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Engineers Wallah Civil Engineering

Short Notes
Subject : Irrigation
CHAPTER-01 : IRRIGATION AND ITS METHODS (6) Sprinkler irrigation: In this method of irrigating

Irrigation is the science which deals with artificial supply water is applied in the form of spray through the

of water to the crop. The irrigation system in India is network of pipes.

broadly divided into two categories: - surface irrigation (7) Border flooding: In this method the land is divided
system and sub-surface irrigation system. into a number of strips, and separated by borders.
Types of irrigation projects:
Project Irrigation Cost of Project
Potentials CCA
Major > 10,000 ha > 5 crore
Medium 2000 – 10,000 ha 0.5 – 5 crore
Small < 2000 ha 0.25 – 0.5 crore

CHAPTER-02 : IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY

Methods of Irrigation
AND WATER-LOGGING
(1) Free flooding: This method is used for rolling land
where borders, checks, basins and furrows are not (1) The salinity concentration of the soil solution after
feasible. It is also called as ordinary flooding or wild the consumptive is
flooding.
C.Q
Salinity concentration ( CS ) =
(2) Drip irrigation or Trickle irrigation: In this method Q − ( Cu − R e )
of irrigating water and fertilizer is directly and slowly
Where, Q = Quantity of water applied
applied to root zone of plant.
Cu = Consumptive use of water
(3) Check flooding: In this method, the field is divided
Re = effective rainfall
into a relatively level plots surrounded by levees. This
C = Concentration of salt in irrigation water
method is suitable for permeable soil.
Generally expressed in ppm or mg/l.
(4) Furrow irrigation: In this method of irrigating crops
Indirectly measured by determination of electrical
by allowing water to flow down small trenches, or
conductivity expressed in micro mho’s per centimeter
furrows, between the rows of crops.
(5) Basin flooding: In this method of irrigating one or
more trees are generally enclosed by circular basin
through which water flows.
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Electrical
Conductivity at Class Uses
25oC (µ-mho/cm)
< 250 Low salinity For all crops
water(C1)
250-750 Medium Used after
salinity leaching
water(C2)
750-2250 High salinity High salt
water(C3) tolerant plants
>2250 Very high Not suitable
salinity for irrigation
Leaching Requirement (L.R)
water(C4)
Leaching Requirement is generally expressed as the
percentage of total irrigation water applied to the soil
(2) Proportion of Sodium ions to other Cations:
to meet the consumptive use as well as the leaching
Na +
Sodium Adsorption Ratio, SAR= needs.
Ca 2+ + Mg 2+
Depth of water drained out per unit area Dd
2 L.R = =
Depth of water applied per unit area Da
Where, the concentration of ions is expressed in milli
Salt content of irrigation water Ci
equivalent per liter. L.R = =
Salt content of drained water Cd
SAR Type of water Uses Electrical conductivity of irrigation water E.Ci
L.R = =
Low sodium Electrical conductivity of drained water E.Cd
0-10 For all crops
water (S1)
Medium sodium Only in coarse grained Salt content is directly proportional to the electrical
10-18
water (S2) soil conductivity.

18-26
High sodium Used only after Ci  E (Electrical Conductivity)
water (S3) leaching
Ci = Salt content of irrigation water,
Very high sodium Not suitable for
> 26 Cd = Salt context of drainage water
water (S4) irrigation

Water logging: An agricultural land is said to be

waterlogged when its productivity gets effected by the root CHAPTER 03 : WATER REQUIREMENT OF
zone of plant get flooded with water.
CROPS
Depth and spacing of title drains

S=
q
(
4k 2
b − a2 ) Duty(D): Area of land in hectares that can be irrigated
when one cumec of water is supplied continuously to
Where, S = Spacing of tile drain in meter land for entire base period of crop.
k = Coefficient of permeability in m/sec Delta (): Total depth of water applied over an irrigated
q = Total discharge per unit length of tile drain in land at different watering throughout entire base
m3/s/m period.
b = height of water table above impervious layer
=
8.64 B Area ( irrigated )
D Q=
a = height of centre of drain above impervious layer D
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Where,  = Delta in meter • FIR NIR NIR

Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR) = = =
D = Duty in Ha/cumec nc na nc no

B = Base period in days Where, Cu = Total consumptive use required

• Gross Commanded Area (GCA): Total Area which Reff = Effective Rainfall
can be irrigated by a canal system when unlimited LR = Leaching Requirement
water supply is available. PSR = Pre-Sowing Requirement
• Culturable Command Area (CCA) = GCA – no = Overall Efficiency
Unculturable area na = Water Application Efficiency
• Crop Ratio: Ratio of area of land irrigated during nc = Water Conveyance Efficiency
Rabi and Kharif season.
• Kor Watering: First watering after plants have grown
CHAPTER-04 : SOIL-MOISTURE AND PLANT
a few cm high.
RELATIONSHIP

Irrigation Efficiencies
• Soil moisture Stress = Soil moisture tension + Osmotic
1. Water Conveyance Efficiency (nc) =
Pressure.
Water delivered to fields (W f ) • Field capacity = Maximum amount of moisture which
 100
Water diverted river to canal system (Wr ) can be held against gravity.

2. Water Application Efficiency (na) = i. Available moisture for the plant = FC – PWP
water stored in the root zone(Ws )
 100
water delivered to fields (W f )

3. Water Use Efficiency (nu) =

Water used beneficially (Wu )
 100
Water delivered to fields(W f )

4. Water Storage Efficiency (ns) =

water stored in the root zone(Ws ) ii. Readily available moisture for the plant = F.C. – OMC
 100
FC − Available moisture in soil prior to irrigation iii. Frequency of Irrigation
5. Water Distribution Efficiency (nd) = Readily Alailable moisture depth
=
Avg. Absolute deviation in depth of water stored Consumptive use rate
1−  100
Avg Depth of water stored in root zone

6. Consumptive Use Efficiency (ncu) =

Normal consumption use of water
 100
Net amount of water depleted

Irrigation Efficiencies
Consumption Irrigation Requirement (CIR) = Cu – Reff iv. Field capacity (FC)
• Net irrigation required (NIR) = CIR + LR + PSR Weight of water stored in soil of unit area ( w  d w 1)
=
Weight of samesoil of unit area (  d 1)
NIR
• Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR) =
na
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d  d c c r 
v. Depth of water stored in root zone (dw) =  FC Total annual costs of lining = +  
w y 2  100 
vi. Available moisture depth to plant
 Benefits 
 d Lining justified if   1
( d 'w ) = d  ( F .C − PWP)  Cost 
w
Where, c = Total initial investment
vii. Readily available moisture depth to plant
d  d y = Service life in years
(d w ) =  ( F .C − OMC )
w r = Rate of annual simple interest
Where, c
= Annual depreciation charge in rupees
PWP = Permanent Wilting Point y
OMC = Optimum Moisture Content
mR1 + PR2
d = depth of root zone c. Benefit cost ratio: =
c c r 
+  
d = dry unit wt. of soil y 2  100 
w = unit wt. of water

CHAPTER-05 : CANAL DESIGN Kennedy’s theory

1. V0 = 0.55 m y0.64
Canal-Irrigation Where, V0 = Critical velocity
An artificial channel constructed to carry water from aa y = Trial depth
river, tank or reservoir for various purpose. m = Critical velocity ratio,
V Actual mean velocity
m= =
V0 Critical velocity
A = (B + ny) y …(1)
Q
A= …(2)
V0
Lining of Canal Get B from equation (1) and (2)
a. Annual Benefits:
Total Annual Benefits = mR1 + PR2
Where, m = Cumec of water is saved due to lining of
canal annually
R1 = Irrigation water sold to cultivator at a Rs.
(3) P = B + 2 y n + 1
2
R1/cumec
R2 = Rate of maintenance cost in rupees per year A
(4) R =
P = % of saving achieved in maintenance cost by lining P
1 2/3 1/2
of canal (5) V = C RS V= R S
n
b. Annual Cost:
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1  0.00155 
+  23 + 
n  S 
By Kutter’s formula C =
1  0.00155  n
+  23 + 
n  S  R
(6) If V  V0 then ok, otherwise repeat.

Lacey’s theory:
1/6
 Qf 2 
(1)  =  where, silt factor f = 1.76 d mm
 140 
 

5V2
(2) R = 2. Uplift Pressure
2 f
(a) When Drainage gallery is not provided
Q
(3) A = , A = (B + ny) y
V
(4) P = 4.75 Q

f 5/3
(5) S =
3340Q1/6
1/3
Q
(6) Scour depth = 0.47  
 f 
1/3
 q2 
Lacey’s regime scour depth = 1.35  
 f 
 
(b) when drainage gallery is present
Where, V = Velocity in m/s
Q = Discharge in m3/s
A = Area in m2
R = Hydraulic mean depth
S = Bed slope

CHAPTER-06 : GRAVITY DAMS

It is a solid masonry or concrete structure with an

approximate triangular cross-section, so that external forces
exerted on it are resisted by its own weight. 3. Silt Pressure:
Forces acting on gravity dam 1 1 − sin 
Fsilt = K a  sub hs 2 Ka =
1. Water Pressure 2 1 + sin 

1 H Where, hs = Height of silt from base,

p =  w H 2 acting at from base
2 3 Ka = Active earth pressure coefficient

Where,  w = Unit weight of water  sub = Submerged unit weight

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If the upstream face is inclined, the vertical weight of V = Wind Velocity (km/hr)
the silt supported on the slope also acts as vertical F = Length of reservoir (km)
force. Resultant wave pressure:
4. Earthquake Forces: hw
Pw = 2.4 w hw acting at height of from still water
(i) Effect due to vertical acceleration (v) 8

W level.
Body force F = ( g  v ) Total wave force:
g

( 2.4 whw )  hw  acting at a distance of

Where, g = acceleration due to gravity, -ve for 1 5
Fw =
downward and +ve for upwar
2 3 

 v = Vertical acceleration 3
hw from reservoir surface.
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 H = Horizontal acceleration

(ii) Effect due to horizontal acceleration (H) Criteria Structural stability and modes of failure of
Gravity dam
W 
a. Horizontal Inertia force FH =   H 1. Failure by Overturing about Toe:
g 
FR = FH2 + FV2
b. Hydrodynamic pressure (Pe) = 0.555 K h  w H 2

B
e= −x
2
MR
FS =  1.5
MO

Where, x = distance of FR from toe

MR = Restoring moment about toe (due to FV)

MO = Overturning moment about toe (due to FH)

4H
acts at a height of from the base.
3
 4H 
Moment about base M e = Pe    = 0.424 PeH
 3 
5. Wave Pressure

hw = 0.032 VF + 0.763 − 0.271( F )

3/4
if F  32 km

hw = 0.032 VF if F  32 km
2. Compression or crushing failure:
V  6e 
max/min = 1  
B  B
Where, V = Total vertical force
B = Base width
e = eccentricity of resultant force from the center of the
base.
Where, hw = Height of wave (meter)
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 = pv sec2  – p’tan2
(a) For no tail water, p’ = 0
max = pv sec2 
(b) If hydrodynamic pressure p’e then

(3) Tension failure: Masonry and concrete gravity dam

are not able to withstand tensile stress. In order to
avoid tension anywhere in the structure min = 0
B
e= 2. Shear Stress:
6
Middle third rule: For No tension at base, max. put H = 0

permissible value of eccentricity on either side is B/6.  dr sin  – p'ds cos  = 0 db

(4) Failure due to sliding Substituting and resolving, 0 = (pv – p') tan 
 V (a) For no tail water p' = 0, 0 = pv tan 
FOS sliding =
H (b) If hydrodynamic pressure pe’ then 0 = [pv – (p' – pe')]
H tan 
= sliding factor
V
 V + bq
SFF =
H

Elementary Profile of a gravity dam

1. For No tension at base, when reservoir is full

H
Where, q = Average cohesion or shear strength of the joint B
G −C
B = Width of the joint
Where, G = Specific gravity of material of dam
SFF = Shear Friction Factor
C = Uplift coefficient
 H = Sum of horizontal forces causing sliding
H
V = Net vertical force when uplift is not considered, C = 0 B
G
μ = Coefficient of friction
H
2. For No sliding B 
Principal and Shear Stresses  (G − C )
1. Principal Stress:
• Max. stress at toe, PV = wH (G – C)
put V = 0
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• Min. stress at heel PV = 0 Theories of Seepage:

• Principal Stress near toe  = wH (G – C + 1) 1. Bligh’s Creep Theory:

• Shear stress near toe 0 =  w H G − C Head loss (HL) is proportional to length of creep,
HL  L
Creep length: L = b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
CHAPTER-07 : CANAL REGULATION WORK AND
H
MEANDERING Hydraulic gradient =
L

Bligh’s coefficient of creep (C)

Parameters for Study the Behaviour of Outlets:

1. Flexibility(F): It is defined as ratio of rate of change

of discharge of the outlet to the rate of change of
discharge of the distributary channel
dq / q
F= Q = K.yn q = C.Hm
dQ / Q

m y
For a semi modular outlet, dy = dH, F = 
n H
Where,
q = discharge passing through the outlet
1 L
Q = discharge passing through distributary channel C= =
Hydraulic gradient H
y = depth of water in distributary
H = Head acting on outlet i. Safety against piping:
• For a modular outlet, F = 0, hence rigid
1
Average hydraulic gradient 
• For a semi modular outlet, F  0, hence flexible C
2. Proportionality: The outlet is proportional when its
H 1
flexibility equal to unity. 
L C
m y
F=  =1 ii. Safety against uplift pressure:
n H
H
m H Outlet Index t
= = Gc − 1
n y Channel index

H
Setting: The ratio of is termed as setting of the
y

outlet.
For proportional outlet, F=1
H m Outlet Index
Setting = = =
y n Channel index
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2. Khosla’s Theory: Meander Parameter:

H 1 1. Meander length (ML): It is the tangential distance

Exit gradient (GE) =
d   between the C/p points of a meander.

1 + 1 + 2 b
= , =
2 d

Where, H = Total head under which flow takes place

b = Total horizontal length of the floor

MB
2. Meander ratio (MR) =
d = Depth of downstream sheet pile ML

Where, MB = Meander belt, ML = Meander length

CHAPTER-08 : MEANDERING 9
3. Dominant Discharge: Qdom. =  Qmax
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Meander: A river becomes a meandering river when it 4. Meander Length for river in Flood plain:

deviates from its axis path and develops a curve of M L = 65.8 Qdom
reverse order with short straight lengths.
Actual length along the channel
5. Tortuosity =
Direct actual length of the river reach

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