WAVE OPTICS

c. The new position of the wavefront at any

instant is the envelope of the secondary
wavelet at that instant.
d.
1. Wavefront
The locus of joining the points of which are
vibrating with same amplitude or phase is
called wave front.

Depending on the nature of the source, wave

fronts are at three types:
a. Spherical wavefront
It is produced due to a point source
because all the points on the sphere are
equidistance for a point
source.
b. Cylindrical wave front 3. Reflection and Refraction of Plane Wavefront
The wave fronts produced due to a line
source is cylindrical because all the points on
the cylindrical
wave fronts are equidistance from the axis of
the cylinder.
c. Planar wave front
The wave fronts produced due to a source
either a point or a line situated at ‘  ’ are
planar. Because the rays from the distant
sources are parallel and equidistance from the
source.

NOTE:
(i) A ray of light is ways perpendicular to a wave
front
(ii) The time taken by light to travel from one
wave front to another along any ray is the same.

2. Huygens’ Principle
The postulates of Huygens’ principle are:
a. Each source of light is a centre of
disturbance from which waves spread in all
directions. All particles equidistant from
the source and vibrating in the same phase
lie on the surface known as wavefront.
b. Each point on a wavefront acts as a source
for new wavefront and sending out
disturbance in a similar manner as the
original source of light does.

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4. Laws of Refraction (Snell’s law) on the basis of b. Plane wavefront refracted in rarer medium
Huygens’ Principle Consider a plane wavefront AB incident on an
Huygens’ principle successfully explains the interface PP’ of medium I and medium II. Let
basic phenomena of light, namely refraction μ1 and μ2 be the refractive indices of these
and reflection. media such that μ2 < μ1.
a. When Plane Wave Front Refracted in Denser
Medium

According to Huygens’ principle, every point

AB is an incident wavefront striking the on incident wavefront acts as a source of new
interface XY at point A. Refractive index of wavelets.
median II > refractive index of medium I i.e. Let wavelet reach from B to C in time t with
(μ2>μ1). velocity v1. Then BC = v1t
Let velocity of light in rarer medium be v2, then
Let v1 be speed of light in medium I and v2 be in time t, the distance travelled by wavelet in
the speed in medium II (v2 < v1). According to rarer medium is given by :
Huygens’ principle, every point on incident
wavefront AB acts as a source of disturbance. AE = v2t (note that v2 > v1)
Time in which wavelet reaches from B to C is BC v1
Therefore,  … (i)
given by AD v2
BC In ABC, BC = AC sin i &
t i.e., BC  v1t
v1 In ACE, AE = AC sin r
Let in the same time ‘t’ the refracted ray at A Substituting these values in eqn. (i), we get
moves to D. So, AE = v2t . sin i v1
=
Here CD represents the refracted wave front. sin r v 2
BC v1 v1 c v1 μ 2
Now  …… (i) But = × =
AE v2 v 2 v 2 c μ1
In Δ ABC BC = AC sin i & sin i μ 2
In ACE, AE = AC sin r =
sin r μ1
This above expression represents Snell’s law of
Substituting these values in eqn. (i) we get
refraction.
sin i v1 v1 / c c / v2 c c
   But  1 and  2
sin r v2 v2 / c c / v1 v1 v2
5. Laws of reflection on the basis of Huygens’
sin i  2 Principle
 or
sin r 1 Consider a reflecting surface MN on which a
plane wavefront AB is incident at A. According
μ1 sin i = μ2 sin r, to Huygens’ principle, each point on the
This above expression represents Snell’s law of wavefront AB acts as a source of new
refraction. disturbance.

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 9. Interference of Light
The phenomenon of redistribution of light energy
due to the superposition of two or more light
waves from coherent sources is called
interference of light.

10. Theory of Interference of Light Waves

Consider two monochromatic sources (light)
sending light in all direction let the
According to Huygens’ principle each point on displacement of the wave sending out by two
incident wavefront AB acts as a source of new sources ‘S1’ and ‘S2’ at any instant are
disturbance. If v is speed of light and t is time represented by,
taken by wavefront to reach point C from point
B, then distance
BC = vt
Draw a sphere of radius BC with point A as the
centre. Draw ED tangent to this sphere. Then
AE = BC = vt
Right angled triangles AEC and ABC are
congruent.
From BAC, BC = AC sin i and
From DAC, AD = AC sin r y1 = r1 sin  t …… (1)
Since BC = AE y2 = r2 sin     …. (2)
 AC sin i = AC sin r r1 and r2 are the amplitudes to interfering light
Or AC sin i = AC sin r waves, and ' ' is the phase difference between
i.e., sin i = sin r ‘S1’ and ‘S2’.
i=r
Hence, law of reflection starting that angle of By super position principle, the net displacement
incidence is equal to angle of reflection r is of the resulting waves is given by,
proved. y = y1+y2
y = r1 sin  t + r2 sin (  t +  )
6. Coherent & Non-Coherent Sources of Light
Two sources of light are said to be coherent in By superposition principle, the net displacement
nature if they emit waves of same frequency of the resulting waves is given by,
(or wavelength) are either in phase or have y = y1+y2
constant initial phase difference. y = r1 sin t + r2 sin  t. cos  +cos  t. sin 
Two sources of light are said to be non- = (r1 + r2 cos  ) sin  t + (r2 sin  )cos  t …(3)
coherent in nature if they emit waves of same
frequency (or wavelength) but do not have Let r1 + r2 cos  = R cos  …(4)
constant phase difference. & r2 sin  = R sin  ... (5)
7. Relationship Between Phase Difference (ϕ) &
Equation (3) becomes,
2
Path Difference (Δx).  x y = R sin  t cos  + R sin  . cos  t
 y = R sin ( t   ) … (6)
8. Superposition Principle Where, ‘R’ is the net amplitude of the light wave
When two or more waves overlap on one and ' ' is the phase difference between y & y1.
another at a point in the medium at any instant To find the value of ‘R’,
then squaring and adding equal & (5) we get,
“The net displacement of the light waves is the
vector sum of displacements due to individual  
R 2 sin 2θ+cos 2θ = r22sin 2θ+r12 +r22cos 2 +2r1.r2 cos
sources.”      R  r  r  2r1r2 cos  ……… (7)
2
1
2
2
2

y  y1  y2  y3  ...  yn
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Since, intensity of the light wave is directly 11. Young’s Double slit Experiment
proportional to square of amplitude. That means,
intensity
I  R2
For simple calculation, let us take, I = R2,
Similarly, I1  R12 and I 2  R22
Equations (7) becomes,
I  I1  I 2  2 I1 . I 2 .cos 

Case I: Constructive Interference

Two light waves interfere constructively to get
maximum intensity of light for which, cos  1 Consider a monochromatic light source of wave
∴   0, 2 , 4 , 6 … length  . Let us consider two coherent sources
So, phase difference:   2n (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ….) ‘S1’ and ‘S2’. Which acts like two light source (slits)
Now, path difference: x  2n /2 separated by distance ‘d’. The waves emitted by
the sources S1 and S2 reaching the point ‘P’ on the
 2 2 
  x  2n  x  x  2n  screen at a distance ‘y’ from ‘O’.
   
∴ Im ax  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 Let ‘D’ be the distance of position of slit on the
screen. Let ‘x’ be the path difference between two
 I   I  2
2 2
 1 1 I1 . I 2 waves reaching the point ‘P’.
d
I  I  I 
2
x = S2P2 = S2B2+BP2 = D2 + (y+ )2
m ax 1 2 2
Again, from  S1AP,
2
Case-II: Destructive Interference  d
Two waves interfere destructively to get S1P2 = S1A2+AP2 = D 2   y  
 2
minimum intensity of light for which cos    1 Now,
∴ Phase Difference:    2 n  1  (n= 0, 1,2...) 2 2
 d  d
S2P2 − S1P2 = D 2   y    D 2   y  
x
And path difference: x   2n  1  2  2
2 d
⇒ (S2P+S1P) (S2P-S1P) = 4y.
∴ Imin  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 2
⇒ (S2P+S1P) × x = 2yd
 I   I  2
2 2
 1 1 I1 . I 2

I  I  I 
2 Practically, the point ‘P’ is very close to ‘O’. due to
m in 1 2
narrow slits. S2P  S1P = D
⇒(D+D)x = 2yd
⇒ 2Dx = 2yd
yd
x
D
Case – I: Bright Fringe
Two light waves interfere constructively when the
phase difference between them is even multiple

  (or) the path difference is even multiple of
2

i.e x = 2n
2
yd
 
2
⇒  n
r  r 
2
I I1 + I 2
Note: max   1 2 2 D
   r1  r2 
2
I min I1  I 2
n D
⇒ yB  (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …)
d
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n = 0, y0B = 0 (Central bright) 12. Fringe width (β)
D The distance of separation between any two-
n = 1, y1B = (1st Bright fringe)
d consecutive bright (or) dark fringes is called
2 D fringe width.
n = 2, y2B = (2nd Bright fringe) D
d 
3 D d
n = 3, y3B = (3rd Bright fringe) Derivation:
d
For Bright Fringe:
The difference between any two consecutive
The distance between any two bright fringes is
 λD 
called as fringe width.
bright fringes are equal.  β = 
 d  ∴ Fringe Width = β = y2B − y1B
If intensity of each wave be I0 then, intensity of 2 D  D
central maximum is ⇒β= −
d d
   2 I 
2 2
Imax= I0  I0 0  4I0 D
∴ βbright =
d
Case-II: Dark Fringe
Two light waves interfere destructively only when For Dark Fringe:
phase difference is odd multiple of  (or) path The distance between any two dark fringes is
 called as fringe width.
difference is odd multiple of ∴ Fringe Width = β = y2D − y1D
2
 yd  5λD 3λD
x = (2n+1) ⇒   2n  1 ⇒β=
2d
−
2d
2 D 2
D
 2n  1  D ∴ βdark =
⇒yD = d
2d
D
n = 0, y0D = (1st dark fringe from central So, from the above two equations we can
2d conclude that, the width of the bright fringes is
bright) equal to the width of the dark fringes.
3 D
n = 1, y1D = (2nd dark fringe)
2d 13. Factors on which Fringe Width Depends
5 D rd a. The fringe width is directly proportional to
n = 2, y2D = (3 dark fringe)
2d the wavelength of the incident light.
7 D th βλ
n = 3, y3D = (4 dark fringe) So, the fringe width will be maximum for
2d
The difference between any two consecutive dark red light and minimum for violet light.
D b. The fringe width is directly proportional to
fringes are equal. β = the distance between the slits and the
d
screen.
If intensity of each wave be I0 then, minimum is βD
 
2
Imin= I0  I0 0 c. The fringe width is inversely proportional
to the distance between the two slits.
1
β
d
14. YDSE Inside Liquid Of Refractive Index μ
When the space between the slits and the
screen is filled with a liquid having refractive
index μ then the fringe width decreases by a
factor μ.
Proof:
On immersing the apparatus in a liquid, the
speed of wave travelling in it decreases.
Thus, the new wavelength is 1/μ times the
original wavelength.
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 2 1   air  air 18. Fraunhofer Type Diffraction Due to a Single
 ⇒  ⇒  med  Slit
1 2 1  med 
air D
The fringe width in air is = air 
d
 med D
The new fringe width with liquid= med 
d
 med D  air D air
med   
d d 
air Suppose a parallel beam of light is incident
med  normally on a slit width ‘d’. As per Huygens’

principle each and every point of the slit acts
as a source of secondary wavelets spreading in
Thus, the fringe width decreases by a factor of
all directions. All these secondary waves start
μ when immersed in liquid. parallel to each other from different points of
the slit and interfere at P to give the resultant
15. Some Important Points intensity.
a. If white light is used in place of monochromatic
light then the fringe pattern will be coloured, Now consider the intensity pattern points of
with varying width. The central fringe will be the screen. At the point O, which is at the
white surrounded by blue to red fringes. perpendicular bisector of the slit, all the waves
b. If two different light sources are used then the reach after travelling equal optical path and
positions of the bright and the dark fringes hence are in phase. The waves thus interfere
does not remain fixed. constructively with each other and maximum
intensity is observed at O. As we move away
16. Conditions of Sustained Interference. (upwards or downwards) from O the waves
a. Two sources must be coherent sources of light. arrive with different phases and thus the
b. Two sources are placed very close to each intensity is changes.
other. Let us consider a point P where the rays
c. Two sources must be monochromatic. leaving the slit making an angle θ meet. The
d. Two sources should emit light continuously. perpendicular from the edge A to the parallel
e. Two sources should be narrow. rays represents the wave front of the parallel
f. The distance of the screen should not be close beam diffracted from the slit at an angle  .
to the slits. Hence the optical path for any point on the
wavefront AN to the point P is same.
17. Diffraction of Light
The bending of light around the corners of an Path Difference.
obstacle or an aperture in to the region of
To find the path difference between the
geometrical shadow of an obstacle.
secondary wavelets originating from
After diffraction light tends to spread out.
corresponding points A and B of the plane
There are two types of diffraction. They are: wavefront, draw AN perpendicular on BB’. The
a. Fraunhofer Type b. Fresnel Type path difference between these wavelets
originating from A and B is BN.
BN
From ΔABN,  sin 
AB
Or BN = AB sinθ
∴ Path difference = d sinθ
(a) For Minima
If path difference is equal to one wavelength
i.e. BN = d sinθ = λ, then divide the slit into two
equal halves i.e., AC and CB.
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 Now the path difference between the
secondary wavelets originating from A and C is Diffraction Pattern
equal to λ/2. Due to single slit consists of a central
maximum flanked by alternate minima and
So, these wavelets will meet point P out of
secondary maxima. The variation of intensity
phase (i.e., phase difference = π) and hence
of secondary maxima and minima with the
destructive interference will take place at P.
angle of diffraction θ is shown in figure.
Similarly, the path difference between the
wavelets originating from C and B is λ/2 and
hence these will also produce destructive
interference at P.
Thus, position P will be of minimum intensity.
Hence, for first minimum d sin θ1 = λ

Or sin θ1 = …(1)
d

Or θ1 =  θ1 is very small  … (2)
d
Similarly, If BN = 2λ, then the slit AB can be
imagined to be divided into four equal halves.
Then, the path difference between the
secondary wavelets originating from the Figure shows that as we go away from the
corresponding points of each half = central maximum, the intensity of secondary
 2 / 4    / 2 . maxima decreases rapidly.
Thus, these wavelets produce destructive 19. Width of Central Maximum
interference and point P is of minimum
intensity.
Thus, for second minimum d sin θ2 = 2λ
2 2
Or Sin θ2 = or  2 
d d
In general, for mth minima
d sinθm = mλ mth minima
m
d sinθm = mλ or sinθm =
d
mλ  λ 
∴ θm = =2m   Angular width of central maximum is defined as
d  2d  the angle between the directions of first
where, θm is the angle giving direction of the mth minima on the two sides of the central
order minimum and m = 1, 2, 3, ….. an integer. maximum.
As shown in the figure, angular width =2θ
(b) For Secondary Maxima. 
The direction of first minima is:  
 1 d
i.e. d sinθm =  m   
 2 So angular width of central maximum =2θ
 2
 2m  1  2 
or sin  m     / d  (2m  1) d
 2  2d
Linear Width of the central maximum is defined
λ
∴ θ m =(2m+1) as the distance between the first minima on the
2d two sides of the central maximum.
where, θm is the angle giving direction of the
mth order secondary maximum and m = 1, 2, Linear width of central maximum =2x
3, … an integer.

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 2 D (iii) Width of central maximum is inversely
2x   D 
d proportional to the width (d) of the slit. if
20. Factors on Which Width of Central Maximum the width of the slit is small, width of
Depends central maximum is large and vice-versa.
(i) The width of the central maximum is
Note: When width of slit is sufficiently large,
directly proportional to the wavelength of
secondary maxima of diffraction pattern
the light used. i.e. width of central
disappear and the central maximum becomes a
maximum   . Therefore, width of
sharp point, which is the sharp image of the slit.
central maximum is small for violet colour
Thus, distinct diffraction pattern can be observed
and large for red colour.
only if the width of slit of slit is small or the slit is
(ii) Width of central maximum is directly
very narrow.
proportional to the distance D between
plane of slit and screen, so the width will
increase with increase in D.
21. Comparison of Interference and Diffraction of Light

Interference Diffraction
Interference is due to the superposition of two wave Diffraction is due to the superposition of secondary
fronts originating from two coherent sources. wavelets originating from the different points of the
same wave front.
In interference pattern, all the maximum i.e. bright In diffraction pattern, the bright fringes are of varying
fringes are of the same intensity. intensity. intensity decreases away from the central
maximum on each side.
In interreference pattern, the dark fringes are usually In diffraction pattern, the dark fringes are not perfectly
almost perfectly dark. dark.
In interference pattern, the width of fringes (bright In diffraction pattern, width of central fringe is double
and dark) is equal. than the width of other maxima.
In interference, fringes (or bands) are large in number. In diffraction, fringes (or bands) are a few in number.
In interference, fringes (or bands) are equally spaced. In diffraction, fringes (or bands) are unequally spaced.
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
22. Resolving Power of Telescope & Eye and Objective.
The ability of an optical instrument to form
distinctly separate images of two closely 24. Polarization of light
spaced points or objects is called as the The phenomenon of restricting the vibration of
resolving power of the optical instrument. light (electric vector) in a particular direction of
D wave motion is called Polarization of light.
RP 
1.22 The phenomenon of polarization gives
D→ Diameter of the aperture of the information that light waves are transverse.
Objective lens Tourmaline crystal is used to polarize the light and
λ → Wavelength of light used hence it is called as polarizer.

Resolving power is also defined as the

reciprocal of the limit of resolution.
1
RP 
Limit of Resolution

23. Resolving Power of Microscope

2 sin 
RP 
1.22
β→ Semi-angle subtended by the
objective at the object.
μ → Ref. Index of liquid between Object
8|Page
 27. Polarization of Light by Reflection:
When unpolarized light is reflected from a
surface incident at a particular value of
(unpolarized) angle of incidence (ip), the
reflected light is completely plane polarized.
This particular angle of incidence is called
polarizing angle or Brewster’s angle in plane
polarized reflected light the vibration of electric
field is to the plane of incidence.

28. Brewster’s Law

It states that, “The refractive index of the
refracting medium (μ) is numerically equal to the
tangent of the polarizing angle(ip).”
25. Polaroids If  be the refractive index of a transparent
A polaroid is a device used to produce plane surface (or) medium and ip is polarizing angle
polarized light. then According to Brewster,
  tan i p
This relation is known as Brewster’s law. At
polarizing angle, the reflected ray and refracted
ray are mutually perpendicular.

Proof: Let at polarizing angle (ip), r is angle of

refraction, then according to Snell’s law,
A polaroid is a material which polarizes the
sin i p
light.  …(1)
Tourmaline crystal is used to polarize the light sin r '
and hence it is called as polarizer According to Brewster’s law
Polaroids are now artificially made. sin i p
  tan i p  …(2)
It was discovered that some middle chapped cos i p
crustal quinine iodosulphate has the property
From equation (1) and (2) we have,
of polarizing the light.
 
sin r'  cos ip  sin   ip 
26. Use of plane polarized light & Polaroids: 2 
a. One of the major uses of polaroid is to avoid 
∴ r'  i
glare of light. 2 p
b. The objective of microscope is fitted with 
⇒ r' +ip 
polaroid to avoid glare in observing very 2
minute particles. 
⇒ r' +r  (As r' = r ) …(3)
c. Clear photographs of white clouds are 2
obtained by fitting polaroid in front of the From the diagram,
camera lens. ∠NOB + ∠BOY = π/2
d. Polaroids are useful in 3D pictures. ⇒ r + ∠BOY =π/2 … (4)
e. In calculators and watches, letters and
numbers are formed by LCD through ∠NOC + ∠COY =π/2
polarization of light. ⇒ r’ + ∠COY =π/2 … (5)
f. In CD plates polarized beam acts as needle for
producing sound from compact disc. From eq. (1), (2) & (3), we get
g. Polarization is used to study asymmetries in r + ∠BOY+ r’ + ∠COY =π/2 + π/2
crystal and molecules.

9|Page
 ∴ ∠BOY +∠COY = π/2
Thus, the reflected and the refracted beam of
light are perpendicular to each other.

But only the “E0 cos θ” component is transmitted

through the analyzer.
We know that for light wave:
Intensity ∝ (amplitude)2
So, I ∝ (E0 cos θ)2
⇒ I = k E02 cos2 θ
⇒ I = I0 cos2 θ
29. Malus’ Law ∴ I ∝ cos2 θ
Malus’ Law states that, “The intensity of the Case 1: When the plane of the polarizer and
polarized light transmitted through the analyzer analyzer are parallel to each other. (θ =00)
varies as the square of the cosine of the angle For θ =00, cos θ = ±1.
between the plane of transmission of the analyzer Therefore, I = I0 (±1)2 =I0
and the plane of the polarizer. So, the intensity of the plane polarized light does
not change.
Mathematically, I ∝ cos2 θ
Case 2: When the plane of the polarizer and
analyzer are perpendicular to each other. (θ =900)
For θ =900, cos θ = 0.
Therefore, I = I0 (0)2 =0
So, the intensity of the plane polarized light
becomes zero, when it passes through the
analyzer.

**********
Short Answer Type Questions (2 & 3 Marks)
1. Define wavefront?
2. State Huygens’s Principle?
3. Derive laws of reflection and refraction on the
basis of Huygens’s principle.
4. Differentiate between coherent and non-
Proof:
coherent sources of light.
Let E0 be the amplitude of the light transmitted by
5. State principle of superposition for two
the polarizer & θ be the angle between the planes
of the polarizer and the analyzer. waves.
Resolving E0 into its components, we get, 6. Define interference of light?
E0 cos θ → along the axis of the analyzer 7. Differentiate between constructive and
E0 sin θ → perpendicular to the axis of the destructive interference.
analyzer. 8. Derive the express in for fringe width in a
YDSE?
9. If intensity of each wave is Io then prove that
maximum intensity is 4 times of the original
intensity Io?
10. Define fringe width?

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11. Write down the conditions for sustained
interference.
12. Define diffraction of light?
13. Define linear width of central maximum due
to diffraction in a single slit.
14. Prove that the width of bright and dark fringes
in YDSE are equal?
15. Differentiate between interference and
diffraction.
16. Define polarization of light?
17. What is a polaroid?
18. Write down 4 applications of polaroids?
19. State and derive Malus law.
20. State and derive Brewster’s law.
21. What is the angle between reflected and
refracted ray when angle of incidence is equal
to polarizing angle? (Ans 90°)
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