Introduction

Society is like a team where everyone contributes, and we achieve more together than alone. While media
often shows achievements as individual successes, they usually happen because of the support of society.
However, not everyone gets the same chance to succeed. Societies are organized unequally, creating a
system called social stratification, where people are ranked in a hierarchy. This leads to inequality
between groups based on class, gender, age, and ethnicity.

1. What is Social Stratification?

Social stratification refers to the way societies rank people in layers, like a ladder. These layers, or strata,
determine people’s access to opportunities and resources.

 Social Differentiation vs. Stratification

In early societies, roles like hunting or gathering was divided among group members. This
division, called social differentiation, didn’t imply that some roles were better than others.
However, as societies became more complex, differentiation turned into stratification, with some
roles becoming more powerful or valuable.

Open and Closed Societies

o In an open society, people can move up or down the hierarchy through education or
effort. Modern industrial societies often have this feature.
o In a closed society, roles and statuses are fixed from birth. For example, traditional caste
systems prevent individuals from changing their social position.
 Forms of Stratification
Stratification can occur based on class, gender, age, or ethnicity. Often, these overlap, making it
hard to pinpoint which factor affects someone’s status most.

2. Achieved and Ascribed Status

Statuses can be:

 Ascribed: Given at birth, like age, gender, or ethnicity. These are common in closed societies.
 Achieved: Earned through effort, such as becoming a teacher or an athlete. These are typical in
open societies.

For example, in traditional societies, older adults often gain respect and authority, while in modern
societies; retirement can lead to a loss of status.

3. Poverty

Poverty means not having enough resources to live a decent life. There are two main types of poverty:

 Absolute poverty: This is when people don’t have the basic necessities of life, such as food,
clean drinking water, proper sanitation, shelter, and access to healthcare or education. For
example, someone living on less than $2.15 a day, as defined by the World Bank, is considered to
be in absolute poverty. This kind of poverty is more common in developing countries, especially
in parts of South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.
  Relative poverty: This is measured by comparing someone’s income and resources to the
average standard of living in their society. For example, a person in the UK may have enough to
eat but might still be considered poor if they don’t have things like internet access, which is
necessary for education or work.

Poverty often creates a cycle. This cycle of poverty means that families remain poor for generations
because they don’t have the opportunities or resources to escape. For example, a child born into poverty
might not do well in school because they lack proper food or a quiet place to study. Without good
qualifications, it becomes harder for them to get a well-paying job later, keeping them in poverty as
adults.

Another concept linked to poverty is the poverty trap, which happens when being poor forces people to
spend more money than they would if they weren’t poor. For example:

 Poor people might have to shop at expensive local stores because they can’t afford to travel to
cheaper supermarkets.
 They might live in homes that aren’t insulated, so they pay more for heating.
 If they borrow money, it’s often from lenders who charge very high interest rates.

Poverty doesn’t just happen because someone is lazy or unmotivated. Many people living in poverty face
disadvantages like lack of education, illness, or discrimination. Some sociologists talk about the culture
of poverty, which is the idea that people in poverty develop certain habits, like focusing on short-term
needs instead of planning for the future. While this can be true in some cases, critics argue it unfairly
blames poor people for their situation instead of addressing the real problems they face.

4. Wealth

Wealth means having valuable things that can generate money or improve your life. Unlike income (the
money you earn), wealth includes assets you own, like houses, land, stocks, and even art or jewelry.
Wealth often grows over time and can be passed down to future generations, giving some families a big
advantage in life.

Some forms of wealth also create more wealth. For example:

 If you own shares in a company, you can earn money from dividends.
 If you own a valuable painting or property, its value might increase over time, allowing you to
sell it for a profit later.

In many societies, there is a large gap between the rich and the poor. For instance, in developing
countries like India, billionaires live in luxury while millions live in slums. This gap can create big
differences in quality of life.

Globally, wealth is often controlled by a small group of very powerful people. Sociologist Leslie Sklair
identified a group called the transnational capitalist class, which includes:

 Owners of large corporations.

 Politicians and global leaders.
 Professionals and consumer elites (like celebrities or media figures).
This group benefits from a system that lets them easily move money and assets across countries, often
avoiding taxes and keeping their wealth hidden.

Wealth also creates social class divisions, with the upper class enjoying privileges that others can’t
access. For example, they can afford private education, expensive healthcare, and luxury lifestyles, which
keep them at the top of the social hierarchy.

At the same time, people in more developed countries may not feel wealthy, but they often have things
like savings accounts, pensions, or valuable household goods like cars and computers. These are forms of
wealth that can make a big difference compared to those living in poverty.

Understanding how wealth works helps us see why some people have more opportunities than others and
why the gap between the rich and poor matters.

5. Power

Power is the ability to influence or control what happens, even if others don’t agree. People with power
can shape decisions and outcomes in society, while those without it often struggle to make their voices
heard.

 Sources of Power
Power can come from different places, such as:
o Occupation: Police officers, judges, and managers have authority because of their jobs.
o Status: A person’s gender, age, ethnicity, or social class can give them power. For
example, men often have more influence than women in patriarchal societies.
o Government: Politicians and lawmakers can create policies and pass laws that directly
impact people’s lives.
 How Power is Used
Power can be exercised in visible ways, like using force or legal consequences. For example,
employers may threaten to fire someone who doesn’t follow rules.
Power can also be less obvious, like withholding information or manipulating situations to
maintain control.
 Social Exclusion
People without power may experience social exclusion, where they are left out of opportunities,
resources, and rights that others enjoy. For instance, minority groups or the poor may lack access
to good education, healthcare, or jobs.

Even people without power can resist and create change, especially when they work together. For
example:

 Workers can form trade unions to demand better wages or conditions.

 Social movements like Black Lives Matter use collective action to challenge inequality and fight
for justice.

6. Social Mobility

Social mobility refers to the movement of people up or down the social hierarchy. This mobility
determines whether someone’s social class changes during their lifetime or across generations.
  Types of Social Mobility
o Upward mobility: Moving to a higher social class, like a working-class child becoming
a doctor.
o Downward mobility: Falling into a lower class, such as someone losing their job and
income.
o Intergenerational mobility: When children achieve a different class than their parents.
o Intragenerational mobility: When someone changes class during their lifetime.
 Factors that Affect Mobility
Social mobility is easier in open societies, where education, effort, and luck can help people
move up. For example, getting a degree or winning the lottery might lead to upward mobility.
In closed societies, like those with a caste system, mobility is very limited because roles are fixed
from birth.
 Challenges to Mobility
Most mobility tends to be short-range. For example, someone might move from the top of the
working class to the lower middle class, but it’s rare to see a jump from the very bottom to the
very top.
Sociologists have different views on mobility:
o Marxists believe mobility acts as a safety valve, giving people the illusion of fairness
and preventing rebellion against inequality.
o Functionalists think mobility reflects talent and effort, though critics argue this
overlooks systemic barriers like discrimination or lack of access to resources.

7. Meritocracy

A meritocracy is a system where success depends on talent, ability, and hard work. Many modern
societies claim to be meritocratic, where everyone supposedly has equal opportunities to achieve their
goals.

 How Meritocracy Works

In a meritocracy, education and employment systems are designed to reward those who work
hard, regardless of their background. For example, a child from a poor family can achieve a high-
paying job if they perform well in school and university.
 Problems with Meritocracy
While the idea sounds fair, there are two major problems:
1. Meritocracies reward those who already have advantages. For example, children from
wealthy families can afford better schools, private tutors, and extracurricular activities,
giving them a head start over others.
2. True equality of opportunity doesn’t exist. People from disadvantaged backgrounds
often face systemic barriers, like underfunded schools or discrimination, that makes it
harder for them to succeed.
 The Reality of Inequality
Some sociologists argue that meritocracies are unfair because they punish people who lack
certain abilities or resources through no fault of their own. For example, a society that values only
academic achievement may overlook other talents like creativity or practical skills.

In reality, many so-called meritocracies are influenced by wealth and privilege. Wealthy families can pass
on their advantages to their children, making it harder for others to compete on an equal footing. This
means that the system might not be as fair as it seems.
Understanding meritocracy helps us question whether success truly reflects effort or whether the system
is tilted in favor of those who already have more.

8. Modern Slavery

Modern slavery refers to situations where people are forced to work against their will, treated as property,
or controlled through threats or violence. Although traditional slavery has been abolished in most
countries, modern forms of slavery still exist today.

 Forms of Modern Slavery

1. Debt Bondage: When people borrow money and are forced to work to repay it, but the
wages are so low and interest rates so high that the debt never ends.
2. Human Trafficking: When people are tricked or forced into being moved across borders
to work in unsafe and exploitative conditions.
3. Forced Marriage: When someone is made to marry against their will and is often treated
more like a servant than a family member.

Children and women are often the most affected. For instance, children might be used in hazardous labor,
while women face exploitation through forced marriages or domestic servitude.

In 2022, it was estimated that 40 million people worldwide were living in modern slavery, with 25%
being children and 71% being women.

Modern slavery is often hidden and only comes to light when someone dies or worse, making it difficult
to identify and stop. For example, factories or households may use forced labor, but the abuse is kept out
of sight. Governments and NGOs are working to address this, but it’s a global problem that requires more
action.

9. The Caste System

The caste system is a rigid social hierarchy where people inherit their social status at birth, and this status
cannot be changed. It is a form of stratification often found in closed societies.

 How the Caste System Works

In the traditional Indian caste system, people were divided into groups based on occupation. The
five main castes included:
o Priests and scholars at the top.
o Warriors and rulers below them.
o Merchants and landowners in the middle.
o Servants and laborers near the bottom.
o The “Untouchables,” or Dalits, who were considered outside the caste system and faced
severe discrimination.

Your caste often affected what job you could get, whether you could get an education or other
opportunities. The lower caste for example where excluded from most of these opportunities. They could
not marry outside their caste, reinforcing the system’s rigidity.

 Impact Today
Although India officially abolished the caste system in 1950, its influence remains in many areas
 of life, especially in rural regions. Caste discrimination continues to affect access to education,
jobs, and social respect.

The caste system is an example of a stratification system that prevents social mobility, as people are
locked into their status for life.

10. Intersectionality

Intersectionality is the idea that different forms of inequality—such as class, gender, age, and ethnicity
—often overlap, creating unique experiences of discrimination or privilege.

 How Intersectionality Works

imagine a person who is a young woman from a minority ethnic group. She might face:
o Discrimination because of her ethnicity.
o Gender inequality that limits her opportunities.
o Age-related stereotypes, such as being considered inexperienced.

Each of these factors interacts, creating a more complex experience of inequality than if she faced just
one form of discrimination.

 Examples
o In workplaces, women from ethnic minorities may face a "double disadvantage" because
of both racism and sexism.
o Older people in poverty may struggle more than younger people because they cannot
easily access jobs or retrain for new careers.

Understanding intersectionality helps us see that inequalities are interconnected. By addressing these
overlaps, societies can better tackle systemic issues and create fairer opportunities for everyone.