahaways. The term Gros Ventres is but a synonym for Min-
netarees.

Absecon. —A place on the New Jersey coast, south-west of Little Egg Hai'bor.
Wa-bis-se, in the Cliippewa language, means swan ; the word is rendered local in iixj,

making it swan-place. The syllable con, is, apparently, an alteration of the plural
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 51.')

particle un, rendering the plirase in this langnage, Place of Swans. The Sanhikans,
who inhabited that part of the country at the era of its discovery, and to whom the

name is probably due, had dialectic peculiarities in the great Algonquin family.

Abucees. —A settlement of Indians in the province of Quixos and Marcas, in

Quito; in lat. 0° 36" north, Ion. 75° 22" west.

Abwoin. — The name of the Dacotah or Sioux tribe, in the Chippewa and its cognate

Algonquin languages. This name furnishes an instance of the bestowal of tribal

name in derision or contempt, which is a very common practice among the various
tribes. Abwa is a term meaning to roast or fry on a stick before a fire. By the inflec-
tion in win, the Chippewas mean to mark the barbarity of their western neighbors, by
calling them roasters, or tormentors by fire. The word is sometimes improperly
pronounced as if written Bwoin, the a short being dropped. By prefixing as-sin, a

stone, to this term, with the connective a, the same tribe designate the well-known
revolted Sioux band of the Assinabwoins of the Red River of the North.
AcALnuA. — In Toltec chronology he was the fether of Tezozomac. He arrived in

the valley of Mexico in 1011.

AcALHUAS. — An ancient name of the Mexicans. (Vide Chichimecs, also Aztecs.)
This was the predominant race of Mexico at tlie opening of the 16th century.
Government began to assume form and fixity in the Mexican valley, at a compara-

tively ancient era, if we are to follow the guidance of traditionary history. But the
great Indian monarchy which Cortez first attacked in 1519, and overthrew in 1521,
appears to have been recent, and ascends to no more remote point of history than about
1418. It was not till that period that the great caciques and independent princes of
Tezcuco and Mexico began to emerge beyond the confines of the valley of Anahuac
and made conquests. An indefinite period of some four centuries preceded it, during

which we must locate the chief and most reliable traditions respecting the prior

kingdoms of the Toltecs and their allies — nations who were not, however, of a
radically different stock. It includes the ancient wars of the Tezcucons or Acalhuas,
which resulted in triumph; and the wars with the Tecpanics, the Cholulans, the
Chalcas, the Tlascallans, and the Huexotzincoes. Prior to this era of the more certain

traditions of the Mexicans, lies the epoch of another monarchy, namely, the Olmec,
to which is ascribed the erection of the great pyramid of Cholula.
AcA^MUCniTLAN. —A settlement of sixty Indian families, near Texopilco. They
produce sugar, honey, maize, and vegetables.
AcANTEPEC. — A settlement of ninety-two families, near Tlapa. The climate is cold

and moist. They manufacture cotton stuflFs.

AcARi. — The site of the ruins of two Indian fortresses of a date prior to the

conquest. In a beautiful valley, there is a lofty mountain composed of misshapen

stones and sand, in which, at certain seasons of the year, is heard a loud and continued
murmuring. Tlie ruins are at its skirts. It is eight leagues from the city of Arequipa
£16 LITERATURE OF THE
AcATEPEC. — There ;iro six Indian settlements of this name at var'o is points in
Spanish America, the largest of Avhich consists of 860 families, in the district of Te-
huecan.
AcATL. — In Aztec history, astronomy, and mythology, this is a symbol for one of
the four days named in the Mexican calendar. It signifies, primarily, in their vocab-
ulary, a reed. The computation of time was founded, as a basis, on a period of four
days. It required three periods of these primary quartads and one day, to make a
tlalpilli, or month of thirteen days ; and twenty tlalpilli for a year of 260 days. They
were, evidently, in ignorance of the true length of the solar year when this was done.
But when they became acquainted with it, they added the number of days to make
365, and 6 hours, and had a year eventually within a few minutes of the true time.

The symbol of each day was deemed lucky or unlucky ; and, in this respect, a species
of astrology was appealed to ; and no important matter was undertaken when the
zodiacal sign was unpropitious.
AcATLAN. — An Indian settlement of 850 families, in a fertile, mild, and well-

watered district of country, abounding in fruits, flowers, and pulse ; fifty-five leagues
east-south-east of Mexico. Five other communities of the ancient semi-civilized race
exist, at various localities, within the Mexican States.
AcAXEE. — A nation of Indians in the province of Topia. They are represented to

have been converted to the Catholic faith by the society of Jesuits, in 1602. They
are docile and of good dispositions and abilities. One of their ancient customs consisted
in bending the heads of their dead to their knees, and in this posture putting them in

caves or under a rock, and, at the same time, depositing a quantity of food for their
supposed journey to another state. They also exhibited a further coincidence with
the customs of the northern Indians, by placing a bow and arrows with the body of

the dead warrior for his defence. Should an Indian woman happen to die in child-bed,

they put the surviving infant to death as having been the cause of its mother's
decease. This tribe rebelled against the Spanish in 1612, under the influence of a
native prophet, but they were subdued by the governor of the province, Don Francisco
de Ordinola.
AcAziNGO. —A settlement 700 Mexican
of Indians, in the district of Tepcaca.
AccoCESAWS. —A Indians
tribe of Texas, in of erratic habits, whose principal location
was formerly on the west side of tlie Colorado, about 200 miles south-west of Nacog-
doches. While they lived near the bay of Mexico, they made use of fish, oysters, &c.

Authors represent the country occupied or traversed by them as exceedingly fertile and
beautiful, and abounding in deer of the finest and largest kind. Their language is

said to be peculiar to themselves; they were expert in communicating ideas by

the system of signs. About 1750, the Spanish had a mission among them, but
removed it to Nacogdoches.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 517

ACCOHANOCS. —A division of the Virginia Indians of the Powhatanic group, who

numbered forty in 1607. They lived on the Accohanoc river in eastern Virginia.

Tlie tenuination hanoc, as heard in Rappahannock, signifies a river.

AccoMACKS. —A tribe of the Powhatanic type of the Algonquin stock, who inh.v
bited Virginia on its discovery. Mr. Jefferson states their number, in 1607, at eight}'.

In 1669, when the legislature of Virginia directed a census of the Indian population
within her jurisdiction, there apjoears no notice of the tribe. They inhabited the
ai'ea of Northampton county.
The particle mack, which, it is apprehended, was pronounced inatiJc by the Indians,
denotes, in the Algonquin dialects, a trunk of a tree, post, or some organic columnar
fixture. Aco is a phrase, in compound Chippewa words, denoting a limit ; meaning, as
far as, or at; as if we should say, — as far as the tree, or at the tree.
AccoMENTAS. — A band or division of the Pawtucket Indians, according to Gookin,

who inhabited the northerly part of Massachusetts in 1674.

AcHAFALAYA. —
The principal western outlet of the Mississippi river. It is a
Choctaw word, meaning " the long river," from hacha, river, and falaya, long.
AcHAGUA. — A nation of Indians of New Grenada, dwelling in the plains of Gaza-

nare and Meta, and in the woods of the river Ele.

They are bold and dexterous hunters with the dart and spear ; and in their contests

with their enemies, they poison their weapons. They are fond of horses; and rub
their bodies with oil, to make tlieir hair shine. They go naked, except a small azi<tii
made of the fibres of the aloe. They anoint their children with a bituminous oint-

ment at their birth, to prevent the growth of hair. The brows of females are also
deprived of hair, and immediately rubbed with the juice o£ jagua, which renders them
bald ever after. They are of a gentle disposition, but addicted to intoxication. The
Jesuits formerly converted many of them to the Catholic faith, and formed them into
settlements in 1661.
AcHQUANCHicoLA. — The name of a creek in Pennsylvania, signifying, in the Dela-

ware or Lenape language, the brush-net fishing creek.'

AcHSissAGHECS.—The Iroquois name, as given by Golden,^ for the Mississagies.

AcQUiNOSHiONEE. — The ancient name of the Iroquois for their confederacy. It

signifies a league of tribes. It apjiears, from tlieir traditions communicated to the

Rev. Mr. Pyrlaus, that this term had not been in use above fifty years prior to the
first settlement of the country.
AcTOPAN. —A town and settlement of the Othomi Indians, situated twenty-three
leagues north-north-east of Mexico. Its population is put by Spanish geographers at

'
Heckewelder. — Trans. Am. Philos. Soc. ' History of the Five Nations.
518 LITERATUREOFTHE
2750 families, or about 4000 souls, in 1787. They raise sheep and goats. In this
vicinity is found the singular bird called zenzoiitla by the Indians.
AcuTiTLAX. —An Indian settlement of forty-five families, in the district of Tepuxilco,

Mexico, who trade in sugar, honey, and maize. It is five leagues north-east of Zulte-
pec, and a quarter of a league from Acarauchitlan.
Adaes. —A tribe of Indians formerly located about 40 miles from Natchitoches,
Louisiana. Efforts were made by the Spanish, about 1798, to convert them to the
Catholic faith, but without success. Their language is represented as having been
difficult to speak, and diverse from all others. In 1812, they were reduced to 20 men,
besides women and children. The name is sometimes spelled Adaize, or Adees.
Adario. — An able, brave, and politic chief, who was at the head of the Wyandot
nation in the latter part of the 17th century, while they were located at Michili-
mackinac. on Lake Huron. He appears to have been a man possessed of a degree of
energy, and decision of character, ver\' uncommon among the Indian nations of his
time. With a small force, he accomplished an enterprise which had, in its results, an
important bearing on the war then existing between the Six Nations and Canada, and
stimulated the former in their desperate attacks on the city of Montreal. To under-
stand his position and character, a few allusions to the history of the period are
necessary.
In 1687, the English of the province of New York resolved to avail themselves of
a recent alliance between the two crowns, to attempt a participation in the fur-trade
of the upper lakes. They persuaded the Iroquois to set free a number of Wyandot
captives, to guide them through the lakes, and open an intercourse with their people.
Owing to the high price and scarcity of goods, this plan was favored by Adario and
his people, and also by the Ottawas and Potawatomies ; but the enterprise foiled.

Major McGregory, who led the party, was intercepted by a large body of French from
Mackinac, and the whole party captured, and their goods distributed gratuitously to
the Indians. The lake Indians, who had, covertl}^ countenanced this attempt, were
thrown back entirely on the French trade, and subjected to suspicions which made
them uneasy in their councils, and anxious to do away with the suspicions entertained
of their fidelity by the French. To this end, Adario marched a party of 100 men
from Mackinac, against the Iroquois. Stopping at Fort Cadarackui to get some intelli-

gence which might guide him, the commandant informed him that the governor of
Canada, Denonville, was in hopes of concluding a peace with the Six Nations, and
expected their ambassadors at Montreal in a few days. He therefore advised the chief
to return. Did such a peace take place, Adario perceived that it would leave the
Iroquois to push the war against his nation, which had already been driven from the
banks of the St. Lawrence, to Lake Huron. He dissembled his fears, however, before
the commandant, and left the fort, not for the purpose of returning home, but to
waylay the Iroquois delegates, at a portage on the river where he knew they must
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 519

pass. He did not wait over four or five days, when the deputies arrived, guarded by
forty young warriors, Avho were all surprised, and either killed or taken prisoners. His
next object was to shift the blame of the act on the governor of Canada; by whom,
he told his prisoners, he had been informed of their intention to pass this way, and he
was thus prepared to lie in wait for them. They were much surprised at this apparent
act of perfidy, informing him, at tlie same time, that they were truly and indeed on a
message of peace. Adario aflected to grow mad with rage against Denonville, declaring
that he would some time be revenged on him for making him a tool, in committing so
horrid a treachery. Then looking steadfastly on the prisoners, among whom was
Dekauefora, the head chief of the Onondaga tribe, " Go," said he, " my brothers, I
untie your bonds, and send you home again, although our nations be at war. The
French governor has made me commit so black an action, that I shall never be easy
after it, until the Five Nations have taken full revenge." The ambassadors were so

well persuaded of the perfect truth of his declarations, that they replied in the most
friendly terms, and said the way was open to their concluding a peace between their
respective tribes, at any time. He then dismissed his prisoners, with presents of arms,
powder, and ball, keeping but a single man (an adopted Shawnee) to supply the place
of the only man he had lost in the engagement. By one bold effort, he thus rekindled
the fire of discord between the French and their enemies, at the moment it was about
to expire, and laid the foundation of a peace with his own nation. Adario delivered
his slave to the French, on reaching Mackinac; who, to keep up the old enmity
between the Wyandots and the Five Nations, ordered him to be shot. On this, Adario
called up an Iroquois prisoner who was a witness of this scene, and who had long been
detained among them, and told him to escape to his own country, and give an account
of the cruelty of the French, from whom it was not in his power to save a prisoner he
had himself taken.
This increased the rage of the Five Nations to such a pitch, that when Monsieur
Denonville sent a message to disown the act of Adario, they put no faith in it, but
burned for revenge. Nor was it long before the French felt the effects of their rage.
On the 26th July, 1688, they landed with 1200 men on the upper end of the island
of Montreal, and carried destruction wherever they went. Houses were burnt, plan-
^tations sacked, and men, women, and children massacred. Above a thousand of the
French inhabitants were killed, and twenty-six carried awa}' prisoners, most of whom
were burnt alive. In October of the same year, they renewed their incursion, sweeping
over the lower part of the island as they had previously done the upper. The conse-

quences of these inroads were most disastrous to the French, who were reduced to the
lowest point of political despondency. They burnt their two vessels on Cadarackui
lake, abandoned the fort, and returned to Montreal. The news spread far aiid wide
among the Indians of the upper lakes, who, seeing the fortunes of the French on the
520 LITERATURE OF THE
wane, made treaties with the English, and thus opened the way for their merchandise
into the lakes.
Such were the consequences of a single enterprise, shrewdly planned and resolutely
executed. The fame of its author spread abroad, and he was everywhere regarded as
a man of address, courage, and abilities. And it is from this time that the ancient
feud between the Wyandots and their kindred, the Five Nations, began to cool. A
few years after, they settled on the straits of Detroit, where they so long, and up to

the close of the late war (1814), exercised a commanding influence among the lake
tribes, as keepers of the general council-fire of the nations.
Adic, or Adiiv. — In Algonquin mythology, this is one of the transformations of the
human species. The word denotes cervus sylvestris, or American reindeer. It is

believed, by these Indians, that quadrupeds were first created, and had the priority of

rule ; hunting men as men now do them. It is fancied that these primary animals,
in their original condition, as the bear, elk, deer, &c., fell under the power of necro-
mancy or some spirit-power, by which they were trausfoi'med into four-footed beings
that the duration of this state of metamorphosis is limited to the age of the present
world, or of the lives of individuals and quadrupeds respectively, and that the hunter
must hereafter, in another state, encounter, in his original form and condition, the
spirits of the animals whom he has killed in the chase. Hence the respect with
which some of the more prominent animals, such as the bear, are treated.

It is believed by the Ojibwas, that animals in their present state possess their

original soul and reasoning faculties, while they are deprived of speech, and that they
will have a resurrection or second life as well as men. If this curious philosophy of

the hunter-Indian be borne in mind, it will render some of his traits of character or

thought less enigmatical than they appear to be without this theory. Adik was also a

famous hunter of the North, who, having completed the human term of his existence,

was changed into one of the Thunderers, and has his position in the southern part of

the skies, where his voice is often recognised by the hunter as well as the learned
meda. It is considered as a friendly warning omen to families.

Adikumaig. — We recognise the influence of the Indian mythology in all parts of

their nomenclature. To the term adik, a deer, is subjoined gnmai, water ; the power
of g, in the latter, falling before that of k in adik. It is rendered plural and animate
thereby, and the whole term may be rendered deer-of-the-water. It is told that the

Crane flew over the falls fell off when he

with a woman's skull on his back, which
was lialf-way over. The brains were dashed out, and converted into a new species of
fish, to which the name is ap|)lied. There is always something actual and physical to
found an Indian limey on. It is perceived, on opening the white fish, that there are
very small white masses, resembling roes or very minute shells, in an undigested state
in the stomach, and the opinion is entertained that these substances have been
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 521

swallowed by the fish in their search for food in the swift currents of water at the
raj^ids.

Adirondacks. — The Iroquois name for their ancient enemies, the Algonquins. It

is a term of derision, meaning, he eats trees — evidently from the straits to which
waylaying parties of this nation were reduced in eating the bark of certain trees while
watching the Iroquois war-path in western New York.
Adoles. — A settlement of Indians of the Saliva nation, in the province of Orinoco,

which was broken up and destroyed by the Caribs in 1684.

Affagoula. —A small village of Indians, who were, in 178.3, located near Point
Coup^, in Louisiana.
Agaces. — A numerous and valiant nation of Indians, who were, at the period of

the discovery, residents and masters of the banks of the Paraguay. They waged war
against the Guavanies, and resisted the Spanish power till 1542, when they were
conquered by De Vaca.
Agamentigus. — A mountain, eight miles from York harbor, Maine. Also, a river

in the same vicinity.

Agamuntic. —A small lake in Maine, which has its outlet through the river
Chaudiere.
Agariata. — An Iroquois chief, who, having gone on an embassy of peace about

1688, to Canada, the governor, Monsieur Coursel, being exasperated against him on
account of bad faith and a violation of a treaty by his tribe, caused him to be hanged
in the presence of his countrymen.
Agawams. — A band of Indians of the Pokonoket or Wampanoag tribe, who, during
the earlier period of the settlement of New England, lived in parts of Sandwich,
Ipswich, and Springfield, Massachusetts.
Agg6dagada. — In Algonquin mythology, a renowned unipede giant, who took

immense strides by his power of hopping. It is one of those names which the Indian
mothers use and hush their children into silence, and is one of the prime
to frighten

Aggodagada had a beautiful daughter, who was celebrated for her

ogres in their tales.
long hair, which she was in the habit of combing on the top or roof of her father's
lodge. From this refuge she was one day stolen, during her father's absence, by the
great chief of the Buffaloes, who tossed her between his horns, and fled into his strong-

holds. Aggodagada, when he returned and found his daughter gone, pursued her with
immense leaps, clearing rivers and valleys at a bound, till he reached the vicinity of
the buffalo-king, where, according to the policy of his people, he concealed himself
near a spring to which he knew his daughter would resort ; and by waiting his oppor-

tunity, he thus rescued her from the power of her abductor. There is a song founded

on this incident, yet existing in the oral traditions of the Ojibwas.

Agiocochook. — One of the aboriginal names for the White Mountains of New
Hampshire. See also Waumbek.
Pt. III. — 66
522 LITERATURE OF THE
Agnoles. —Unreclaimed Indians inhabiting the mountains north of the river Apure,

New Grenada.
Agreskoe. —Charlevoix mentions this term as the god of Avar of the Iroquois.' He
was invested with the highest martial qualities — such as the Greeks attributed to
Mars. War was the chief glory of the northern Indians, and none had cultivated it

more successfully — at least within the reach of history — than the Iroquois. It was,

indeed, almost their only path to distinction.

Agrias.—A Indians of Santa Martha, north
tribe of of the Cienegra Grande.

Aguilusco. — A settlement the Indians

of semi-civilized of the province of Mehoican,

Mexico ; who subsist by sowing grain, cutting wood, making saddletrees, and manu-
facturing vessels of fine earthen-ware.
Ahahawa. —A tribe or band of Indians of the Absaroka or Crow nation, who, in

1805, numbered 200, and were located a few miles above the Mandans, on the river
Missouri. They were at war with the Snake tribe.

Ahapopka. —A lake of having Florida, its outlet through the Oclawaha river of the

St. John's.

Ahasimus. — An ancient Indian name for the present site of Jersey City, N. J.
Ahoma. — An Indian of the tribe river Zaque, of Cinaloa, in California. They are
said to possess some traits of character superior to other tribes. They abhor polygamy,
and hold virginity in the highest estimation. Girls wear a small sea-shell on their
necks, until the day of their nuptials, wlien it is taken off by the bridegroom. This
tribe weave cotton; they bewail their dead a year, night and morning; they are gentle
and faithful.

Ahouandate. — One of the ancient names for the Wyandots.

Ahrendah-ronons. — The most noi'th-easterly tribe of the Hurons, consisting, in
1624, of three villages. They were visited by Champlain. In 1649, on the conquest
of the Huron country by the Iroquois, the remnant of this band fled down the Ottawa
and St. Lawrence to Quebec, whither they were pursued by their unrelenting enemies,
and the greater part of them surrendered, and were incorporated with their conquerors.^
Ahuacatlan. — The name of four separate settlements of the original Aztecs in
Mexico, numbering in the aggregate 674 families, and about 3500 souls.
AicnES. — A settlement of Texas on the main road
Indians, to Mexico.
Aijoues. —A Indians of ancient Louisiana,
tribe of as it existed under the French
government. It is believed to be identical with the lowas of the present State of
Iowa. For an account of their history and customs, see Migration of the lowas,
Section V., Vol. III., and Irvin and Hamilton's paper therewith.
Aingodon. — In Iroquois biography, an ancient sorcerer, living north of the great
lakes, whose acts are described in Oneota.

'
Journal of a Visit to America. • Lallemand.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 523

Ais. —A mythological personage in Algonquin m3'tliology. In one of his positions,

on the banks of a river, he was transformed into a shell. This feat is, by a subsequent
piece of necromancy, connected with the origin of the raccoon. By suffixing bun, the

particle for the perfect^past tense, to this word, we have the existing name for a
raccoon, aise-bun, in the Chippewa language ; a term which expresses the sense, He was
a shell.

This mode of denoting a condition resulting from action, suflering, or being, by a

tensal inflection, bun, put to the noun, is one of the characterizing features of the
language. It furnishes a very delicate mode of indicating the demise of an individual,
without resorting to any of the numerous forms of the conjugation of the verb to die.

It is simply enough, in these cases, to add the term bun to a person's name, as (to take
a name from the Shawanoe which permits the inflection) Tecumseh-bun. The meaning
now is, Tecumseh was, or, Tecumseh is no more.'
The myth of the transformation of the shell to a raccoon, has its best proof in the
formation of the word. They tell a pathetic tale of the destruction of a numerous
race of the crawfish by the raccoon ; which killed all but two individuals, a young girl

and her baby sister. Coming in despair to the water's brink, and bearing her little

charge on her back, the girl addressed the destroyer of her relatives in piteous
strains, yet evincing a noble indignation for his cruelties, and a high spirit of sell-

devotion.^
AisEMiD, or Wadaisaisemid. — In Indian lodge-lore, the tiny little shell-man. The
Avord signifies, He of the magic little shell. He was a fairy, who had received great
powers from the fraternity of aerial spirits. He had the art of invisibility, when it

suited him to exert it. He carried a curious little shell, as the symbol of his authority.

He exerted his power, generally, for harmless or frolicsome purposes. He Avas often

mischievous ; but the injury done to men was, generally, of such a character as to show
them the vanity or uncertainty of their reliances upon themselves.^
AiSHKiBUGiKOZH. — Head chief of a large band of the Pillager Chippewas, living on
the banks of Leech lake, upper Mississippi. (See Flat-mouth.) Bug, in this term,
means flat ; ozh, mouth. The personal designation aish, in this name, is clianged, under
a rule altering the initial vowel of words, stated at p. 391, Vol. II., from ish.

AiSHKWAiGONABEE. — Chief of a band of Chippewas living on the northern shores of

Grand Traverse bay. Lake Michigan. In 1840, they numbered 207 souls, of whom
fifty-one were adult males, forty-nine females, and 107 children. They subsist by
hunting and fishing, and raise corn, beans, and potatoes. The name signifies Feather
of honor. The syllable aish, in this word, appears to be derived from ish, a personal
term.
Ak, Ac, or Ack. —This syllable, in Algonquin word.s, is derived from the term, ackee,

'
Vide Vol. II., p. 38-1. ^
yjjg ^^^ Researches. ' Ibid., article Wa-dais-ais-e-mid.
524 LITERATURE OF THE
signifying earth, land, soil, or territorial area. In these senses the sound of the a is

precisely the same as we hear it in the English word " action." Where it sinks to the

broad a, the meaning is quite different. The scale of the sound of this vowel, in this
language, is a, ah, hu ; and the Indian ear is nice in distinguishing those modulations

which affect the sense.

Akosa. —Chief of a baud of Chippewas, living on the peninsula of Grand Traverse

bay. Lake Michigan. This band has a missionary and teacher in the service of the
Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions. They numbered 160 souls in 1840 ; of whom
37 were men, 42 women, and 89 children. The word kosa, in this term, denotes,
" your father."

Alabamas. —A tribe of Indians who formerly lived on the banks of the Alabama
river, which derives its name from them. They are of the original Muscogee stock,
and speak that language with peculiarities. Part of them are incorporated with the
present nation of Creeks. Part of them migrated "West. In the year 1800, they
occupied an eligible site on the banks of the Mississippi, whence they went up the
valley of Red river, and subsequently into Texas. In 1840, a Texas paper represents
them as living in two villages, along with the Coshattas, on the river Trinity, and
numbering together 2000 souls. The name has been interpreted, " Here we rest."

This band of Indians is said to have migrated from the West, and to have settled on
the Alabama, after many wanderings. The name has been sometimes vaguely applied,

at an early period, to the whole Creek nation.

Alachua.—An extensive of prairie west
Florida, seventy-five miles of St. Augustine.
Alaska. — A long peninsula of Russian America, extending, a in crescent shape,
from north lat. 55° to 60°. In Cook's Voyages, and by the poet Campbell, it is

written Onalaska. Ala appears to be the same particle heard in Ala-ba-ma, which is

Muscogee.
Alempigon. — Supposed to be the same as Nipegon, a bay and small lake on the
north shore of Lake Superior. Nipegon appears to contain the roots — nibee, water,

and gan, lake.

Algic. — An adjective term of modern use, derived from the word Algonquin. It

was first employed in the pages of Oneota.

Algonac. —A village pleasantly situated on the river St. Clair, Michigan. The
name is derived from Algonquin, and ackee, land or earth.
Algonquin. — A very extensive and important group of Indian tribes in the United
States and British America. By French writers the word is written Algonkin. Its

etymology is discussed at page 305, etc., Vol. I.

Algonquinensis. —A generic term used in old gazetteers for the Algonquin tribes.
Tlie Latin adjective inflection, ensis, admitted a euphonious application to the word.
Aliatan. — A mode of spelling Itan.

Aliche. — The name of a band living near Natchitoches, in 1805, who spoke the
Caddo language.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 525

Alipkonck. — From ancient maps, this was the name of an Indian village, which,
in 1G59, stood on the east bank of the Hudson, between Sing Sing and the influx of
the Croton river. It appears to be a derivative from two woi'ds in the ancient Mohican,
uneeb, leaves (elm leaves), and ong, locality.

Allakatveah. —Local name of bands living on both banks of the Yellow Stone and
the head of the Big Horn river, in 1805, when they were estimated at 2300 souls.

Allca. — An ancient and vigorous race of Peru, who long resisted Manco Capac in
his attempts to found an Indian monarchy. In this they were favored by the rugged
character of the country south of Cuzco, abounding in woods, mountains, and lakes.
Alx£GAN. — The name of a county of Michigan. Its root is derivative from the
name of an ancient Indian tribe; — i. e., the AUeghans. The termination in gan
signifies a lake, in tlie Algonquin dialects.

Alleghany. — One of the leading mountain-chains of North America. A name

which is supposed to be derived from an ancient and primitive nation who occupied
a large area of the western parts of New York and Pennsylvania long prior to the

first settlement of the English colonies. Golden writes the name of this tribe on the
map accompanying the original edition of his History of the Five Nations, " Allegans."
Mr. Heckewelder, in his papers delivered to the American Philosophical Society in
1819, writes the name of this tribe " AUigewi," which, if we truly aj)prehend the
German system of orthography in which he wrote, gives the English sounds of Alle-
gawi. The terms any, ana, hana, or hannah, as heard in the terminations of variou^^
existing Indian names, as Susquehannah, &c., mean a stream or river. By applying
this inflection to the noun, we have very nearly the word above named. It is probable

the river was first named, which popular usage may be supposed to have subsequently
extended to this leading range of mountains of the United States, which the river
partly penetrates and partly subtends.

Almouchico. — In the map of Novi Belgii, published at Amsterdam in 1659, this

name is applied to the Atlantic coasts of Massachusetts and New Hampshire.
Altamaha. — The name of this prime river of Georgia is of uncertain etymology.
It is not, apparently, from the wide-spread Muscogee stock, the termination aha having
its affinities rather with the Quapaw, Omaha, and other western tribes.

Amacaches. — One the of original tribes of Brazil.

Amalistes. — A band of Algonquins numbering 500, who, in 1760, lived on the

river St. Lawrence.

Amatakatjles. — The Iroquois name for Washington. It means, "taker of towns,"

according to Benson.
Ambawtamoot. —A tribe of the Athapasca group of British North America, living
north of 52° 30'. The term signifies " sheep."
526 LITERATURE OF THE
Amboy. — A bay of New Jersey. We are informed, by Mr. Heckewelder, that this

term is a derivative from Emboli, and signifies a place resembling a bottle or bowl.'
Amicwats. —A tribe of Indians who are supposed to have inhabited the Manatou-

line chain of islands of Lake Huron at an ancient period. The word is clearly a

derivative from Amik, a beaver.

AinK. — The name of one of the original families of the inhabitants of the earth,
who, according to Chippewa mythology, was transformed into a beaver.

When the original members of the human race fell under the power of necromancy,
and lost their animal shapes, Amik was changed to a beaver. Ad and Am, it appears,

were the original names of two of these progenitors of the old race. The term ik,

added to each word, is one that marks a large number of substances in the vegetable
and mineral kingdoms. To the Indian mind, imbued as it is with the original meaning
of the primary particles and root-forms of the languages, these names may excite

reminiscences of the ancient history of western necromancy, and the doctrine of trans-
migration among this race, more full and definite than is generally supposed.

Amikiminis. — The Indian name of Beaver island of Lake Michigan. The English
is a literal translation of the Chippewa word minuis, in that tongue signifying an
island ; and amik, beaver. The terms are made to coalesce by the connective i. The
Indian population of this island in 1840 was 199; of whom thirty-nine were men, fifty-

one women, and 109 children under fourteen.^

Amikouis. — The French term for the Dionondaties or Michigan Wyaudots, as given
by Colden.
Amikwuk. —A tribe of roving Indians, of the Athapasca stock, in the region of the
Unjiga or Peace river, who are mentioned by Mackenzie under the name of the Beaver
Indians. The inflection in wuk or wug is a common plural.

Amixocores. — A barbarous nation of Indians of Brazil, inhabiting the woods and

mountains south of Rio Janeiro. Very little is known of them ; they are represented
as cruel and treacherous by the Portuguese, with whom they are continually at war.
Amola. —A district of Guaxalara in Mexico. It signifies, in the Indian tongue,
the land of many ti'ees.

Amonoosuck. — The Indian name of two rivers originating in the White Mountains
of New Hampshire, which enter the Connecticut river at separate places, near upper
and lower Coos. The termination in uck denotes locality.

AsioSKEAG. — Falls of the Merrimack river, sixteen miles below Concord, New
Hampshire. Amusk, in the Merrimack dialect, signifies a beaver. Eag or eeg is an
inflection for the plural of animate nouns, in the Algonquin dialects generally. It also

.signifies pond, marsh, or a small body of water or overflowed land.

Ampones. — A barbarous nation of Paraguay, who inhabit the forests south of the

'
Proceedings Hist. Soc. Pcnn., Vol. I., No. 2, page 135.
* Report of the Acting Superintendent of Michigan.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 52T

Rio de la Plata. They are courageous, live on tropical fruits and smoKea fish, find
gold in the sands of their rivers, and have some traffic with the city of Conception.
Anacoana. — Queen of the Caribs at the era of tne discovery by Columbus. She
ruled on the island of Hayti, or St. Domingo. Mr. Irving represents her as being
beautiful, and endowed with virtuous attractions ; but the cruelty of the cold-blooded
Ovando, led alone by the thirst of gold, did not spare her life. An Indian song in
her praise is yet repeated on the island, if we have been correctly informed. See page
312, Vol. II.

Anahuac. —The ancient Indian name of the valley of Mexico. This valley is 181
leagues in length, and encompassed by high ranges of volcanic mountains. It embraces
five lakes, which cover twenty-two square leagues.

Anasuguntakook. — A band or tribe of the Abenakies, living on the sources of the

Androscoggin river, Maine.
Ancamares. —A tribe of warlike and robust Indians of Brazil, living on the Madeira
river. In 1683, they attacked the Portuguese, and compelled them to give up the
navigation of the river.
Andaigweos. —From ondaig, a crow, and weos, flesh ; a noted Chippewa civil chief,

of marked decision of character, and friendship to the whites. He lived at Chegoi-

megon. Lake Superior.
Andastes. —A tribe of Indians, who, at an early period, lived on the southern
shore of Lake Erie. They are supposed to have been confederates of the Eries, and
to have been conquered and expelled in the general result of their war with the
Iroquois.
Aniez. —A name which the French bestowed upon the Mohawks; agreeably to
Golden.
Annacioris. — One of the original tribes of Brazil.
Annamosing. — The name of the Chippewa and .Ottowa tribes for the Fox islands
of Lake Michigan. The word means "place of the little dog." It is, simply, the
diminutive and local forms united, added to the elementary term for a dog.
Annimikeens. — Little Thunder ; from animik and ens, the diminutive inflection. A
hunter of a bold and enterprising character, of the mixed blood of Red river, in the

, North-west, who survived a conflict with a grizzly bear, in which he was dreadfully
lacerated.

Annutteligo. — A hammock east of the Withlacooche river, referred to in the war

with the Seminoles of Florida.
Anowara. —The Turtle. Mohawk. This, in the Iroquois theogony, was the original
sustaining power and nucleus of matter, corresponding to the Chaos of the Greeks. It

was a floating mass on the dark deep. The Iroquois give it the name of Anowara. It

received from heaven the pi-inciple of animal fecundity in the mother of mankind, wno
dropped from above. Having been endowed with creative and expanding powers.
528 LITERATURE OF THE
animals and birds appeared in the forests, and increased so fast, and grew to such a
monstrous size, that they got the mastery of men. The gods helped the descendants
of the original woman. They were particularly indebted to Tarenyawagon, who slew
monsters, and at last wounded the Great Spirit. This aroused his wrath and produced
a flood.

Antalis. —A barbarous and warlike tribe of Chili, westward of the Coquimbo, who
successfully opposed the progress of conquest of the Inca Yupanqui, beyond the banks
of the river Maule.
Apacahand. — A Delaware chief of note, commonly called White Eyes, of the era
of the western Indian wars connected with the American revolution.
Apaches. — A wild and erratic tribe of Indians who rove over the country west of
the Rio del Norte. In an official report of 1837, their numbers are put at 20,080,
which is believed to be much over-estimated. They live a life of theft, robbery, and
murder, and cultivate nothing. We know little of them with exactitude.
Apalacha. —A name, mentioned in Davies' History of the Caribbean Isles, for

ancient Florida ; including all North America lying north of the Gulf of Mexico, and
the ranges of the Alleghanies, and the region west of them.
Apalaches (ancient). —A nation of Indians formerly inhabiting Florida. In 1539,
De Soto found them to be numerous, politic, and valorous. They were clothed with
the skins of wild beasts. They did not employ vegetable poisons to give virulence to
the points of their arrows. They were temperate —
drinking water only. They did
not make war on slight pretences, but to repress attacks. They treated their prisoners
with humanity. They were long-lived. They worshipped the sun, to which they
sang hymns morning and evening. It is impossible to decide what was their number,
or how far they extended their power over the great geographical area which has since
been incorporated into the States of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
They are believed to have been of the lineage of the widely-spread nation who are
known to us under the name of Muscogees, or Creeks.
Apalaches (modern). —A tribe of Red river, Louisiana, who were reduced, in 1800,
to fourteen families, or about sixty souls. They were emigrants from Florida, and are
believed to have been descendants of the people of this name found by De Soto. They
came there at the same time the Bolixis did, and had continuously lived on Bayou

Rapide. No nation has ever more fully secured the approbation of the French. No
complaints have ever been made against them. They had their own peculiar lan-
guage, but nevertheless spoke the Mobilian, or Chacta.
Apalachites. — A term which lies at the origin of, or is connected with, tlic preced-
ing. It is used to denote a barbarous nation of Indians, formerly inhabiting Florida.
What some narrators relate of their civil and military polity, buildings, ceremonies, &c.,
may be dismissed as rather constituting materials for inquiry and comparative exami-
naticm, than as being entitled to the character of historic record. What w ore their
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 529

absolute numoers, how far they extended their jurisdiction, or their war and hunting
visits or fixed stations at an ancient era, into the wide geographical area of the West,
it is impossible to decide. There are some traditions given by writers too circum-
stantial in their details to entitle much faith; such as that recorded under
them to

this name name of Apalacha applied to this part of

of Apalachites, and of the general
the continent, reaching far west and north-west. They were, according to this testi-
mony, once a powerful people, and ruled and fought many battles in the great western
valley extending to the Lakes.' Whether these are all to be rejected as pure fable,
or may be founded on some slight general tradition of this tribe, cannot be decided.
The event tallies, in one respect, with an equally vague and solitary one of the
Lenapes, which refers to the AUegawee, and their defeat in the Ohio valley.
Apalocha. — See Apalousa. The word, with this form of orthography, occurs in

the tables accompanying the original plan of Indian removal west of the Mississippi,
communicated to Congress by Mr. Monroe, in 1825.

Apalousa. — A band or fraternity of Indians, who formerly lived fifteen miles west
from the Apalousa church, in Louisiana. Their number was stated, in 1825, at forty-
five. They raise cattle and hogs, and plant corn. They speak French, although they
have a language of their own. They understand the Attakapa.
Apanenae. — See Pawnee.
Apaneo. — A settlement of 352 famiUes of the civilized Indians of Textlan, in

Mexico.
Apango. — A settlement containing 140 Indian families, in the district of Zayula,

Mexico.
Apantos. — A barbarous nation of Indians in the province of Guayaquil. They
inhabit the woods. They use bows and arrows in their wars, and a kind of short,

heavy dart. They are at war with the Tupinambos. They go entirely naked, both

men and women. The latter accompany their husbands in battle, and assist them by
the labor of carrying and serving out their ari'ows. They live by the chase, and
worship a demon, who, according to some, appears in hideous forms to their priests.

Their priests pass for great sorcerers, and are skilful at banquets in mixing vegetable
poisons in the cups of their guests.
Apaxco. —A settlement of the district of Tepetango, in Mexico, containing 145
Indian families.
Apazingau. —A mixed settlement of twenty-two Indian, and forty-eight mustee and
mulatto families, at Tanzitaro, Mexico.
Aperas. — A barbarous nation of Indians, who inhabit the forests bordering the
river Maranon. They are divided into various companies or bands, who wander through

' Vide " History of the Caribby Islands," &c., by John Davies of Kidwelly • London, 4to. 166(i

Pt. III.— 67
530 LITERATURE OF THE
the woods, or meet for purposes of periodical labor. They occupy an unknown space
of country of upwards of forty-six leagues, beyond the river Cayavi.
Aperrues. —pA barbarous nation of Indians of Paraguay, living to the north-east
of the city of La Ascencion. These Indians are idle, proud, and restless, continually
molesting other nations.
Apetuos. —A barbai'ous nation of Indians of the province of Puerto Seguro, in
Brazil. They live in woods and in the vicinity of lakes and rivers, and subsist

themselves by fishing. They are little known.

Apichiqui. — A barbarous nation of Indians of the province of Quito, Peru. They
were subjugated by Huainacapac, the loth Inca.
Apo (San Martin de). — A settlement of the district of Uruapan, Mexico, contain-
ing thirty Indian families.
Apokeepsing. — The ancient name of Poughkeepsie, on the river Hudson, Dutchess
county, New York. It signifies a sheltered inlet, or covert for canoes, which was
furnished by the entrance of the Wallkill into the Hudson. The term has its local

form in ing.

Apomatox. — One of the main branches of the James river of Virginia.

Apoquinamink. —A tributary of the Delaware river, in Newcastle county, Delaware.
The word has its local form in ink.
Apoquenemy. —A creek flowing into the Delaware river, from its right bank, in
Newcastle county, in the State of Delaware. The three latter names are all deriva-
tives from one generic philological family of Indian languages, the Algic, or Algonquin,
or Lenape.
Apotos.— A barbarous of the Amazon.
tribe

Apotons.— Believed be the same Apotos, which

to as see.

Apoza. — A small Indian settlement of Trumpo, the province in of Las Amazonas.

Appa. — An Indian settlement of Mexico, containing 200 families. They plant
maize, barley, and beans, and employ themselves exclusively in tillage.
Appaches.— See Apaches.
Appalache. — A term of uncertain etymology. One of the main sources of the
Oconee of
river Georgia.
Appalachian. — This term appears to have been derived from Appalacha, a name
which was very early employed by the Spanish discoverers of Florida. They used an
adjective foi'm of it for the important Indian nation which occupied the Gulf shores
of Florida, extending along the track of De Soto towards the mountains. Its ety-
mology has not been investigated. Pah denotes a head, in the Sioux, Yankton,
Quapaw, and Omaha languages. Apa, or appa, appears to signify a promontory or
height, in some of the western tongues. The termination in ia, in the Algonquin, is

expressive of admiration.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 531

Appalachicolas. — A small tribe of the Muscogee stock, who formerly lived on the
Appalacliicola river of Florida. They concluded a- treaty with the United States, at
Fort Moultrie in Florida, on the 18th September, 1823; by which they ceded all their

lands on the Appalacliicola river, reserving four certain tracts. One of these reserves,

the band owning it ceded on the 11th October, 1832, when their numbers had been
reduced to 256 souls, in consideration of thirteen thousand dollars, and certain con-
tingencies. They agi'eed to remove west to a country more suitable to their habits

than the one at present occupied. The other three reservations they agreed to
exchange for a tract to be patented by the President to individuals. By this treaty,

certain payments are stipulated to be continued, and the general advantages of the
treaty of Payne's Landing of the 9th of May, 1832, are secured to them.

In an official report in 1837, the numbers who had removed to the west of the
Mississippi were 265. The}' comprised Tuski Hadjo's band. The numbers then
remaining in Florida were 400. The number of acres ceded by them by the treaty
of the 11th of October, 1832, was 5120, for which they received 2/o^o dollars and a
fraction per acre.
The Appalacliicola Indians derive their name from a river which originates in the
spurs of the Appalachian Mountains. This river bears the name of Chattahooche
until its junction with the Flint river, eighty miles from the shores of the Gulf of
Mexico. Bartram, in his travels, mentions an Indian town called Appalacliicola, now
within the limits of Georgia, which was sacred to peace. No captives were put to

death or blood spilt in it. It was the place of the assemblage of deputies to consider

proposals of peace. On the contrary, there was another town twelve miles higher up
the Chattahooche river, possessed by the Cowetas, which was dedicated to blood, where
the Miccos or war-chiefs assembled, and where prisoners were put to death. This idea
of towns appropriated to particular purposes, civil and religious, was not uncommon
in North America, and is to be regarded as denoting a general trait in the Indian

mind.
Appalachee Bay. — The recipient of the Ocklockonnee, WauouUah, and several

minor streams on the Florida coast.

Appamattox. —See Apomatox.

Appanee. —A Canada,
river of falling into Lake Ontario, in the bay of Quinte.
Appanee means a slave captured in war, in the Chippewa language.
Appelousas.—See Apelousa. Dr. Sibley estimates them to be reduced to forty men,
say 200 souls, in 1806.They were diminished to 45, nineteen years later.

Appolabamba. — A province containing of Peru, eight Indian settlements, or missions,

numbering 3000 souls, of both sexes and all ages. They speak idioms of four different
tongues : namely, the Uchupiamonas, Lecos, Yubamonas, and Poromonas. They culti^

vate yucas, rice, maize, camotes, mani, and plantains. They also cultivate cotton,

which they make into clothing. They obtain some wax from the trunks of trees,
532 LITERATURE OF THE
where it is deposited by the native bees, and collect in the pampas or llanos of Isilor

mas, some cacao, which grows spontaneously.

Appomattox. —A of
river Virginia. See Apomatox.
Apuala. — A settlement of eighty-five Indian families, in Yanquittan, Mexico, who
cultivate fruit and raise seeds. In a settlement of the same name, of Tepozolula,
" are found," says Alcedo, " two-headed eagles. One of these, which had been killed,

was presented by the curate to the Marquis de Valero, viceroy of the kingdom, who
sent it to Spain." This was, doubtless, a lusus natura, and a solitary example.
Apuias. —A barbarous nation of Indians of the province of Rio Janeiro, Brazil.
They inhabit the loftiest mountains towards the west, and extend for many leagues
north. They are cruel, treacherous, and continually at war with the other nations,
and with the Portuguese. They sally out in the night, and commit ravages. The
women, as well as the men, go naked. They are addicted to drunkenness and luxury,

respecting neither age nor affinity the most close. They eat the flesh of their enemies,

and treat them well, that they may get fat prior to their slaughter. They do not
respect the chastity of their female captives. They have resisted all attempts of the

missionaries to influence or teach them.

Apuyes.— Believed be with Apuias,
to identical to which refer.

Aquatzagane. — An ancient band of Indians of the province of Pennsylvania.

Aquauachuques. — A band of Indians living, in 1659, in the central southern part

of the present area of New Jersey, in the latitude of the Neversinks.

Aquedochton. — The outlet of Lake Winnipiseogee, in New Hampshire.
Aquidneck. — The name of the Narragansetts for Rhode Island. Roger Williams
observes that he could never obtain the meaning of it from the natives. The present
name is derived from the Dutch, who called it Roode Eylant (Red Island), from the
autumnal color of its foliage.'

Aquiguires. — One of the barbarous Indian tribes of Brazil. With numbers and
courage, they cling to their mountain fastnesses, and sally out to commit depredations.
They are in the vicinity of Espiritu Santo.
Aquila. — Seventy Indian families of Mexico occupy this district, which bears the
tutelary title of Santa Maria.
Aquinushionee. — The name of the confederated Iroquois, meaning, United People.
See Acquinosiiionee.
Aquismon. — A settlement of Mexico, containing 240 Indian
Valleo, families.

Aracuyes. —One of the barbarous Indian of who are but

tribes Brazil, little known.
They live in the woods of Pernambuco. They feed, with rare zest, upon tigers. They
go naked, and carry, suspended in their ears, lips, and prepuces, small tablets of an
oval form, for ornament. They paint their entire bodies red and yellow. They attach

'
Coll. R. I. HUt. Soc, Vol. in.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 533

feathers of tlie most beautiful colors to their heads, arms, and legs. Their weapons
are bows and arrows, and heavy clubs.

Aracures.—Vide Aracutes.
Aragiske.— The Iroquois name for Virginia.'

Arapahas. — A without
tribe living the incorporated States and Territories of the
United States, west of the Missouri and Arkansas, and east of the Rocky Mountains.
They rove over the immense unexplored plains between the upper waters of the Red
river and the Kanzas. There are no treaty stipulations between them and the United
States. They subsist by hunting the buffalo, and make their clothes and lodges of
dressed skins. We have no distinctive accounts of their manners and customs, tradi-

tions, or language. The fact that they are among the wild and barbarous tribes who
inhabit that frontier, and are capable of being brought in hostility against it, has but
recently excited attention. Official reports of their numbers, submitted among the
subordinate documents to Congress, vary. In 1833, they are set down, along with the
Kiowa, at 1400. In 1837, they appear, in the annual report by themselves, at 3000.
(See Arapahoes.)
Arapahoes. — A wild and ferocious tribe, living on the high plains east of the Rocky
Mountains, on the sources of the Canadian fork of the Arkansas, and the Nebraska or
Platte river. They are estimated at 400 lodges, numbering 1600 souls, by Governor
Bent, in 1846. The United States interpreter reported them, in 1852, in full, at 2500
to 3000 souls. For their language, see Vol. III., article Language. The term means
the Pricked, or Tattoed People.
Arapes. — A barbarous of tribe Brazil.

Arari. —A of the province of Para,

river in Brazil, the woody shores of which are
inhabited by a barbarous tribe of Indians who are called Tapuyas.
Arasas. — A barbarous nation descended from the Semiques, in Guayama. They
inhabit the woods between the rivers Tigre and Curaray.
Arauca. —A large river of New Grenada, which flows from the mountains of
Bogota. Its shores are inhabited by the Chinatos, Jiraras, and other barbarous Indians.
Araucanos, or Araijcanians. — An Indian nation of Chili, who rendered themselves
distinguished by their valorous opposition to the Spaniards on their first invasion of
their country in 1535. They defeated and killed the Spanish general Valdiora in
1551, and have maintained their independence up to the present time. They were
not only the most noted of twelve separate nations who composed the government of
the Inca in this division of the continent, but the most valorous and warlike nation,
if we except, perhaps, the Iroquois, in the New World. For their brave defence, and
the maintenance of so large a portion of their territory, they were indebted no doubt,
in part, to their position in the Andes, from which they swept down, with persevering

'
Golden
534 LITERATURE OF THE
energy, over the piams, and thus eifectually prevented a footing among them. The
boundary of their territories is the river Bisbio. They have ever been the most
implacable enemies of the Spanish. This spirit of hostility is, undoubtedly, to be
traced to the rapacity and injustice of the conquerors of the sea-coast. Repeated
attempts have been made to carry their conquests into the heights of the Andes,

but with uniform want of success. The Araucanians have at all times manfully
resisted, and carried the war back into the Spanish borders, laying waste towns and
cities, carrying off cattle and plunder, and never sparing the life of a Spaniard.
But they save the women and carry them off captive. This is the testimony of
Spanish historians and geographers, who uniformly draw a bai"barous picture of the
race, and paint them as faithless and treacherous. Men cannot be traitors to a
government to which they never submitted ; but it is alleged that the Araucanians

have broken the terms of their treaties. By these treaties, the first of which was not
made until 1641, being 106 years after the first invasion by Almagro, it is seen, how-
ever, that they did not submit to the Spanish, but only established terms of intercourse.

Difficultieshaving soon after occurred, in 1650 the peace was renewed. The
Jesuits now advanced, and after inconceivable trouble and danger, formed five
settlements among them but these were scattered to the winds by the general
;

outbreak, or rebellion as it is termed, in 1720. In 1724, this rupture was settled and
the peace renewed, which lasted till 1767, when it was again broken.
It appears that the Araucanians liave no hereditary head or monarchy. They are
governed by elders or old men, who prepare their business in councils, and divide the
civil from the military power, and appoint military leaders. The system, in this
I'espect, assimilates to the government of our North American tribes, who are ruled by
popular will through their chiefs or sachems. The Araucanians are the best disciplined
warriors of tropical America. They muster large armies, consisting of horse as well

as foot, each territorial division furnishing its complement and all acting under a
general leader. The breed of horses was obtained from the Spanish, and they are
said not to degenerate, but to equal the finest of the Andalusian. They ai'e exceed-
ingly expert riders, and the attack of the first rank of these is resistless. They have
some swords and fire-arms, but their chief reliance is on a long and thick lance, which
they wield with dexterity.
In person the Araucanians are robust and handsome, and of liberal disposition, but
addicted to sensuality and the use of spirits; nevertheless, both men and women live

honestly, after the fashion of their nation. Their numbers, which are unknown to
the Spanish authorities, are considerable. The Spanish have built forts on the fron-

tiers, defended with cannon, where it is customary to hold a kind of fair once a year,
at which the native chiefs exchange civiUties and renew fi'iendship with the com-
manders. These Indians raise and manuf^icture wool, which, together with horses,
constitute objects of traffic. They take in exchange wine, leather, and earthen-ware.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 535

Their territory yields the quila cane, of which they make their lances.
It also yields

and the boighe tree, which is considered sacred, and from

a shrub producing honey,
There are rich mines of gold in the
time immemorial has been dedicated to peace.
country between the river Bisbio and Chiloe, which were formerly
worked and yielded
Spaniards from
immense sums, but they have been closed since the expulsion of the
that district. This wariike people have prohibited these being opened, under the
penalty of death.
Arbre Croche, or Waganukizzi. —A settlement of Ottawa Indians, on Little

Traverse bay, on the east shore of Lake Michigan, about forty miles south of Michili-

mackinac. It is the head settlement of the Ottowa nation and is divided into five
;

villages or sub-settlements, called by separate names, and under the government of

separate ogimas, or chiefs. The population shown by the pay-rolls,
of these in 1840, as

was 1032 of whom 205 were men, 237 women, and 590 children. As
in all our
;

Indian population, the females are in excess, and the number of children disproportion.
the wild and
ally small but the latter are here shown to be -voater than is common to
;

not more than two children to every

erratic bands, in which there is an average of
299 lived at L' Arbre Croche proper 147 at the village of
woman. Of these numbers, ;

the Cross; 84 at Middle village; 383 at the town on the

head of Little Traverse bay;

119 at the Wing's village. The first settlement of the Ottawas at this place
and
appears to have been about 1650 ; and subsequently to the defeat of the Wyandots
In these transactions
and Algonquins, by the Iroquois, between Montreal and Quebec.
they appear under the name of Atawabas.
of the
They are mostly members of the Catholic church, under the jurisdiction
Bishop of Detroit. They and of industrious habits.
are, of late years, temperate,

and pumpkins. They possess some cattle, and

They cultivate maize, potatoes, beans,
They raise hogs and poultry. They manufacture, in the spring season,
a few horses.
sugar from the sap of the rock-maple. They participate in the
large quantities of
the proper season and still pay some attention, though but little, to the
fisheries, in ;

live in substantial houses of squared logs, furnished

with good roofs,
chase. They
floors, doors, chimneys, and glass windows. In the best houses are to be seen cast-iron
chairs, small looking-
stoves, obtained by purchase at MichiUmackinac, together with
To these are to be added, plain earthen-ware and cutlery, and
glasses, and bedsteads.
and benches; the three latter articles being chiefly of their own manufac-
tables, chests,

ture. The men dress in woollen goods, consisting of the French capote, with either

leggins or pantaloons of the same material. Leather shoes have, to some extent,

superseded moccasins ; and hats are uniformly worn. Years have now elapsed smce
have appeared as articles of personal decoration and the drum of
feathers or paints ;

heard in their villages.

the meda, the wabeno and jossakeed, has entirely ceased to be
States, in silver coin, in provisions, salt,
and
The annuities they draw from the United
for the loss
tobacco, and in other articles, are considerable, and more than compensate
536 LITERATURE OF THE
of the small furred animals, on the sale of whose skins they relied, in the early days
of their history. This settlement is called by them, Waganukizzi, or the Crotched
Tree.
Ardas. —A barbarous nation of Indians, who inhabit the forest country between the
rivers Napo and Maranon, in the province of Quijos, in Quito.

Areguoy. —A settlement of Indians of Paraguay, situated on a small river, four

leagues from Ascension.
Arenac. —A county of the State of Michigan, situated on the west cape of Sagenaw
bay, south of the Thunder Bay Islands, in Lake Huron. The word is a compound of
the Latin arena, and the Indian akee, earth or land.
Arentapaqua. —A settlement of Valladolid, Mexico, containing twenty-four
families.

Arequipa. —A term which signifies, in the Peruvian language, " It is well, remain."

It is the name of the capital of a large and important province of Peru. It is the

reply of one of the Incas, to a request made by one of the captains of the victorious
Spanish army, who was attracted by the beauty of the country. The city was founded
by the order of Pizarro, in 1536. It is twenty leagues from the sea, near the foot of
the snow-clad summits of Omate, which, at the time of the conquest, emitted fire.
Areskoui. —The Iroquois god of war, according to Charlevoix, from whom we quote.
" It is not a little surprising," he says, " that the Greek word Ms(^, which is Mars in all

those countries which have followed the theology of Homer, should be the apparent
root of this term in the Iroquois and Huron languages."
lie observes that Areskoui is not only the Mars of these people, but likewise the
sovereign creator and master of the world ; and that they invoke him as if his greatest

attribute was that of being the god of armies. He adds, that his name is the war-cry

before battle, and that the warriors often repeat it on the war-path, as if to inspire

them with courage. (Vide Agrescoe.)

Aricaretes. —A barbarous nation of Indians of Guayama, which is divided into two
tribes ; one of which is oriental, and the other occidental. They inhabit the vicinity
of the river Aricari. They are docile and pacific. They are reduced in population.
Aricoris, or Aricorees. — An unreclaimed nation of Indians of Guayama. They
are barbarous and erratic; low-spirited, but revengeful. They go naked, both men
and women. They believe in the immortality of the soul, and make gi*eat feasts and
honors for their dead. They sometimes kill a slave, that he may accompany and
serve his master in the other Avorld. They worship the sun and moon. They regard
the latter as their mother, and look on both as animated bodies. They count the
planets and fixed i-tius to be their daughters, and the lesser ones their servants. Their
priests and sorcerers make them believe that they hold converse with the Great Spirit,

which they call Vatipa. Vatipa is the devil, and is said to appear to them in various

forms.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 537

This nation traverse the forests in troops, carrying with them their wives and chil-

dren. They subsist by the chase, and by tropical fruits. Their numbers increase
astonishingly, not only because they practise polygamy, but from the general belief
that, in begetting many children, they render themselves most acceptable to Vatipa.
They are happy, also, in the idea that by this means they shall become great and
powerful, and overcome their enemies.
Ario. —A small settlement in the district of Xacona, in Mexico, containing 22
Indian families, who traffic in skins, fruits, and seeds.

Arismendi (Santiago de). —A settlement of Zultepec, in Mexico, containing 15 Indian

families.

Arkansas, anciently Akansa and Kansa. —One of the United States of America,
deriving its name from one of the great tributaries of the Mississippi, which, originat-
ing iu the Rocky Mountains, passes through it. There is a species of the acacia found
in this part of the continent, from which the native inhabitants, on the arrival of the
French, made their bows. It is a solid, tenacious wood, of a light yellow color. This
peculiarity is thought to have led to the distinctive appellation of Arc, or Bow Indians.
They were of the Kanza race. The word is variously written in old authorities. The
Quapaws, the Caddoes, and the Osages, are to be regarded as the original possessors of

Arkansas. De Soto speaks of the province of " Cayas," north of the Arkansas. The
tribe called Arkansas by the French, believed the residence of their supreme deity
to be in some animal, who might be feeding in the fields or forests. The perpetuity
of the deity was kept up, by transmigration, either into a similar, or some other animal.
They are represented as living in three villages: the first called Tawanima, the
second Oufotu, and the third Ocapa. Their population did not exceed 100 men,
besides women and children. From their location, about twelve miles above the old

military post, they were in the position of the QuapaAvs. They are represented as
raising maize for sale, as honest and friendly, and speaking the Osage language.
Where the manners, customs, and languages had a general agreement, as was the case
with the sub-stocks of lower Arkansas, in the middle of the 17th century, we cannot
attach much weight to philological conclusions, necessarily thrown out a good deal at
hap-hazard, by persons engaged in questions of another kind.
Armeomecks. —A location of Indians on the sources of the Susquehannah, in 1659.
Arjiewamux. —A location of Indians, in 1659, south of the Dutch fort of Nassau,
on the Delaware.
Armiros. —A wild nation of Indians, of Paraguay, who are descendants of the
Guaranies. They inhabit a fertile and pleasant country, and were first discovered by
De Vaca, in 1541.
ARMOtrcHiQUOis. —A band of the Abenaki stock, formerly on the St. John's river of
New Brunswick. The name is the word Almouchico, in the French pronunciation
Pt. III. — 68
538 LITERATURE OF THE
and orthography, which in 1665 had, according to the Amsterdam map, a wide appli-

cation along the New England coasts.

Aroostook. —A river of Maine, in north latitude about 46° 20', which flows into
the St. John's river of New Brunswick. Tlie terminations in ook, ok, uk, ug, ik,

and ig, denote the plural number in various dialects and languages of the Algonquin
group.
Arouaques. —A fierce and powerful nation of Indians, of the coast of Guayama, from
Avhom the Caribs, or Caribbeans, are believed to have been descended.
Arrapahas. — See Arapaiias.
Arrenamuse. — The name of a tribe formerly living on the St. Antonio river, Texas.
Arrianicosies. — A barbarous Indian nation, of Paraguay, living near the margin
of the Rio de la Plata. They are much reduced in numbers. But little is, however,
known of them.
Aryes. — A barbarous tribe of Brazil.

AscuTNEY. — A mountain of Vermont, which is 1732 feet above the Connecticut

river, and 2031 above the sea.

AscoNDiDO Rio. —A name bestowed by the Spanish on the Mississippi river, prior to

La Salle's last voyage.

AsHUELOT. —A river of New Hampshire, which traverses the county of Cheshire,
and enters the Connecticut.
Asiganoc. — An Ottawa some of the settlement of L'Arbre Croche, who
of note, led

a part of that tribe to migrate the Manatouline chain

to Canada, 1822. of islands in in

AssABET. — A small tributary the Merrimack, of Grafton, New Hampshire. in

AssAMA. — A from the Great

gift the Indian. There
Spirit to an of is old tradition,

which Franklin takes notice, in the limited number of his imaginative pieces, that the

gift was sent by a beautiful female who descended from the sky, and rested on the top

of the Alleghauies. She carried in one hand a stalk of the flowering assama, or
tobacco plant ; and in the other, the gift of the zea maize, or Indian corn. This
allegory is, however, variously related by the different tribes.

AssARAGOA.— The nameofficial adopted by the Six Nations, in their councils and
addresses, for thegovernor of Virginia.
AssAREAWA. — A general term, in the Mohawk, for the country lying north of the
banks of the Mohawk river.

AssAWA Lake. —The source of the Plantagenian fork of the Mississippi, reached and
discovered by the writer, July 13th, 1832. (Vide Expedition to Itasca Lake : New
York, Harper and Brothers, 1834.) The name signifies, in the Chippewa language,

])erch, this species of fish being found in it.

AssiNABOiNA. — A name once bestowed upon the country of Red River and Hudson's
Bay, in the early period of the Selkirk difficulties.

AssiNABoiN. —A large river flowing into Lake Winnepec of Hudson's Bay. It

 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 539

consists of two main branches ; the eastern, called Red river, rising in Red lake, north
of the source of the Mississippi, and the western rising in the Dacotah country, north
of the head of the St. Peters. The latter bears the name of the Assinaboin, which
is dropped by some and retained l)y others, after the junction of the Red river fork.
Mackenzie is among those who, properly, it is thought, favor its retention.
AssiNABOiNS. —A separate branch of the Dacotah, or Sioux nation, who are settled
on the plains west of Red river of Hudson's Bay. The name is Ojibwa. It is com-
I^osed from ossin, a stone, and bwoin, a Dacotah. The latter being a derivative from
the term for a roasting-spit, the first member of the present word converts it into
stone-roasters, that is to say, roasters by hot stones ; a practice in their forest cookery.
They are usually called, with less discriminative attention to the etymology, Stone-
Sioux ; the word Sioux being the French term for Dacotah. They are called, by the
main body of the Dacotahs themselves, from whom they broke off at an early time,
Hoha, or Rebels. Their own name for themselves, is not known. The word Assina-
boin is variously spelled, by different writers ; the chief variations consisting of the
substitution of p for h, and I for n.
The Assinaboins separated from the Dacotahs at a time unknown. They are men-
tioned in 16G9 by Father Marquette, writing from the ancient mission of Chegoimegon,
on Lake Superior. Mackenzie, in his account of the fur trade, locates them where the
most recent notices still leave them — on the Assinaboin or Red river, and the open
l)lains west of its lecipient. Lake Winnipec. They speak a dialect of the Dacotah.
They are at peace with the Chippewas and the Knisteneaux. They occupy a position
next to the latter, on the great plains covered with herbage and a few trees, which
extend west to the banks of the Missouri. On these grass plains they hunt the buffalo
and trap wolves. The flesh of the former, which is not wanted for immediate use,
they make into pemmican ; which is done b}' pounding the jerked and dried meat,
and mixing it wuth fat. In this state, it is closely packed in bags of skin. Their
clothing is made from buffalo-skins. Wolf's flesh they never eat, but procure a
tallow from their fat, which is useful in dressing the skins. Their traffic consists of
dressed buffalo-skins, and pemmican, which they exchange for arms, ammunition,
cutlery, tobacco, and ardent spirits. They do not hunt the beaver, and consequently
do not trench on the hunting-grounds of the Chippewas, Algonquins, and Knisteneaux
near them, which tends to preserve their alliance.
Mackenzie estimates their number at 500 families. Lewis and Clark estimate them
at 1600 warriors. In Major Long's Second Expedition, they are reported, on hasty
data, at 28,000. Mr. Gallatin, in his Synopsis of the Indian Tribes of North America,
estimates them with more precision, in 1836, at 6000 souls. The 49th degree of north
latitude, extended from the Lake of the Woods, cuts their hunting-grounds, leaving,
it is believed, the larger part of the nation within the boundaries of Hudson's Bay.
AssoxET. — The ancient Indian name of the river Taunton, which constitutes a
540 LITERATURE OF THE
boundary, in part, between the States of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. It is noted
as the locality of a rock containing an ancient inscription in picture-writing. Some
letters or figures resembling the ancient Saxon forms of the Roman alphabet, have led

to the supposition, (which has, however, but little foundation,) that the entire inscrip-
tion is due to Scandinavian adventurers who visited the continent prior to Columbus.
AssuNCiON. —A settlement of the district of Tlaj)acoya, in New Spain, containing
fifteen Indian families, who cultivate grain, seeds, and fruit, and chop wood. Another
community of the same name, in the district of Izucar, 147 families; another, in
Tetelmacingo, nineteen families.
ASTORENGA. — A Mohawk name for the Little Falls of the Mohawk river. It is

said to denote compressed channel.

Atacama. — A province of Peru, which has, to the south of it, an unpeopled waste,
the mountains of which abound in ostriches and vicunas. These are hunted by the
Indians in a very ingenious manner. They fix a number of poles, about two yards
long, in a narrow place, so as to block up the passage. Attached to each is a thread
bearing a piece of colored wool, which is so light as to be moved about by the wind.

The hunters then beat up the vicinity to drive the vicunas into the valleys, where, as
soon as they arrive, they are so completely frightened at the bits of wool that the
whole troop remains prisoners. In this position they, with great dexterity, fling a
stone attached to a cord so as to entangle their legs. If a huanco is found among the
number, all are lost, for he immediately dashes forward through the slight barrier
and is followed by the rest. The natives eat the flesh of these animals, which is tender
and well-tasted, and they sell the skins. This desert and dry region also yields the
bezoar-stone. There are mines of gold and copper in the mountains, and various
crystals, together with jasper, talc, and alum.
Ataco. —A settlement of New Grenada, of a hot. temperature, yielding maize,
yucas, plantain, and neat cattle, and also gold, which is obtained by washing. The
native Indians, who muster 100, pay their tribute in this article. They are wretchedly
poor and intemperate.
Atacheo. —A settlement of Tlaxacala, in Mexico, containing twenty-six Indian
families.

Atahentsic. — The woman of heaven. To see her, one of the original six men
ascended into heaven. The master of heaven, having discovei'ed an amour, cast her
to the earth. She was received on the back of a turtle, which rapidly expanded into
the present shape of the earth. She had twins, one of whom killed the other. She
also had a daughter, who bore Jouskeka and Thdouitsaron. The elder killed the
younger, and soon after, his grandmother, Atahentsic, resigned the government of the
world to him.
The Iroquois speak of Atahentsic as the same as the moon, and of Jouskeka as
identical with the sun. See Jouskeka.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 541

Atapalo. —A settlement of Tinguindin, in Mexico, containing twenty-three

Indian families, who are well skilled in sowing wheat and maize, and the cultivation
of many fruits of that region.

Ataroncii-ronons. — One of the five sub-tribes of the Wyandots or Hurons, in

1624, Avhen they lived on the north shore of Lake Huron. It then consisted of four
villages.
— An ancient band
Atasis. of Indians, who lived on the river Apalache in Georgia.

—A people who
Atawawas. settled on the east shore of Lake Michigan, about 1620.
See Ottawas.
Atchipia. — A term used by the Miami nation to denote the soul. It is said to

signify a flying phantom. It is a term in which we perceive the Chippewa phrase

jehi, (written cTiipi,) meaning a ghost.

Atemaxique. — One hundred and twelve Indian families, living in a cold tempera-
ture of the district of Amaqueca, Mexico, who trade in the bark of trees.

Atempa.— Two hundred and forty-eight families of Tenzitlan, Mexico.

Atengo Antonio
(San" —A de) . settlement of Tezcuco, Mexico, containing forty-
three Indian families ; another, with the dedicatory title of Santa Maria, in the
district of Mizquiaguala, with eighteen families; another, with the patronymic title

of San Mateo, containing 280 families ; another, in Chilapa, with seventy families
another, in Antlan, of thirty-three families.
Atezcapo (San Jtjan de). —A settlement in the district of San Francisco del
Valleo, Mexico, containing fifty Indian families. They are situated on a plain.

Athapasca, or Arabasca. — h. lake flowing north, through an outlet of the same

name, into Slave lake and Mackenzie's river. It is called the Lake of the Hills. The
Indian tribes and nations who inhabit this part of the continent, speak dialects of a
generic language different from all others in the parallels of latitude south of them.
For these tribes Mr. Gallatin has proposed, in his Synopsis of the Indian Tribes, the
name of Athapasca. The limit to which this term applies reaches " from the mouth
of the Churchill or Missinippi river, in latitude 59° 60', to its source in Beaver river,

(latitude about 54°,) thence along the ridge which separates the north branch of the
river Saskatchewan from that of the Athapasca or Elk river, to the Rocky Mountains,
and thence west till within about 100 miles of the Pacific Ocean, in latitude 52° 30'."
All the tribes north of this line, he observes, so far as is known, with but one excep-
tion, belong to one family and speak kindred languages. The geography upon which
this boundary is established, is not, he remarks, in all its details precisely correct, but

rather that which existed eighty j^ears ago, before the Knistenos had encroached on the
territory of the Athapasca tribes. Much of this region, extending to the Polar Sea,
is but imperfectly explored. The principal tribes fallins: under this denomination, are
the foUowina; :
—
542 LITERATURE OF THE
Chippewyaus, latitude 60° to 65°; longitude 100° to 110° west. They
1. call

themselves, according to Captain Franklin, Saw-cesaw-dinneh, or Rising-sun men.

2. Copper-mine Indians, or Tansawhot-dinneh, that is, Birch-rind men.

3. The Dog-ribs, or Thlingeha-dinneh.

4. The Edshawtawoots, or Strong-bows.

6. The Ambawtawoots, or Sheep Indians.
6. The Kancho, or Hare Indians.
7. The Nohannies.
8. The Tsillaw-awdoot, or Brushwoods.
9. The Beaver and Rocky Mountaiu Indians of the Unjiga or Peace river.

10. The Sussees, or Sursees.

11. The Tacullies.

12. The Sicauuies.

13. The Natoote tains.

Several other names, believed to appertain to local bands, are mentioned by Mac-
kenzie. The Degothees or Loucheux, called Quarrellers by the English, speak a
different language. It is remarked, by the same authority, that it appears to have
affinities with the Kinai. It has also some coincidences of words with the Esquimaux.
Atill.\n. — An Indian settlement of the district of Villalta, in Mexico, containing
171 families.
Atira. —Indians of Paraguay, south in 25° latitude 16'.

Atitlagua. —A settlement of Othoraie Indians, of Tetepango, Mexico.

large They
are stated at 200 families, besides 30 families of Spanish and mulattoes. They grow
wheat, maize, seeds, and fruits ; and raise many cattle.

Atl. — The name of one of the nine lords of the night, in the Mexican calendar.
The word means water. The fancied influence of these nocturnal lords, or astrological
companions of the night, upon the Aztec mind, was of a peculiar character.
Atlaca (San Juan de). — A settlement in the district of Orizaba, in Mexico, of a

cold temperature, of 28 families, whose trade consists in fattening herds of swine.

Atlaco. — A settlement of Zaluya, Mexico, on the top of a hill, in a cold tempera-

ture, containing 60 Indian families.

Atlachiciiilco (San Augustin de). — A settlement of the district of Guaicocotla, in

Mexico, containing 400 Indian families, who are employed in the cultivation of the

soil.

Atlaiiuilco (San IMartin de). —A settlement of Thequilan, Mexico, containing 110

Indian families, who trade in seeds, tobacco, small cattle, and swine.
Atlamajacinco. —A settlement of the district of Adlistac, containing 42 Indian
families, whose trade consists in the barter of some maize and fruit.

Atlamaxaczingo (Del Monte). —A settlement of Tlapa, Mexico, containing 85

Indian families.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 648

Atlamazuque. —A settlement in the preceding district, of 45 families.

Atlamdlco (Santa Maria de). — A settlement of the district of Metepec, Mexico,
containing 12.35 families.
Atlapulco (San Pedro de). — A settlement in the preceding district, containing 290
Indian families.
Atlatladca. — An alcadia-mayor of Mexico, in the province and bishopric of
Oaxaca, which contains 78 families of Ziiltepacas Indians. Another settlement of the
same name, with the dedicatory title of San Esteven, has 108 Indian families, who cut
boards and planks, which, with seeds and some cotton manufactures, constitute their
commerce. Another settlement in the district of Tenango del Valle, contains 165
families.

Atlatongo (Santiago de). —A settlement of Tezcoca, Mexico, containing 111 Indian

families, and four of Spaniards.
Atliacan. —A settlement of Textlan, Mexico, containing 180 Indian families.
Atlistag. — A settlement of Tlapa, Mexico, with 66 Indian families, whose com-
merce consists in cotton, which the district yields in abundance. These are fabricated
into cloths, blankets, huapiles, and other vestments.
Atnaii. — An Indian nation living on the North or Clark's branch of the Columbia
river.

Atotarho. — The first presiding chief or ruler of the Iroquois confederacy. He was
renowned for his wisdom, valor, and secret powers of necromancy. The reptiles were
deemed to be at his command. The Mohawk delegates, who had been sent in search
of him, it is affirmed, found him seated in a swamp, calmly smoking his pipe. His
garment was covered with rattlesnakes, whose hissing heads protected him in every
direction. They offered him the government; the ruling magistrate of which has
ever since been called the Atotarho. According to Cusic, there have been thirteen
Atotarhoes since the confederacy was formed. (See Todadaho.)
Atokas.—A small New France, now Canada, running
river of Lake into Superior.
Atolua. —A settlement of Mexico, with 47 Indian
Teazitlan, families.
Atotonilcao. —A settlement Tulanzingo, Mexico, containing 265 Indian
of families.
Another in the district of Atitalaquia, containing 150 Indian fiimilies. Another in
^Amaqueca, with 120 families. There is also a large Indian population, in a settlement
of this name, in the district of La Barca, New Gallicia.
Atotaque. —A settlement in the district of Zayula, Mexico, having 150 Indian
families. Another in Tepozcolula, having 29 families. Another in Zacatula, having
175 families. Another in Zicayan, having 172 families.
Atoyaquillo. —A settlement of Tepozcolula, Mexico, with 70 Indian families.
Atrisco. —A district of Mexico, which contains 1250 families of Mexican Indians.
They are expert in the cultivation of cotton, which they manufacture into garments,
and are very industrious.
544 LITERATURE OF THE
Attacapas. —A tribe of Indians of Louisiana who are said to be descended from

the Charibs. Tliis is certain, that they were a barbarous people, whom all authorities

agree in calling cannibals. The name of Attacapa is interpreted to mean man-eaters.

It is derived, as Mr. Gallatin has observed, from " notta," a person, and " uppa," to

eat. The influence of the French, who settled this part of America, upon their
manners and customs, has been very favorable. No such custom has been known among
them for a very long period. They have, however, dwindled away to a small number.
About A. D. 1700, they were reduced to fifty men, who lived about twenty-five miles
west of Attakapa church, where they raised corn and had cattle and hogs. To this
number were to be added about thirty Tunicas and Hamas, who had intermarried in
their nation. Their language, which is distinct, is also spoken by the Charankouas,
who, according to Dr. Sibley, live on the sea-shore, probably, as Mr. Gallatin adds,
without the boundaries of the United States.
Attapulgas. — Seminoles, numbering 220, who, in 1820, lived on a branch of the
Ololikana, called Little river.
Attikamigues. — A band of Algonquin lineage, of the north parts of Canada, who
were carried ofi' by a pestilence in 1670.

Attignaouentan. —A sub-tribe of the Hurons, who, in 1624, consisted of twelve

villages. They were also called the Bear nation, " nation de I'ours."
'

Attiquenongnahai. —A sub-tribe of the Hurons or Wyandots, in 1624, consisting of

three villages.
Atuncanar. — A settlement in the province of Cuenca, in the kingdom of Quito,
which is noted for the ruins of a very remarkable fort and palace of the ancient lucas.
It is an agreeable and healthy district, with a fine temperature, abounding in the sugar-
cane and cochineal. In the time of the Incas it was very populous and wealthy, and
had a temple dedicated to the sun, besides the edifices above named. These edifices

are the most regular and capacious in their plan, and well constructed, of any in the
kingdom. The fort is situated on the bank of a small river, which runs close to its

walls. In the rear, it is terminated by a hill of moderate elevation, hemmed in by a

strong wall.
Atzala (San Martin de). —A settlement in the district of Guejocingo, Mexico,
containing 211 Indian families.
Atzalan. —The name of a Spanish settlement in Xalapa, Mexico, situated between
two streams. The term signifies, in the Mexican, " a population between two rivers."

Atzola. —A settlement in the district of Chicapa, Mexico, inhabited by 385 families

of Indians.
Atzompa (Santa Maria) .
—A settlement in the district of Ouilaya, Mexico, contain-

'
Lallemand. ' Ibid.
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 545

ing 140 families of Indians. Tliey are employed in the commerce of cochineal, seeas,
fruits, coal, and bark of trees.
Atzopan (San Augustin de). —A settlement in the district of Guejocingo, Mexico,
containing twenty-seven Indian families.
AuPOWA. —A sacred dream. The Chippewas believe that such dreams are given to

them by invisible powers, watchful for their good. The Aupowas are consequently

deemed of the highest importance, and their indications strictly followed.

AucASisco. —
Indians of the Abenaki family, living between the Saco and Andro-
scoggin rivers, during the early period of the settlement of New England.
AuGAKAS. — A barbarous tribe of Brazil.

AuGHQUAGO. —A village of Iroquois, numbering 150 souls, who, in 1768, lived on

the east branch of the Susquehannah.
AuANDA. —A settlement of the Portuguese, being a reduction of Indians of the
missions of the Carmelite monks of that nation, in the province and country of the
Amazonas. It is on the shore of the river Negro, at the same mouth by which this
is entered by the Nuisi. Mr. Bellin, in his maps, calls it the Aravida.
AuCHiAPA. — A settlement of the district of Kapa, in Mexico, containing forty-two

Indian families.
AuGAKis. —A barbarous nation of Indians of Brazil, who inhabit the woods and

mountains which lie to the west of the captainship of Puerto Seguro. But little is

knowai of them, and accounts of them are rare.

Augusta, — In Georgia, is situated on the south-west bank of the river Savannah,

where it is 500 yards wide, 127 miles from the city of Savannah. At.the first settle-

ment of the country. General Oglethorpe built a fort here, to protect the Indian trade,
and hold treaties with the Indians. In 1739, a population of about 600 souls sepa-
rated themselves from the maritime settlements, and located in this quarter to engage
in the Indian trade. There were, however, but four houses in the town of Augusta
in 1780, and in 1787 it contained two hundred inhabitants.
Augustine (St.). —In Florida. A fort or castle was built here by Pedro Menendes de
Aviles, who discovered the harbor on St. Augustine's day, in 1565. The town was
burnt by Drake, in 1586, and again by Captain Davis, with the Buccaneers, in 1665.
The castle was besieged by the English under Colonel Moore, in 1702 ; who, failing in

the attempt, again destroyed the town by fire. In 1774, the English returned to tlie

siege, under General Oglethorpe, but were again unsuccessful. It was finally ceded to

the English, with the whole province, by the peace of Versailles, in 1762 ; but restored
by the treaty of Paris, of 1783. Its subsequent history, and cession to the United
States, are well known.
Aullagas. — A band of Indians who live on, and have given name to, a lake twenty-

eight leagues from Charcas, in Peru. This lake is two leagues long, and four and a
Pt. III.— 69
546 LITERATURE OF THE
half ill circumference. It has no fish whatever. It has an outlet, by the river
Desaguadero, into Lake Guanache.
AupjEN, or Aepjen. — A Mohegan chief.

AuTis. —A barbarous nation of Peruvian Indians, who inhabit the mountains of the
province of Tarma, towards the east. They are of like manners with the Chunchos
Indians, with whom they are in alliance.
AuTLAN. — A province and bishopric of Guadalaxara, in New Gallicia, which has a
population of 400 Spaniards, mustees, and mulattoes, and a very few Indians.
AuvAMBA. — A settlement of the district of Tiripitio, Mexico, containing 39 families
of Indians, 17 of whom are attached to two estates.

Avoyelles. —A tribe of Indians formerly living in Louisiana, west of the Mississippi,

whose name, as a living tribe, has disappeared. They have left a memorial of it ir

the name of an island of Red river, near its entrance into the Mississippi. They
resided on the banks of the stream, and according to Spanish authorities, supplied
Nuevo Mexico with mules, horses, and oxen, which they sold so low as twenty pesetas^
per head.
AwEGAN. — An ancient location of Indians of Pennsylvania, situated on the shores
of the east arm of the Susquehannah.
AwuNSHiSH. —A name bestowed by the Ojibwas on John Johnston, Esq., of
the county Antrim, Ireland. He came
Lake Superior about 1790, married the
to

daughter of one of the most celebrated chiefs, by whom he had several children and ;

after passing nearly forty years at the Sault or Falls of St. Mary's, during which he

preserved the manners and hospitality of his countrymen, he died at that place in
1828, aged 65.
AxACALA. —A settlement of the district of Acatlan, in Mexico, containing 38 Indian
families.

AxACUBA. — ^A settlement in the district of Huipuxtla, Mexico, containing 76 Indian

lamilies.

AxATACAZi. —An Aztec ruler, or emperor of Mexico, who succeeded the first Monte-
zuma, subdued thirty-seven tribes, and, by his valor and wisdom, first made the
surrounding nations vassals to the lord of Mexico, and laid them under tribute. He
was the father of the second, or great Montezuma.
AxixiQUE. — A settlement in the district of Zayula, Mexico, containing 150 Indian
families.

AxuCHiTLAN. — A settlement of Tula, Mexico, having 51 Indian families. Another

of the same name, in the district of Santa Ana, having 20 Indian families.
Ayacores. —A barbarous nation of Indians, who inhabit the country lying between
the rivers Curaray to the north, and the Tigris to the south. They are bounded north-
north-west by the nation of Semigoes ; on the south by the Iquitos ; east by the Paranos

Forty reals of silver — that is, five dollars American currency.

 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 547

and north by the Yetes. Some of its bands live in the forests on the borders of the
river Manay.
Atahuacas. — A barbarous nation formerly inhabiting Peru, who are now extinct.
They made great resistance to the Inca, Tupac Yapanqui, by whom they were subju-
gated, and made tributary.
Atanemo. — A chief of the Nyantics, the era of the settlement of Rhode
at Island.
Atauiris, or Atauviries. — A barbarous nation of Peruvian Indians, who inhabit
the mountains north-east of Cuzco. They were very valorous, and resisted, for a long
time, the third Inca, Lloque Yapangi, but were at last conquered and united to that
native monarchy. They became mixed with various and numerous nations of Peru.
At present, nothing is left but the name.
Ayenis.—A barbarous
location of Indians, who are mentioned in the Spanish annals
as inhabiting Florida.
Atouais. — See Iowas.
Atftans. — See Ietans.
AzACANGO. — A settlement of the district of Atengo, in Mexico, containing twenty-
four Indian families.
AzHABi. — The daughter of a celebrated magician. She had a sister named Nega-
nibi, both of whom became great sorcerers, who were alike feared and hated. Their
father kept them in a lodge constructed in a tree to defend them from pursuit. Azhabi
had a charmed word, by pronouncing which the tree would stretch up Neganibi had :

another word, by uttering which it would diminish in height. Their sorceries at length
put the people in a general rage, and they were pursued by the boy who carries a
ball on his back. He ascended the tree, and pursued them so closely that at last the
ti-ee, under the power of Azhabi, reached the arch of heaven, when he entered the
lodge, and killing them both with his magical club, rid the world of their wickednesses.
AzAJO (Santiago de). —A settlement of the district of Tirindaro, in Mexico,
inhabited by 125 families.
AzAQUALOiA. — A settlement of Zitlala, in the alcaldia-mayor of Chilapa, in Mexico,
containing 108 families of Indians.
AzEQUiAS. — A settlement of the jurisdiction of Therida, in the new kingdom of
Grenada, Avhich has a population of about 100 Indians and fifty poor housekeepers.
It has a mild and healthy temperature, abounding in wheat, maize, truffles, beans,
vetches, cabbages, and other productions of its climate.
AziTLA (San Sbion de). —A settlement of the alcadiarmayor of Guejocingo,
inhabited by thirty Indian families.
AzoNTAMATLAN (San Pkancisco de). —A settlement of the district of Guajacocotta,
in Mexico, having 316 Indian families.
AzocALCo. — A settlement of the jurisdiction of Tasco, in Mexico, containing forty
Indian families.
548 LITERATURE OF THE
AzTACALCO. — A settlement with the dedicatory title of Santa Maria, in New Spain,
containing 277 Indian families.
AzTAHUACAN. — A Settlement with the same title as the preceding, in the distric'
of Mexilcalzingo, in Mexico, with 105 Indian families.
Aztecs. — The Indian nation ruling in Mexico at the era of its invasion and con-
quest by the Spanish. They had been preceded by the Toltecs, Acolhues, and other
nations, whom they overthrew and founded their monarchy in their stead. By their
traditions they migrated from the north, from their original location at Aztalan. Tra-
dition and the best Spanish historians trace them to the region east of the Gulf of
California. They are thought to have taken their first departure after their arrival
from the Rio Zaguananas and the banks of the Nabajoa, west of the Rio del Norte.
We are informed that the Indian nations who inhabit the country between the rivers
Gila and Colorado are greatly advanced, and form a striking contrast with the wander-
ing and distrustful tribes who roam the savannahs and plains to the east of New
Mexico. Father Garces, one of the latest missionaries in that quarter, was astonished
to find, in 1773, on the waters of the Rio de Yaquesila, an Indian town with two
great squares, houses of several stories, and streets well laid out and parallel to each
other. The construction of these edifices he describes as being similar to those of the
Casas Grande, which had been discovered at a prior date, on the river Gila.'
The Aztec empire was not ancient on the arrival of the Spanish. The best accounts
give the year 1327 for the foundation of the city of Mexico, the ancient Tenochitlan
or Temixtitlan. Cortez first saw and entered it on the 8th of November, 1519. He
took it, after a disastrous expulsion and most strenuous siege, on the 13th of August,
1621, so that we can assign quite two centuries for its growth and expansion under
its The Indian population of Mexico, at the time of the conquest, is
native rulers.
not known, nor have we any exact means of discriminating between the Aztecs and
the other nations subject to Montezuma. It is known to have been very considerable.

One hundred thousand men are stated to have been collected from the provinces to
demolish the city as Cortez proceeded to take it. There is reason to believe, however,
that the los.ses of the Aztecs and the other tribes by the war were soon restored, and
that the entire Indian population of Mexico, at this day, is as great as it was in 1520.
A reference to statistical details will show this. The reason of a result so contrary
to that which took place among the north Atlantic tribes is obvious. The latter were
erratic hunters or fishermen, whose means of subsistence were precai'ious, who lived
in temporary huts, and were, in every respect, placed in circumstances adverse
to their raising and supporting large families. Even the poor means they had of
gleaning the forest by their darts, or the sca^shore by their nets, were deeply
trenched on by their senseless and perpetual feuds. Such was the condition of the

See Paper on the Pimos, ante.

 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 549

Powhatans, the Lenapes, the Mohegans, and the Narragansetts. It was quite the
reverse with the Aztecs. They had long passed out of the hunter state, and were, at
the time of the discovery, cultivators of the soil. They raised maize, cotton, and
various fruits, roots, and seeds. They lived in comfortable habitations, each having the
right to his own fields and property. These rights were secured by law, publicly admin-
istered. The conquest took away nothing from their natural means and resources,
but rather added to them. It did not give them national industry, for they already
possessed it. It took away, it may be said, one form of political despotism, and put
another in its place, but the latter was by far the best. It demolished the superstruc-
ture of a horrid religion, and exonerated them from the despotism of spirits of evil
in the human form, under the character of their native priests. Their means of
exercise were augmented by the introduction of the domestic animals and beasts of
burden, and of various grains. Their knowledge of agriculture and of the mechanic
arts was increased, and a freer scope given to all their powers of native industry.
These are the true causes of the preservation of the Aztec race to the present day.

Montezuma and his compeers are gone. The bloody rites of the TeocalU have ceased.
The barbarous pomp and despotism of the Indian court are past away; but their
national industry remains. The stream of vitality has thus been fed with never-
failing supplies, and, already deemed as citizens of Mexico, the sceptre may be
considered as restored into their hands. Let our wandering hunter tribes of the north

think of this, and let them, if they would have happy and secure continuance in
the land, drop the arrow and war-club, take hold of the plough and the sickle, and
aim to become American citizens.

AzTLA (Santa Catalena de). —A settlement of Caxcatlan, in Mexico, containing

300 Indian families. They live on the shores of the river Goochigoayan, where quan-
tities of fine fish are caught. They cultivate and carry on a traffic in tobacco. The
district has a hot and moist temperature.
AzucHiTLAN. — A settlement and jurisdiction of this name, in Mexico, containing
286 Indian families of the Mexican or Aztec race, besides twenty-six famihes of the

mixed Spanish and Indian or mustee blood.

XY. STATISTICS AND POPULATION.

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 iV. [CONTINUED.]

EXPLANATORY REMARKS.
The enumeration exhibited iu the first columns of the accompanying table, is believed to be the

earliest or first one on record. It is the substance of a French manuscript brought by General Cass

from Paris, among many others of equal value and authenticity, relating to the Indian tribes of the

North, under the early French dominion. I have abbreviated it somewhat, and arranged the matter it

contains a little difierently from the original. It is headed thus —

" Enumeration of the Indian nations who have relations to the government of Canada, their warriors
and their totems — A. D. 1736."

Mem. Supposed to have been written by Monsieur Chauvignerie.

Note op M. Chauvignerie. — "The Esquimaux, Micmacs, Amalecites or Manecis, are nations

above '
Kebec,' (doubtless for Quebec,) and beyond my knowledge."

I have extended the table by putting opposite the tribes, where I could recognize their names in the

subsequent orthography, several later estimates of their numbers.

The first is that of Captain Thomas Hutchins, who accompanied Colonel Henry Bouquet in his

expedition to the towns on the Muskingum river, in Ohio, in October 1764, and who was afterwards

Geographer or Surveyor-General of the United States.

Another is taken from the Cass manuscripts, being a French memorandum of an English authority;

a book published by Mr. Smith, in London, at the close of the Revolution.

The last, an incomplete enumeration by an officer of the war of 1812, whose name is not given.

The list and enumeration is, after all, very imperfect, when compared with a modern census ; but I
doubt not that of M. Chauvignerie is the best, if not the earliest one, now in existence.

The changes that occur in the spelling of the names of tribes, render the recognition of some of them
uncertain. Some nations are found in the early records, that arc dropped in those of later date. I

have preserved the spelling as I find it, leaving it to others to determine, in cases of doubt, what modem
tribes correspond to the ancient ones that are dropped.

Captain Hutchins regards one warrior as representing yJve persons; and this rule gives, for the tribes

enumerated by Chauvignerie, 82,015 souls. By the same rule, the enumeration given by Hutchins

gives 367,900 Indian persons. But it is probable some abatement should be made from his estimates,

which, it is reasonable to suppose, correspond better with the number of the whole people than their

fighting-men.

Thanks are due to C. Whittlesy, Esq., of Cleveland, Ohio, for materials of early Indian population,

and collating them with the valuable manuscript referred to.

558
 B. ESTIMATE OF COLONEL BOUQUET, 1764.
Names of different Indian Nations in North America, with the Nnmhers of their Fighting Men. His-
torical Account of the Expedition against the Ohio Indians in 1764, hy Col. Henry Bouquet. London
and Philadelphia, 1766.

PLACES OP RESIDENCE. WARRIORS.

Conawaghrunas Near the Falls of St. Louis . 200

Abenaquis 350
Michmacs 700
Amalistea
St. Lawrence Indians . . .

550
*Chalas 130
Nipissins 400
\ Living towards the heads of the Ottawa river
Algonquins 300
Les Tetes de Boule, or Round Heads Near the above 2500
Six Nations On the frontiers of New York, &c 1550
Wiandots Near Lake Erie 300
Chipwas 5000
Ottawas > Near the lakes Superior and Michigan
900
Messesagues, or River Indians Being wandering tribes, on the lakes Huron and Superior 2000
Powtewatamis Near St. Joseph's and Detroit. 350
Les Puans 700
Folle avoine, or Wild-Oat Indians. \ Near Puan's Bay
. . 350
Meehecouakis ,
250
Sakis \ South of Puan's Bay 400
Mascoutens ,
500
Ouiseonsins f On a river of that name, falling into Mississippi on
the east side
550
\
Christinaux 3000
Assinaboes, or Assinipouals \ Far north, near the lakes of the same name
1500
fBhines Barbus, or White Indians with
beards 1500
Sioux of the Meadows 2500
Sioux of the Woods \ Towards the heads of Mississippi .

ISOO
Missouri On the river of that name 3000
*Grandes E.aux 1000
Osagcs 600
Canses 1600
Panis blancs South of Missouri 2000
Panis piques 1700
Padoucas 500
Ajoues North of the same 1100
Arkanses 5 On the river that bears their name, falling into Mis-
.

sissippi on the west side

2000
( |
Alibamous A tribe of the Creeks 600
*Ouanakina 300
*Chiakanessou 350
*Machecous I Unknown, unless the author has put them for tribes
800
of the Creeks
Caouitas (Cowetas) I
700
*Souikila3 200
Miamis Upon the river of that name, falling into Lake Erie 350
Delawares (les Loups) On the Ohio 600
Shawnesse On Scioto 500
Kickapoos 300
Ouachtenons ...» On the Ouabache. 400
Peanquichas 250
Kaskasquias, or Illinois in general . . . On the Illinois river 600
*Pianria 800
Catawbas On the frontiers of North Carolina 150
Cherokees Behind South Carolina 2500
Chiekasaws 750
Natchez Mobile and Mississippi 150
Chactaws 4500

Data are introduced by Col. Bouquet to denote that the Indian inhabitants of North America are in the
proportion of five persons to one fighting man, which gives a total of 283,000 {p. 71) as the Indian popu-
lation of the old colonies.

» French soubriquets, f They live to the Dorth-west ; and the French, when they first saw them, took them for Spaniards.

559
 c.
INDIAN FORCE ON THE BREAKING OUT OF THE
AMERICAN REVOLUTION.*
Account of Indian Nations given in the year 1778, by a Trader who resided many years in
the neighborhood of Detroit.

Particulars relating to them.

Wiondots 180 They live neighborhood of Detroit and Sandusky,

in the
have generally embraced the Catholic religion, have a
Jesuit priest among them, and have been generally at-
tached to the French interest. They trade to Detroit
and Sandusky in deer-skins and furs. They have been
more active, under the influence of Lt. Governor Hamil-
ton, against the United States, than any other nation.

Tawaws 450 They are scattered over the country about the north-west
end of Lake Erie, from Fort St. Clair to the Mineami
river. They trade to the same places as the Wiondots,
except a few who trade to Michilimackinaw, and in the
same articles. They have been very little employed
against the United States, are much attached to the
French, but have not embraced their religion.

Potowatomies. 450 Their principal settlement is near St. Joseph's ; but scat-
tered villages of them extend from thence as far as the
Wabash, and almost to Detroit. They are much inter-
mixed with the Canadian French at St. Joseph's. They
trade to that place and Detroit.

250 They are descended from the Chippawees and Tawaws.

They live chiefly on the north side of Lake Erie. They
trade to Fort Erie and Detroit. They are wholly under
the influence of the nations they are descended from.

CLlppawees 5000 They reside about Lake Huron, the upper parts of Lake
Michigan, from thence in a north-west course as far as
Lake Superior, and the head branches of the Mississippi.
About 300 hold an intercourse with Detroit, the principal
settlement of whom is on Lake Huron, at Thunder (or
Sagenaw) Bay. They trade to Michilimaekinac and De-
troit, to the former chiefly in furs. They have been very
little employed in the present war. From their remote
and dispersed situation, their numbers and character are
verj' imperfectly known.

Mineamies 2000 They live north-west of Lake Michigan, as far as the heads
of the Mississippi, and up to Lake Superior. They trade
to Michilimaekinac with beaver, otter, and marten furs.

Soos. 500 They live about the heads of the Mississippi, and on the
islands of Lake Superior. They trade in furs with
traders, who carry suitable merchandise to the branches
of the Mississippi.
Carried forward. 8830

• Prom the MSS. of James Madison.

560
 iu. [CONTINUED.]

INDIAN FOECE ON THE BREAKING OUT OF THE

AMERICAN REVOLUTION.
Particulars relating to them.

Brought forward... 8,830

Miamies, or Miniamies.. 300 They live on the river of that name, and in the vicinity of
St. Joseph's, but chiefly on the former. They are sup-
plied with goods from Detroit. They have interfered but
little in the present war, except a few who have acted
in conjunction with the Shawanese.

Shawanese. 300 They liveon the Wabash and the neighboring branches of
the Ohio. They have been supplied during the war with
goods from Detroit, for which they pay in skins and
scalps. They have been exceedingly active against the
United States, and are a very warlike tribe.

Delawares and Munsees 600 These form properly but one nation. The latter have not
long since joined the Mingoes (or Senecas), and been
active against the United States. The former, except a
very few, have been friendly. They live between Pitts-
burg and Sandusky, on the branches of the river Mus-
kingum. The Delawares have embraced the Moravian
religion, and have its ministers among them.

Piankeshaws C These nations are intermixed. They live on and near

MusketooDS 800 | the Wabash, towards Illinois. They trade to Kas-
Vermilions (_
kasky.

SIX NATIONS.
Mohawks 100
Oneydoes and Toscororas, 400
Cajugas 220 -What relates to the Six Nations is well known.
Onondagoes 230
Senecas 650

12,430*

EMPLOYED BY THE ENGLISH AGAINST THE UNITED STATES IN THE PRESENT WAR.
Of the Wiondots 100
Tawaws 40
Chippawees 50
Potowatomies 30
Missaugees 20
Shawanese 20
Mingoes 60
Munsees 100
Miamies and Kickapoos 50
Six Nations 300

Total 770

* This computation, like most others which respect the savages, is probably beyond the truth.
J. M.

Pt. III.— 71 661

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Pt. III.— 72 569

 E.
INDIAN POPULATION OF THE COLUMBIA VALLEY IN 1806.

Lewis ^ Clarke s Estimate of the Aboriginal Population west of the Rocky Mountains in 1806.

Number of Probable
Names of Indian Nations, and their places of general residence. houses or number of
lodges. souls.

Shoshonee Nation, on west fork of Lewis's river and Missouri 60 300

Ootlashoot tribe of Tushshepah Nation, on Rocky Mountains on Clarke's river

and Missouri 33

Chopunnish Nation, on Kooskooskee

Pelloatpallah band of Chopunnish, on Kooskooskee

Kiniooenim band of Chopunnish, on Lewis's river

Yeletpo band of Chopunnish, on Weaucum

Willewah band of Chopunnish, on Willewah

Sagennom band of Chopunnish, on Lamalter creek

Chopunnish of Lewis's river

Sokulk Nation, on Columbia

Chinnahpum, on Columbia

Wollawollah Nation, on Columbia

Pishquitpahs Nation, on Muscle-shell rapid, Columbia and Tapteel rivers..

Wahowpum Nation, on Columbia, Tapteel, and Cataract rivers

Eneshure Nation, at upper part of Great Narrows, Columbia river

Eskeloot Nation, at upper part of Great Narrows, Columbia river

Chilluckittcquaw Nation, next below Narrows, to river Labiche

Smockskop band of Chilluckittequaw, on Columbia river

Sbahalah Nation, at the Grand Rapids of Columbia river, and extends down
low as the Multnomah river, consisting of the follow-
in different villages as
ing tribes, viz. Yehuh, above the rapids; Clahclellah, below the rapids;
:

the Wahclellah, below all the rapids ; and the Neerchokioon (1 house, 100
lodges,) on the south side, a few miles above the Multnomah river 62

•20. Wappatoo Indians :

Nechacoke Tribe, on north side Columbia

Columbia
iSboto Tribe, un north side
Multnomah Tribe, on Wappatoo Island
Clannahqueh Tribe of Jliiltuomah, on Wappatoo Island, below Multnomahs
Nemalquinner Tribe of JIultnomahs, on north-east side of Multuomah river
Cathlactjmmatups, a Tribe of Multnomahs, on south side Wappatoo Island
Cathlanaquiahs, a Tribe of Multnomahs, on south-west side of Wappatoo
Island
Clackstar Nation, on a small river which discharges itself on the south-west
side of Wappatoo Island

Carried forward
 Jbi. [CONTINUED.}

INDIAN POPULATION OF THE COLUxMBlA VALLEY IN 1806.

NumlKT of
s of Indian XatiouH, and their places of general residence. bouses or
lodKc...

Brought forward 883 28,370

Claniunatas, on south-west side of Wappatoo Island 200

Cathlacuuiups, on main shnro, south-west of Wappatoo Lsland () 450
Clannarminnanmns, on south-west side of Wappatoo Island 12 280
Quathlapohtle Nation, on south-west side (Columbia river 14 900
Cathlamahs, on a creek which falls into the Columbia, on the north side... 10 200

21. Skilloot Nation, on Columbia and Coweliskee rivers 50 2,500

HuUooellell, on the Coweliskee

122. Wahkiacums, on north side Columbia 11 200

jo. Cathlamahs, on south side Columbia 9 300

•24. Chinnooks, on north side Columbia, and on Chinnook river 28 400

25. Clatsop Nation, on south side Columbia, and a few miles south-east coast on
both sides Point Adams 14 200

2(j. Killamucks Nation, from the Clatsops of the coast, along the south-east coast
for many miles 50 1,000

[Indian Information.] The following Nations speak the Killamuck language :

27. Lucktons, on sea-coast to the south-west of the Killamucks 20

Kahuncles, on sea-coast south-west of the Lucktons 400
Luekawis, on sea-coast to the south-south-east, large town 800
Youikcones, do. do. large houses 700
Neeketoos, do. do. large town 700
Ulseahs, do. do. smalltown 150
Youitts, do. do. do. 150
Sheastuckles, on sea-coast to the south-east of the Lucktons, large town ... 900
Killawats, do. do. do. do. 500

28. Cookkoo-oose Nation, on sea-coast to the south of the Killawats 1,500

Shallalah Nation, on same course to south 1,200
Luckkarso Nation, do. do. 1,200
Haunakallah Nation, do. do 600

INDIANS ALONG THE NORTH-WEST COAST.*

29. Killaythocles, on the sea-coast, from the Chinnooks to the north-north-west... 100
Chiltz nation, from Killaythocles along the north-north-west coast 38 700
Clamoctomichs, from the Chiltz along the north-north-west coast 12 260
Potoashs, on the same coast, north-westwardly of the Clamoctomichs 10 200
Pailsh Tribe, from the I'otoash, on the north-west coast 10 200
Quiniilts, from the Pailsh, along the north-west coast 60 1,000
Quieetsos, from the Quiniilts, along the north-west coast 18 250
Chillates, from the Quieetsos, along the north-west coast 8 150
Calasthocle, from the Chillates, north-west along the same coast 10 200
Quinnechart Nation, on the sea-coast and creek, north and north-west of
the Calasthocles 2,000

Carried forward 1266 48,880

For more recent estimates, see Indians of British America, Appendix.

571
 Xii. [CONTINUED.]

INDIAN POPULATION OF THE COLUMBIA VALLEY IN 1806.

Number of Probable
Names of Indian Nations, and their places of general residence. houses or number of
lodges. souls.

Brought forward 1266 48,880

30. Clarkamus Nation, on a large river of the same name 1,800

31. Cushhooks Nation, on the north-east bank of the Multnomah 650

82. Charcowah Nation, on the south-west bank of the Multnomah 200

33. Callahpoewah Nation inhabit the country on both sides of the Multnomah... 2,000

34. Shoshonee, (or Snake Indians,) in wiuter and fall ou Multnomah, and in
spring and summer on the heads of the Towanahiooks, La Page, Yaumalo-
1am, and Wollawollah rivers 3,000

35. Shoshonees, on the Multnomah and its waters, whose residence is not well
known to us, or the Indians of the Columbia 6,000

36. Shobarboobeer Band of Shoshoonees, on the south-west side Multnomah 1,600

37. Shoshonees, residing on the south fork of Lewis's river, and on the Nemo,
Walshemo, Shallette, Shushpellanimmo, Shecomshink, Timmoonumlarwas,
and the Copcoppakark rivers, branches of the south fork of Lewis's river. 3,000

We saw parts of the following tribes at the Long Narrows

38. Skaddall's Nation, on Cataract river 200
Squannaroos, do. 120
Shallattoos, do. 100
Shamwappoms, on the heads of Cataract and Tapteel rivers 400

39. Cutsahnim Nation, on both sides of the Columbia, and on the northern
branches of the Tapteel river, and also on Wahnaachee river 60 1,200

Lahannna Nation, on both sides of the Columbia 120 2,000

Coospellar Nation, on a river which falls into the Columbia. 30 1,600

Wheelpo Nation, on both sides of Clarke's river 130 2,500

Hihighenimmo Nation, from the entrance of the Lastaw into Clarke's river,
on both .sides of the Lastaw, as high as the forks 45 1,300

Larticlo Nation, at the falls of the Lastaw river, below the Great Wayton
lake, on both sides of the river 30

Skeetsomish Nation, on a small river of the same name.

Micksucksealton Tribe of the Tushshepah, on Clarke's river, above the

great falls of that river, in the Rocky Mountains

Hohilpos, a tribe of the Tushshepah, on Clarke's river, above the Mick-

Bucksealtons, in the Rocky Mountains

Tushshcpahs Nation, on a north fork of Clarke's river in spring and sum-

mer, and the fall and winter on the Missouri. The Ootlashoots is a
branch of thi.s nation 35

Total
 F.

PLAN OF COLONIZATION, OR REMOVAL OF THE INDIAN

TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES WEST OF THE MIS-
SISSIPPI IN 1825.
JAMES MONROE.

To THE Senate of tue United States:

Being deeply impressed with the opinion that the removal of the Indian tribes from
the lands which they now occupy within the limits of the several States and Territo-
ries, to the country lying westward and northward thereof, within our acknowledged
boundaries, is of very high importance to our Union, and may be accomplished on
conditions and in a manner to promote the interest and happiness of those tribes, the

attention of the Government has been long drawn, with great solicitude, to the object.

For the removal of the tribes within the limits of the State of Georgia, the motive
has been peculiarly strong, arising from the compact with that State, whereby the
United States are bound to extinguish the Indian title to the lands within it, when-
ever it may be done peaceably and on reasonable conditions. In the fulfilment of this
compact, I have thought that the United States should act with a generous spirit

that they should omit nothing which should comport with a liberal construction of the
instrument, and likewise be in accordance with the just rights of those tribes. From
the view which I have taken of the subject, I am satisfied tliat, in tlie discharge of
these important duties, in regard to both the parties alluded to, the United States will
have to encounter no conflicting interests with either; on the contrary, that the
removal of the tribes from the territory which they now inhabit, to that which was
designated in the message at the commencement of the session, which would accom-
plish the object for Georgia, under a well-digested plan for their government and civil-

ization, which should be agreeable to themselves, would not only shield them from
impending ruin, but promote their welfare and happiness. Experience has clearly
demonstrated, that, in their present state, it is impossible to incorporate them, in such
masses, in any form whatever, into our system. It has also demonstrated with equal
certainty, that, without a timely anticipation of, and provision against, the dangers to
which they are exposed, under causes which it will be difficult if not impossible to
control, their degradation and extermination will be inevitable.
The great object to be accomplished is the removal of those tribes to the territory
iesignated, on conditions which shall be satisfactory to themselves, and honorable to
(573)
574 STATISTICS AND POPULATION.
the United States. This can be done only by conveying to each tribe a good title to

uu adequate portion of land, to which it may consent to remove, and by providing for
it there a system of internal government, which shall protect their property from
invasion, and, by the regular progress of improvement and civilization, prevent that
degeneracy which has generally marked the transition from the one to the other state.

I transmit, herewith, a report from the Secretary of War, which presents the best
estimate which can be formed from the documents in that Department, of the number
of Indians within our States and Territories, and of the amount of lands held by the
several tribes within each; of the state of the country lying northward and westward
thereof, within our acknowledged boundaries; of the parts to which the Indian title

has already been extinguished, and of the conditions on which other parts, in an
amount which may be adequate to the object contemplated, may be obtained. By tliis

report it appears that the Indian title has already been extinguished to extensive tracts
in that quarter, and that other portions may be acquired to the extent desired, on very
moderate conditions. Satisfied, I also am, that the removal purposed is not only prac-
ticable, but that the advantages attending it, to tlie Indians, may be made so apparent

to them, that all the tribes, even those most opposed, may be induced to accede to it,

at no very distant day.

The digest of such a government, with the consent of the Indians, which should be
endowed witli sufficient power to meet all the objects contemplated, to connect the
several tribes together in a bond of amity, and j^reserve order in each; to prevent
intrusions on their property; to teach them, by regular instructions, the arts of civil-
ized life, and make them a civilized people, is an object of very high importance. It

is the powerful consideration which we have to offer to these tribes as an inducement

to relinquish the lands on which they now reside, and to remove to those which are
designated. It is not doubted that this arrangement will present considerations of
sufficient force to surmount all their prejudices in favor of the soil of their nativity,
liowever strong they may be. Their elders have sufficient intelligence to discei'n the

certain progress of events, in the present train, and sufficient virtue, by yielding to
momentary sacrifices, to protect their families and posterity from inevitable destruc-
tion. They will also perceive that they may thus attain an elevation to which, as
communities, they could not otherwise aspire.
To the United States, the proposed arrangement offers many important advantages
in addition to those which have been already enumerated. By the establishment of
.such a government over these tribes, with their consent, we become, in reality, their
benefactors. The relation of conflicting interests which has heretofore existed between
them and our frontier settlements, will cease. There will be no more wars between
them and the United States. Adopting such a government, their movement will be
in harmony with us, and its good effect be felt throughout the whole extent of our
territory, to the Pacific. It may fairly be presumed, that, through the agency of such
 STATISTICS AND POPULATION. 575

a government, the condition of all the tribes inhabiting that vast region may be essen-
tially improved; that permanent peace may be preserved with them, and our com-
merce be much extended.
With a view to this important object, I recommend it to Congress to adopt, by
solemn declaration, certain fundamental principles, in accord with those above sug-
gested, as the basis of such arrangements as may be entered into with the several
tribes, to the strict observance of which the faith of the nation shall be pledged. I

recommend it also to Congress to provide by law for the appointment of a suitable

number of Commissioners, who shall, under the direction of the President, be author-
ized to visit, and explain to the several tribes, the objects of the government, and to
make with them, according to their instructions, such arrangements as shall be best
calculated to carry those objects into effect.
A negotiation is now depending with the Creek nation for the ces.sion of lands held
by it within the limits of Georgia, and with a reasonable prospect of success. It is

presumed, however, that the result will not be known during the present session of
Congress. To give effect to this negotiation, and to the negotiations which it is pro-

posed to hold with all the other tribes within the limits of the several States and
Territories, on the principles and for the purposes stated, it is recommended that an
adequate appropriation be now made by Congress.
JAMES MONROE.
Washington, 21th January, 1825.

Department of War,
24//( Junuan/. 1825.
In obedience to your instructions, directing a statement of the names of the Indian
tribes now remaining within the limits of the different States and Territories, the
number of each tribe, and the quantity of land claimed by each ; also, an estimate of
the amount of appropriation necessary to commence the work of moving the Indians
beyond the Mississippi, to be laid before you, I herewith enclose a report from Colonel
M'Kenney, to whom is assigned the charge of the Office of Indian Aff'airs, which con-
tains all of the information required, except the estimate of the sum that will be,
necessary to be appropriated to commence the removal.
In forming the estimate required, it will be necessary to take a summary view of
the number and position of the several tribes to be removed, and to form a plan in
detail for their removal.

It appears, by the I'eport enclosed, that there are in the several States and Territo-
ries, not including the portion of Michigan Territory west of Lake Michigan, and
north of the State of Illinois, about 97,000 Indians, and that they occupy about
77,000,000 of acres of land.
576 STATISTICS AND POPULATION.
Tlie arrangement for the removal, it is presumed, is not intended to comprehend the
small remnants of tribes in Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Virginia
and South Carolina, amounting to 3,023. To these also may be added the remnant;-
of tribes remaining in Louisiana, amounting to 1,313, as they are each of them so few

in number, that, it is believed, very little expense or difficulty will be found in their

removal, making together 4,336, vi^hich, subtracted from the 97,000, the entire number
in the States and Territories, will leave 92,664 to be removed. Of these, there are

residing in the northern parts of the States of Indiana, Illinois, in the peninsula of
Michigan, and New York, including the Ottowas in Ohio, about 13,150; which, I
would respectfully suggest, might be removed, with advantage, to the country west of
Lake Michigan, and north of the State of Illinois. The climate and the nature of the
country are much more favorable to their habits than that west of the Mississippi ; to

which may be added, that the Indians in New York have already commenced a settle-

ment at Green Bay, and exhibit some disposition to make it a permanent one; and
that the Indians referred to in Indiana, Illinois, in the Peninsula of Michigan, and
Ohio, will find, in the country designated, kindred tribes, with whom they may be
readily associated. These considerations, with the greater fiicility with which they
could be collected in that portion of the country, compared with that of collecting them
west of the Mississippi, form a strong inducement to give it the preference. Should
the proposition be adopted, the Indians in question might be gradually collected, as it

became necessary, from time to time, to extinguish the Indian title in Indiana, Illinois

and Michigan, without incurring any additional expense, other than what is usually
incidental to such extinguishment. Deducting, then, the Indians residing in the
north-western parts of Indiana, Illinois, in Michigan, and New York, with the Ottawas
in Ohio, amounting to 13,150, from 92,664, will leave but 79,514. It is proper to add
that a late treaty with the Quapaws stipulates and provides for their removal, and that
they also may be deducted from the number for whose removal provision ought to be
made. They are estimated at 700, which, deducted from 79,514, will leave 78,814 to
be removed west of the State of Missouri and Territory of Arkansas, should the views
of the Department be adopted.
Of these, there are estimated to reside in the States of North Carolina, Georgia,
Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi, 53,625, consisting of Cherokees, Creeks, Choc-
taws, and Cliickasaws ; and claiming about 33,573,176 acres, including the claim of

the Cherokees, in North Carolina ; 3,082 in Ohio, and in the southern and middle
parts of Indiana and Illinois, consisting of Wyandotts, Shawnees, Senecas, Delawares,
Kaskaskias, and Miami and Eel Rivers ; 5,000 in Florida, consisting of Seminoles anc*

remnants of otlier tribes; and the remainder in Missouri and Arkansas, consisting of
Delawares, Kickapoos, Shawnees, Weas, loways, Piankeshaws, Cherokees, Quapaws
and Osages.
The next subject of consideration will be, to acquire a sufficient tract of countn
 STATISTICS AND POPULATION. r,77

west of the state of Missouri and territory of Arkiinsas, in order to establish permanont
settlements, in that quarter, of the which are proposed
to be removed.
triljes The
country between the Red River and the Arkansas has already been allotted to the
Choctaws, under the treaty of the 18th October, 1820. The country north of the
river Arkansas, and immediately west of the State of Missouri, is held almost entirely
by the Osages and the Kanzes. The principal settlement of the former being on the
Osage river, not far west of the western boundary of Missouri ; and of the latter, on
the Missouri river, near Cow Island. There is a band of the Osage.s situated on the
Verdigris, a branch of the Arkansas. Governor Clark has been already instructed
to take measures to remove them from the Verdigris, to join the other bands on
the Osage river. To carry this olyect into effect, and to extinguish the title of the
Osages upon the Arkansas, and in the State of Missouri ; and also to extinguish the
title of the Kanzes to whatever tract of country may be necessary to effect the views
of the government, will be the first object of expenditure ; and would require an
appropriation, it is believed, of not less than 30,000 dollars. After this is effected,
the next will be, to allot a portion of the country to each of the tribes, and to com-
mence the work of removal. The former could be effected, 1)y vesting in the Presi-
dent discretionary power to make the location and the latter, by commencing with
:

the removal of the Cherokees, Piankeshaws, Weas, Shawnees, Kickapoos, and Dela-
wares, who now occupy different tracts of country, lying in the northwestern portion

of the Arkansas territory, and the soutliwestern portion of the State of Missouri. It
is believed that the Cherokees, to whom has been allotted a country lying between the
Arkansas and White rivers, will very readily agree to removing their eastern bound-
ary farther west, on the consideration, that, for the lands thereby ceded, they may
have assigned to them an equal quantity farther west, as they have evinced a strong
disposition to prevent the settlement of the whites to the west of them. It is proba-
ble, that this arrangement could be effected by an appropriation of a few thousand
dollars, say five thousand, for the expense of holding the treaty. Nor is it believed
that there will be any difficulty in inducing the Piankeshaws, Weas, Shawnees, Kicka-
poos, and Delawares, to occupy a position, that may be assigned to them west of the
state of Missouri ; or that the operation will be attended with any great expense. The
kindred tribes, in the states of Ohio and Indiana, including the Wyandotts, the Senecas,
and the Miamies and Eel rivers, in those States; and the Kaskaskias, in Illinois, it is

believed, might be induced, witliout much difldculty, to join them, after those now
residing in Missouri are fixed in their new position, west of that state. Of tlie sum
that will be necessary for this purpose, it is difficult to form an estimate. These
tribes amount to 3,082. The expense of extinguishing their title to the lands occupied
by them, will probably be high in comparison with the price which has been usually
given for lands in that quarter, as they, particularly the Indians in Ohio, have made
some advances in civilization, and considerable improvements on their lands. The
Pt. Ill— 73
578 STATISTICS AND POPULATION.
better course would be, to remove them gradually, commencing with those tribes

which are most disposed to leave their present settlements, and, if this arrangement
should be adopted, an appropriation of 20,000 dollars would be sufficient to commence
with.
It may, however, be proper to remark, that these tribes, together with those in

New York, have indicated a disposition to join the Cherokees on the Arkansas, and
that a deputation of the former, with a deputation from those Cherokees, are now on
their way to the seat of Government, in order to make some arrangements to carry

the proposed union into effect. Should it be accomplished, it would vary the
arrangement which has been suggested in relation to them, but will not, probably,
materially vary the expense.
It only remains now to consider the removal of the Indians in Florida, and the
four southern tribes residing in North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, and
Mississippi.

It is believed that immediate measures need not be taken with regard to the Indians

in Florida. By the Treaty of the 18th September, 1823, they ceded the whole of
the Northern portion of Florida, with the exception of a few small reservations, and
have had allotted to them the southern part of the peninsula ; and it is probable that
no inconvenience will be felt for many years, either by the inhabitants of Florida, or

the Indians, under the present arrangement.

Of the four southern tribes, two of them, the Cherokees and Choctaws, have already
allotted to them a tract of country west of the Mississippi. That which has been
allotted to the latter, is to be sufficiently ample for the whole nation, should they
emigrate ; and if an arrangement, which is believed not to be impracticable, could be
made between them and the Chickasaws, who are their neighbors, and of similar
habits and dispositions, it would be sufficient for the accommodation of both. A
sufficient country should be reserved to the west of the Cherokees on the Arkansas,
as a means of exchange with those who remain on the east. To the Creeks might be
allotted a country between the Arkansas and Canadian river, which limits the northern

boundary of the Choctaw possessions in that quarter. There is now pending with the
Creeks a negotiation, under the appropriation of the last session, with a prospect, that
the portion of that nation which resides within the limits of Georgia, may be induced,
with the consent of the nation, to cede the country which they occupy for a portion

of the one which it is proposed to allot for the Creek nation on the west of the
Mississippi. Should the treaty prove successful, its stipulations will provide for the
tiieans of carrying it into effect, which will render any additional provision at present,

unnecessary. It will be proper to open now communications with the Cherokees,

Choctaws, and Chickasaws, for the purpose of explaining to them the views of the
Government, and inducing them to remove beyond the Mississippi, on the principles
and conditions which may be proposed to the other tribes. It is known, that there
 STATISTICS AND POPULATION. 51'J

are many individuals of each of the tribes, who are desirous of settling west of the
Mississippi, and should it be thought advisable, there can be no doubt, that if, by an
adequate appropriation, the means were afforded the Government of bearing their
expense, they would emigrate. Should it be thought that the encouragement of such
emigration is desirable, the sum of 40,000 dollars, at least, would be required to be
appropriated for this object, to be applied under the discretion of the President of the
United States. The several sums which have been recommended to be appropriated,

if the proposed arrangements should be adopted, amount to 95,000 dollars. The

appropriation may be made either general or specific, as may be occasioned most
advisable.
I cannot, however, conclude without remarking, that no arrangement ought to be
made which does not regard the interest of the Indians, as well as our own, and that
to protect the interest of the former, decisive measures ought to be adopted to prevent

the hostility, which must almo.'st necessarily take place if left to themselves, among
tribes hastily brought together, of discordant character; and many of which are
actuated by feelings far from being friendly towards each other. But the preservation
of peace between them will not alone be sufficient to render their condition as eligible

in their new situation, as it is in their present. Almost all of the tribes proposed to
be affected by the arrangement, are more or less advanced in the arts of civilized life,

and there is scarcely one of them, which have not the establishment of schools in the

nation, affording at once the means of moral, religious, and intellectual improvement.
These schools have been established for the most part by religious societies, with the

countenance and aid of the Government, and on every principle of humanity the con-
tinuance of similar advantages of education ought to be extended to them in their
new residence. There is another point which appears to be indispensable to be guarded,
ill order to render the condition of this race less afflicting. One of the greatest evils
to which they are subject, is that incessant pressure of our population, which forces

them from seat to seat, without allowing time for that moral and intellectual improve-

ment, for which they appear to be naturally eminently susceptible. To guard against
this evil, so fatal to the race, there ought to be the strongest and the most solemn
assurance, that the country given them should be theirs, as a permanent home for

themselves and their posterity, without being disturbed by the encroachments of our
citizens. To such assurance, if there should be added a system by which the Govern-
ment, without destroying their independence, would gradually unite the several tribes

under a simple, but enlightened system of government and laws, formed on the princi-

ples of our own, and to which, as their own people would partake in it, the^' would,
under the influence of the contemplated improvement, at no distant day, become pre-
pared, the arrangments which have been proposed would prove to the Indians and
their posterity a permanent blessing. It is believed that, if they could be assured

that peace and friendship would be maintained among the several tribes: that the
580 STATISTICS AND POPULATION.
advantages of education which they now enjoy would be extended to them; that they
should have a permanent and solemn guarantee for their possessions, and receive the
countenance and aid of the Government for the gradual extension of its privileges to

them, there would be among all the tribes a disposition to accord with the views of
the Government. There are now in most of the tribes, well educated, sober, and
reflecting individuals, who are afflicted at the present condition of the Indians, and des-

pondent at their future prospects. Under the operation of existing causes, they behold

the certain degradation, misery, and even the final annihilation of their race, and no
doubt would gladly embrace any arrangement which would promise to elevate them in
the scale of civilization, and arrest the destruction which now awaits them. It is

conceived that one of the most cheap, certain, and desirable modes of effecting the
object in view, would be, for Congress to establish fixed principles, such as have been
suggested as the basis of the proposed arrangement, and to authorize the President to
convene, at some suitable point, all of the well informed, intelligent, and influential
individuals of the tribes to be affected by it, in order to explain to them the views of
the Government, and to pledge the faith of the nation to the arrangements, that might
be adopted. Should such principle be established by Congress, and the President be
vested with suitable authority to convene the individuals as proposed, and suitable
provision be made to meet the expense, great confidence is felt, that a basis of a system
might be laid, which, in a few years, would entirely effect the object in view, to the
mutual benefit of the Government and the Indians, and which, in its operations, would
effectually arrest the calamitous course of events to which they must be subject with-
out a radical change in the present system. Should it be thought advisable to call
such a convention, as one of the means of effecting the object in view, an additional
appropriation of 30,000 dollars will be required ; making in the whole, 125,000 dollars
to be appropriated.

All of which is respectfully submitted.

J. C. CALHOUN.
To the President of the United States.

Department op War,
Office of Indian Affairs, Jan. lOtJi, 1825.
Sir: I have the honor, herewith, to submit, in compliance with your directions, a
table containing a statement of the names of the Indian tribes now remaining within
the limits of the different States and Territories ; the number of each tribe; and the
quantity of land claimed by each.
There is no land assigned, as will be seen on reference to the table, to the Indians
 STATISTICS AND POPULATION. 581

in Louisiana; jet, it is believed, the Caddoes Lave a claim, but to what extent is not
known. So, also, have the Cherokees, (whose numbers are not known,) to a tract in

the northwest corner of the State of North Carolina; which, it is believed, does not

exceed 200,000 acres. In New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and perhaps in Maryland, a

few Indians are remaining, but how many, or what quantity of land is owned by them,
if any, there are no means of ascertaining.
There are now remaining within the limits of the different States and Territories, as is
shown by the table, sixty-four tribes and remnants of tiibes of Indians, whose " names"
and "numbers" are given; who number, in the aggregate, 129,266 souls; and who
claim 77,402,-318 acres of land.
It will be seen by adverting to the table, that the Indians residing north of the
State of Illinois, east of the Mississippi, and west of the Lakes, are comprehended in
the estimate of the number in Michigan Territory; although, in estimating the quantity
of land held by Indians in that Territory, the portion only, so held in the peninsula
of Michigan, is estimated. It was found impossible, from any documents in possession

of this ofiBce, to distinguish the number of Chippeways and Ottawas residing in the
peninsula of Michigan from those residing on the west side of Lake Michigan. It is, how-
ever, believed, that the whole number residing in the jaeninsula, does not exceed

3,500; and these, as has been stated, are principally of the Chippeway and Ottawa
tribes.

It may be proper also to remark, that of the 6,400 Sacs and Foxes who are included
in the estimate as part of the 129,266 and who occupy lands on both sides the
Mississippi, not more than one-thii'd of that number are supposed to reside on the east
side; and, of the 5,200 Osages, who, by the table, are assigned to Missouri and Arkansas,
it is believed, not more than one-third of that number reside within the State of Missouri
and Territory of Arkansas. If, therefore, the number assumed for the peninsula of

Michigan be correct, and two-thirds of the Sacs and Foxes, as is believed to be the fact,
reside on the West of the Mississippi ;and two-thirds of the Osages west of Missouri,
and north of Arkansas, there will remain " within the limits of the different States and
Territories," — confining the Michigan Territory to the peninsula — 97,384 Indians,
possessing, (if the 200,000 acres which are believed to be claimed by the Cherokees
in North Carolina, be added,) 77,602,318 acres of land.
In obtaining this information, resort has been had, for the "names" and "numbers"
of the Indian tribes, to the reports to this office, and to other sources of information

which are deemed to be the most accurate ; and, for the quantity of land claimed by
them, to the files of this office to the General Land Office
; and to computations care- ;

fully made from the best maps, by Col. Roberdeau, of the Topographical Bureau.
The 4,000,000 of acres assumed as the quantity claimed by the Cherokees in
Arkansas, although but an estimate, is believed to be nearly correct. The precise
582 STATISTICS AND POPULATION.
quantity, however, cannot be ascertained, until it is known how much they ceded on
this side the Mississippi, for which, by the treaty of 1817, they are to receive an equal
number of acres on the other.
I have the honor to accompany this with a note from Col. Roberdeau, in relation
to the difference between his estimate of last year, of the lands claimed in Greorgia,
and his recent corrected computation of them.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully,
Your most obedient servant,
THOS. L. M'KENNEY.
To the Hon. the Secretary of War.

Topographical Bureau,
January lOth, 1825.
The quantity of land in the State of Georgia, not ceded to the United States by
Indians, was, last year, reported at 10,240,000 square acres ; upon a review of the
calculations, and having more correct documents than were then referred to, the whole
quantity in the State appears to be 9,537,920 acres, of which 5,292,160 are of the
Cherokees, and 4,245,760 of the Creeks, as nearly as can be computed.
I. ROBERDEAU,
Lt.-Col. Top. Engineers.

Col. Thos. L. M'Kenney,

Indian Department.
1
 G.

OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE,

Department of War,
February 9, 1829.

Sir: I would respectfully refer to a communication of this date upon the subject
of our Indian relations generally, as containing the information called for by the reso-
lution of the House of Representatives of the 15th ultimo.
Very respectfully,
I have the honor to be

Your obedient servant,

P. B. PORTER.
TcNlie Speaker of the House of Representatives.

Department of War,
February 9, 1829.

Sir: — In the annexed report of the War Department, which accompanied the
President's message at the commencement of the present session, I stated that Governor

Cass, and Lewis and Clark, having been invited to the seat of Government for that

purpose, were engaged in preparing for the consideration of Congress a revised system
of laws and regulations on the subject of our Indian affairs, the administration of
which had become exceeding difficult and embarrassing, on account of the numerous
existing statutes on the subject, passed at different periods, and often under different

views of policy ; and which, never having been revised since the commencement of

the present Government, were the frequent sources of discordant opinions and con-
flicting measures among the numerous functionaries to whom this branch of the public

service is entrusted. And I now have the honor to submit, in compliance with the

intimation then given, the result of the labors of the gentlemen above named, to the
House of Representatives, with a respectful but earnest recommendation that the sub-
ject may receive the early consideration to which its merits, in the opinion of the

Department, entitle it.

The report of Governor Cass and General Clark to the Department, herewith trans-
mitted, explains the general views by which they have been governed in the execution
(.-87^
588 STATISTICS AND POPULATION.
of the task committed to tliem, and the objects of the several papers accompanying
the report, and forming the several parts of the proposed system. These papers are,

1st. A bill for the general regulation of the intercourse with the Indians, and of
all subjects connected therewith.
The effect of this bill, should it receive the sanction of Congress, will be to embrace
the Avhole policy of the Government, and comprise all its legislation on Indian inter-
course, and every other subject connected therewith, in one statute. The greater part
of this bill is made up of literal transcripts of the provisions of existing laws, inter-
spersed with such additions to, and occasional variations from, the present laws, as
seemed necessary to give integrity and harmony to the whole system. The copious
marginal notes inserted opposite to the several sections will fully explain their respec-

tive objects and bearing.

2d. A bill providing for the payment of all annuities due from the United States to
the Indians and Indian tribes.
3d. A code of regulations for the government of the Indian Department, and for
the general administration of its affairs.

4th. A tabular statement, exhibiting a view of the situation and numbers of the
various Indian tribes witliin the United States.
5th. The copy of a letter addressed to the Hon. T. II. Benton, of the Committee
on Indian Affairs in the Senate, describing the present condition and circumstances of
the Indian trade.
The able and lucid manner in which these several subjects are presented in the
preceding papers renders any additional remarks by this Department unnecessary.
As connected with the subjects of this communication, I transmit herewith a state-
ment, prepared by the officer superintending the Bureau of Indian Affairs, showing
the names of the superintendents, agents, and sub-agents of Indian Affairs within the
United States.
I have the honour to be your obedient servant,
P. B. PORTER.
Hon. Andrew Stevenson,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

Washington, February 4, 1829.

Sir: — In the execution of the duty assigned to us, we have the honor to transmit
for your con.sidcration the accompanying papers, which contain the result of our
inquiries into the subject of Indian affairs.

1. A bill f(M' the general regulation of the intercourse with the Indians, and of all
subjects connected therewitli.
2. A bill providing for the payment of all annuities due from the United States to
Indians and to Indian tribes.
 STATISTICS AND POPULATION. 589

3. A code of regulations for the Government of the Department, and for the general
administration of its affairs.

4. A tabular statement, exhibiting a view of the situation and numbers of the

various Indian tribes within the United States.
5. The copy of a letter addressed to the Hon. Thomas H. Benton, of the Committee
on Indian Affairs, in the Senate, describing the present condition and circumstances
of the Indian trade.
The whole subject is so fully considered in these papers, that any farther explana-
tion is deemed unnecessary. The marginal remarks annexed to the first bill, and the
notes accompanying the code of regulation, fully elucidate the various topics which
are embraced b}^ them. It has been one object to retain, as far as possible, the existing
provisions of the laws, and, where there was no reason to alter it, the phraseology.
If the proposed additions and alterations are jijrinted in one type, and the literal

transcript from the present statutes in another, the changes contemplated by us will
readily appear.
We need not enlarge upon the difficulties attending this first attempt to i-educe to
systematic arrangement the complicated concerns connected with and growing out of
our Indian relations. It is a business of detail, not easily regulated by general prin-
ciples. It embraces within its operation a great variety of objects, relating not only
to the Indians, but to our citizens, and involving political relations highly important
to the frontiers. Disbursing officers, charged with special duties, can easily and safely
execute them. A paymaster can make his payments without lisk upon his muster
rolls, and officers of the subsistence or coramissai'iat departments can purchase all
necessary articles in open market, and apply them as directed in their instructions.

And so in the administration of civil duties. They are generally regulated by

statutory provisions, and by the practical instructions under them. But an Indian
agent is stationed upon the frontiers, as the medium of communication between the
Government and its citizens and the Indians. How much food shall be given to a
hungry Indian, or how much medicine to a sick one ? what prosecutions shall be insti-

tuted? what expense shall be incurred in the apprehension of Indians who have
violated our laws, and in the recovery of stolen property ? what answers shall be given

to public and private applications? All these, and a vast variety of other subjects,
involve questions which must be settled by the circumstances of each case. We have
endeavored to limit the field of discretion, and to provide in the regulations practical

rules for the Government of the conduct of all, officers in the Department. Time and
experience will enable the proper authority to modify those which may be adopted, as
their operation may hereafter require.
Very respectfully, sir, we have the honor to be j^our obedient servants,
WM. CLARK,
LEW. CASS.
Hon. Peter B. Porter, Secretary of War.
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598
 STATISTICS AND POPULATION. 599

H. Office of Indian Agency,

Sault Sle. Marie, November 21, 1832.

Sir: — In obedience to such parts of the instructions of the third of May last,
directing me to proceed to the country on the heads of the Mi.ssissippi, as relates to
the Indian population, and to the condition of the fur-trade, I have the honor herewith
to enclose a series of statistical tables which exhibit the geographical distribution of
the lands, the name of each village or permanent encampment, its course and distance
from the seat of the agency, the number of men, women, and children, expressed in
separate columns, the number of tlie mixed blood population and the total population
of districts. Also, the names and position of the trading-posts established under the
act of Congress of May 26th, 1824, the number and names of the clerks, and the
number of interpreters and boatmen employed in tlie trade under licences from the
Indian office, the amount of goods bonded for, agreeably to duplicates of the invoices
on file, together with an estimate of the capital vested in boats and provisions, or paid
out in men's wages, and an estimate of the returns in furs and peltries, based on the
outfits of 1832.
An examination of these tables will show, that the entire Indian, mixed and trader
population, embraced within the consolidated agency of St. Mary's and Michilimacki-
nac, is 14,279, of which number 12,467
Chippewas and Ottawas, 1553 persons of
are
the mixed blood, and 259 persons of every description engaged in the fur-trade. That
this population is distributed in eighty-nine principal villages, or fixed encampments,
extending by the route of lakes Huron and Superior, through the region of the Upper
Mississippi, to Pembina on Red River. That 302 of the whole number live in tem-
porarj- encampments, or rather, migrate, along the bleak shores of lake Huron west
of the second, or Boundary Line Detour; 436 occupy the American side of the straits
and river St. Mary's; 1006 are located on the southern shores of lake Superior,
between the Sault of St. Mary's and Fond du Lac, 1855 on the extreme Upper Missis-
sippi, between Little Soc River, and the actual source of this stream in Itasca lake;

476 on the American side of the Old Grand Portage, to the lake of the Woods; 1174
on Red river of the North; 895 on the river St. Croix of the Mississippi; 1376 on
the Chippewa river and its tributaries, including the villages of Lac du Flambeau and
Ottawa lake; 342 on the heads of the Wisconsin and Menominee rivers; 210 on the
northern curve of Green bay; 274 on the northwestern shores of lake Michigan,
between the entrance of Green bay and the termination of the straits of Michilimackinac
at Point St. Ignace and 5674, within the peninsula of Michigan, so far as the same
;

is embraced within the limits of the Agency. The latter number covers an estimate
of the Ottawa and Chippewa population indiscriminately.
For the accommodation of the.se bands, there have been established thirtj'-five prin-
cipal trading-posts, exclusive of temporary trading station.s, occupied only in seasons
of scarcity. These posts are distributed over six degrees of latitude, and sixteen
degrees of longitude, and embrace a larger area of square miles, than all the states of
central Europe. Much of it is covered with water, and such are the number and con-
tinuity of its lakes, large and small, that it is probable that this feature constitutes, by
far, its most striking peculiarity. Its productions are fish, wild rice, and game. But
600 STATISTICS AND POPULATION.
such are the precariousness and dispersion of the supply, as to keep the whole popu-
lation of men, women, and children in perpetual vacillation in its search. The time
devoted to these migrations is out of all jaroportion to the results obtained by agricul-
ture, or by any other stated mode of subsistence. And the supply is, after all, inade-
quate. Seasons of scarcity and want are the ordinary occurrences of every year and ;

a mere subsistence is the best state of things that is looked for.

Traders visit them annually with

outfits of goods and provisions, to purchase the
furs and which are gleaned in their periodical migrations. These persons
peltries,
purchase their outfits from capitalists resident on the frontiers, and make their pay-
ments during the spring or summer succeeding the purchase. They employ men who
are acquainted with the difficulties of the route, and wdth the character and resources
of the people amongst whom they are to reside. These men act as boatmen and canoe-
men on the outward and inward voyage they erect the winter-houses, chop wood,
;

fish, cook for the bourgeois, and are employed on dunvin, or as runners during the

hunting-seiison. Much of the success of a trading adventure depends on their efficiency

and faithfulness.
In the prosecution of this trade, the laws Avhich have been prescribed by Congress
for its regulation are substantially observed. I am of opinion, however, that more
efficiencywould be given to the system, if a general revision of all the acts pertaining
to this subject were made. A legislation of thirty years, some of it necessarily of a
hasty character, has multiplied the acts which it is made the duty of Indian Agents to
enforce, and the number of clauses which are repealed and modified leave the original
acts mutilated and they do not present, as a wliole, that clearness of intent which is
;

essential to their due and prompt execution. Some of the provisions have become
obsolete; others are defective. A thorough and careful digest of the entire code,
including the permanent treaty provisions, would present the opportunity for consoli-
dation and amendment and, while leaving the laws easier of execution, adapt them
;

more exactly to the present condition of the Indians, and to a just supervision of the
trade.
The unconditional repeal by Congress of every former provision permitting the
introduction of ardent spirits, is a subject of felicitation to the friends of humanity.
Of all the acts which it power of the government to perform, this promises,
was in the
in my opinion, to produce themost beneficial effects on the moi'al condition of the
northwestern tribes and its enforcement is an object of the highest moral achieve-
;

ment. My recent visit, as well as former opportunities of remark, have afforded full
proofs of the entiie uselessness of ardent spirits as an article of traffic with the Indians,
and I beg leave to add my voice to the thousands which are audible on this subject,
that the government may put into requisition every practicable means to carry into
effect the act.
I have the honor to be, sir,
Very respectfully,
Your obedient servant,
E. llERKiNG, Esq., henry R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
AVar Department, Washington.
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603
 Total population resident witbia the
Agency in 1832, excluding; inhabitr
ants of M. T. at Sault Ste Marie and
Michilimackinac

a .a . .
g
Cames of the persons who have re-
ceived licenses to trade, and executed
bonds, with sureties, under the seve-
ral Acts ofCongresa regulating trade
and intercourse with the Indian
tribes,during the year ending 30th
September, 1832.

p Course of the Post from the Agency. WW

Computed distance of the trading post
from the seat of the Agency, in miles.

P5 Estimated amount of returns in furs

and peltries on the outfits of 1S32,
computed at the quoted New Tork
prices of 1S31.

W Aggregate amount of capital vested :

the trade within the Agency.

o
I—
? H Estimated amount vested i

? O paid in men's wages, Ac.

: W
I
^
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td
^ Amount of goods bonded for,
to duplicates of the invoices
agreeably
on file
in the Agency Office.

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 JlJL. [CONTINUEI).]

EXPLANATORY NOTES.
is the seat of justice for Mackinac county, Michigan Territory, is 300
(A) Michilimackinac miles
N. W.of Detroit, has a U. S. circuit court, a population of 1053 by the census of 1830, has a military
post, an Indian agency, a collector's office, a flourishing miRsionary school, &c.

(B) This river enters the head of Muddy Lake, and is partly the boundary between Michilimackinac
and Chippewa counties.

( U) This is a tributary of the south branch of the St. Mary's, and is much resorted to by the Indians
in their periodical fishing and hunting excursions.
(i>) Indian gardens at this place, two miles below St. Mary's.

(£) This place is the site of Fort Brady, is ten miles below the foot of Lake Superior, and ninety by
water N. W. of Mackinac. The Indian agency of Vincenncs, Indiana, was removed to this place in
1822, and consolidated with the agency of Mackinac in 1832. It is the seat of justice for Chippewa
county, M. T., and has a population, by the census of 1830, of 918.
(F) The trading post at this place is occupied as a fishing station, during the summer, by persons
who proceed with boats and nets from St. Mary's. Bonds are taken by the Indian Office, and licenses
granted in the usual manner, as a precaution against the introduction of ardent spirits.

(G) It is thirty leagues from Keweena Post to Ontonagon, by the most direct water route, but seventy-
five leagues around the peninsula.
(S) Thepopulation enumerated at this post includes the villages of Ocogib, Lake Vieux Desert, Iron
River, and Petit Peche Bay.
La Point have their gardens on this river, and reside here periodically. This
(/) The Chippewas of
is a good fishing station. A mission family has recently been located here.
(K) This is the most western bay of Lake Superior.
(L) Replaces the post of the Isle des Corbeau, which is abolished.

(J/) The route of Rainy Lake begins at the post on this lake, which is an expansion of the channel
of the Mississippi, about ten miles across. Clear water, and yields fish.
(iV) This lake has been so named in honor of the present Secretary of War, who terminated his
exploratory journey there in 1820.

( 0) Itasca is the actual source of the Mississippi, as

determined by myself in the expedition which
furnishes occasion for this report.
(P) This is a very large expanse of water, clear and pure in its character, and yields fine white fish.
It was deemed the head of the Mississippi by Pike, who visited it in the winter of 1 806, but it is not
even one of the sources, as it has several large tributaries.

(§) Named Rum River by Carver, but called Sjiirit river by the Indians, not using this word in a
physical sense.
(R) This route from Old Grand Portage to the Lake of the Woods is chiefly used by the British
traders, and the gentlemen connected with the Hudson's Bay Government ; but has fallen into compara-
tive disuse, as a grand channel of traders, since the introduction of goods direct from England into
the Hudson Bay.
(.S') The estimate of population at Pembina includes all who are believed to be south of latitude 49
deg., and therefore within the limits of the United States.
(
T) Embraces all the population of the Fork of St. Croix, connected by a portage with the Brul6
river of Lake Superior.
( U} The Indians on these streams rely much on wild rice. Their encampments are temporary. They
come into contact with the Winnebagoes and Menomonecs, who are their neighbors on the south.

( T') The Indian population of the peninsula of Michigan consists of Ottawas, Chippewas, and Potta-
watomies, who are not widely separated by language and habits. The Ottawas are, however, the most
acricultural. No Pottawatomies are included in the estimate, and only that portion of Ottawas and
Chippewas living north of Grand River, and north-west of Sagana, as the limits of the Mackinac and
St. Mary's joint agenc}- do not extend south of these places.
8©=- The data respecting the fur trade in the schedules, excludes the business transacted on the Island
of Michilimackinac, and the village of Sault Ste Marie, these places being on lands ceded to the United
States, and over which the laws of the Territory of Michigan operate. They also exclude any amount
of trade that may have been carried on by the white inhabitants of Red River settlement, who may be
located south of the national boundary on the north, as this place is too remote to have been heretofore
brought under the cognizance of our intercourse laws.
HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, Indian Agent.
Office of Indian Agency, Sault Ste Marie, Novemhrr 21, 1832.

607
~
 I.

STATEMENT OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR, SHOWING THE

TRIBES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI WITH WHOM THE
UNITED STATES HAVE, AND ALSO THE TRIBES WITH
WHOM TREY HAVE NO TREATY RELATIONS.

War Department,
May 17, 1834.

Sir : Agreeably to the request of the Committee on Indian Affairs, transmitted by

you, I had the honor some days since to forward you a copy of a report made by the
commissioners negotiating with the Indians west of the Mississippi, together with
extracts from an appendix ; and in further compliance with your suggestions, Inow
send the tabular statements you desired, which have been prepared with as much
accuracy as the materials in the possession of this Department would allow. It is to

be observed that the buildings occupied by the War Department have been twice
burned, and with them many of the records ; and it is, therefore, difficult to procure

exact statements respecting some of the subjects presented by you.

Very respectfully, sir,

I have the honor to be

Your obedient servant,

LEW. CASS.

Hon. Horace Everett,

0/ the Committee mi Indian Affairs. ^

(608)
 K.
OFFICIAL ESTIMATES OF INDIAN POPULATION IN 1836.

Statement slioiving the Number of Indians noio East of the Mississippi; of those that have
emigrated from the East to the West of that River; and of those xvithin Striking Distance

of the Western Frontier. 1846.*

1. NAME AND NUMBER OF THE TRIBES NOW EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI.

 J^. [CONTINUED.]

OFFICIAL ESTIMATES OF INDIAN POPULATION IN 1836.

3. NUMBER OF THE INDIGENOUS TRIBES WITHIN STRJKING DISTANCE OF THE

WESTERN FRONTIER.

NAMES OF THE TRIBES.

Sioux 21,600
lowas 1,500
Sacs 4,800
Foxes 1,600
Sacs of the Missouri 500
Osages 5,120
Kanzas 1,606
Omahaws 1,600
Otoes and Missouries 1,000
Pawnees 12,.500
Camanchees 19,200
Kioways 1,800
Mandans 3,200
Quapaws 4.50
Blinatarecs 2,000
Pagans* 30,000
Assinaboines 15,000
Appaches 20,280
Crees 3,000
Arrapahas 3,000
Gros Ventres 16,800
Eutaws 19,200
Crows 7,200
Caddoes 2,000
Poncas 900
Ariekarees . . . . , .
2,750
Cheyennes 3,200
Blackfeet 30,000
231,806

RECAPITULATION.
Number of Indians now east of the Mississippi 49,365

Number of Indians who have emigrated from the east to the west side 51,327

Number of indigenous tribes 231,806

Aggregate 332,498

Deduct the error of the Blackfeet, called Pagans 30,000

Total 302,498

• This is a mere synonym for Blackfeet, which see.

611
 J_i. [CONTINUED.]

MEDAWAKANTON SIOUX IN 1850.

These people constitute, emphatically, the home band of the Sioux who live on the line of the Mis-

sissippi, auJ whose ancient village sites constitute the nuclei of the rising settlements of Minnesota.

The principal efforts of missionaries and teachers have been made among them ; and they have for some
years been supplied with smiths and farmers, to teach and aid them in the mechanical arts and agricul-
ture. They have recently entered on the career of the other tribes of the West, by ceding large tracts
ef their exhausted hunting-grounds to the government, and directing, by treaties, the application of the
proceeds in part to the payment of annuities for limited periods to themselves, and in part to other
objects of utility. They furnish, therefore, a valuable element for future comparison in their population,
vital statistics, and industrial means, and may be deemed a fair subject, in all respects, for showing how
an Indian tribe, favored with as ample means and opportunities as Indian tribes ever enjoy, grapples with
the influences of civilization, which have been, so generally, adverse to other tribes.
The Medawakantons consist of seven bands, namely, Redwing's, Little Crow's, Lake Calhoun band,
Goodroad's band. Black Dog's, Little Six's band, and Wabashaws, the largest of all. Their population

is stated have been, in 1850, 2250 souls in the gross, who are divided, and shown to
by Mr. Prescott to

have the means and possess the characteristics, mentioned in the following table, which has been care-
fully constructed from the data transmitted.

Men, who all live by mixed agriculture and hunting 534

Women ">"
Children 1143
Number of male children who attend school 41
Number of female children " " 31
Number of males who can read and write 10
Number of females " " 20
Number of children who can speak English 2
Number of men who profess medical skill (native priests, or jugglers) 100
Number of first class chiefs 7
Number of second class chiefs *

Number of third class chiefs 7

Number of warriors fit to take the field 300
Number of the native priesthood who officiate as prophets 50
Number of agents employed by the United States 1
Number of interpreters " " " 1
Number of teachers " " " 2
Number of public council-houses provided by the United States 1

Number of missionaries, various denominations, supported by societies 6

Number of mission school-houses 2
Number of church edifices 1
Number of printing-presses employed by missionaries
Number of traders 10
Number of their clerks and interpreters 10
Number of their boatmen 12
Number of blacksmiths and assistants 4
Number of farmers and assistants 8
Number of log chains possessed by the seven bands 17
Number of females who can spin, knit, and weave 10
Number of pairs of stockings knit 21
Number of acres of land cultivated 397
Number of bnshels of corn raised 11,648
Number of horses, not stated. Mules, oxen, cows, hogs, and sheep, none.

Gl.:i
 I i . [CONTINUED.]

Estimated value of all their agricultural implements $300 00

Average value of the " skin" of trade 3 00
Estimated value of the hunt to each person 15 00
Estimated receipts from all sources to each family 35 00
Estimated value of public buildings 2,000 00
Amount of capital employed in Indian trade 60,000 00
Amount of annuities paid in coin, in 1850 10,000 00
Amount of " " merchandise, 1850 10,000 00
Amount of " " provisions, " 5,500 00
Amount of " " tobacco, " 100 00
Sum set apart for educational purposes, " 5,000 00
Sum expended for stock and agricultural implements, 1850 8,500 00
Sum expended for iron and shops, " 700 00
Whole expenditure for U. S. agency 5,250 00
Total estimated means 78,750 00
Estimate of the whole Sioux or Dakota population, including the Medawakantons 26,000
A cursory examination of this table will enable us to solve, in part, the pregnant question. Why do
the Indian tribes decline under the influence of civilization ? It is perceived that the Sioux, in the
forest state, only reproduce in the ratio of a small fraction under two children to every woman. In the
seven bands of the Medawakantons, numbering 2250 souls, there are but 300 able-bodied men fit for
the field, making the Sioux family seven persons, which is above the general average of the North
American Indians; thus denoting the operation of causes unfavorable to the usual number of active
men. In the same population of the seven bands, there are one hundred men who profess medical
magic, or jugglery ; which gives a professed doctor, or teacher of magical ceremonies, to every twenty,
two souls. There are, at the same time, fifty prophets, or persons who exercise the highest functions
of religious teachers, seers, or what the Chippewas term Jossakeeds. The loss of time in hunting, or
other objects of Indian industry, caused by these ceremonies, to say nothing of the detriment to the
Indian mind, must be felt severely in the scale of their progress.
With an annual expenditure by government of §8500 for stock and agriculture, there was not found,
in 1850, a single cow, hog, ox or sheep, or a single plough or cart. The whole proceeds of their chase,
to each family, did not exceed §15 per capita — a sum that a common laboring man, on a farm, would
earn in one month, and a mechanic in ten days; thus making the produce of the year's hunt §43,750.
It is stated that the whole per capita value of their annuities (of which §10,000 only are cash) is
§25;
making the sum of §78,750, exclusive of their hunt. It is estimated that a capital of §60,000 is
annually invested in the trade, which employs ten principals, ten clerks and interpreters, and twelve
bargemen and runners. These figures do not appear to be greatly wrong, and would not allow an
advance upon the fur trade of over 40 per cent., which is not deemed to be large in that hazardous and
fluctuating trade. Yet the whole avails of the Indian, receipts of the hunts, and the annuities of all
kinds thereupon, are spent or used by these bands, without bringing them out of debt to the merchants.
On the contrary, he is sinking deeper and deeper into it annually. As a relief to his growing wants
and the importunities of his creditors, he is induced make new cessions of land, and thus to raise the
to
amount of his annuities. The result is a temporary relief. The creditor is paid. The Indian's credit
is restored. All parties are pleased. But the Indian does not perceive that this is but a temporary
state of things, that his hunting-grounds are becoming scant of game, and that every year he must
more and more rely on his money annuities to satisfy his creditors. He is not a man of forecast; he is
unable to make a wise use of his surplus money, and cares, indeed, but little for the future, if the wants
of the present moment are satisfied. And the result is, that, ere he is well aware of it, his annuities
arc exhausted, he has become neither a more industrious or temperate man, and he must sell other tracts
to meet his exigencies. This is the history of most Indian tribes and it will be owing to the stron" ;

efforts of the Indian's best friends in Minnesota, the instructor in arts and the teacher of letters and
knowledge, if the Medawakantons do not yield to the common course.

614
< ^

l-H « §
%
 STATISTICS AND TOPULATION. 617

N.

CENSUS, ETC., OF THE INDIAN TRIBES.

Mr. Jacob Thompson, from the Committee on Indian Affairs, made the following
Eeport, Feb. 9, 1847:

The committee most cheerfully approve of the objects proposed to be attained in the
memorial and at the last session of Congress they directed the chairman to move an
;

amendment to tlie regular Indian appropriation bill, requiring the commissioner of

Indian Affairs to collect the statistics of the different tribes, and appropriating ten
thousand dollars to enable him to effect this purpose. This amendment received the
approbation of the House of Representatives ; but it was stricken out in the Senate,
and a provision was substituted requiring the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to collect
this information by means of the present organization of the department. Appended
to this report is a letter of the Commissioner, which gives an account of the progress
already made, which it is believed will prove highly interesting to the benevolent and
intellio-ent; and also an estimate of the amount which will be required to collect the
information called for, in a more full, authentic, and satisfactory manner and au :

amendment is reported in the bill to amend the act to regulate trade and intercourse
among the Indian tribes, appropriating the amount he requires.
It is a source of regret that we have so little authentic information of the resources
and customs of the Indians —
their past history and future prospects and the com- ;

mittee hope there will be no hesitancy on the part of Congress in furnishing the means
of correcting this omission. ,

To the Honmirahle the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States.

The memorial of the undersigned, citizens of the United States, respectfully repre-
sents :

That the undersigned view with regret the imperfect and fragmentary character of
our present knowledge of the Indian race. It is believed, that by a proper application

of the means and opportunities in the possession of the government, acting through
the Indian department, a vast body of valuable facts and materials could be collected
together, not only to history and ethnology, but important, and indeed necessary, to
enable government to perform its high and sacred duties of protection and guardian-

ship over the savage race placed by Providence under its care.
weak and still

The undersigned therefore respectfully pray your honorable body to direct the
Indian bureau, through its existing organization of oflficers and such other aids as its
Pt. III.— 7S
618 STATISTICS AND POPULATION.
means may make available for the purpose, to collect and digest such statistics and
materials as may illustrate the history, present condition, and future prospects of the
Indian tribes in the United States. And your memorialists will ever pray, &c.

John Tracy John W. Brown

Charles H. Ruggles James Tallmadge
John Romeyn Brodhead Charles P. Kirkland
Theodore Sedgwick Henry NicoU
Charles A. Lee, M.D. A. L. Jordan
George Folsom W. G. Angel
Theodore Dwight Abel Huntington
Albert Gallatin Henry R. Schoolcraft
Wm. C. Bouck Henry C. Murphy
John L. Stephens D. R. Floyd Jones
Robert H. Morris John Hunter
Alexander F. Vache G. Kemble
C. C. Cambreling L. Stetson
C. p. White John R. Bartlett.

R. P. Marvin

Mr. Schoolcraft, in adding his name to the above petition, and thus concurring in
the general object thereof, begs leave to express the opinion that the end prayed for
must depend essentially upon the character and amount of " such other aids " as Con-
gress may grant, to enable the Indian department, in its existing organization, to act
efficiently in the premises. This department is already burdened with duties, and it

would be idle to should seek to extend them without the specific directions of
expect it

Congress. There is no want of " the application of its means and opportunities " noio.
But to collect a " body of valuable facts and materials," bearing on " history and eth-
nology," and so to shape them as " to enable the government to perform its high and
sacred duties of protection and guardianship over the weak and still savage race placed
by Providence under its care," is not a slight, and cannot be made a casual, labor. To
attain so important an object, there should be a deliberate and clear expression of pur-
pose and provision of means. The department is confined to the execution of duties
nnposed by laws or treaties, for which specific sums are appropriated. Even its con-
tingent funds are strictly applicable to carry out these expressed objects, and none
others; and the petitioners could not expect that the officers of the department would
order a new species of inquiry, unless Congress should clearly denote its wishes, and
at the same time provide in all respects for the object. Seventy years of congres-
sional scrutiny have absorbed unlimited Executive power, and rendered the annual
.•ippropriations strictly specific. If the object prayed for is, as the petitioners state,
important, it should be provided for independently, and not suffered to rely for its

success upon the chance of its not conflicting witli other duties and otlier funds.
The officers of this department are appointed generally from the mass of citizens on
the frontiers, to execute certain plain and expi'cssed duties, and are not expected to
enter into such researches. Their aid could be relied on, to a certain extent, with a
 STATISTICS AND POPULATION. Gl'J

siniill additional sum in each case to meet contingencies strictly arising from this
duty. But, with every co-operation of this nature, there is a depth and purpose in
the expressed views of the petitioners which could not be realized, in my opinion,
unless tlie head of the bureau were authorized to employ, for the time being, a compe-
tent person, to devote himself exclusively to the inrpiiry, to visit the agents, superin-
tend their labours herein, and talce in hand tlie generic parts of the work, and report
the results to government, in a complete form. For this, Congress should specifically
provide.
New York, November 30, 1846.

"War Department,
Office Indian Affairfi, Fehruar// 1, 1847.
Sir: —have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 18th
I

ultimo, accompanied by a memorial of the Hon. Albert Gallatin, Wm. C. Bouck, John
Tracy, and others, that this office be required " to collect and digest such statistics and
materials as may and the futui'e pi-ospects
illustrate the history, the present condition,
of the Indian tribes of the United States." You
Committee on Indian
state that the
Affidrs also desire to be informed what has been done under the law of the last session
of Congress, requiring a census and statistics to be taken and collected, by the difierent
agents and sub-agents, of the Indians among whom they respectively reside " what ;

it is in the power of the department to effect, without additional means, and what sum

Avill be necessary to collect the informntion called for in the memorial." The law
referred to by you was approved June 27, 1846 ; and subsequently, on the 7th of
August, the Senate adopted a resolution requiring the Secretary of War "to avail
himself of such means as may be affijrded by the organization of the Indian Depart-
ment to collect all such information as may be practicable respecting the condition,
habits, and progress of the Indian United States, and to lay the same
tribes of the
from time to time, as may be convenient, before the Senate." The law of 27th June
last fixes no time within which the duties imposed upon the agents and sub-agents
should be performed but, desirous of making a report under it at the present session
;

of Congress, the department, as promptly as possible, adopted a form, as required by

the law, prescribing the manner in which the census should be taken, and the points
upon which statistics should be collected. It is regretted, that in consequence of the
limited time, and of the agents being occupied with other important duties whicli
could not be deferred, returns have not been received in relation to some of the tribes,
such as the Cherokees, the Choctaws, and Chickasaws, whose advancement in civili-
zation, and whose present condition and resources, probably render them olyects of
greater interest than almost any other of the tribes. The returns, as far as received,
are embodied in the accompanying tabular statement and appended notes. From the
limited time and the hurried manner in which they had necessarily to be taken, they
are probably not as accurate as could be desired, and are not, therefore, in any great
degree, to be relied upon. The\' are believed to be sufficiently so, however, to demon-
strate one important fact —
that the tribes liaving the least means or income, in the
form of annuities, under their own control and direction, and who are necessarily com-
G20 STATISTICS AND POPULATION.
pelled to rely upon their own exertions and prudence for the necessaries and comforts
of life, are by far the most enterprising, industrious, moral, and upright. Such tribes
need only the establishment among them of manual-labor schools the most efficient —
means yet discovered for the improvement of the Indian race and some temporary —
aid in their agricultural and mechanical operations, until they could begin practically
to reap the benefit of such schools, to make the most gratifying progress in acquiring
the resources and habits of civilized life.
A census and statistics of the kind directed to be taken under the law of the last
session, which are confined to the present condition, means, and resources of the dif-
ferent tribes, is of comparatively little interest for any practical purposes. Both the
memorial and the resolution of the Senate contemplate something more they require :

tlie collection of such materials as will illustrate their past history; explain their for-
mer, and account for their present condition; and afford some indication of their pro-
bable prospects in the future. In the opinion of this office, a well-digested and
arranged body of information, if it afforded nothing more than a correct view of the
nature of the relations heretofore and now existing between the different tribes and
the government, of the policy which has been pursued towards them, and its tendency

and would be of considerable general interest, and of much value in the man-
results,
iVgenieut of their affaii's, and of our relations with them hereafter. We could thus
see how far the tendency and practical effects of the policy of the government towards
them has been, and is, beneficial or otherwise, and what changes or modifications, if
any, should be made in it, in order more effectually to secure their present and future
welfare and happiness.
In procuring information to this extent, other materials, such as those contemplated
by the memorial, could, it is believed, at the snme time be procured with not much
ndditional labor and expense, which would show the origin of the different tribes;
their numbers and condition at different periods; their peculiar manners, habits, and
customs, superstitions, religiousbelief, rites and ceremonies the character and struc-
;

ture of their languages and such other particulars as would illustrate their past and
;

present condition and history, on all the points of any material interest or consequence.
With the means now possessed by the department, it would not be able, in a satis-
factory manner, to procure and arrange more detailed and comprehensive materials
than those contained in the accompanying statement. To collect and digest such as
arc desired by the memorialists, would jjrobably require a period of two years, and an
outlay, to meet the expense incident thereto, of about five thousand dollars per annum,
for which an appropriation would have to be made by Congress.

The memorial is herewitii returned.

Respectfully, your obedient servant,
W. MEDILL.
Hon. Jacob Thompson,
Chairman Committee aii Indian Affairs,
House of Representatives.
 '^

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 p.
INDIAN POPULATION OF WESTERN OREGON IN 1851.

REPORTED BT ANSON DART, SUPERINTENDENT OP INDIAN APFAIRS.

WEST OF THE COLUMBIA, NORTH AND SOUTH. GOVERNOR LANE, 1850.

Chatsops, 37 males, 34 females Clatsops 50

Chinooks, 70 males, 72 females 142 100
Vancouvers, 23 men, 37 women and children 60
Wheelappas or Quillequaquas 13
Tillamooks 150 Tilhulhwit 200
Clackamas, 19 men, 29 women, 40 children 88 60
Turn Waters, 5 men, 6 women, 2 children 13
Molallas, 40 men, 60 women, 23 children 123 MoleaUeg 100
Calapooyas 560 Calipoa 60
Umpquas, 67 men, 104 women, 32 boys, 40 girls.... 243 200
Shasta or Rogue river
Cascades, 45 men, 75 women and children 120
Clickatats, 252 men, 130 women, 45 boys, 65 girls 492 180
Cowlitz, Nesqually, Cheehales, (not estimated)

Aggregate. 2084 950

TRIBES EAST OF THE CASCADE MOUNTAINS.

Wascopams, two bands at the Dalles, 129 men, 206 wo-

men, 147 children 482 . 200
Des Ciiutes band, 95 men, 115 women, 90 children 300 . 300
Walla Wallas, 52 men, 40 women, 38 children 130 .1000
Waulatpus or Cayuses, 38 men, 48 women, 40 children ... 126 . 800
Sahaptins or Nez Perces, 698 men, 1182 women and ch'n, 1880 .1500
Palooses, 60 men, 62 women, 59 children 181 Not estimated.
Spokans or Flat Heads
Sinhumanish band, 71 men, 85 women, 38 boys, 38 girls.. 232
Mission band, 70 men, 60 women, 40 boys, and 40 girls.., 210
Upper Pond Orrille.s, 480; Lower do., 520; Gour
d'Aliencs, 200 1200 500
Rock Island, 300; Collville, 320; Okonagon, 250 870 .700
Yackimas (estimated) 1000 Yackaws 1500
Snakes Not estimated.

Aggregate. 6611 6500

The want of generalization of the languages and tribes of Oregon, the multiplicity of local names
for bands, and the great discrepancies in orthography, render it difficult to compare the Indian popula-
tion. Mr. Dart makes remarks on the great discrepancy in the reports of their numbers, particularly
in relation to the Cayuses and Wallawallas ; but is silent as to the discrepancy in the names of whole
tribes. His estimates arc, to a great extent, restricted to tribes which he has visited. Yet the Chi-
nooks and Clatsops, who are most exposed, it would seem, to the causes of decline, are placed, respec-

tively, 42 and 30 souls higher than The Calapooyas are stated at 500
in the prior estimate of 1850.

higher, the Clickatats at 212, the Umpquas and the Nez Perces at 380
at 43, the Molales at 23, —
advances which are extraordinary iu such small bands; while, on the contrary, the Walla Wallas are
Bhown to have sunk from 1000 to 180, and the Cayuses (who have had a war) from 800 to 126 a —
decline equally remarkable. Probably, in the actual state of things, there is no public record of what
has been done, in the way of statistics, by his predecessors, which might be used as guides in names
or orthography.

632
 Q.

POPULATION OF THE PUEBLOS OF NEW MEXICO.

REPORTED BY GOVERNOR J. S. CALHODN.

FopulatioD in 1851. Population in 1850.

Taos 361 345

Picaris 222 250

San Juan 568 275

Santa Clara 279 850

San Ildefonso 139 250

Pogodque 48 200

Tesuque 119

Nambe 111

Zuni 1500 2985

10 Laguna 749 900

11 Acoma ,
350 750

12 Lentis 210 250

13 Isletta 751 450

14 Sandia 241 400

15 Cia(Silla) 124 250

16 Santa Ana 399 300

17 Jenies 365 450

18 San Felipe 411 275

19 Santa Dominga .. 666 750

20 Cochiti 254 500

Total 7867 9250

This return of the Marshal does not include the two pueblos of Socorro and Isletta, below El Paso,
nor the seven pueblos of Moqui ; which latter were returned, in the year 1850, as containing a popu-
lation of 10,850.

Pt. III.— 80 633

 R.

INDIAN POPULATION OF NORTH-WESTERN CALIFORNIA.

REPORTED BY REDICK M'KEE, U. S. AGENT.

Huta Napo, by count. 85 81 29 195

Habe Napo, " 29 42 13 84

Sahnel
p*^^' 721
J. By estimate.

Masu-ta-kaya ..

Clear lake and surrounding mountains.. 1,000

Valley of Sonoma and Russian river, by estimate 1,200

Road from Fort Ross south to St. Francisco bay, by est. 500

Na-loh, Car-lots-a-po 30 26 19 75
Chow-e-chak, Che-do-chog 25 25 27 77
Choi-te-eu, Mis-a-lah 34 42 13 89
Ba-cow-a, Tu-wa-nah 23 29 28 80
Sa-min-da, Cach-e-nah 15 25 19 59

Betumke, south fork of Eel river.. 127 147 106 380

On the Klamath
Weits-pek
Wah-sber
Kai-petl
Morai-uh
Noht-scho
Meh-teh
Schre-gon
Yau-terrh
Pec-quan 1,500
Kau-weh
Mauh-teeg
Scbe-perrh
Oiyotl
Nai-aguth
Shaitl
Ho-paiuh
Rck-qua
Wehtl-qua

Klamath river 24
Scott's valley 50 villages, at 60 souls each 3,000
Shasta valley 19 3

Trinity Indiana 1,500

Grand total 9,080

634
r"
s.
INDIAN POPULATION OF TEXAS IN 18 51
REPORTED BY JESSE STEM, U. S. INDIAN AGENT.

The following enumeration I consider very accurate

TKIBES.
 INDEX
VOLUME THIRD

A.
Accoutrements, 69 Andros, F., M. D., 497
Acuera's reply to De Soto, 37 Anti-Hindoo traits, 61
Alabamas, who, agreeably to Milfort, 404 Antique notice of gold discovery, 41
AH Indians have beards, 377 (Note by J. L. Lyon) Antiquities, 71
Analysis of philological queries, 403 Antiquities, are there any on the Missouri 1 273
Ancient French estimate of Indian population, 553 Apalachia, 29
Ancient hair from tombs, 393 Apalachians fight furiously, 44
Ancient plates of Muscogees, 87 Aquanushioni confederacy, 196
Ancient play-ground of Pawnees, 274 Arapahoe vocabulary, 446
Ancient remains, 206 Azian, a necessary piece of male costume, 68

B.
Barbarous dialects of N. W. California, 420 Boundary of the Five Nations in 1600, 196
Barbarous vocabularies, 428 Bouquet's estimate of Indians in 1764, 559
Battle of Mauvila, 42 Bows and arrows of the Oregon Indians, 468
Bible must be taught Indians, 473 Bradford's version of the Canandaigua legend, 322
Black Hawk begins a war with the United States, 280 Brantz, Lewis, journal of (with a Plate), 335
Black Shoes, 251 Browne, P. A., treatise by, 375
Black Warrior, account of, 42 Burial of De Soto, 49
Blood-hounds employed, 38

c.
Calhoun's memoir on Indian civilization, 575 Charms and magic believed by Tusuques, 308
California tribes, 100 Chauvignerie's estimate of Indians in 1736, 553
California vocabularies, 427 Cheraws assailed by small-pox, 295
Canandaigua allegory, 322 Cherokees, first notice of, 41
Canassatego, proud and arrogant speech of, 197 Cheyenne vocabulary, 446
Carolina MSS. respecting Catawbas, 213 Chickasaws burn the Spanish camp, 45
Casas Grande, ruins of, 302 Chickacilla, battle of, 46
Catawbas, their history, 293 Chicorean Indians, 26
Causes of decline of the Catawbas, 295 Chiefs, no badge of office, 195
Celebrated chiefs, 198 Chief White Cloud, sketch of, 264
Charlevoix's opinions, 56 Chinooks, 201

(637)
638 INDEX.
Chippewa allegories, 318-320 Comments, grammatical, 497
Clioetaw words, 347 Comparative vocabulary of Upsaroka and Mandan, 255
Civilization not Christianity, 473 Condition and prospects, 469
Clark and Cass, tables by, 589 Connewangos, the enemies of Catawbas, 293
Classification of tribes, 401 Conservative power of females, 196
Clear Lake Indians of California, 106 Contrast of traditions, 267
Cofatchique, a word of delusion to De Soto, 40 Costumes, 65
Colden, general remarks on the Five Nations, 184 Cresap vindicated, 56 {note)
Coligoa, account of, 50 Crossing the Mississippi Rive* in 1541, 47
Color-matter of hair, 379 Crow tribe, 247
Columbia Valley, Indian population in 1806, 376 Cylindrical hair, the Indian form, 382

D.
Dacotahs of the Upper Mississippi, 225 Descent, law of, 195
Daemonology, 481 Description of Clear Lake Indians, 106
Dance of the Giant, 487 (Plate) De Soto lands in Florida, 34
Dance to the Sun, 227 Desperate fight of Mauvila, 43
Death of De Soto, 49 De Vaca, 33
Declaration of the Senecas to extirpate Catawbas, 294 Development of Indian mind, 320
Decline of Winnebagoes on the Neutral Ground, 281 Diary of Juan Mateo Monge, 301
Deep deception of the Indians, 41 Dictionary of Indian names, 510 (Letter A.)
Defeat of the Eries symbolized by an inscription, 85 Discovery of the Mississippi River, 46
Delawares, 197 Distinctive phases of hunter life, 52
Delawares, antique vocabulary of, 424 Drunkenness very common to Mohawks in 1741, 194
Delegation of Tusuques visit Washington, 306 Duality of God believed, 60
Deluge, tradition of, 262

E.
Earliest notice of Winnebagoes, 282 Eras of time, inferred from growth of trees, 77
Early injustice of Europeans, 23 Erie inscription, 85 (Plate)
Early traditions of Winnebagoes, 278 Eries, Jefferson's testimony, 404
Eating the entire animal at a feast, 61 Error of account by Mr. Mitchell, 255
Edisto discovered, 25 Error of Narvaez, 29
Education, Christianity, 471
and arts, Ethnographical family, 266
Elegancy of expression noticed, 192 Ethnographical letter, 397
Emmons' sketches of California Indians, 200 Etymology, 27-29
Emory, Major, transmits vocabulary, 460 Experience in raising Indian children, 479
English language must be taught, 475 Expressions in Chippewa, with varied pronouns, 412
Enigmatical ruin on the Gila, 305

False ideas of the wealth of Florida, 33 Fish-gig, 214

Families of languages, 4(11 Five Nations, early boundary and extent, 196
Father AUoiiez, tradition of, 277 Fletcher's report and memoirs on the Winnebagoes, 284
Feast, medicine, 286 (Plate) Flood, tradition of, 252
Feminine inflection of nouns, 240 Florida antiquities, 75
Feudalism, how guarded against, 195 Florida invaded, 28
Figured pottery, 80 (Plate) Franklin, Benjamin, map published by, 196
First crossing of the Mississippi River, 47

G.
Gallatin's classification of tribes, 397 General view of the Indian race, 21
Garces, Francisco, notice by, 297 Generic traits of mind, 54
Gathering wild rice, 62 Genii worship, 492
General Clarke's testimony of Mandans, 248 Geographical names, plan for, 501
 INDEX. 639

Geography, 270 Gods of the Dacotahs, 485

Geometrical form of human hair, 382 Grammatical queries in English and French, 407
Ghebir worship, 49, 227 Great Snake of Canandaigua, an allegory, 322
Gibbs on the dialects of Northern California, 420 Greek ipselon, 255
Gibbs's paper, 99 Gros Ventres, 251, 402
Gila pottery, 82 Gunnison, Lt., pictographs from Uta, 492
Gila River design of strange form, 305

H.
Hair, a philosophical test of races of men, 375 History of the lowas, 256
Hamilton, Rev. W., paper by, 259 History of the Iroquois, 181
Handicraft arts, 468 History of the Man dans, 247
Hawk Chant, 329 History of the Minnetarees, 250
Head-dresses, 68 (Plates) Hochungaras, their history, 277
Hernando De Soto appears, 33 Huitzilopochtli, sacrifices to, 60
Hiawatha, 314 Human hair, organization of, 375
Hirrihigua, barbarity to, 29 Humboldt Bay, 130 (Plate)
History of the Dacotahs, 225

I.

Imperturbabilitt, a trait, 58 Injustice to the Indian race, 23

Indian currency, 185 Intellectual capacity, 312
Indian hair, its structure, 380 Intellectual traits, 54
Indian population of Michigan in 1832, 599 Invulnerability and invisibility, 491
Indian population of New Mexico in 1850, 433 lowas, their history, 256
Indian respect for woman, 195 Iroquois extent and boundary, 196
Indian women fight with swords, 43 Iroquois have no labials, 192
Industrial prospects and traits, 471 Irvin, Rev. S. M., paper by, 259
Inflated narrative of the conq^uerors, 36

J.

Japanese vessels driven to N. A. coast, 201 Joint memoir of Irvin and Hamilton, 259
Jewish customs, 243 Journey in the West, antique, 337
Johnston's translation of queries, 412 Juggler's power, 286

K.
Kaskaskias, first notice of, 483 Kinkla tribe, 201
Kekeewin character, 85 (Plate) Kipp's Mandan vocabulary, 446
Ke-taw-kah, murder by, 279 Klamath Indians, 137
Kilamukes, 201 Klatsops, 201

L.
Labyrinth, 305 Latin syllable in the Mandan, 255
Lafitau's opinion, 55 Law of descent, 195
Lallemant's opinions, 56 Leggins, 66 (Plate)
Landing of Narvaez in Florida, 28 Le June's opinion, 55
Language, 395, 401 Lenapes, how answered in 1744, 197
Languages of the Catawbas and Cheraws mixed, 295 Lewis and Clarke's estimate of Indians in 1806, 570
La Potherie's opinion, 56 Life in Indian country in 1783, 351
Las Casas vindicates the Indians, 23 List of California tribes, 201
640 INDEX.
Literature, food for, 499 Loss of NarTaez, 32
Little Boy-man, a Chippewa tale, 318 Loucheux, 401
Little Pine's interpretation of the Erie inscription, 85 Lowry, Kev. D., report of, 281
Local sjllables, how applied, SOS Lowry's memoir, 471

M.
Magic dance of the Ontonagons, 488 (Plate) Migration of lowas, 256 (Map)
Magnified tissues of human hair, 385 Minnetarees, 251
Making fire by percussion, 465 Mississippi River is discovered, 46
Mandans not Sioux, 255 Mitchell's testimony of Mandans, 253
Mandan vocabulary, 446 Moccasins, 65
Manners and customs, 51 Mode of obtaining fire, 228
March of Narvaez, 20 Modern events remembered, 264
Mayer, Brantz, note from, 335 Modern mode of sun-worship, 22
McKenney's tables, 580 Monge, Jean Mateo, diary of, 301

Medical knowledge, 495 Monroe's plan of colonization, 573

Medicine Feast, 286 (Plate) Moqui tribe, 306
Medill, W., Esq., letter to, 400 Moral condition of tribes, 471
Memoir of Colonel Mitchell, 253 Moscoso succeeds De Soto, 49
Memory alone relied on for old events, 242 Mound occupied by Chickasaws, 47
Metahartas, 251 Mound-period inferred, 77
Metallic plates of the Muscogees, 87 Murder of Dr. Madison by a Winnebago, 279

N.
Wackeninga, a Chief, 265 New names with old roots, 505
Names and situations of tribes in 1829, 592 No historical testimony from hieroglyphics, 274
Naming children, capricious, 234, 240 No monuments of any kind, 268
Narvaez, 28, 30, 31, 32 North American and Peruvian races identified by hair, 393
Natches discovered, 49 Northern origin of Catawbas, 293
Natives respect females, 195 Northwestern California, 99
Neumonga, a Chief, 265 Number of Indian families of languages in the United
Nevr Mexico, population of, in 1850, 633 States, 402

o.
Observations on the tribes, summary of, 403 Oral fictions, 313
Ojibwas, 301, 320, 401 Original families of lowas, 269
Omahas, 402 Origin of Mandans, 247
Oneidaa, 401 Ortez, John, 37
Onondagas, 401 Otoes, 402
Opinions of Indians, 55, 56 Ottowas, 401
Opothlahola, opinion of, 90 (Plate)

P.
Pampuilio De Narvaez, 28 Philosophical disquisition by Mr. Lowry, 471
Parry, C.C, U. S. A., vocabulary, 460 Physical geography, 93
Peace, how made by erratic tribes, 263 Physical type, 371
Pedro Font, element of history, 299 Pictographic inscription, 73
Percussion, modes of, 228 Pike's Indian tables in 1806, 562
Perrault's journal, 351 Pimos of New Mexico, 297
Peruvian and N. A. Indians identified by hair, 393 Pimo vocabulary, 461
Philological queries, 403 Pittsburg, old view of, 336
 INDEX. 641
Plan of colonization in 1824, 523 Preparation of flints, 4C7
Plausibility of Buffon's theory, 55 Prepositions,how indicated, 419
Policy of the Indians in war, 3G Present condition and prospects, 469
Population, Indian, of Michigan in 1840, 615 Prominent Indian actors, 57
Population of California Indians, 201 Pronouns, how varied, 412
Porter, Hon. P. B., transmits estimates, 587 Puants, 277
Pottery, antique, 75

a
QcANTiTT of land recently ceded, 94 Question of descent from a Hamitic or Shemitio oridn.
Quappas, noticed by De Soto, 48 476 ^ '

Queen Anne sends a missionary to the Mohawks, 193 Quigualtangui, sun-worshippers, 49

Question of popular errors, 478 Quiguate, 50

E.
Race, general view of, 21 Reply, in Odjibwa, to grammatical queries, 412
Recent observers in the field, 403, 404 Resemblance to Hebrew lexicography, 61 (note)
Red Jacket, with portrait, 198 Resum6 of observations on the tribes, 403
Rees's paper, 97 Ring, or trench of earth, of Pawnees, 274
Relics of human bone, &c., 33 {note) Rio Grande, or Mississippi discovered, 46
Religious worship, 226 Rock inscription in Utah, with Plate, 492
Remarkable law of descent, 195 Rogue River Indians, 201
Reminiscent character of Indian men, 57 Ruins of Casas Grande, 302
Removal, the remedy for extinction, 593

s.
Sacs, their history, 259 Sonoma and Russian River Indians, 112
Saline strata, 97 Soto, De, unwittingly made to aid the Creeks in their
Santa Rosa plains, 101 conquests, 40
Sayadio, 320 South Carolina is discovered, 25
Schedule of California tribes, 201 Spaniards deceived by the Casques, 48
Separation of females, 62
Specimen of a dictionary of Indian names, 510
Shamokin, Delawares ordered to, 197 Spirits, witchcraft, and magic, 483 (Plates)
Shaste Indians, 201 Star-boy, a tradition, 276
Shingebiss, a Chippewa allegory, 324
State of Indian art, 463
Shoshonees, 402
Statisticsand population, 551
Sioux population in 1836, 612
Striking the post, 64 (Plate)
Skenando, 198
String of wampum, interpretation of, 197
Sketches of tribes in California, 100
Suggested mode of sifting traditions, 267
Smith's Arapahoe vocabulary, 446 Summary of observations on the tribes, 403
Smoking is a modern practice, 244 Summary of the Iroquois power, 196
Snow-shoes, 69 (Plate)
Sun-worship, 227 (Plate)
Soda spring, 103
Sun-worship of the tribes, 60
Song of Okogis, 329

T.
Tables of tribes east and west of the Mississippi River Tradition, 263
in 1829, 609, 611 Traits of mind, 54
Taciturnity, a 59
trait,
Trapping in Paradise, 320
Tecumseh's message to the Northwest tribes, 279
Tribal organization, 179
Tcsuques of New Mexico, a visit from, 306
Tribes speaking the Shaste tongue, 171
Topical history, 333
Tribes to be removed in 1821, 583
Toteloes, who ? 196
Trituration of maize, 466 (Plate)
Totemic signs, their value, 195 Tuscaloosa, his character, 42
Traces of foreign origin, 59
Tusuquc vocabulary, 446
Track of De Soto's march, 50 (Plate 44)

Part III. — 81
G42 INDEX.

u.
UcHEES, a spirited nation, 49 Unity of race, 373
Umpquas, 201, 401 Unwritten languages must degenerate, 475
UDcertainty of Indian boundary lines, 41 Upper posts of Canada in 1778, 333
Uniform policy of Indians in war, 30 Upsarokas, higtory of, 247
Union of the Cheraws and Catawbas, 295 Utah inscriptions, 492

y.
Varieties of men determined by the hair, 375 Vocabularies of Gibbs, 428
Velasquez D'Ayllon, 27 Vocabulary of Klatsops, 224
Vitachueco replies to De Soto, 39

w.
Wachamonta, anecdote of, 266 Weight and elasticity of Indian hair, 391
AVampum, 185 (note) What is daemonology? 481
War breast-plate of splints, 216 White Cloud, a Chief of the lowas, 264
AVar of 1812, Indian auxiliaries, 279 Whiting's Tusuque vocabulary, 446
Warriors, Indian, on the breaking out of the American Whittlesy's contributions to statistics, 558
Revolution, 561 Winnebago history, 277
Wassaws destroyed by Catawbas, 294 Witchcraft, 481
Wattasoons, 251 Woman respected by natives, 195
Wee-yot Indians, 127 Women's work, 235

Y.
Yanktons, 563

Z.
Z. M. Pike's estimates of population in 1806, 562
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