Mustansiriya University

College of Science / Department of Physics

Third Grade

Electronics Lab
First Semester
2020-2021
 ‫مقدمة عن مختبر االلكترونيات‬
‫اُ ٍخزجش اإلىنزشّٗ‪ٞ‬بد ‪ٝ‬يج‪ ٜ‬اىغ٘اّت اىؼَي‪ٞ‬خ ىإلىنزشّٗ‪ٞ‬بد االسبس‪ٞ‬خ‪ .‬ح‪ٞ‬ش ‪ٝ‬زضَِ ح٘اى‪ 61 ٜ‬رغشثخ ػَي‪ٞ‬خ‬
‫ثؼضٖب اسزحذس ٍؤخشاً ى‪ٞ‬زطبثق اىَْٖظ اىؼَي‪ ٜ‬ىيَشحيخ اىضبىضخ ٍغ اىَْٖظ اىْظش‪ .ٛ‬رزشبسك ّخجخ ٍِ اىَخزص‪ِٞ‬‬
‫ٗاىؼيَ‪ ِٞٞ‬ثزٖ‪ٞ‬ئخ اىزغبسة اىخبصخ ثبىَْٖظ ٍغ اٍنبّ‪ٞ‬خ ص‪ٞ‬بّخ االعٖضح اىز‪ ٜ‬رزؼشض اى‪ ٚ‬ػطو داخو اىَخزجش‪ .‬مَب اُ‬
‫ىيَخزجش دٗس فبػو ف‪ ٜ‬سفذ اىطيجخ ثَشبس‪ٝ‬غ رخشط رخزص ثبالىنزشّٗ‪ٞ‬بد اىف‪ٞ‬ض‪ٝ‬بئ‪ٞ‬خ‪ٗ .‬ف‪ٕ ٜ‬زا اىَخزجش ‪ٝ‬جذأ اىطبىت‬
‫رذس‪ٝ‬غ‪ٞ‬ب ً ثزؼَو اىْقبط اىزبى‪ٞ‬خ‪:‬‬
‫م‪ٞ‬ف‪ٞ‬خ ثْبء اىذٗائش ثبسزخذاً ااىج٘سد‪.‬‬ ‫‪-1‬‬
‫م‪ٞ‬ف رؼَو عَ‪ٞ‬غ اىَنّ٘بد اإلىنزشّٗ‪ٞ‬خ األسبس‪ٞ‬خ ٗم‪ٞ‬ف‪ٞ‬خ قشاءح اىق‪ ٌٞ‬اىَزؼيقخ‪.‬‬ ‫‪-2‬‬
‫م‪ٞ‬ف‪ٞ‬خ قشاءح ٍخططبد اىذٗائش اإلىنزشّٗ‪ٞ‬خ‪.‬‬ ‫‪-3‬‬
‫م‪ٞ‬ف‪ٞ‬خ رغ‪ٞٞ‬ش أداء اىذٗائش اإلىنزشّٗ‪ٞ‬خ ػِ طش‪ٝ‬ق رغ‪ٞٞ‬ش ق‪ ٌٞ‬اىَنّ٘بد داخو اىذائشح‪.‬‬ ‫‪-4‬‬
Basic Safety Rules

NEVER WORK ALONE

1- If you are working with a power supply of 50 volts peak, there should be at least one
other person could see and hear you.
2- Remove your conductive watch or chains, finger rings, wrist etc., and do not use
metallic pens, metallic rulers.
3- Work slowly and carefully.
4- Connect the circuit to the power source LASTLY.
5- If you are working with capacitor, wait a few seconds for capacitors to discharge.
These steps will also help prevent damage to circuits.
6- Do not disturb wires by rotating equipment, or on the floor.
7- Use one hand only to work with inductive circuit and turn your face away to avoid
danger from any arc which may occur across the switch terminals.
8- All conducting surfaces should be grounded and connected together.

‫قواعد السالمة األساسية‬

‫خ قجو اىجذأ ٗاصْبء اىششٗع ثبىؼَو‬ٞ‫ ارجبع اىخط٘اد اىزبى‬ٚ‫شع‬ٝ .ً‫ اىَخزجش ثَفشدٓ اثذا‬ٜ‫سَح ىيطبىت اىؼَو ف‬ٝ‫ال‬
ْٔ‫َن‬ٝ ‫ األقو‬ٚ‫نُ٘ ْٕبك شخص ٗاحذ ػي‬ٝ ُ‫غت أ‬ٞ‫ ف‬، ‫ ف٘ىذ‬05 ٚ‫صو إى‬ٝ ‫إرا مْذ رؼَو ٍغ ٍصذس طبقخ‬ -1
.‫زل ٗسَبػل‬ٝ‫سؤ‬
‫خ‬ّٞ‫ ٗال رسزخذً األقالً اىَؼذ‬،‫ رىل‬ٚ‫ ٍٗب إى‬،ٌ‫ ٗاىَؼص‬،‫ ٗخ٘ارٌ اإلصجغ‬،‫أصه سبػزل أٗ سالسيل اىَ٘صيخ‬ -2
‫خ‬ّٞ‫ٗاىَسبطش اىَؼذ‬
.‫خ‬ٝ‫اىؼَو ثجظء ٗ ثؼْب‬ -3
.‫شا‬ٞ‫و اىذائشح ثَصذس اىطبقخ اخ‬ٞ‫قٌ ثز٘ص‬ -4
ٜ‫ضًب ف‬ٝ‫ سزسبػذ ٕزٓ اىخط٘اد أ‬.‫ رفشؽ شحْزٖب‬ٚ‫غت االّزظبس ثضغ ص٘اُ حز‬ٞ‫ ف‬،‫إرا مْذ رؼَو ٍغ ٍزسؼخ‬ -5
.‫ٍْغ ريف اىذٗائش‬
.‫ األسض‬ٚ‫ال ريف األسالك ح٘ه اىَؼذاد اٗ رزشمٖب رصو اى‬ -6
‫حذس‬ٝ ‫ ق٘ط قذ‬ٛ‫ذًا ىزغْت اىخطش ٍِ أ‬ٞ‫ل فقظ ىيؼَو ٍغ اىذائشح اىَحزضخ ٗادس ٗعٖل ثؼ‬ٝ‫ذ‬ٝ ٙ‫اسزخذً إحذ‬ -7
.‫ػجش أطشاف اىَح٘الد‬
.‫غ األسطح اىَ٘صيخ ٍؤسضخ ٍٗزصيخ ٍؼًب‬َٞ‫غت أُ رنُ٘ ع‬ٝ -8
References
1- James M. Fiore,
Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application, Laboratory Manual, 2018.

2- Guido Mueller and Andrew Rinzler,

Laboratory Physics I, Electronic Lab, Experiments and Instructions, Department
of Physics, University of Florida, 2015.

3- R. Bhakkiya Lakshmi et al.,

EC1009 Electron Devices Lab Laboratory Manual, Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, SRM University, 2015.
 Contents
Experiment Experiment Name page
Number number
Introduction
Experiment No.1 Electronic components & Analog
and Digital Signals
Experiment No.2 (V – I) Characteristics of P-N
Junction Diodes
Experiment No.3 Half-Wave Rectifier
Experiment No.4 Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier
Experiment No: 5 Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
(FWBR)
Experiment No.6 Smoothing Half-Wave Rectifier
Output
Experiment No.7 Smoothing Full-Wave Rectifier
Experiment No.8 Zener Diode
 Winter Semester / 2020-2021 Electronics-Lab-I Department of Physics
Dr. Emad H. Hussein College of Science

‫تستخدم الغراض علمية فقط وال يسمح بتداولها في مكاتب االستنساخ‬

Winter Semester (2020-2021) / 3rd Grade

Experiment No.1:

Electronic components & Analog and Digital Signals

Instructors: Mr. Safaa Al-Waely, Eng. Mrs. Amani A.kamel, Mr. Ali M. Jabbar, Mrs. Shaymaa h. kafi
Advisor: Dr. Emad H. Hussein

The purposes:

1- Review of electronic components and equipment.

2- Characteristics of Analog and Digital Signals.

Fast Review of Electronic components and Instruments

1- Resistors

1
2- Capacitors

2
3- Transistors

3
4- Breadboard

1-
2-
3-
4-

5- Avometer

4
6- Oscilloscop

5
6
7
Now how to draw a sine wave and calculate its frequency (f) and peak voltage (Vp)

where :

: the wave frequency.

: the time period of the wave.
Vp : the voltage level measured from ground level to the peak.
8
Experiments and Calculations

(A) Sinusoidal wave

1- Connect the circuit shown below.

2- Switch the wave function generator to a sinusoidal wave.
3- Draw the sinusoidal wave.
4- Determine the input peak-to peak voltage (VP-P).
5- Calculate the frequency of the wave (f).
6- Measure the input current (Iin), output current (IL), input voltage (Vin), and output voltage
(VL) using an avometer (AVO).
7- Compare your measurements between that obtained by OSC and AVO.
8- Discuss your results.

(B) Shifted-up and Shifted-down Sinusoidal wave

1- Connect the circuit shown above.
2- Switch the wave function generator to a sinusoidal wave.
3- Shift up slightly the wave.
4- Draw the sinusoidal wave.
5- Determine the input peak-to peak voltage (VP-P).
6- Calculate the shift of the peak voltage.
7- Shift down the peak slightly and repeat the points 4 to 6.
8- Discuss your results.

(C) Rectangular wave

1- Switch the wave function generator to a rectangular wave.
2- Draw the wave.
3- Determine the peak-to peak voltage.
4- Calculate the frequency of the wave.
5- Discuss your results.
9
(D) Sawtooth wave
1- Switch the wave function generator to a sawtooth wave.
2- Draw the wave.
3- Determine the peak-to peak voltage.
4- Calculate the frequency of the wave.
5- Discuss your results.

10
 Electronics Lab. Physics Department
Dr. Emad H. Hussein College of Science

‫تستخدم الغراض علمية فقط وال يسمح بتداولها في مكاتب االستنساخ‬

Winter Semester (2020-2021) / 3rd Grade

Experiment No: 2

(V – I) Characteristics of P-N Junction Diodes

Instructors: Mr. Safaa Al-Waely, Eng. Mrs. Amani, Mr. Ali M. Jabbar, Mrs. Shaymaa h. kafi
Advisor: Dr. Emad H. Hussein

Objective
1- Plotting V-I characteristics of silicon and germanium P-N Junction diodes.
2- Finding built-in- voltage for the diodes.
3- Calculating series and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biases.
4- Calculating quality factor of diodes.
Components
Name Specifications
1N4001 (Si) PIV : 50 V
Forward current: 1 A
1N4002 (Si) PIV : 100 V
Forward current: 1 A
1N34A (Ge) PIV : 45 V
Reverse Voltage: 20 VDC
Forward current: 150 mA
Resistor 1 kΩ

Equipment
Name Specifications
Breadboard / Circuit Panel
Regulated power supply 0-30 V / Forward current: 1 A
Digital Ammeter 200 mA
Digital Voltmeter 20 V
Connecting Wires
 Theory
A diode is a common semiconductor device formed by constructing P and N type materials.
The construction is then call a PN junction diode. Diode is uni-directional devices, since it delivers
current in one direction only. Therefore, this diode is represented in electronic circuit as below.

In order to reach acceptable conductivity, the diode is usually doped with a suitable
impurities. Donor impurities are added into one-side and acceptor impurities into the other side of
an intrinsic semiconductor. The charge carriers is depleted off forming a depletion region. This
region causes a potential barrier called built-in voltage , which presents across the PN junction.
This type of diode can be biased by two methods.

1- Forward Bias
This method is satisfied by connecting the positive terminal of the source to the PN junction
anode and the negative terminal is connected the cathode. The height of the potential barrier is
decreased by an amount of the given forward voltage. The holes in P-side and electrons in N-side
would cross the junction simultaneously and oppositely. As the forward current flowing through the
diode increases, the resistance decreases, making the diode as closed switch.

Fig. 1. Forward biased diode

2- Reverse Bias
When the negative terminal of the source is connected to the anode of the diode and the
positive terminal is connected to cathode, then the diode is referred to as reverse biased. The
height of the potential barrier will decrease by an amount of reverse voltage. Both the holes in P-
side and electrons in N-side would move away from the junction, leading to increasing the depleted
region width. Nevertheless, a small current called reverse saturation current could oppositely flow
in the diode. As this current is often so small, the diode is acted by an opened switch.
 Fig. 2. Reverse biased diode
The volt-ampere (V-I) characteristics of a diode is represented by the following equations

[ ]

where is the current passing in the diode, is reverse saturation current, is the applied
voltage, is the thermal voltage, which is equal to 26 mV at room temperature, and is the
quality factor of the diode. This equation can be represented in characteristics for Si diode
shown below

Fig. 3. V-I Characteristics of Si diode

From this graph, the series resistance of diode can be calculated. The dynamic resistance of a diode
is determined by

The Ideality Factor (n)

The ideality factor, n, is a measure for the quality of semiconductor device, depending on the
fabrication process. Its value varies between 1 and 2. For voltages less than about 0.5 V, n ~ 2; for
higher voltages, n ~ 1. It can readily be found from the slope of semi-log V-I characteristics.
 Fig. 4. Semi-log V-I Characteristics of Si diode

Procedure
A- Forward Bias

1- Connect the circuit shown in the Fig.1, using Si diode.

2- Vary the power supply so that the voltage across the diode changes from 0 to 0.7 V with
step of 0.1 V, and with step of 0.05 V from 0.7 to 1.0 V.
3- Record the current passing through the diode corresponds to each value of .
4- Repeat the above steps using Ge diode.
5- Increase the voltage across the diode so that it should be varied from 0.1 to 0.5 V in step
of 0.05 V.
B- Reverse Bias
1- Connect the circuit shown in Fig.2.
2- Change the power supply voltage so that the voltage across the diode will vary from 0 to
10V with step of 1V.
3- Record the current passing through the diode corresponds to each value of .
4- Repeat the above steps using Ge diode.

Calculations

1- Plot the relationship between the voltage across the diode and the current flowing through
the diode in forward and reverse bias, for Silicon and Germanium diodes.
2- Calculate the built-in-voltage ( ).
3- Calculate the series resistance from the slope of .
 4- Calculate dynamic resistance of each diode in forward and reverse bias:
.

5- Calculate quality factor for every diode.

Discussion

1- How is a PN junction diode represented as a switch?

2- What is the value of at room temperature?
3- What is the diode operation under no bias?
4- What does small-value quality factor mean to you?
 Electronics Lab. Physics Department
Dr. Emad H. Hussein College of Science

‫تستخدم الغراض علمية فقط وال يسمح بتداولها في مكاتب االستنساخ‬

Winter Semester (2020-2021) / 3rd Grade

Experiment No: 3

Half-Wave Rectifier
Instructors: Mr. Safaa Al-Waely, Eng. Mrs. Amani, Mr. Ali M. Jabbar, Mrs. Shaymaa h. kafi
Advisor: Dr. Emad H. Hussein

Objective
1- Plotting input and output waveforms of a half-wave rectifier.
2- Finding ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier.
Components
Name Specifications
Diode PIV : 50 V
1N4001 (Si) Forward current: 1 A

Resistors 1 kΩ, 500 Ω, 100 Ω

Equipment
Name Specifications
Breadboard / Circuit Panel
AC Power Supply 0-30 V
Or
Step-down Transformer 220V to 12 V
Digital Ammeter 200 mA
Digital Voltmeter 30 V
Connecting Wires

Theory

Since a PN-junction diode allows the current to pass in one direction from anode to cathode,
the diode can thus be used to rectify AC signals. The half-wave rectifier circuit is shown in Fig.1.
 Electronics Lab. Physics Department
Dr. Emad H. Hussein College of Science

Fig. 1. Half-wave rectifier circuit

Conversion of an AC wave to a DC wave is called rectification. In the electronic circuit shown in

Fig. 1, the diode is forward biased during positive half cycle, and it conducts a current through the
load resistor R1 (Fig. 2). The positive half cycle wave is then presenting at the cathode of the diode
designated by Vout-2, which is across resistor R1. During the reverse bias, no current will flow
through the circuit. Therefore, the negative-half cycle could not appear across the load. Since the
wave recurs itself, the positive half cycles will only be seen on the output Vout-2.

Fig. 2. Half-wave rectifier waveforms

The DC voltage at the output Vout-2 is given by

where is the built in voltage. Furthermore, the DC current passing through can be calculated
as

Also, the root-mean-square voltage measured by a voltmeter is given by

 Electronics Lab. Physics Department
Dr. Emad H. Hussein College of Science

Then, the ripple factor (R.F), which is defined as the ratio of value of the ripple voltage to the
absolute value of the DC component of the output voltage, can be given by

√( ) (1)

√( )
√

√( )
√

If one uses a voltmeter, the ripple factor is then given by

(2)
Procedure

1- Connect the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1 so that CH1 and CH2 inputs of the
oscilloscope are connected to Vout-1 and Vout-2, respectively.
2- Measure Vout-2 by a voltmeter.
3- Plot the AC input voltage of the rectifier and measure its frequency.
4- Plot the DC output voltage of the rectifier.
5- Plot the DC output current of the rectifier.
6- Change the load to 0.5 kΩ and repeat the steps 2 through 4.
7- Change the load to 100 Ω and repeat the steps 2 through 4.

Calculations
1- Calculate ripple factor using Eq. 1. And Eq. 2.
2- Arrange a table including all the measured parameters according to .

Discussion
1- Compare among the values of R.F.
2- Why the value of is different from the current passes through .
3- Discuss your results stating the error sources.
 Electronics Lab. Physics Department
Dr. Emad H. Hussein College of Science

‫تستخدم الغراض علمية فقط وال يسمح بتداولها في مكاتب االستنساخ‬

Winter Semester (2020-2021) / 3rd Grade

Experiment No: 4

Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

Instructors: Mr. Safaa Al-Waely, Eng. Mrs. Amani, Mr. Ali M. Jabbar, Mrs. Shaymaa …..
Advisor: Dr. Emad H. Hussein

Objective
1- Plotting input and output waveforms of a full-wave rectifier.
2- Finding ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier.
Components
Name Specifications
Diode PIV : 50 V
1N4001 (Si) Forward current: 1 A

Resistors 1 kΩ, 500 Ω, 100 Ω

Equipment
Name Specifications
Bread board / Circuit Panel
AC Power Supply 0-30 V
Or
Step-down Transformer 220V to 12 V
Digital Ammeter 200 mA
Digital Voltmeter 30 V
Connecting Wires

Theory

The electric transformer has always two coils: primary and secondary. One type of the electric
transformer is called a center-tapped transformer (CTF). In such transformer, the input electric AC
voltage is applied to the primary coil, and the output voltage is taken from the secondary coil. Two
types of CTF are available: step-down, in which the output voltage is less than the input voltage,
and step-up transformer by which the output voltage is raised to some amount of the input voltage.
This happens according to turn ratio of the transformer, that is, if the number of secondary turns is
less than that of primary coil, then a step-down transform (SDT) is produced. As shown in Fig. 1, in
SDT, for example, a 220 Vac can be transformed to a 12 Vac at the whole secondary coil, or 6 Vac
at each terminal with the center tap terminal (C.T.).

Fig. 1. Step-down center-tapped transformer

To form the connections required for the center-tapped full-wave rectifier circuit, one has to
connect the circuit shown in Fig. 2, considering the C.T. terminal is grounded.

Fig. 2. Center-tapped full-wave rectifier circuit.

Note that the current path starting from point C to D passing through diode and resistor
is the same as already seen in the half-wave rectifier. In the second tap of the secondary coil, the
same path is also seen starting from point E, point F to point D through resistor .

Circuit operation

We restrict our experiment is only to a step-down transformer. The output of the transformer,
e.g. 12 Vac, is divided between it two taps, each has 6 Vac, and this voltage acts an input fed to the
circuit. During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage (0 - π), diode is forward biased and
diode is reverse biased. Therefore, on point F, the positive-half cycle presents, and the current
will pass through resistor to point D. It is seen in Fig. 3 that the positive-half cycle is less than
the input voltage by . When the wave changes to negative (π - 2π), diode is forward biased
and diode is reverse biased. This part of the input wave will present as a positive cycle on the
load. Because the area under the curve of the full-wave rectifier signal is twice that of the half-
wave rectifier, the average or dc value of the full-wave rectified signal, Vdc, is twice that of the
half-wave rectifier.

Fig. 3. Full-wave rectifier waveforms

The DC voltage at the output Vout is given by

where is the built in voltage. Furthermore, the DC current passing through can be calculated
as

Also, the root-mean-square voltage measured by a voltmeter is given by

Then, the ripple factor (R.F), which is defined as the ratio of value of the ripple voltage to the
absolute value of the DC component of the output voltage, can be given by
 √( ) (1)

√
√( )

√( )
√

If one uses a voltmeter, the ripple factor is then given by

(2)
Procedure

1- Connect the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2. Consider point C as ground.

2- Connect CH1 of the oscilloscope between point C and D, and CH2 to the load.
3- Measure Vout by a voltmeter.
4- Plot the AC input voltage of the rectifier and measure its frequency.
5- Plot the DC output voltage of the rectifier.
6- Change the load to 0.5 kΩ and repeat steps 3 through 5.
7- Change the load to 100 Ω and repeat steps 3 through 5.

Calculations
1- Calculate ripple factor using Eq. 1. And Eq. 2.
2- Arrange a table including all the measured parameters according to .

Discussion
1- Compare among the values of R.F.
2- Discuss your results stating the error sources.
 Electronics Lab. Department of Physics
Dr. Emad H. Hussein College of Science

‫تستخدم الغراض علمية فقط وال يسمح بتداولها في مكاتب االستنساخ‬

Winter Semester (2020-2021) / 3rd Grade

Experiment No: 5

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier (FWBR)

Instructors: Mr. Safaa Al-Waely, Eng. Mrs. Amani, Mr. Ali M. Jabbar, Mrs. Shaymaa h. kafi
Advisor: Dr. Emad H. Hussein

Objective
1- Plotting input and output waveforms of a full-wave bridge rectifier.
2- Finding ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier.
Components
Name Specifications
Diode PIV : 50 V
1N4001 (Si) Forward current: 1 A
Resistors 1 kΩ, 500 Ω, 100 Ω

Equipment
Name Specifications
Bread board / Circuit Panel
AC Power Supply 0-30 V
Or
Step-down Transformer 220V to 12 V
Digital Ammeter 200 mA
Digital Voltmeter 30 V
Connecting Wires

Circuit operation
As shown in Fig. 1, the FWBR circuit is composed of four diodes connected in a bridge with
no need for a center-tap transformer. Diodes and conduct the current during the positive
half-cycles of the voltage, whereas diode and become conducting during the negative half
cycles.

Fig. 1. Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.

During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage (0 - π), diodes and are forward
biased and diodes and are reverse biased. Therefore, on point B, the positive-half cycle
presents, and the current will pass through resistor and diode to point C. It is seen in Fig. 3
that the positive-half cycle is less than the input voltage by . When the input wave changes to the
negative half (π - 2π), diodes and are forward biased and diodes and become then
reverse biased. This part of the input wave will present as a positive cycle on the load. The current
path starts from point A through diode , resistor and diode to point C. Because the area
under the curve of the full-wave rectifier signal is twice that of the half-wave rectifier, the average
or DC value of the full-wave rectified signal, Vdc, is twice that of the half-wave rectifier.
 Fig. 3. Full-wave bridge rectifier waveforms
The DC voltage at the output is given by

where is the built-in voltage. Also, the DC current passing through can be calculated by

When the output voltage is measured by a voltmeter, the root-mean-square voltage must satisfy

In FWBR, the frequency of the rectified output seen on the load is twice the input frequency ,
that is

The ripple factor (R.F.), which is defined as the ratio of value of the ripple voltage to the
absolute value of the DC component of the output voltage, can be given by

√( ) (1)
 √
√( )

√( )
√

If one uses a voltmeter, the ripple factor is then given by

(2)
Peak Inverse Voltage
If one of the diodes is reverse biased, the peak voltage across that diode will be
approximately equal to . Thus the cathode of will be at as well as that of . By applying
a reverse bias, the total voltage across both diodes is . Therefore, the maximum reverse voltage
will be twice the peak load voltage, .

Procedure
1- Connect the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2. Consider point D as ground.
2- Connect CH1 of the oscilloscope between point A and C, and CH2 to the load.
3- Measure by a voltmeter.
4- Plot the AC input voltage of the rectifier and measure its frequency.
5- Plot the DC output voltage of the rectifier.
6- Change the load to 0.5 kΩ and repeat steps 3 through 5.
7- Change the load to 100 Ω and repeat steps 3 through 5.

Calculations
1- Calculate ripple factor using Eq. 1. And Eq. 2.
2- Arrange a table including all the measured parameters according to .

Discussion
1- Compare among the values of R.F.
2- Discuss your results stating the error sources.
Winter Semester / 2020-2021 Electronics-Lab-I Department of Physics
Dr. Emad Aljaberi College of Science

‫تستخدم الغراض علمية فقط وال يسمح بتداولها في مكاتب االستنساخ‬

Winter Semester (2020-2021) / 3rd Grade

Experiment No: 6

Smoothing Half-Wave Rectifier Output

Instructors: Mr. Safaa Al-Waely, Eng. Mrs. Amani, Mr. Ali M. Jabbar, Mrs. Shaymaa …..
Advisor: Dr. Emad H. Hussein

Objective
1- Smoothing output waveform of a half-wave rectifier.
2- Reducing ripple in the output.
Components
Name Specifications
Diode PIV : 50 V
1N4001 (Si) Forward current: 1 A
Resistors 5 to 10 kΩ
Capacitor 100 µF

Equipment
Name Specifications
Bread board / Circuit Panel
AC Power Supply 0-30 V
Or
Step-down Transformer 220V to 12 V
Digital Ammeter 200 mA
Digital Voltmeter 30 V
Connecting Wires

Circuit operation of filtered HWR

Smoothing component include capacitors or inductors connected in the rectifier circuits to
improve the average DC output and reducing the AC ripple voltage at the rectified output. A
capacitor is connected in parallel with the load resistance across the output. Figure 1 shows the
electronic circuit of full-wave rectifier using a capacitor as a filter.

Fig. 1. Filtered half-wave rectifier circuit.

During the positive quarter-cycle of the output voltage (0 – π/2), the diode conducts
allowing the capacitor is charged to the peak voltage of the output . When the peak
voltage start to drop, (π/2 - π), the capacitor will discharge through the load with a time
determined by the RC time constant of the circuit.

Fig. 2. Filtered half-wave rectifier waveforms.

 During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage (π - 2 π), the capacitor still discharges
through the load. But it starts charging again when (2π – 5/2 π) because the input voltage is
greater than the voltage of the capacitor. This process is repeated every two cycles producing the
output wave shown in Fig. 2.
The ripple factor can be reduced using a filter capacitor. For a half wave rectifier with filter
capacitor, ripple factor is given by
(1)
√

where is the frequency of DC voltage which in this case is same as that of AC source.

Procedure
1- Connect the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1.
2- Connect CH1 of the oscilloscope to , and CH2 to the load.
3- Plot the voltage waves and .
4- Measure the DC output voltage of the rectifier using a voltmeter.
5- Change the capacitor to 200 µF and 50 µF and repeat steps 3 through 4.
Calculations
Calculate the ripple factor
Procedure
1- Connect the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1.
2- Connect CH1 of the oscilloscope to , and CH2 to the load.
3- Plot the voltage waves and .
4- Measure the DC output voltage of the rectifier using a voltmeter.
5- Change the capacitor to 200 µF and 50 µF and repeat steps 3 through 4.

Calculations
Calculate the ripple factor R.F.
Discussion
1- Compare among the values of R.F.
2- Discuss your results stating the error sources.
Winter Semester / 2020-2021 Electronics-Lab-I Department of Physics
Dr. Emad Aljaberi College of Science

‫تستخدم الغراض علمية فقط وال يسمح بتداولها في مكاتب االستنساخ‬

Winter Semester (2020-2021) / 3rd Grade

Experiment No: 7

Smoothing Full-Wave Rectifier Output

Instructors: Mr. Safaa Al-Waely, Eng. Mrs. Amani, Mr. Ali M. Jabbar, Mrs. Shaymaa h. kafi
Advisor: Dr. Emad H. Hussein

Objective
1- Smoothing output waveform of a full-wave rectifier.
2- Reducing ripple in the output.
Components
Name Specifications
Diode PIV : 50 V
1N4001 (Si) Forward current: 1 A
Resistors 5 to 10 kΩ
Capacitor 100 µF

Equipment
Name Specifications
Bread board / Circuit Panel
AC Power Supply 0-30 V
Or
Step-down Transformer 220V to 12 V
Digital Ammeter 200 mA
Digital Voltmeter 30 V
Connecting Wires

Circuit operation of filtered FWR

As has been demonstrated in the previous experiment, smoothing capacitor can be
connected in parallel with the load resistance across the output. Figure 1 shows the electronic
circuit of full-wave rectifier using a capacitor as a filter.
 Fig. 1. Filtered full-wave rectifier circuit.

The filtration process is described as follows:

During the positive quarter-cycle (0 – π/2) of the voltage wave entered to the filter circuit,
the capacitor is charged to the peak voltage of the output . When the peak voltage start to
drop, (π/2 - π), the capacitor will discharge through the load with a time determined by the
RC time constant of the circuit.

Fig. 2. Filtered full-wave rectifier waveforms

 During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage (π - 2 π), the capacitor still discharges
through the load. But it starts charging again when (2π – 5/2 π) because the input voltage is
greater than the voltage of the capacitor. This process is repeated every two cycles producing the
output wave shown in Fig. 2.
The ripple factor can be reduced using a filter capacitor. For a half wave rectifier with filter
capacitor, ripple factor is given by
(1)
√

where is the frequency of DC voltage which in this case is doubled AC source.

Procedure
1- Connect the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1.
2- Connect CH1 of the oscilloscope to , and CH2 to the load.
3- Plot the voltage waves and .
4- Measure the DC output voltage of the rectifier using a voltmeter.
5- Change the capacitor to 200 µF and 50 µF and repeat steps 3 through 4.
Calculations
Calculate the ripple factor .
Discussion
1- Compare among the values of R.F.
2- Discuss your results stating the error sources.
Winter Semester / 2020-2021 Electronics-Lab-I Department of Physics
Dr. Emad H. Hussein College of Science

‫تستخدم الغراض علمية فقط وال يسمح بتداولها في مكاتب االستنساخ‬

Winter Semester (2020-2021) / 3rd Grade

Experiment No: 8

Zener Diode
Instructors: Mr. Safaa Al-Waely, Eng. Mrs. Amani, Mr. Ali M. Jabbar, Mrs. Shaymaa h. kafi
Advisor: Dr. Emad H. Hussein

Objective
1- Study of I-V characteristics of zener diode.
2- Using a zener diode as voltage regulator.

Components
Name Specifications
Zener Diode Vz = 5.1 V
1N4735A/ FZ 5.1
Or
IZ 6.2
Resistors 0.5, 1, 5 and 10 kΩ

Equipment
Name Specifications
Bread board / Circuit Panel
AC Power Supply 0-30 V
Digital Ammeter 200 mA
Digital Voltmeter 30 V
Connecting Wires
Theory
The zener diode is fabricated with a heavily doped Silicon diode. It conducts excellently in
reverse biased condition. This diode operates at a precise value of voltage called break down
voltage. When a Zener diode is forward biased, it behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode.
But when it is revers biased, it can undergo avalanche break down or zener break down.

Avalanche Break down

When p-region and n-region of a diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction will
broaden. If a very large electric field applied to the junction, the kinetic energy of the charge
carriers increases which collides with the adjacent atoms producing charge carriers by breaking
the bonds. This process results in large current causing avalanche breakdown.
Zener Diode Break down
When p-region and n-region of a diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction will
reduce. This setup a very strong electric field at a small voltage producing large number of charge
carriers by breaking the covalent bonds. The sudden increase in charge carriers causes Zener break
down.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

The voltage regulator consisting of zener diode is shown in Fig. 1. The current flowing
through the zener diode increases to the maximum circuit value (I) determined by

Where I is the sum of the zener current and the load current . The voltage across the zener
diode becomes stable and is called the “zener voltage”, (Vz), which is for example, 5.1V or 6.2V.
This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line. However, when
the input voltage increases, the current increases causing a decrease in the output voltage.

Fig. 1. Electronic circuit of Zener-diode voltage regulator.

Procedure
A: Forward I-V characteristics of zener diode
1- Connect the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2.
 Fig. 2. Electronic circuit of forward-biased Zener diode.

2- Increase Vin from 0 to 2 V by steps of 0.1 V, and record the current IF.

B: Reverse I-V characteristics of zener diode

1- Connect the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Electronic circuit of reversed-biased Zener diode.

2- Increase Vin from 0 to 10 V by steps of 0.2 V and record the current.

C: Zener diode as a voltage regulator

1- Connect the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Zener diode as voltage regulator.

2- Calculate the current passes through the input resistance

3- Increase Vin from 0 to 10 V by steps of 1 V and record Vout.
 4- Change the load resistor and fill in the below table.

Calculations
1- Plot I-V characteristics of zener diode, which should be like Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. V-I Characteristics of zener diode

2- Plot the relationship between Vin and Vout of the regulator for every load resistance, as
shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. The relationship between Vin and Vout of zener diode at a certain load.

Discussion
1- What is the difference between p-n Junction diode and zener diode?
2- What is break down voltage?
3- Discuss your results stating the error sources.