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Design And Evaluation Of Orifice Meters Fluid Flow In Pipelines

Thesis · March 2016

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 UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTEMENT

Design and evaluation of orifice meters

fluid flow in pipelines

BY: Mustafa Saleh Mansour

SUPERVISED BY: Dr. Saleh Bashir Ali & Dr. Elhadi Dekkam

Spring, 2016
 ABSTRACT

Fluid flow measurements are performed across the breadth of engineering such as
flows of oil, gas, petrol, water, process chemicals, effluent are all necessarily and
routinely measured. In the research laboratory, advanced flow measurements are
providing new insights into a wide range of engineering flow problems in
hydrodynamics such as wave impact loading on coastal defenses, beach erosion)
combustion such as low NOx burners in IC engines, aerodynamics such as wind
turbine optimization and performance prediction) to list but a few.
The project aim is to generate an awareness and understanding of the range of
contemporary flow measurement techniques available with the emphasis on devices
and techniques with wide application in Engineering. Focus is devoted to cheap
meters with reasonable accuracy; the differential pressure flow meters that all infer the
flow rate from a pressure drop across a restriction in the pipe, which for many years,
they were the only reliable methods available, and they remain popular despite the
development of higher performance modern devices, mostly on account of
exceptionally well researched and documented standards.
An orifice plate meter is designed to measure the required water mass flow rate to
cool a nuclear reactor at design point of 20 Kg/sec. Meter operation at off design
conditions; 5 and 30 Kg/sec minimum and maximum flow rates with maximum
orifice pressure drop of 200 KPa were investigated which finalizes the design
process.

The first chapter of this thesis is devoted to general introduction, where most common
meter types in the industry are detailed.

The second chapter summarizes the literature review made concerning flow
measurements by orifice meter technique.
In the third chapter Discussions are dedicated to The Reynolds number, orifice meter
basic design theory, uses of the orifice meter and to meter design equations.

The fourth chapter is committed to meter design procedure, design constraints, design
point input data and design method.

The fifth chapter details discussion of design calculation results as well as the process
of meter calibration.

And finally Chapter six is dictated to conclusions summary.

I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our gratitude to my supervisors, Dr Saleh Bashir Ali and Dr.Hadi
Dakkam for theit constant guidance and advice throughout the course of the design
project. I owe to them an obligation of gratitude for their constructive ideas that were,
my guide in the wide field of flow measurements techniques and of considerable
benefits to this work.

I particularly owe a favor to all staff members of the department.

Finally, thanks to my parents for their patience and consideration through the period of
this work, and to my close friends, for the many hours we lost together.

II
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Page

1.1 General 1
1.2 Types of flow meters 2
1.3 Difference pressure flow meters 2
1.3.1 Orifice plate flow meter 2
1.3.2 Venturi tube flow meter 3
1.3.3 Nozzle flow meter 4
1.3.4 Velocity Flow meters (Pitot tubes) 6
1.3.5 Recovery of Pressure Drop in Orifices, 7
Venturi and Nozzles Meters
1.4 Magnetic flow meters 7
1.5 Positive displacement flow meters 8
1.6 Turbine type flow meters 9
1.7 Ultrasonic flow meters 10
1.8 Coriolis flow meters 11
1.9 Thermal mass flow meters 12
1.10 Optical type mass flow meters 13
1.11 Selection criteria of flow meters 14
1.12 Research point 15
1.12.1 Objectives 16
1.13 Thesis layout 16

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Literature review 18

III
CHAPTER 3 THEORY OF ORIFICE PLATE FLOW METERS

3.1 General 26
3.2 Flow through pipes 27
3.3 The Reynolds number 28
3.4 The usage of the orifice meter 30
3.5 Orifice meter basic design theory 31

CHAPTER 4 ORIFICE PLATE METER DESIGN

4.1 General 37
4.2 Design constraints 38
4.3 Design point input data 42
4.4 Design procedure 43

CHAPTER 5 CALCULATION AND RESULTS

5.1 Design and calculations summary 47

5.2 Orifice meter calibration test 58
5.3 Orifice meter test rig 59
5.4 Test procedure 59
5.3 Calibration procedure 60

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEMDATIONS

6.1 Conclusions 63
6.1 Recommendations 64

REFERENCES
APPENDICES

IV
 FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Orifice plate meter arrangement

Figure 1.2- A venturi tube flow meter
Figure 1.3- Venturi tube flow meter cross-section
Figure 1.4- Nozzle type flow meter
Figure 1.5- Nozzle flow meter details
Figure 1.6- Laminar and turbulent velocity profiles
Figure 1.7- Static Pitot-tube arrangement
Figure 1.8- Pressure Drop Recovery in Orifices, Venturis and Nozzles
Figure 1.9- Magnetic type flow meter
Figure 1.10- Turbine type flow meter
Figure 1.11- Flow sensor schematic view
Figure 1.12- Coriolis flow meter
Figure 1.13- A thermal mass flow meter

igure 3.1- A concentric sharp edged orifice plate flow meter

Figure 3.2- Orifice plate shapes
Figure 3.3- Internal flow through a generalized nozzle
Figure 3.4- Tap type L1 and L2 functions

Figure 4.1- Meter construction

Figure 4.2- Standard orifice plate
Figure 4.3- Location for orifice flange and D and D/2 pressure taps

Figure 5.1- Orifice flow meter design flow chart

Figure 5.2- Orifice meter off design performance
Figure 5.3- Orifice meter seal
Figure 5.4- Orifice meter plate
Figure 5.5- Orifice meter first flange
Figure 5.6- Orifice meter Second flange

V
Figure 5.7- Orifice meter assembly
Figure 5.8 – 3D First Flange
Figure 5.9- 3D Second Flange
Figure 5.10- 3D Cross section in orifice flow meter
Figure 5.11- 3D Orifice plate
Figure 5.12- 3D meter seal
Figure 5.13- Orifice flow meter test stand

VI
 Tables

Table 3.1- Discharge coefficient as function of Reynolds number and diameter ratio

Table 4.1- Minimum orifice plate thickness

VII
 NOTATION

Q = volumetric flow rate, m³/s.

= mass flow rate, kg/s.

Cd = coefficient of discharge, dimensionless.

C = orifice flow coefficient, dimensionless.

A1 = cross-sectional area of the pipe, m².

A2 = cross-sectional area of the orifice hole, m².

D1 = diameter of the pipe, m.

D2 = diameter of the orifice hole, m.

β = ratio of orifice hole diameter to pipe diameter, dimensionless.

V1 = upstream fluid velocity, m/s.

V2 = fluid velocity through the orifice hole, m/s.

P1 = fluid upstream pressure, Pa.

P2 = fluid downstream pressure, Pa.

ρ = fluid density, kg/m³.

Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless.

VIII
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter introduces the types of flow meters including; pressure differential flow, orifice
plate, venturi tube, nozzle, and velocity flow meters (Pitot-Static tubes). Also, this chapter
describes briefly flow meters related to the positive displacement, turbine type, ultrasonic,
and Coriolis flow meters. This is extended to cover the thermal and optical type mass
flow meters. The selection criteria of flow meters are well represented at the end of the
chapter.

1.1 General

The importance of flow measurement in the industry has grown in the past 50 year, not
just because it was widespread use for accounting purposes, such as custody transfer of
fluid from supplier to customers, but also because of its application in manufacturing
processes. Examples of the industrial involvement in flow measurement include food and
beverage, oil and gas industrial, medical, petrochemical, power generation, and water
distribution, etc...
Flow measurement is the determination of the quantity of a fluid, either a liquid, or vapor,
that passes through a pipe, duct or open channel. Flow may be expressed as a rate of
volumetric flow (such as gallons per minute, cubic meters per minute, cubic feet per
minute), mass rate of flow (such as kilograms per hour, pounds per hour), or in terms of
a total volume or mass flow (integrated rate of flow for a given period of time). Fluid flow
measurement can be divided into several types; each type requires specific considerations
of such factors as accuracy requirements, cost considerations, and use of the flow
information to obtain the required end results. Normally the flow meter measures flow
indirectly by measuring a related property such as a differential pressure across a flow
restriction or a fluid velocity in a pipe. A number of different fundamental physical
principles are used in flow measurement devices (1).

1
1.2 Types of Flow Meters

It can be now realized that a flow meter is a device that meters movement of fluids in a
conduit or an open space. Fluids could be water, chemicals, air, gas, steam or solids. Some
of the most common types of flow meters include mechanical types such as Coriolis,
magnetic, ultrasonic, vortex, turbine and multiphase as well non-mechanical type known
as pressure differential meters. These are made of several basic technologies and each
type has a niche but can generally be used for other applications as well. The most
common principles for fluid flow metering are, differential pressure flow meters, velocity
flow meters, positive displacement flow meters and open channel flow meters. Other
meter types include the variable flow, the turbine, the ultrasonic, the Coriolis, the thermal
mass and the optical meters(2,3,4).

1.3 Differential Pressure Flow Meters

These meters are non-mechanical type best suited for internal flows. In a differential
pressure drop device the flow is calculated by measuring the pressure drop over an
obstruction inserted in the flow. The differential pressure flow meter is based on the
Bernoulli’s equation, where the pressure drop and the further measured signal is a
function of the square flow speed. The most common types of differential pressure flow
meters are orifice plates, Venturi tubes, flow nozzles and velocity (Pitot-tube)( 5 ).

1.3.1 Orifice Plate Flow Meter

An orifice plate is a very simple device installed in a straight run of pipe. The orifice
plate contains a hole smaller than the pipe diameter. The flow constricts experiences a
pressure drop, and then the differential pressure can be related to a flow. The orifice plate
is a thin plate with a hole in the center and is usually placed in a pipe in which fluid flows.
When the fluid reaches the orifice plate, with the hole in the center, the fluid is forced to
converge to go through the small hole; the point of maximum convergence actually occurs
shortly downstream of the physical orifice, at the so-called vena contracta point (the point
at which minimum area occurs), as shown in Figure 1.1below. As it does so, the velocity
and the pressure changes. Beyond the vena contracta, the fluid expands and the velocity
and pressure change once again. By measuring the difference in fluid pressure between

2
the normal pipe section and at the vena contracta, the volumetric and mass flow rates can
be obtained from Bernoulli's equation(5, 6, 7).

Figure 1.1 Orifice plate meter arrangement

1.3.2 Venturi Tube Flow Meter

Due to simplicity and dependability, the Venturi tube flow meter is often used in
applications where it's necessary to higher turn down rates, or lower pressure drops, than
the orifice plate can provide. In the Venturi tube the fluid flow rate is measured by
reducing the cross sectional flow area in the flow path, generating a pressure difference.
After the constricted area, the fluid passes through a pressure recovery exit section, where
up to 80% of the differential pressure generated in the constricted area, is recovered.
The classical Venturi tube (also known as the Herschel Venturi tube) is used to determine
flow rate through a pipe. Differential pressure is the pressure difference between the
pressure measured at D and at d. Other devices typically used to determine flow rate are
orifices and nozzles, but the Venturi tube has less head loss than either of these other
methods due to its streamlined design. Venturis with cast iron entrance cones (the
converging portion) are typically used in 10 to 80 cm diameter pipes. Venturis with
machined convergences are typically used in pipes having diameters of less than 25.4 mm
while venturis with a welded sheet metal convergence are used for larger pipes, typically
up to 1.3 m in diameters. A typical Venturi meter is shown below in Figure 1.2.

3
 Figure 1.2- A Venturi-tube flow meter

As shown in Figure 1.3 below, in this meter, the fluid is accelerated through a converging
cone of angle 15-20o and the pressure difference between the upstream side of the cone
and the throat is measured and this provides a signal for the rate of flow. The fluid slows
down in a cone with a smaller angle (5 - 7o) where most of the kinetic energy is converted
back to pressure energy. Because of the cone and the gradual reduction in the area, there
is no "vena contracta". The flow area is at a minimum at the throat. High pressure and
energy recovery makes the Venturi meter suitable where only small pressure heads are
available.

Figure 1.3- Venturi tube flow meter cross-section( 5,8,9)

1.3.3 Nozzle Flow Meter

Flow nozzles are often used as measuring elements for air and gas flow in industrial
applications. The flow nozzle is relatively simple and cheap, and available for many
applications in many materials. The accuracy can be compared with the orifice plate.
Figure 1.4 below shows a typical nozzle flow meter, while Figure 1.5 shows its cross-
sectional details.

4
 Figure 1.4- Nozzle type flow meter

When a gas accelerates through a nozzle, the velocity increase and the pressure and the
gas density decrease. The maximum velocity is achieved at the throat, the minimum area,
where it breaks Mach 1 or sonic. At this point it's not possible to increase the flow by
lowering the downstream pressure. The flow is choked. This situation is used in many
control systems to maintain fixed, accurate, repeatable gas flow rates unaffected by the
downstream pressure( 5, 9).

Figure 1.5- Nozzle flow meter details

1.3.4 Velocity Flow meters (Pitot-tubes)

5
In a velocity flow meter the flow is calculated by measuring the speed in one or more
points in the flow, and integrating the flow speed over the flow area. Laminar and
turbulent velocity profiles are shown in Figure 1.6 below.

Figure 1.6-Laminar and turbulent velocity profiles

By using a Pitot tube, the fluid flow velocity is measured, where the kinetic energy of the
flow is converted into potential energy in the meter. The measurement technique uses the
"annular” or multi-orifice Pitot probe, the dynamic pressure can be measured across the
velocity profile and the annular obtains an averaging effect. The Pitot tube is considered
the most used (and cheapest) ways to measure fluid flow, especially in air applications as
ventilation and even used in airplanes for the speed measurement. The static Pitot tube
arrangement is shown in Figure 1.7 below( 5 ).

Figure 1.7-Static Pitot-tube arrangement

1.3.5 Recovery of Pressure Drop in Orifices, Venturi and Nozzles Meters

6
After the pressure difference has been generated in the differential pressure flow meter,
the fluid pass through the pressure recovery exit section, where the differential pressure
generated in the constricted area is partly recovered. Figure 1.8 below shows the pressure
drop recovery in Orifices, Venturi and Nozzles flow meters. By referring to this figure, it
can be noticed that the pressure drop in orifice plates is significantly higher than in the
venturi tubes(5).

Figure 1.8- Pressure Drop Recovery in Orifices, Venturis and Nozzles

1.4 Magnetic Flow Meters

The most common velocity device used for flow measurement is the magnetic flow
meter. Magnetic flow meters cause no head loss and they can easily measure liquids with
solids in suspension. By their design, they produce an electrical signal ideal for plant
transmission.
In a magnetic flow meter, the pipe is lined with a non-conducting material and at least
two electrodes are mounted flush with the non-conducting wall. Electromagnetic coils
surround the flow path with a uniform magnetic field. Faraday's Law dictates that the
voltage produced by a conducting fluid flowing through a magnetic field is directly
proportional to the velocity of the fluid. The major disadvantage of magnetic Flow meters
is that they cannot be used for hydrocarbons due to hydrocarbon's low conductivities.

7
Instead, another velocity device, which can be used for hydrocarbons, is called a vortex-
s h e d di n g m et e r . A n i n du st r i al m a gn e t i c t yp e f l o w m e t e r i s s ho w n i n
Figure 1.9 below (2, 9).

Figure 1.9- Magnetic type flow meter

1.5 Positive Displacement Flow Meters

The positive displacement flow meter measures fluid flow process by precision-fitted
rotors as flow measuring elements. Known and fixed volumes are displaced between the
rotors. The rotation of the rotors is proportional to the volume of the fluid being displaced.
The number of rotations of the rotor is counted by an integral electronic pulse transmitter
and converted to volume and flow rate. The positive displacement rotor construction can
be done in several ways:
 Reciprocating piston meters are of single and multiple-piston types.
 Oval-gear meters have two rotating, oval-shaped gears with synchronized, close
fitting teeth. A fixed quantity of liquid passes through the meter for each
revolution. Shaft rotation can be monitored to obtain specific flow rates.
 Nutating disk meters have moveable disks mounted on a concentric sphere
located in spherical side-walled chambers. The pressure of the liquid passing
through the measuring chamber causes the disk to rock in a circulating path

8
 without rotating about its own axis. It is the only moving part in the measuring
chamber.
 Rotary vane meters consist of equally divided, rotating impellers, two or more
compartments, inside the meter housings. The impellers are in continuous contact
with the casing. A fixed volume of liquid is swept to the meter's outlet from each
compartment as the impeller rotates. The revolutions of the impeller are counted
and registered in volumetric units.
The positive displacement flow meter may be used for all relatively nonabrasive fluids
such as heating oils, lubrication oils, polymer additives, animal and vegetable fat, printing
ink, Freon, and many more. The accuracy of these meters may be up to0.1% of full rate(5).

1.6 Turbine-Type Flow Meters

The turbine flow meter (better described as an axial turbine) translates the mechanical
action of the turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of
flow (m3/s, gpm, Lpm, etc.). The turbine tends to have all the flow traveling around the
rotor, as shown in Figure 1.10.
The turbine wheel is set in the path of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the
turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in motion. When
a steady rotation speed has been reached, the speed is proportional to the velocity of the
flow.
Turbine flow meters are used for the measurement of natural gas and liquid flow. Turbine
meters are less accurate than displacement and jet meters at low flow rates, but the
measuring element does not occupy or severely restrict the entire path of flow. The flow
direction is generally straight through the meter, allowing for higher flow rates and less
pressure loss than displacement-type meters. They are the meter of choice for large
commercial users, fire protection, and as master meters for the water distribution systems.
Strainers are generally required to be installed in front of the meter to protect the
measuring element from gravel or other debris that could enter the water distribution
system. Turbine meters are generally available for 1-1/2" to 12" or higher pipe sizes.
Turbine meter bodies are commonly made of bronze, cast iron, or ductile iron. Internal
turbine elements can be plastic or non-corrosive metal alloys. They are accurate in normal

9
working conditions to 0.2 L/s; however, they are affected greatly with dog mix
interference.

Figure 1.10-Turbine-type flow meter

Fire meters are a specialized type of turbine meter with approvals for the high flow rates
required in fire protection. They are often approved by Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
or Factory Mutual (FM) for use in fire protection. Fire hydrant meters are a specialized
type of portable turbine meter that are attached to a fire hydrant to measure water out of
the hydrant. The meters are normally made of aluminum to be light weight, and are
usually 3" capacity. Utilities often require them for measurement of water used in
construction, pool filling, or where a permanent meter is not yet installed(9,10).

1.7 Ultrasonic Flow meters

Ultrasonic flow meters are effective for measuring natural gases. These meters are non-
intrusive and they have no pressure drop. It is important that ultrasonic flow meters work
on clean fluids. In the Ultrasonic Doppler Flow meter, the effect of the motion of a sound
source and its effect on the frequency of the sound was observed and described by
Christian Johann Doppler. The frequency of the reflected signal is modified by the
velocity and direction of the fluid flow. If a fluid is moving towards a transducer, the
frequency of the returning signal will increase. As fluid moves away from a transducer,
the frequency of the returning signal decreases. The frequency difference equals to the
reflected frequency minus the originating frequency and can be used to calculate the fluid
flow speed. Figure 1.11 below shows a schematic of the flow meter(5,9).

10
 Figure 1.11- Flow sensor schematic view

1.8 Coriolis FlowMeters

Coriolis flow meters are universal meters of twisting type that are used to measure mass
flow as opposed to volumetric flow. Direct mass measurement sets Coriolis flow meters
apart from other technologies and it is not sensitive to changes in pressure, temperature,
viscosity and density. These meters use the Coriolis effect to measure the amount of mass
moving through the element. The fluid to be measured runs through a U-shaped tube that
is caused to vibrate in an angular harmonic oscillation. Due to the Coriolis forces, the
tubes will deform and an additional vibration component will be added to the oscillation.
This additional component causes a phase shift on some places of the tubes which can be
measured with sensors.
The measuring technique is based on applying a sine wave voltage to an electromagnetic
drive which produces an oscillating motion of the tube. The amplitudes are related to the
mass flow and the frequency is related to the product density. The reason that the output
amplitude changes with the flow may be explained by the Coriolis effect. The vibration
of the tube gives a slight angular rotation about its center. As the fluid moves away from
the center, there is a resultant Coriolis force which opposes the rotational motion. The
flow movement toward the center produces a Coriolis force which aids the tube
rotation. The resultant force produces the measured sine wave which is measured and
converted to the mass flow reading.

11
These meters are able to measure liquids, slurries and gases and are known for their
accurate readings, however their size is limited. A typical accuracy of 0.2 to 0.02 percent
of the total flow can be achieved. Figure 1.12
shows a Coriolis meter typical type (5, 9,11).

Figure 1.12- Coriolis flow meter

1.9 Thermal Mass Flow Meters

Thermal mass flow meters generally use combinations of heated elements and
temperature sensors to measure the difference between static and flowing heat transfer to
a fluid and infer its flow with knowledge of the fluid's specific heat and density. The fluid
temperature is also measured and compensated for. If the density and specific heat
characteristics of the fluid are constant, the meter can provide direct mass flow readouts,
and does not need any additional pressure temperature compensation over their specified
range.
Technological progress has allowed the manufacture of thermal mass flow meters on a
microscopic scale as MEMS sensors; these flow devices can be used to measure flow
rates in the range of nano-liters or micro litres per minute. Thermal mass flow meter
technology is used for compressed air, nitrogen, helium, argon, oxygen, and natural gas.
In fact, most gases can be measured as long as they are fairly clean and non-corrosive.
For more aggressive gases, the meter may be made out of special alloys (e.g. Hastelloy),
and pre-drying the gas also helps to minimize corrosion.
Today, thermal mass flow meters are used to measure the flow of gases in a growing
range of applications, such as chemical reactions or thermal transfer applications that are
difficult for other flow metering technologies. This is because thermal mass flow meters
monitor variations in one or more of the thermal characteristics (temperature, thermal
conductivity, and/or specific heat) of gaseous media to define the mass flow rate. Figure
1.13 shows a typical type of thermal mass flow meters(9,10).

12
 Figure 1.13-A thermal-mass flow meter

1.10 Optical Type Mass Flow Meters

Optical flow meters use light to determine flow rates. Small particles which accompany
natural and industrial gases pass through two laser beams focused a short distance apart
in the flow path along the pipe by illuminating optics. Laser light is scattered when a
particle crosses the first beam. The detecting optics collects scattered light on a photo
detector, which then generates a pulse signal. As the same particle crosses the second
beam, the detecting optics collect scattered light on a second photo detector, which
converts the incoming light into a second electrical pulse. By measuring the time interval
between these pulses, the gas velocity is calculated as V = D / t where D is the distance
between the laser beams and t is the time interval.
Laser-based optical flow meters measure the actual speed of particles, a property which
is not dependent on thermal conductivity of gases, variations in gas flow or composition
of gases. The operating principle enables optical laser technology to deliver highly
accurate flow data, even in challenging environments which may include high
temperature, low flow rates, high pressure, high humidity, pipe vibration and acoustic
noise.
Optical flow meters are very stable with no moving parts and deliver a highly repeatable
measurement over the life of the product. Because the distance between the two laser
sheets does not change, optical flow meters do not require periodic calibration after their
initial commissioning. Optical flow meters require only one installation point, instead of

13
the two installation points typically required by other types of meters. A single installation
point is simpler, requires less maintenance and is less prone to errors.
Commercially available optical flow meters are capable of measuring flow from 0.1 m/s
to faster than 100 m/s (1000:1 turn down ratio) and have been demonstrated to be
effective for the measurement of flare gases from oil wells and refineries, a contributor to
atmospheric pollution(10).

1.11 Selection Criteria of Flow Meters

It is not an easy task to select a suitable flow meter for a particular application, especially
with the wide variety of flow meters in the market. It requires considerable evaluation of
the total cost, fluid state, flowing condition, Reynolds number, density, range ability,
mechanical installation constraints and accuracy requirements. The design engineer
should decide the design condition for mass, volume (operating standard) or energy.
Besides that, pressure and temperature of the fluid should be provided as well for the flow
meter and transmitter to compensate for process variations in these variables. A specific
gravity or density analyzer may also be needed to account for variability in stream
composition.
In considering the cost, it should consider the total cost involved, including equipment
cost, total cost of the installation, maintenance cost, and operating cost. Costs must be
carefully evaluated, particularly as meter size or operating pressure changes. For instance,
a small sized Venturi might be of comparable cost to an averaging static Pitot tube, but
as the size increases the cost of the Venturi rapidly exceeds that of the averaging Pitot
tube for a given pipe size. Increasing design pressure has the same effect.
Accuracy is a term used frequently in the flow measurement analysis. Accuracy is more
abused than correctly used. Unfortunately, it is a sales tool used commercially by both
suppliers and users of metering equipment. The supplier with the best number wins the
bid. Likewise, the user will sometimes require accuracies beyond the capabilities of any
meter available. In previous decades, accuracy was the term most commonly used to
describe a meter’s ability to measure flow. It was defined as the ratio of indicated
measurement to true measurement. The antithesis of uncertainty and is an expression of
the maximum possible limit of error at a defined confidence.

14
Accuracy is very important for flow meters. The important point for custody transfers
because it is related to money. A meter station measuring product worth $2 million a day,
an inaccuracy of ± 0.2% represents $4,000 a day, or $1,460,000 a year and the amount
that justifies considerable investment to improve flow measurement. The same error for
a station measuring $1,000 worth of product a day represents only $2 a day, and the law
of diminishing returns limits investment justifiable to improve measurement accuracy.
This work is then devoted to design an orifice plate meter for water pipe flow
measurement. This meter type is considered the simplest and the cheapest with reasonable
accuracy(12).

1.12 Research point

Advanced flow measurements provide new insights into a wide range of engineering flow
problems in hydrodynamics such as wave impact loading on coastal defenses, beach erosion,
combustion such as low NOx burners in IC engines, aerodynamics such as wind turbine
optimization and performance prediction. Such mass flow rate can be measured by different
types of flow metering devices, and the choice of these metering devices is influenced by
the accuracy required, cost, complication, ease of data reduction, and service life. But,
ordinarily, the simplest and cheapest device for the desired accuracy should be chosen.
The research point aim is to generate an awareness to understand the range of contemporary
flow measurement techniques available with the emphasis on devices and techniques with
wide engineering applications. Focus will be devoted into cheap meters with reasonable
accuracy; the differential pressure flow meters that all infer the flow rate from a pressure
drop across a restriction in the pipe, which for many years, they were the only reliable
methods available. These meters remain popular despite the development of higher
performance modern devices, mostly on account of exceptionally well researched and
documented standards.

15
1.12.1 Objectives

The objectives of the present research point include the following points:
1. Review both the mechanical and non-mechanical flow meter types for
familiarization purposes as well as to identify both advantages and drawbacks of
each type.
2. Designing an orifice plate meter to measure the water mass flow rate required to
cool a nuclear reactor at design point of 20 kg/sec. Meter operation at off design
conditions; 5 and 30 kg/sec minimum and maximum flow rates with maximum
allowable orifice pressure drop of 200 kPa will be also investigated.
3. Developing a computer program using FORTRAN language to speed up and
facilitate the design calculation process.
4. Preparing the necessary design drawings using Auto CAD software.
5. Drawing the main conclusions and stating the proper recommendations for the better
usage of such flow meters.

1.13 Thesis Layout

The thesis includes six chapters. Chapter 1 was devoted, as we saw, to the introduction for
the topic, introducing the common types of flow meters, their behavior, and the selection
criteria of such flow meters. Chapter 2 introduces the literature survey associated with the
published research work related to the orifice plate meters. Chapter3 discusses the orifice
plate meter design principles including the orifice meter basic design theory.
Chapter 4 focuses on the orifice plate meter design procedure indicating the design
constraints as well as the desired design condition input data. Results and discussions are
presented in chapter 5. Conclusions and recommendations should be reported in chapter
6.
The next chapter will be devoted to the literature survey. This is very important and
necessary to start with in order to come up with conclusion about the substantial amount
of research that has been done concerning work that will definitely be the guide and
source of information for the current research in task.

16
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Internal flows measurement is essential in the analysis and design of any mechanical
system. The design evaluation of all types of fluid machinery, such as pumps, turbines,
fans and blowers, compressors clearly requires the knowledge of the amount of mass flow
rate of the working fluid. Also, fluid flow measurements are performed across the breadth
of engineering applications such as flows of oil, gas, petrol, water, chemical processes, and
effluent are all necessary and routinely measured.

2.1 Literature Review

Referring to the literature survey made, it can be concluded that a substantial amount of
research has been done on the design and evaluation of orifice plate meters. This is a
very useful chapter and it is considered to be the start point and guide to the present
researchwork.For example, Tom Bruce(4) published a short course in flow measurement
methods. His publication aim was to generate an awareness of the range of
contemporary flow measurement devices and methods available for application to both
industrial and research flow problems in Mechanical Engineering. He reviewed well-
established mass and volume flow rate measuring devices, and discussed the strengths
and weaknesses of various meters and meter classes. He conferred also modern non-
invasive methods; magnetic and ultrasonic, as well as velocimetry (or anemometry)
methods, with a distinction drawn between point measurement methods and 2-D
methods. He described in detail the former category, Laser-Doppler anemometry and
Particle Image Velocimetry under 2-D methods for a range of
applications.

17
A. L. Ling(13), provided an engineering guide line for fluid flow measurement selection
and sizing which is helpful to understand the functions and types of flow measurement
instrumentation, to size flow measurement instrumentation (Orifice plate, Venturi tube,
Pitot tube, nozzle, Rotameter, vane meter, positive displacement flow meter and its).
All of the important parameters used in the guideline were explained in the definition
section which helps the reader to understand the meaning of the parameters used.
The method of selection of the several types of the flow measurement instrumentation,
such as from the differential pressure flow meters, variable area flow meters, positive
displacement flow meters, turbine flow meters, electromagnetic flow meters and etc. is
also explained. In the theory section of the guideline, selections of the flow meters are
included and the general theories applied for the sizing for each type of the flow meters
are detailed. In the application section, several case studies are given and discussed in
details. His case study is found helpful to make the selection and sizing for the several
flow meters based on own systems.
Gerry Pickens and Kevin Brown(14) made an overview of flow principles and pressure-
based flow measurements. They covered in details the flow types, flow principles,
Reynolds number concept, pressure drop, mass flow versus volumetric flow, influence
of pressure on volumetric flow and laminar differential pressure flow measurements.
Their overview was found very useful and helped to understand the basic issues related
to the current research topic.
E.L. Upp and Paul J. LaNasa(15)published a practical guide to accurate flow
measurement. He first highlighted the basic principles, particularly with respect to
differential and linear meters and types used in the oil and gas industry for fluid flow
measurement. Then he reviewed the basic reference standards followed by an overview
of fluids and the fluid characteristics, operating and maintenance concerns. He also
described how various practical considerations make effective meter accuracy and
highlighted the limitations of obtaining an accurate flow measurement. He concluded
by reviewing the necessary concerns of operating the meters properly with examples of
real problems found in the field.
Richard Steven(3)discussed in details the flow meter types and their principles, the
appropriate meter type in many industrial plants. He came up with conclusions that the

18
ability to conduct accurate flow measurements is so important that it can make the
difference between making a profit or taking a loss and that inaccurate flow
measurements or failure to take measurements can cause serious (or even disastrous)
results.
Roger C. Baker(2) published flow measurement handbook and introduced the principle
types of meters available in the industry. Both mechanical and non-mechanical meter
types were detailed. For pressure based meters, Venturi, Orifice plate, Dall tube, Pitot –
statictube, Multi-hole pressure probe and cone meters were focused on. In the ASME
standards (16,17) the design constraints in measurements of fluid flow in pipes using
Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi were clearly set and then used as a guide to size the meter
in the task.
Allen Chandler(18) provided a comprehensive review study of all important topics in the
subject,which include interesting theoretical and experimental studies and innovative
industrial developments and applications. The advances in fundamental understanding
and technology development are clearly identified. Future directions in various areas
together with some open questions were also outlined.
Colter L. Hollingshead(19) studied the discharge coefficient performance of Venturi,
standard concentric Orifice plate, V-cone, and Wedge flow meters. They investigated
the relationship between the Reynolds number (Re) and discharge coefficients (Cd)
through differential pressure flow meters. The focus of their study was directed toward
very small Reynolds numbers commonly associated with pipeline transportation of
viscous fluids.
Mark Skelton and Simon Barrons(20)studied the effects of the latest revision of
ANSI/API 2530/AGA 3 on Orifice meter primary elements. They highlighted the most
significant changes affecting fittings and meter tubes such as the eccentricity of the plate
to fitting bores, seal gap/seal recesses and protrusions, internal diameter tolerances and
surface finish, pressure tap and plate seal leak tests and Orifice plate bore dimensions.
Jiunn-Haur Shaw and John D. Wright(21) dealt with advances in flow measurements and
calibrations. They investigated the calibration of three laminar flow meter designs at
four pressures with five fluids over a 10:1 flow range. They found a maximum error of
0.8% for Reynolds numbers Re< 500. Their range of investigation was 500 < Re < 2000.

19
Smith Eiamsa-ard,
ArtitRidluan,PrachyaSomravysin,andPongjetPromvonge(22)investigated numerically
turbulent flow through a circular orifice. They dealt with the simulation of turbulent
flow through an orifice plate with a view to increasing the knowledge of orifice meter
flow. Their study was concerned with the concentric, round, beveled orifice plate and
focused almost entirely on the determination of discharge coefficients. Their work
lead to one conclusion; knowledge concerning the details of the orifice flow field will
lead to the way of improving the metering accuracy. They compared the calculated gas
axial velocity in 3D with the measured data to evaluate the turbulence models used.
Their predicted and experimental results show good agreements.
M. Aichouni,B.Laribi,and P. Wauters(23), investigated experimentally the installation
effects on Venturi and Orifice flow meters. They presented results of an experimental
investigation on the effects of non-standards operating conditions (axisymmetric and
swirling flows) on the accuracy of the Venturi and the orifice flow meters. Their results
showed that the error caused by such non-standards operating conditions can be very
important and are well beyond the tolerated error limit by the existing international
standards. They came up with a conclusion that the accuracy of these devices depends
mainly on their position in a pipe network and that pipe fittings such as valves, bends
and other fixtures generate turbulence and swirl and distort the flow distribution in the
pipe. They showed that this disturbance altered significantly the measured performances
of the meters.
E. farsirotou, D. Kasiteropoulou, and D. stamatopoulou(1), conducted an investigated
experimentally fluid flow in horizontal pipe systems of various cross-section
geometries. They dealt with incompressible fluid flow in pipes. Their experimental
equipment consisted of a horizontal pipe including a gate valve, a Venturi meter, a wide
angle diffuser, an orifice plate, a 90-degree elbow and pressure tapings, with an elbow
that connects the pipe to a Rotameter with further pressure tapings. They held all
pressure tapings connected to manometers on a vertical panel behind the pipe work and
showed pressure at various points. They presented the effect of the pipe geometry in the
flow pattern and estimated the head losses at specific stream-wise cross-section, for
mass flow rate ranged from 0.056 to 0.411 L/s. They presented the diagrams of mass

20
flow rate and head losses in specific cross-sections, where geometry changes. Their
measurements were calibrated and validated in a maximum standard deviation
difference of 5%. Their end results showed that the head losses decrease as the mass
flow rate decreases, for all pipe geometries.
C. P. Ukpaka1 and V. M. Ndor(24), examined the flow characteristics of the fluid and its
effectiveness on orifice plate using pneumatic proportional control. The aim of their
work was to examine the flow characteristics upon the influence of temperature as well
as the effectiveness response of orifice plate using pneumatic proportional control. Their
results showed that changes in composition can change the effect of temperature on the
flow characteristics in a flow line system. The particular aspects of temperature impact
on their research work highlighted are density, viscosity and pressure characteristics.
They examine the effect of temperature on flow characteristics within the temperature
range of 283 to 323 K and used Bernoulli’s equation in developing a mathematical
model. They simulated their models using the numerical concept of a polynomial
expression of the best fit.
H.S. Sondha, S.N.Singhb, V. Seshadrib, B.K. Gandhic(25), were concerned with the
design and development of variable area orifice meter. They use a variable area orifice
meter to indicate the flow rate as a linear displacement of a symmetrical body placed
concentrically downstream of an orifice inside a constant area duct. They used three
shapes of symmetrical body, namely, a frustum of a cone, frustum of cone with hemi-
spherical base, and frustum of cone with hemispherical base and parabolic apex
downstream of an orifice to develop a variable area orifice meter. They performed such
experiments at different positions of the symmetrical bodies to evaluate the performance
of the variable area orifice meter. They proved that the frustum of cone having
hemispherical base and parabolic apex gives nearly linear variation of the flow rate with
its position for a constant pressure differential.
Kei Takahashi and Hiroyuki Matsuda(26), studied the cavitation characteristics of
restriction orifice. They conducted two experimental investigations for cavitation
characteristics of restriction orifices. Their first experiment was about the spatial
distribution of cavitation shock pressure in a pipe at the downstream of restriction
orifices. Their second experiment was the investigation of butterfly valve throttling to

21
the cavitation in a multi-perforated orifice installed piping. From the results of their
experiment for the cavitation shock pressure, it can be concluded the maximum shock
pressure remarkably increases with the decrease in cavitation number regardless of the
orifice types. The maximum shock pressure becomes smaller on cone type orifice, and
larger on single hole orifice. Multi-perforated orifice is between these two. Their results
of the experiment for occurrence of cavitation due to the interference of butterfly valve
showed that the cavitation occurs at relatively high cavitation umber when the multi-
perforated orifice is placed at 1D downstream of the butterfly valve. The butterfly valve
throttling accelerates the cavitation at the multi-perforated orifice because of the closed
orifice installation.
Lalit Kumar Bohra(27) research was about the flow and pressure drop of highly viscous
fluids in small aperture orifices. He studied the pressure drop characteristics of the flow
of highly viscous fluids through small diameter orifices. This was conducted to obtain
a better understanding of hydraulic fluid flow loops in vehicles. He measured pressure
drops for each of nine orifices, including orifices of nominal diameter 0.5, 1 and 3 mm,
and three thicknesses (nominally 1, 2 and 3 mm), and over a wide range of flow rates
(2.86×10-7< Q < 3.33×10-4 m3/s). He found that the fluid under consideration exhibits
steep dependence of the properties (changes of several orders of magnitude) as a
function of temperature and pressure, and is also non-Newtonian at the lower
temperatures. His data were non-dimensionalized to obtain Euler numbers and Reynolds
numbers using non-Newtonian treatment. He found that at small values of Reynolds
numbers, an increase in aspect ratio (length/diameter ratio of the orifice) causes an
increase in Euler number. He also found that at extremely low Reynolds numbers, the
Euler number was very strongly influenced by the Reynolds number, while the
dependence becomes weaker as the Reynolds number increases toward the turbulent
regime, and the Euler number tends to assume a constant value determined by the aspect
ratio and the diameter ratio. A two region (based on Reynolds number) model was
developed to predict the Euler number as a function of diameter ratio, aspect ratio,
viscosity ratio and generalized Reynolds number. He included data in his model at
higher temperatures (20 ≤ T ≤ 50oC), while the results show that for such highly viscous
fluids with non-Newtonian behavior at some conditions, accounting for the shear rate

22
through the generalized Reynolds number resulted in a considerable improvement in the
predictive capabilities of the model. Over the laminar, transition and turbulent regions,
his model predicted 86% of the data within ±25% for 0.32 < l/d (orifice
thickness/diameter ratio) < 5.72, 0.023 < β (orifice/pipe diameter ratio) < 0.137, 0.09
<Regeneralized< 9677, and 0.0194 <μgeneralized< 9.589 (kg/m.s).
R.G. Teyssandierand Z. D. Husain(28),conducted an experimental investigation of an
Orifice meter pressure gradient by including wall and plate pressure gradients in a 89
mm air flow orifice meter facility for 3 orifice plates covering a pipe Reynolds number
range from 21,000 to 160,000. They found that the influence of the orifice plate on the
upstream wall pressure gradient extended to 0.62D location, while this pressure gradient
was a weak function of the orifice plate β ratio and the downstream location of the
minimum pressure point located at about 3.3D heights. Their results of pressure gradient
on the face of the orifice plate showed that the deflection calculation based on any
differential pressure taps was conservative.
Having the literature review made and the work plan and necessary steps to accomplish
the current task for this project, the next step will devoted to discuss the basic theory of
orifice meters techniques to measure the mass flow rate as well as the theory of flow
through pipes, Reynolds number concept usage of orifice plate meters and their basic
design theory. This will be detailed in the next chapter.

23
 CHAPTER 3

THEORY OF ORIFICE PLATE FLOW METERS

Orifice flow meters are used to determine a liquid or gas flow rate by measuring the
differential pressure (P1and P2) across the orifice plate. Referring to chapter 1 of this thesis,
an orifice plate is a device that is used for measuring the volumetric flow rate. The theory
related to the flow through the orifice is based on Bernoulli equation, which states that the
total pressure head is constant along the streamline, for steady, incompressible, and
frictionless flow. They are potentially accurate measurement devices due to their sensitivity
to pressure and velocity heads.

3.1 General

According to chapter 2 of this thesis, early published research work proved that; (a) flow
through small circular orifices is not affected by boundaries, caused by the furrow perimeter
the water surface, or adjacent orifices, within one half orifice diameter of the orifice edge;(b)
square-edged furrow orifice submerged flow discharged coefficient is 0.625; (c) free flow
coefficients vary with the orifice size and head and thus free flow use is not recommended;
(d) the discharge coefficients are not affected by hole edge thickness up to a
thickness/diameter ratio of 1/3; and (e) orifice discharge coefficients are sensitive to
rounding of the upstream edge.
Orifice meters are typically less expensive to install and manufacture than the other
commonly used differential pressure flow meters; however, nozzle and Venturi flow
meters have the advantage of lower pressure drops. An orifice flow meter is typically
installed between flanges connecting two pipe sections, as shown in Figure 3.1. The three
standard pressure tapping arrangements are shown in the drawing; the location of the
pressure taps affects the discharge coefficient somewhat. Flange pressure taps penetrate
24
the flange and are at a standard distance of 1 inch (2.54 cm) from either side of the orifice.
For corner taps or D - D/2 taps, the pressure tap locations are as shown.
Orifices are typically less than 0.05D thick. For exact geometry and specifications for
orifices, one may consult ISO (1991) or ASME (1971). The ASME and ISO have been
working on guidelines for orifices since the early 1900s. The organizations have the most
confidence in orifice accuracy when the Reynolds number exceeds 105.Reynolds numbers
can go lower as low as 4x103, where the orifice behavior is related to the diameter ratio
d/D as discussed below(29,30).

Figure3.1- A concentric sharp edged orifice plate flow meter

3.2Flow through Pipes

A fundamental understanding of fluid flow is essential to almost every industry, as pipe

flow under pressure is used for a lot of purposes. In manufacturing industries, such as
chemical industries, large flow networks are necessary to achieve continuous transport of
products and raw materials from different processing units. This requires a detailed
understanding of fluid flow in pipes. To make it flow through the pipe, energy input to the
liquid is needed to cover the frictional energy loss, which is represented by a pressure head
loss. Determining pressure head losses is necessary for determining a lot of valuable
parameters such as the appropriate pump type and size, and the amount of the power
required.

25
Referring to the fluid mechanics, no slip condition means that the flow will take same
velocity as the adjacent solid boundary. Hence, the fluid velocity is zero at the fixed pipe
wall and gradually increases as we move towards the center of the pipe. Therefore, friction
will occur between the layers of different velocities within the fluid.
The effect of the pipe surface roughness depends on the nature of the fluid motion. For
laminar pipe flow, there is no effect for the surface roughness, while for turbulent pipe
flow; there are three different categories for the effect of surface roughness. This can be
classified as; smooth pipes, fully rough pipes, and transitional pipes.
As the average velocity increases, pressure losses increase. This is related to pipe size, i.e.
decreasing pipe size increases the velocity, which increases friction. The friction losses are
cumulative as the fluid travels through the length of pipe. Fluids with a high viscosity will
flow more slowly and will generally require more power to move(2,31,32). According to
Reynolds number, there are in general three types of fluid flow in pipes; laminar, turbulent,
and transitional flow.

3.3 The Reynolds Number

In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to
help predict similar flow patterns in different fluid flow situations. The concept was
introduced by George Gabriel Stokes in 1851, but the Reynolds number is named after
Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912), who popularized its use in 1883. The Reynolds number is
defined as the ratio of momentum forces to viscous forces and consequently quantifies the
relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow condition
Reynolds numbers are a very important guide and are widely used. The Reynolds number
can be defined for several different situations where a fluid is in relative motion to a
surface. These definitions generally include the fluid properties of density and viscosity,
plus a velocity and a characteristic length or characteristic dimension. For flow in a pipe,
the internal diameter is generally used. Other shapes such as rectangular pipes, have an
equivalent diameter defined as hydraulic diameter. The Reynolds number is defined below
for each case;

26
 Inertia Forces ρVL VL
Re = = = 3.1
Viscous Forces µ υ

Where:
V= the mean flow velocity (SI units: m/s)
L = a characteristic linear dimension, (m)
µ= the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m² or kg/(m·s))
υ = the kinematic viscosity, (m²/s)
ρ= the density of the fluid (kg/m³)

For flow in a pipe or tube, the Reynolds number is generally defined as(33);

ρVDH VDH QDH

Re = = = 3.2
µ υ υA

Where:
DH = the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (m)
Q =the volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
A= the pipe cross-sectional area (m²).

For shapes such as squared, rectangular or annular ducts, the hydraulic diameter, DH, is
defined as;

4A
DH = 3.3
P

Where, A is the cross-sectional area and P is the wetted perimeter. For a circular pipe, the
hydraulic diameter is exactly equal to the inside pipe diameter, D. That is; DH = D. For
calculations involving flow in non-circular ducts, the hydraulic diameter can be substituted
for the diameter of a circular duct, with reasonable accuracy.

27
For flow in a pipe of diameter D, experimental observations show that for "fully developed"
flow, laminar flow occurs when ReD < 2300 and turbulent flow occurs when ReD > 4000.
In the range between 2300 and 4000, mixed regime is possible and is called "transition"
flow. The transitional Reynolds numbers are also called critical Reynolds numbers. The
critical Reynolds number is different for every geometry(34).

3.4 The Usage of The Orifice Meter

Orifice plates are most commonly used to measure flow rates in pipes, when the fluid is
single-phase (rather than being a mixture of gases and liquids, or of liquids and solids) and
well-mixed, the flow is continuous rather than pulsating, the fluid occupies the entire pipe
(precluding silt or trapped gas), the flow profile is even and well-developed and the fluid
and flow rate meet certain other conditions. Under these circumstances and when the
orifice plate is constructed and installed according to the appropriate standards, the flow
rate can easily be determined using published formulae based on substantial published
industry-related research, national and international standards.
Plates are commonly made with sharp-edged circular orifices and installed concentric with
the pipe and with pressure tapings at one of three standard pairs of distances upstream and
downstream of the plate; these types are covered by ISO5167 and other major standards.
The pressure tapings may be located at other positions. In this meter, the orifice plate
creates a pressure drop. Based on the magnitude of pressure drop, flow rate can be
calculated.
There are many other possibilities. The edges may be rounded or conical, the plate may
have an orifice the same size as the pipe except for a segment at top or bottom which is
obstructed, and the orifice may be installed eccentric to the pipe. Generally, the orifice
plate has three different shapes, concentric, eccentric and segmental as shown in Figure 3.2
below(36,37).

28
 Figure 3.2- Orifice plate shapes

Figure3.2- Orifice plate shapes

Variations on these possibilities are covered in various standards and handbooks. Each
combination gives rise to different coefficients of discharge which can be predicted so long
as various conditions are met, conditions which differ from one type to another. Once the
orifice plate is designed and installed, the flow rate can often be indicated with an
acceptably low uncertainty simply by taking the square root of the differential pressure
across the orifice's pressure tappings and applying appropriate constants. Even compres-
sible flows of gases that vary in pressure and temperature may be measured with acceptable
uncertainty by merely taking the square roots of the absolute pressure and/or temperature,
depending on the purpose of the measurement and the costs of ancillary instrumentation.
Orifice plates are also used to reduce pressure or restrict flow, in which case they are often
called restriction plates.

3.5 Orifice Meter Basic Design Theory

Most of the non-mechanical flow meters for internal flows are based on the acceleration of
the fluid stream through some form of nozzle Flow separation at the sharp edge of the
nozzle throat causes a recirculation zone to form as shown by dashed lines downstream
from the nozzle. The main stream flow continues to accelerate from the nozzle throat to
form a vena contracta at section 2 and then decelerates again to reattach the walls and fill
the duct. At the vena contracta the flow passes through a minimum area, the flow stream

29
lines are essentially straight, and the pressure is uniform across the channel, as shown in
Figure3.3 below(35).

Figure3.3- Internal flow through a generalized nozzle

By assuming a steady, incompressible, and in viscid flow in a horizontal pipe, Bernoulli

equation can be applied along a stream line relating the conservation of energy between
two points on the same streamline, as follows:

1 1
P1 + ρ1 v12 = P2 + ρ2 v22 = const = Po 3.4
2 2

WherePo is the total or stagnation pressure of the flow in the flow field.The sum of static,
1
P, and dynamic pressures,2 ρV 2 , is the same everywhere in the pipe for the assumed zero

pressure head losses. Hence, the pressure differential across the meter is;

1
∆P = P1 − P2 = ρ(v22 − v12 ) 3.5
2

By continuity equation; the volume flow rate is;

Q = A1 . V1 = A2 . V2 3.6

Replacing the velocities with Q, the equation becomes as;

30
 1 1 1
∆P = P1 − P2 = ρQ2 ( 2 − 2 ) 3.7
2 A2 A1
Now, solving for Q; we find;

2(P1 − P2 )/ρ
Q = A2 √ 3.8
1 − (A2 /A1 )2

Or

1
Q = A2 √ √2(P1 − P2 )/ρ 3.9
1 − (D2 /D1 )4

The above expression for Q gives the theoretical volume flow rate. Introducing the beta
factor; as β= D2/D1, and exchange the unknown D2 with known d,

1
Q = Cd A2 √ √2(P1 − P2 )/ρ 3.10
1 − β4

Deriving the above equations used the cross-section of the orifice opening and is not as
realistic as using the minimum cross-section at the vena contracta. In addition, frictional
losses may not be negligible and viscosity and turbulence effects may be present. For that
reason, the coefficient of discharge Cd is introduced. Methods exist for determining the
coefficient of discharge as a function of the Reynolds number. Introducing the meter
coefficient, C, which is defined as;

Cd
C= 3.11
√1 − β4

31
The parameter, 1/ 1  β 4 , is often referred to as the velocity of approach factor. Methods

also exist for determining the flow coefficient as a function of the beta function β and the
location of the downstream pressure sensing tap. For rough approximations, the flow
coefficient may be assumed to be between 0.60 and 0.75. For the first approximation, a
flow coefficient of 0.62 can be used in the case of fully developed flow. Now, to obtain the
final equation for the volumetric flow of the fluid through the orifice; equation can be
written as;
Q = C A2 √2(P1 − P2 )/ ρ 3.12

To obtain the equation for the mass flow rate at any section of the pipe,multiply by the
density of the fluid. Hence;

𝑚. = ρQ = C A2 √2 ρ(P1 − P2 ) 3.13

The discharge coefficient (C ) can be calculated using the following equation (ISO):
0.75
2.1 8 2.5
106
C = 0.5959 + 0.0312β − 0.1840β + 0.0029β ( )
Re
L1 β4 L2 3
+ 0.0900 ( ) [ ] − 0.0337 ( )β 3.14
D (1 − β4 ) D
Where;
- β = diameter relation D2/D1 (or d/D1).
- ReD = Reynolds number.
- L1 and L2 = constants related to tap-type, as shown in Figure 3.4;

 L1=L2=0 for corner taps.

 L1=0.4333, L2=0.47 for D & D/2 taps.
 L1=L2=0.0254/D, D in [m] for 25.4 mm taps.

32
 Figure 3.4- Tap type L1 and L2 functions

The discharge coefficient Cd varies considerably with changes in the area ratio and
Reynolds number. The discharge coefficient Cd = 0.60 may be taken as standard, but the
value varies noticeably at low values of Reynolds number as shown in the Table 3.1 below.
Discharge coefficient
Diameter Reynolds number (Re)
ratio
104 105 106 107
β= D2/D1
0.2 0.60 0.595 0.594 0.594
0.4 0.61 0.603 0.598 0.598
0.5 0.62 0.608 0.603 0.603
0.6 0.63 0.610 0.608 0.608
0.7 0.64 0.617 0.609 0.609

Table 3.1- Discharge coefficient as a function of Reynolds number

and diameter ratio

The pressure recovery is limited for the orifice plates and the permanent pressure loss
depends primarily on the area ratio. For an area ratio of 0.5, the pressure head loss is about
70 - 75% of the orifice pressure differential(37,38).
The orifice can work effectively when supplied with a fully developed flow velocity profile.
This is achieved by a long upstream length (20 to 40 pipe diameters, depending on Reynolds
33
number) or by the use of a flow conditioner. Orifice plates are relatively small and
inexpensive but do not recover the pressure drop as the Venturi nozzle does. If space and
budget permit, a Venturi meter is more efficient than an orifice plate(36).

Having the basic theory of orifice meters techniques to measure the mass flow rate as well
as the theory of flow through pipes, Reynolds number concept usage of orifice plate meters
and their basic design theory discussed, the next step should devoted to the meter design
constraints and design procedure which will be detailed in the next chapter.

34
 CHAPTER 4

ORIFICE PLATE METER DESIGN

This chapter concerns the design of the orifice plate meter. Here, the design constraints
are stated, and the design point input data are determined. Finally, the design procedure
is outlined.

4.1 General

The principle of flow measurement using this meter is based on the installation of an
orifice plate into the pipeline in which the flowing fluid fills the pipe. This orifice causes
a static pressure difference between upstream and throat or downstream side of the
element. The flow rate can be determined from the measured value of this pressure
difference and from the properties of the flowing fluid. This pressure difference is created
because the fluid is forced to converge to go through the small hole and then diffuses to
fill the pipe again. The point of maximum convergence actually occurs shortly
downstream of the physical orifice, at the so-called “vena contracta” point, as shown in
Figure 4.1 below.
As it does so, the velocity and the pressure change. Beyond the vena contracta, the fluid
expands and the velocity and pressure change once again. By measuring the difference in
fluid pressure between the normal pipe section and at the vena contracta, the volumetric
or mass flow rates can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation.

Figure 4.1- Meter construction

35
The target of this project is then to design an orifice plate meter able to measure the
amount of water flow that is required to pour in order to cool apart of a nuclear reactor.
The design procedure is detailed below(39)

4.2 Design constraints

1. The orifice beta ratio (β); i.e. the diameter of the orifice divided by the diameter
of the internal diameter of the measuring pipe upstream of the orifice should lie
in the range of 0.2-0.8.However, it is advised to keep β below 0.7 and above 0.2,
as this affect strongly the percentage of uncertainty of the discharge coefficient.
2. The orifice plate should be a thin plate with circular concentric hole and with
sharp edges.
3. The pressure taps which are holes or annular slots in a flange fitting or the wall
of the pipe or throat of the device should be flush with the inside surface at the
pipe internal diameter. Usually, there are three types of such provided
arrangements; corner taps, D, and D/2 taps and flange taps. One of the tap types
should be selected before attempting the design process.
4. The orifice plate should be installed between two sections of straight cylindrical
pipe in which no obstruction or branch connection. The required upstream free
run length is 10 to 30D, while, the required downstream free run length is 5D.
5. The orifice plate shall be placed in the pipe in such a way that the fluid flows
from the upstream face towards the downstream face, as shown in Figure
4.1above.
6. The orifice plate should be perpendicular to the center line of the pipe to within
±1 deg.
7. The eccentricity of the orifice bore diameter d to the upstream pipe bore D can
result in an error in the discharge coefficient. The following equation can be used
to maintain the maximum permissible eccentricity:

36
 0.0025 D
ex < 4.1
0.1+2.3 β4

Where e is the eccentricity of the combination, D is the upstream pipe diameter,

and β is the orifice beta ratio. While in line sizes of nominal 75 mm or less, the
eccentricity should be no greater than 0.8 mm.
8. The minimum edge thickness of the orifice e of the orifice shall to or greater than
0.1 d but not less than 0.125mm. The maximum shall be equal to or less than
0.02D or equal to or less than 0.125d whichever is smaller, but not greater than
E (the plate thickness), as shown in Figure 4.2 below.
9. The values of e (orifice edge thickness) at any point on the orifice shall differ
among themselves by more than 0.001D.
10. The values of E (the plate thickness) measured at any point shall be minimum
given in Table 4.1 below, and a maximum of 1.5 times that value, but not greater
than 13 mm.
11. The bevel angle shown in Figure 4.2 below shall be approximately 45 deg.
12. The upstream edge G and the downstream edges hand is shown in Figure 4.2
below, shall have neither wire edges nor burs, nor, in general, any peculiarities
visible to the unaided eye.
13. The upstream edge G shall be sharp. If d ≥ 25 mm. This requirement may be
considered as satisfied by visual inspection. But if d ≤ 25 mm visual inspection
may not be sufficient.
14. For D and ½ D taps arrangement, the center line of taps shall meet the pipe center
line at right angles to it (±2 deg). For nominal pipe size 50 – 75 mm, the maximum
diameter of tap holes is 10 mm. While for nominal pipe sizes > 100 mm, the
maximum diameter of tap holes is 13 mm.
15. The pressure tap holes shall be circular and cylindrical, and spacing l1 and l2 (that
are the distances between the center line of the pressure tap and the plate of one
specified face of the orifice plate) limitations that are measured from the upstream
face of the orifice are shown in Figure 4.3 below. However, for D and ½ D
arrangement, the spacing l1 recommended value is nominally equal to D, but may
be D ± 5% without modification on the discharge coefficient. While the spacing

37
l2 recommended value is nominally equal to 0.5D, but may be 0.5D ± 1mm
without modification on the discharge coefficient(40, 41).

Figure 4.2- Standard orifice plate

38
Figure 4.3- Location for orifice flange and D and D/2 pressure taps(42)

39
 Table 4.1- Minimum orifice plate thickness(43)

Nominal Pipe Sizes

∆𝑃[ℎ𝑤 ] 50 mm ≤ 𝐷 ≤ 150 𝑚𝑚 150 mm ≤ 𝐷 ≤ 250 𝑚𝑚 250 mm≤ 𝐷 ≤ 500 𝑚𝑚 500 mm≤ 𝐷 ≤ 900 𝑚𝑚
[ 2in ≤ 𝐷 ≤ 6𝑖𝑛 ] [ 6 in ≤ 𝐷 ≤ 10 𝑖𝑛] [ 10 in ≤ 𝐷 ≤ 20 𝑖𝑛] [ 20 in ≤ 𝐷 ≤ 360 𝑖𝑛]

𝛽 ≤ 0.5
250 𝑘𝑝𝑎 3 mm 5 mm 10 mm 13 mm
[ 1005 in. H2O] [ 0.120 in ] [ 0.183 in ] [ 0.370 in ] [ 0.495 in]

50 𝑘𝑝𝑎 3 mm 3 mm 6 mm 10 mm
[201 in. H2O] [ 0.120 in ] [ 0.120 in ] [ 0.245 in ] [ 0.370 in]

25 𝑘𝑝𝑎 3 mm 3 mm 6 mm 10 mm
[ 100 in. H2O] [ 0.120 in ] [ 0.120 in ] [ 0.245 in ] [ 0.370 in]

𝛽 ≥ 0.5

250 𝑘𝑝𝑎 3 mm 5 mm 10 mm 13 mm
[ 1005 in. H2O] [ 0.120 in ] [ 0.183 in ] [ 0.370 in ] [ 0.495 in]

50 𝑘𝑝𝑎 3 mm 3 mm 5 mm 10 mm
[201 in. H2O] [ 0.120 in ] [ 0.120 in ] [ 0.183 in ] [ 0.370 in]

25 𝑘𝑝𝑎 3 mm 3 mm 5 mm 10 mm
[ 100 in. H2O] [ 0.120 in ] [ 0.120 in ] [ 0.183 in ] [ 0.370 in]

4.3 Design Point Input Data

To be able to design an orifice plate meter, some important input data should be
provided such as:

1. The required range of the flow rate to be measured.

2. The meter pressure drop permissible range.

40
 3. The tap type and accordingly, the sensors position.
4. The liquid type, and accordingly, its density.
5. The installation pipe inside diameter.
6. The liquid kinematic or dynamic viscosity.
7. The off design conditions.

All required data for the design process was found in reference (10) and summarized
below:
1. The required flow rate to cool a nuclear reactor at design point is 20 kg/sec.
2. The off design conditions are such:
a. The maximum and minimum water flow rates required are 30 kg/sec and 5 kg/sec,
respectively.
b. The maximum permissible pressure drop is 200 kPa.
3. The water temperature is 20oC, thus its density is 1000 kg/m3.
4. The pipeline inside diameter is 76 mm.
5. The water kinematic viscosity (υ) is 1.03x10-6m2/sec.

4.4 Design Procedure

The design equations were already detailed earlier in chapter 3 section 3.4. The sequence
and procedure of the design calculation process is described below:
1. First, compute the volumetric flow rate from the input mass flow rate:

𝑚̇
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 4.2
𝜌

2. Then, calculate the mean flow velocity in the pipe: where, A is the pipe cross-
sectional area, m2, given by:

𝜋
𝐴 = 𝐷2 4.3
4

3. Calculate the Reynolds’s number:

41
 𝑣𝐷 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝐷
𝑅𝑒= = 4.4
𝜗 𝜗𝐴

4. Set the desired value of the pressure drop which should be set in the SI units; Pa
(≤ to the maximum allowable pressure).

5. Assume a value for the orifice beta ratio (β), i.e. the diameter of the orifice divided
by the diameter of the internal diameter of the measuring pipe upstream of the
orifice in the range 0.2-0.8.
6. Calculate the pressure drop coefficient through the orifice (Cd) that can be
obtained from equation 3.14 defined earlier in chapter 3, section 3.4:

Cd = 0.5959 + 0.0312β2.1 − 0.1840β8 + 0.0029β2.5 (106 ⁄R e )0.75

+0.0900(L1 ⁄D)[β4 ⁄(1 − β4 )] − 0.0337(L2 ⁄D)β3 4.5

Where L1 and L2 are functions of tap type. For D & D/2 taps, L1=0.4333,
L2=0.47.
7. Orifice beta ratio (β) is already assumed.
8. Calculate the orifice diameter on the basis of the assumed for the orifice beta
ratio (β) as well as the orifice cross-sectional area:

𝑑𝑜𝑟𝑓 = 𝛽𝑥𝐷 4.6

𝜋
𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑓 = 𝑑 2 4.7
4
9. Calculate the velocity approach factor (E) by equation (3.11) defined earlier in
chapter 3, section 3.4:

1
𝐸=√ 4.8
1 − 𝛽4

10. Calculate the volumetric flow rate on the basis of all assumed and calculated
values by using equation 3.10 defined earlier in chapter 3, section 3.4:

42
 2Δ𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑓
𝑄𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐸𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑓 √ 4.9
𝜌

11. Compare the calculated flow rate by the orifice with the input desired value and
set an allowable difference between the two values to converge the solution (say
Δ ≤ 0.001), where:

Δ = 𝑎𝑏𝑠(𝑄𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛 ) 4.10

12. When the allowable difference between the two values is obtained then solution
at the design point is converged, otherwise repeat the calculation process with
other combinations of guessed values of orifice beta ratio (β) and repeat the
calculations till the required difference between the calculated flow rate by the
orifice and the input desired value is obtained.
13. Then repeat the design calculation process with different values of orifice pressure
drop and similarly, iterate the orifice beta ratio (β) till the required difference
between the calculated flow rate by the orifice and the input desired value (Δ) is
obtained.
14. In order to finalize and confirm the design calculations, i.e. to select the proper
orifice beta ratio (β) (orifice size) with suitable orifice pressure drop, it is required
to check the meter at off design conditions by the following procedure:
1. Since the meter geometry and the off design conditions are set, the calculation
procedure is repeated with the design orifice beta ratio (β) (i.e. size) obtained
earlier by iterating this time the orifice pressure drop only until the orifice beta
ratio (β) (i.e. orifice plate diameter) design point value is obtained.
2. On the meantime, the converged orifice pressure drop should be ≤ the maximum
off design allowable value. When this requirement is fulfilled (i.e. design point
orifice beta ratio (β) (i.e. size) with its corresponding orifice pressure drop) the
design calculations are valid and accordingly the design drawings of the meter can
be prepared for production purposes.

43
Having the orifice meter designed, the calculations and final design results should be then
presented and evaluated. In the meantime the meter calibration procedure should be
discussed. This will be detailed in the next chapter.

44
 CHAPTER 5

CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS

Calculations and final design results are presented in this chapter. Since, the nature of the
design calculation process is iterative, and in order to speed up and facilitate the process,
all relevant meter design equations detailed earlier in chapter 3 are programm-ed using
Fortran language by taking into account the design constraints and following the method
detailed earlier in chapter 4, section4.2. The typical orifice flow meter calibration stand
is described. Test stages and calculation procedure are presented.

5.1 Design and calculations summary

The program flow chart is shown in Figure 5.1 below, while the program listing is detailed
in Appendix (A) .The design point calculations (i.e. the design point mass flow rate is 20
kg/sec) were carried out with different values of orifice pressure drop of 50, 75 and 100
kPa (since the maximum allowed orifice pressure drop at off design condition is 200 kPa).
As already mentioned earlier in chapter 4, section 4.2., the off design water flow rates
required to be metered are 30 kg/sec as a maximum and 5 kg/sec as a minimum flow rates,
respectively.
For the design point calculations (i.e. the design point mass flow rate is 20 kg/sec|) and
an orifice pressure drop of 50 kPa, the solution converged with orifice beta ratio (β) of
0.76. This is exceeding the advisable maximum recommended value of 0.7 and thus
excluded from the design compromization.
While an orifice beta ratio (β) of 0.7 converges to the solution of the design point
calculations with a guessed orifice pressure drop of 75 kPa. This orifice beta ratio
(β),coincides exactly the advisable maximum recommended value of 0.7. It is worth to
mention here, that the orifice beta ratio (β) should be in the range between 0.2-0.8.
However, the optimum recommended maximum value found in literature which does not
affect the pressure drop coefficient is 0.7.
For the last design point calculations with a guessed orifice pressure drop of 100 kPa, the
solution converged with orifice beta ratio (β) is of 0.66. This is lower than the advisable

45
maximum recommended value of 0.7. The design point calculations, results and input
data with guessed values of orifice pressure drop of 50, 75 and 100 kPa, are listed in
Appendices 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,……,13 , respectively.

Input data
∆𝑷, 𝑴𝒘 , 𝝊𝒘 , 𝝆𝒘 , 𝑸𝒊𝒏

Calculation of volumetric flow rate 𝑸𝒊𝒏 , flow

Velocity 𝑽𝒊𝒏 , flow Reynolds number 𝑹𝒆

Select tape type, get 𝑳𝟏 and 𝑳𝟐

Guess Beta ( β) and calculate 𝑪𝒅

Calculate orifice diameter ,𝒅𝒐𝒓𝒇

Calculate velocity approach factor E

Calculate the flow rate through the orifice,𝑸𝒐𝒓𝒇

Compare𝑸𝒐𝒓𝒇 , with 𝑸𝒊𝒏 ,

∆𝑸 = 𝑸𝒐𝒓𝒇 − 𝑸𝒊𝒏 ≤ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏

N0
Check if results are O.k, if not guess new β and

repeat process

Yes

Finalize the design and print results

Figure 5.1- Orifice flow meter design flow chart

46
Now, in order to finalize the design process, the meter off design conditions should be
investigated at both the minimum and maximum off design mass flow rates values of 5
and 30 kg/sec, respectively. The calculation procedures as follows:

1. For the design point beta ratio (β) of 0.7, the calculation procedure is conducted
with minimum and maximum expected off design flow rates of 5 and 30 kg/sec,
respectively. By iterating this time the orifice pressure drop only until the orifice
beta ratio (β) (i.e. orifice plate diameter) design point value (0.7) is obtained. The
corresponding orifice pressure drop to meter 5 kg/sec is 3.4 kPa, while to meter 30
kg/sec, the corresponding orifice pressure drop is 180 kPa, which is below the
allowable maximum value. Also to meter 10 kg/sec, the corresponding orifice
pressure drop is 17 kPa
2. Then design point beta ratio (β) of 0.66 is selected and the off design calculation
procedure is repeated in a similar way (i.e. by iterating the orifice pressure drop
only with till the orifice beta ratio (β) (i.e. orifice plate diameter) design point value
is obtained).
The corresponding orifice pressure drop to meter 5 kg/sec is 4.5 kPa, while to meter 30
kg/sec, the corresponding orifice pressure drop is 245 kPa, which is exceeding the
allowable maximum value of 200 kPa. Also to meter 10 kg/sec, the corresponding orifice
pressure drop is 24 kPa.
The variation of mass flow rate with orifice pressure drops is plotted in Figure5.2 below.
By referring to this graph and as already discussed above, the meter with a beta ratio (β)
of 0.7 is selected since the orifice pressure drop at off design mass flow rate of 30 kg/sec
is permissible (180 kPa), while with a beta ratio (β) of 0.66, the orifice meter pressure
drop at the maximum off design mass flow of 30 kg/sec exceeds the maximum allowable
value (245 kPa).The meter design drawings are shown below in Figures 5.3- 5.4- 5.5- 5.6-
5.7,respectively.

47
 Orifice plate meter off design performance
280
260
240 design=0.7, dorf=53.3 mm
220
design=0.66, dorf=50.3 mm

200
Orifice pressure drop, Kpa

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5
Mass flow rate, kg/sec

Figure 5.2-Orifice meter off design performance

48
In order to investigate the validity of the design calculation results, the design equations
were programmed by using the EES ( Engineering Equation Solver) software and the
results were as follows:

 For the design point calculations of water mass flow rate of 20 kg/sec and an
orifice pressure drop of 50 kPa, the solution converged with orifice beta ratio (β)
0.75.
 At orifice pressure drop of 75 kPa, the value of beta ratio (β) was 0.69.
 For the last design point calculations with a guessed orifice pressure drop of 100
kPa, the solution converged with orifice beta ratio (β) 0.65.

The meter off design conditions were also investigated at both minimum and maximum
off design mass flow rates values of 5 and 30 kg/sec, respectively. The calculation
procedures as follows:

 For a water mass flow rate of 5 kg/sec and by iterating the orifice pressure drop
until the orifice beta ratio (β) (i.e. orifice plate diameter to pipe diameter) design
point value (0.69) is obtained, an orifice pressure drop of 3.4 kPa converged the
calculations.
 While for a water mass flow rate of 30 kg/sec, the corresponding orifice pressure
drop is 180 kPa, which is below the allowable maximum value.
 Also for a water mass flow rate of 10 kg/sec, the corresponding orifice pressure
drop is 17 kPa.

 For design point beta ratio (β) of 0.65,the corresponding orifice pressure drop to
meter 5 kg/sec of water is 4.5 kPa, while to meter 30 kg/sec of water, the
corresponding orifice pressure drop is 245 kPa, which is exceeding the allowable
maximum value of 200 kPa. Also to meter 10 kg/sec of water, the corresponding
orifice pressure drop is 24 kPa.

49
 A
1

8 holes Ø 8 equi-scaped at 45°

Ø143
Ø7 19
6.2 Ø1

A
Section A-A
MAT Scale 2:1
QTY 2
Aluminium

Date Name Title

Des. E.Mustafa
Proj. Flow Meter seals
Appr Dr.Elhadi

Drawing No.
ORF-METER-001-04
St. Modification Date Nam. Ursprung Ersatz für: Ersatz durch:

Figure 5.3- Orifice meter seal

50
 6 ±0.1
A
4±0.1

Ø1
43

45°

19
Ø1
±0.01
Ø137 ±0.1

Ø96 ±0.1

Ø50.3

±0.01
1.52

Section A-A A

Scale 2:1
QTY 1 Mat SST

Date Name Title

Des. E.Mustafa
Proj. Flow Meter Orifice Plate
Appr Dr.Elhadi

Drawing No.
ORF-METER-001-03
St. Modification Date Nam. Ursprung Ersatz für: Ersatz durch:

Figure 5.4- Orifice meter plate

51
 68 ±0.1 B
20 ±0.05
22.5°
Ø4±0.05
8 holes Ø8 equi-spaced at 45°

±0
.05

±0 Ø143
Ø7
Ø102 ±0.05

Ø137 ±0.05
.05
Ø82.4 +0.1

Ø96 ±0.05
0

6.2 19
±0
.05 Ø1

Section B-B
2
10±0.1 X B
°45

Scale 2:1
QTY 1 Mat SST
45°

Date Name Title

Des. E.Mustafa
Proj. Flow meter first flange
Appr Dr.Elhadi

2 Drawing No.
Detail X (scale 4:1) ORF-METER-001-01
St. Modification Date Nam. Ursprung Ersatz für: Ersatz durch:

Figure 5.5- Orifice meter first flange

52
 Section B-B
B
45 ±0.1 8 holes Ø8 equi-spaced at 45°
22.5°
±0.05
22
±0.1
Ø4

Ø143
Ø7
6.2 ±0. Ø119
±0.05

Ø102 ±0.05
Ø82.4 +0.1
±0.05

0
05
Ø137
Ø96

45°
B
±0.1
10
X
45°

Scale 2:1
QTY 1 Mat SST

Date Name Title

Des. E.Mustafa
Proj. Flow Meter Second Flange
Appr Dr.Elhadi
2
Drawing No.

Detail X (scale 4:1) ORF-METER-001-02

St. Modification Date Nam. Ursprung Ersatz für: Ersatz durch:

Figure 5.6- Orifice second flange

53
 Mat SST
Mat SST

Date Name Title

Des. E.Mustafa
Proj. Flow Meter Assembly
Appr Dr.Elhadi

Drawing No.
ORF-METER-001-00
St. Modification Date Nam. Ursprung Ersatz für: Ersatz durch:

Figure 5.7- Orifice flow meter assembly

54
Figure 5.8 – 3D first flange Figure 5.9-3D second flange

55
Flow direction

Figure 5.10- 3D Cross section in orifice flow meter

56
Figure 5.11- 3D Orifice plate Figure 5.12- 3D meter seal

57
5.2 Orifice Meter Calibration Test

Accuracy and precision of flow meters are the most important metrological parameters in
most industries especially when dealing with increasingly expensive fluids or in critical
applications. The accuracy of these devices depends not only on their construction and
method of operation but also their position in a pipe network. Valves, bends and other
fixtures generate turbulence and swirl and distort the flow distribution in the pipe. This
disturbance can significantly alter the measurements made by flow meters downstream
of these fittings.
Various research efforts have been made in order to improve the performance and the
accuracy of these devices. A fundamental understanding of the effects of flow meter
operational conditions upon the discharge coefficient is necessary to reduce or to
eliminate installation effects which decrease the accuracy of such devices. In the recent
years, concentrated research work has been devoted to study experimentally and
computationally the installation effects upon differential pressure flow meters. The major
conclusions reported that significant errors can be registered if the flow meter is working
under abnormal flow conditions. It is also concluded that more experimental and
numerical research effort is still needed to improve industrial flow metering
performances.

5.3 Orifice Meter Test Rig

The flow meter test rig is shown in Figure 5.13 is consisted primarily of a pressurized water
tank, orifice flow meter, airflow and water flow control valves for discharge, supply, and
safety purposes, It consists also of pressure sensors, differential transducer, as well as of a
converging nozzle fitted at the downstream end of the installation in order to obtain a water
pressure at the downstream tapping of orifice higher than atmospheric values. An air
compressor is also required to supply the water with pressurized air.

58
 5.4 Test Procedure

In the experimental set-up, the orifice should be first fitted in the water tank discharge
line, then all valves, discharge nozzle and pressure sensors should be installed in the
manner shown in Figure 5.13. In addition a water tank at the discharge line as well as
balance should be provided in order to collect and weight the orifice meter discharged
water flow.
The flow rate should be measured under fully developed flow condition (the meter should
being placed at some 100 pipe diameter from the entrance). Then, during the test, water
is pumped and allowed to fill the tank up to 90% maximum of its volume. This water
should be then pressurized to a certain desired values and allowed to flow through the
orifice meter, where its pressure is measured at the two tapings located at the orifice
upstream and downstream ends.
Next the water flow continues through a rapidly converging section along a settling length
where its pressure is measured at its upstream end, then is collected in a discharge tank
and weighted by a balance. The test should be repeated with different tank pressures and
data should be recorded. It should be noticed that all control valves should be of the
electromagnetic type to be controlled remotely using a personnel computer. This
computer should be equipped also with data acquisition card to be able to collect the water
pressure data during the test time period that can be set to 15 seconds. Since both time
and water weight will be known, the orifice water flow rate can be then experimentally
determined.

5.5 Calibration Procedure

From the water pressure values measured at the two tapings located at the orifice upstream
and downstream ends, the orifice water flow rate can be calculated using the semi-
empirical equation for discharge pressure. Then the percentage of error in the discharge
coefficient is determined as the ratio of the measured flow rate to the flow rate found from
the differential pressure measured through the meter under test.Finally, the percentage
shift in the discharge coefficient can be then determined by the following relationship:
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 −𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑙
∆𝐶𝑑 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠 [ 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠
] 𝑥100 5.1

Safety valve
59
Tank pressure sensor(pt)
 Air pressurizing vale

Water level Water tank

nozzle
Water supply to orifice valve
P3
Water drain and supply valve
vent

P1 P2

Collector water tank

Orifice

container

balance

Figure 5.13- orifice flow meter test stand

Meanwhile, there are other sources of errors in orifice flow meter measurements. These
include variations in pipe diameter, orifice plate machining tolerances and errors
introduced due to flange taps. The errors introduced by these sources are however
minimal.
Having the calculations and final design results presented and evaluated, as well as, the
meter calibration procedure discussed, the next should be devoted to conclusions and
future recommendations that will be detailed next. This will then finalize this work.

60
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The importance of flow measurement in the industry has grown in the past 50 year, not just because
it was widespread use for accounting purposes, such as custody transfer of fluid from supplier to
customers, but also because of its application in manufacturing processes. Examples of the
industrial involvement in flow measurement includes food and beverage, oil and gas industrial,
medical, petrochemical, power generation, and water distribution and etc.
This research point is concerned with the design of differential pressure flow meter of the orifice
type with respects to limitations recommended in literature. This meter type is known as cheap
meter and is very robust flow measurement device, very easy to use and can easily be adaptable to
many flow measurement applications. Its cost of operation is minimal and familiarity with the
device is near universal. All these pluses make the orifice plate the first choice measurement device
in almost every flow application. It does however have some limitations which makes the sizing
process a little tricky and thus requires calibration. Two main key limitations that have to be
considered include limited turn down and non-linear loss of accuracy at low flow rates.

Here, the meter is designed to measure the water mass flow rate required to cool a nuclear reactor
at design point of 20 kg/sec. The off design conditions in a range from 5 to 30 kg/sec minimum and
maximum flow rates, respectively, with maximum allowable orifice pressure drop of 200 kPa is
investigated. A mathematical model is written related to the governing basic laws. This is used in
the design of the desired orifice meter. All parameters that affect the meter design, performance
and the uncertainty are considered. The obtained design results should satisfy the recommended
constraints available in literature. Orifice fittings and pressure taps are an issue in meter design
that should be carefully selected for the purpose of inspection and calibration.

60
6.1 Conclusions

This project detailed the design process of an orifice meter to measure the water flow rate required
to cool a part of a nuclear reactor. However, orifices are less expensive and potentially accurate
furrow flow devices. Flow measurement accuracy decreases with head loss. Orifice head loss will
increase upstream infiltration that furrow orifices are more prone to plugging by trash and slower
to return to steady flow conditions and thus require more time to take readings. Accordingly, the
head loss range must be constrained to maintain measurement accuracy.
All of the pressure loss is not recovered because of friction and turbulence losses in the stream.
The pressure drop across the orifice increases when the rate of flow increases. When there is no
flow there is no differential. The differential pressure is proportional to the square of the velocity;
it therefore follows that if all other factors remain.
However the relationship is not linear. At low flow rates, the error in DP measurement becomes
large making the device less accurate at low flow, as shown in Figure below. Consequently, a low
full-scale DP corresponding to maximum flow introduces errors at low flow rates while a high
full-scale DP may achieve good accuracy but may come at a greater energy cost (pumping cost)
and a permanent pressure loss in the system which may far outweigh the gain in accuracy.
Meanwhile, there are other sources of errors in orifice flow meter measurements. These include
variations in pipe diameter, orifice plate machining tolerances and errors introduced due to flange
taps. The errors introduced by these sources are however minimal.
All necessary design equations were developed and the design input data found in reference 1;
chapter 4 is used for the current design case. The design point water flow rate is 20 kg/sec while
in off design conditions the meter is required to measure a flow range from minimum 5 to 30
kg/sec, respectively, with maximum allowable orifice pressure drop 200 kPa.
The design point calculations were carried out with different values of orifice pressure drop of 50,
75 and 100 kPa. It worth to notice that the orifice beta ratio (β) of 0.76 converge the solution for a
selected orifice pressure drop 50kPa, but will not be considered as this ratio exceeds the advisable
maximum recommended value of 0.7.Also an orifice beta ratio (β) of 0.7 is required in order
toconverge the solution for a guessed orifice pressure drop of 75 Kpa. This orifice beta ratio (β)
matches exactly the advisable maximum recommended value of 0.7.

61
While the orifice beta ratio (β) of 0.66 converge an orifice pressure drop of 100 kPa and as it is
lower than the advisable maximum recommended value of 0.7, it is accepted from the design point
view.
To finalize the design calculation and come up with the most suitable orifice meter size, the meter
off design conditions was investigated at both recommended minimum and maximum off design
mass flow rates of 5 and 30 Kg/sec, respectively. The calculation procedure involves iteration of
the orifice pressure drop to match the required design point orifice beta ratio (β). For an orifice
beta ratio (β) of 0.7, a pressure drop of 3.4 kPais required to measure 5 kg/sec, while to meter 30
kg/sec, the corresponding orifice pressure drop is 180 kPa.
In a similar manner, the off design calculations were repeated for an orifice beta ratio (β) of 0.66.
An orifice pressure drop to quantify 5 kg/sec is 4.5 kPa, while to meter 30 kg/sec, the orifice
pressure drop is 245 kPa. This is exceeding the maximum permissible value of 200 kPa.
Accordingly, the meter is designed with an orifice beta ratio (β) of 0.7.
To speed up the calculation process the relevant design equations were programmed using
FORTRAN language and program listing is detailed in Appendix 1. Also, the design drawings
were prepared by using AutoCAD software. In the meantime, the design calculations were
repeated by using EES software in order to check the validity of the obtained results.

62
The following table provides comparison between the results obtained from the FORTRAN program and EES software:

Results by using Fortran program Results by using EES software

Pressure drop Mass flow rate Discharge Throat velocity Throat head Beta ratio Discharge Throat velocity Throat head Beta ratio
coefficient (CD) coefficient (CD)
(∆𝑃) (𝑚̇) ( VT) ( HT) (β) ( VT) ( HT) (β)

50 Kpa 20 0.6089 7.593m/sec 2.938 m 0.76 0.6092 7.801 m/sec 3.101 m 0.75
Kg/sec

75 Kpa 20 kg/ sec 0.6097 8.950 m/sec 4.083 m 0.7 0.6096 9.216 4.329 m 0.69
m/sec

100 Kpa 20 kg/sec 0.6093 10.068 m/sec 5.166 m 0.66 0.6091 10.39 5.497 m 0.65
m/sec

3.4 Kpa 5 kg/sec 0.6147 2.238 m/sec 0.255 m 0.70 0.6145 2.304 m/sec 0.2706 m 0.69

17 Kpa 10 kg/sec 0.6116 4.475 m/sec 1.021 m 0.70 0.6114 4.608 m/sec 1.082 m 0.69

180 kpa 30 kg/sec 0.6090 13.425 m/sec 9.187 m 0.70 0.6089 13.82 m/sec 9.741 m 0.69

60
While Figure 6.1 below shows the discharge coefficient error plotted against the meter mass flow

rate and the corresponding orifice pressure drop for a beta ratio 0.7.

0.050 200
Cd, error
0.045 180
dp
0.040 160
% Error in dicharge coefficient

0.035 140

Presure drop, KPa

0.030 120

0.025 100

0.020 80

0.015 60

0.010 40

0.005 20

0.000 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Water mass flow rate, kg/sec

Figure 6.1 – Comparison between calculated results by using Fortran and EES softwares

6.2Recommendations

1- The meter should be produced according to the design drawings.

2- As the accuracy can be strongly affected by the meter position in a pipe network resulted
by valves, bends and other fixtures generate turbulence and swirl and distort the flow
distribution in the pipe; a calibration test should be then conducted.
3- .The flow rate should be measured under fully developed flow condition (the meter should
being placed at some 100 pipe diameter from the entrance).
4- Measurements should be done with different feed pressures and data should be recorded.
5- Experimental data should be sampled with 15 seconds at least.
6- All pressure sensors should be calibrated before measurements are done.

60
7- The water flow rate through the orifice should be then weighted by collecting the
discharged water that in a discharge tank by using high accuracy balance.
8- Then the orifice water flow rate should be calculated by the semi-empirical equation 3.10
defined earlier in chapter 3, section 3.4, and by using the measured pressure values at the
two tapings located at the orifice upstream and downstream ends.
9- The percentage of error in the discharge coefficient can be then can be easily determined
as the ratio of the measured flow rate to the calculated one.
10- When dealing with other liquids than water the correction factor should include the square
root of the density ratio as follows:

𝜌𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = √
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

61
References

1- E. farsiotou, A. D. kasiteropoulou& D. stamatopoulou,“Experimental investigation of

Fluid flow in horizontal pipes system of various cross- section geometries”.
2- Roger C. Baker, “Flow measurement handbook”, Cambridge University. press. ISBN 978-
0-521-01765-7
3- Richard Steven, “Flow meter types and their principles”,Seil Enterprise Halla Sigma
Valley, Gasan-Dong Geumcheon- Gu Seoul, Korea. Co. © 2006.
4- Tom Bruce, “Flow measurement methods”, The University of Edinburgh School of
Engineering and Electronics, Feb., 2006.
5- www. Engineering toolbox.com.
6- Thomas J. Trout, “Orifice plates for furrow flow measurement”.
7- Smith Metering, inc, “Fundamentals Of Orifice Metering”.
8- www. imnoeng.com.
9- https:// w.google.com.ly.
10- www. en. Wikipedia.Org.
11- The chemical engineers Resources page 1442 Goswick Ridge Road.
12- KLM Technology group, “Fluid flow measurement: Selecting and Sizing”.
13- A L Ling, Fluid Flow, “Measurement Selection and Sizing of Orifice Meters”,
Engineering Guide Line, KLM Technology, March, 2007.
14- Gerry Pickens, “Overview of Flow Principles and Pressure-Based Flow”, Kevin
Brown Measurement, AZO Network Dec 5, 2013.
15- E.L. UPP &, Paul J.LaNasa, “Fluid Flow Measurement: A practical Guide to
Accurate Flow Measurement”, Second Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, 2002.
16- ASME Standard, “Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes using, Orifice, Nozzle, and
Venturi”, ASME MFC-3M-1989.
17- ASME Standard, ”Measurement of Fluid Flow by Means of Coriolis Mass Flow
meters”, ASME MFC-11M-1989.
18- Allen Chandler, “Testing of an Orifice Plate Meter Diagnostic Systemat the
ATMOS”,Energy Corp. Training Center, DP Diagnostics LLC, AGA 2013.

65`
19- Colter L. Hollingshead, “Discharge Coefficient Performance of Venturi, Standard
Concentric Orifice Plate, V-Cone, and Wedge Flow Meters at Small Reynolds Numbers”,
M.Sc. Thesis, Utah State University, 2011.
20- Mark Skelton &Simon Barrons, “Effects of the latest revision of ANSI/API
2530/AGA 3On orifice meter primary elements”, North Sea Flow Measurement
Workshop, Scotland 2010.
21-Jiunn-Haur Shaw & John D. Wright, “Advances in Flow Measurement”,
15thFLOMEKOConference, Volume 25, Pages 1-78 (June 2012).
22- Smith Eiamsa-ard, ArtitRidluan, PrachyaSomravysin&PongjetPromvonge,
“Numerical Investigation of Turbulent Flow Througha Circular Orifice”, KMITL Sci. J.
Vol.8 No.1 JanuaryJune, 2008.
23- Aichouni, B. Laribi&P. Wauters, :Experimental Investigation of the Installation
Effects on Venturi and Orifice Flow Meters”, ASME Fluids Engineering Conference,
New Orleans, USA, May 29 –June 1, 2001.
24- C. P. Ukpaka1 & V. M. Ndor,“Flow Characteristics of Fluid and its Effectivenesson
Orifice Plate using Pneumatic Proportional Control”,Journal of Engineering and
Technology Research, Vol. 5, pp. 112-121, June 2013.
25- H.S. Sondha, S.N. Singhb,V. Seshadrib&B.K. Gandhic, “Design and Development
of Variable Area Orifice Meter”, MarutiUdhog Ltd., Gurgaon Haryana, India,30 May
2002.
26- Kei Takahashi, “Cavitation Characteristics of Restriction Orifices”, Hiroyuki
MatsudaChitose Institute of Science and Technology, Hokkaido, JAPAN, 2001.
27- Lalit Kumar Bohra, “Flow and Pressure Drop of Highly Viscosity Fluids in Small
Aperture Orifices”, M.Sc. thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology June 2004.
28-R. G. Teyssandier&Z. D. Husain, “Experimental Investigation of an Orifice Meter
Pressure Gradient”, Journal of Fluids Engineering,Volume 109, Issue 2, October 26,
2009.
29- Furness, Richard, “A. fluid flow measurement” Harlow: long man in association with
the Institute of Measurement and control.
30-Omega Engineering technical reference “Introduction to flow meters”
31- Laws, E,M,Ouazzane,A.K.&,Erdal, “A short Installation for Accurate Orifice
plateflow Metering”: fluid Engineering Division-vol.193.

66`
32- Control L. Hollingshead “Discharge Coefficient performance of Venturi, standard
Concentric Orifice plate, V-Cone, and Wedge Flow Meters at small Reynolds
Numbers”., Solve .nitk .ac. In
34- https// en.Wikipedia. Org
35- peter Lau, “ Calculation Of Flow Rate From Differential Pressure Devices- Orifice
Plates” , EMATEM- Sommerschulekloster see on- August 2-4, 2008.
36- https:// www.google. com
37- www. ematem.org/ Dokumente/ 2008- lau- calculate. pdf
38- UK Environment Agency, “Cooling Water Options for the New Generation of
Nuclear Power Stations in the UK”, 2010
39- Robinson, A. R., “Orifice plates for furrow flow measurement”, Unpublished report
of the USDA-ARS Soil and Water Conservation Research Division and Colorado
Agric. Exp. Station,1959.
40- Trout, Thomas I.,and Bruce E. Mackey, “Inflow-outflow infiltration measurement
accuracy”, Unpublished report to be submitted to TRANSACTIONS of the ASAE,
1985.
41- Trout,ThomasI., “Orifice plates for furrow flowmeasurement; Calibration”,
TRANSACTIONS of the ASAE29(1):103-107, 111 (this issue), 1986.

42- USDA Soil Conservation Service, “Measurement of irrigation water”, SCS National
Engineering Handbook, Section 15, Chapter 9, pp. 9-5 to 9-9, 1962.
43- ASME MFC-3M, “Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes using”, Orifice, Nozzle, and
Venturi, An American National Standard, revised 1995.

67`
Appendix 1- Thin plate orifice meter design program listing

C*****************************************************************
C PROGRAM FOR CALCULATING THE GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS OF THE
C ORIFICE PLATE METER FOR FLUID FLOWING IN PIPES FOR MASS FLOW
C RATE MEASUREMENT
C*****************************************************************
OPEN (2,FILE='ORIFf.DAT')
OPEN (3,FILE='ORIFW.OUT')
READ(2,*) PIE
READ(2,*) AMDOT
READ(2,*) RHO
READ(2,*) D1
READ(2,*) DP
READ(2,*) ANU
READ(2,*) G
AREA=(((D1/1000.)**2)*PIE)/4.
AQIN=AMDOT/RHO
V1=AMDOT/(RHO*AREA)
ARN=(V1*(D1/1000.))/ANU
DP=DP*1E3
BETAIN=0.2
BETA=BETAIN
DO 10 I=1,3000
C PRINT *,'BETA',BETA
C CORNER TAPS
C F1=0.0
C F2=0.0
C D:1/2D TAPS
F1=0.4333
F2=0.47
C FLANGE TAPS
C A) D1 > 2.3 IN
C NOTE THE DIAMETER SHOULD BE IN IN
C DIN=D1*39.37007874
C F1=1.0/DIN
C F2=1.0/DIN
C B) 2.0 < (OR EQUAL) D1 > (OR EQUAL)2.3 IN
C NOTE THE DIAMETER SHOULD BE IN IN
C DIN=D1*39.37007874
C F1=0.4333
C F2=1.0/DIN
FB=0.5959+(0.0312*(BETA**2.1))-(0.184*(BETA**8.0))
FB1=91.71*(BETA**2.5)*(1.0/ARN**0.75)
FB2=((0.09*BETA**4.)/(1.-BETA**4.))*F1
FB3=0.0337*(BETA**3.)*F2
CD=FB+FB1+FB2-FB3
E=(1.0/((1.-BETA**4.)**0.5))
DORF=BETA*D1
AREAOR=(PIE/4.)*((DORF/1000.)**2)
AQ=CD*E*AREAOR*SQRT((2.*DP)/RHO)
C PRINT *,'CD',CD
C PRINT *,'E',E
C PRINT *,'DP',DP
C PRINT *,'AMDOT2',AMDOT2
C PRINT *,'AQ',AQ
C PRINT *,'AMDOT',AMDOT
C PRINT *,'AREAOR',AREAOR
C PRINT *,'DORF',DORF
C write(3, *) ,CD
C PRINT *,'E',E
DELTA=ABS(AQIN-AQ)
C PRINT *,'DELTA',DELTA
PRINT *,'AQ',AQ
IF (DELTA.LT.0.001) GOTO 20
BETA=BETA+0.01
C PRINT *,BETA2',BETA2
10 CONTINUE
20 BETAF=BETA
PRINT *,'BETAF',BETAF
PRINT *,'AQIN',AQIN
C PRINT *,'D',D
D0=BETAF*D1
C THROAT VELOCITY
VT=V1/(BETAF**2)
C THROAT HEAD
HT=VT**2/(2.*G)
C EDGE THICKNESS (0.005-0.02D)
TE=0.02*D1
C PLATE THICKNESS (UP TO 0.05 D)
TP=0.05*D1
C BEVEL ANGLE (45-60 DEG)
ANG=45.0
C THROAT NO-RECOVERABLE HEAD LOSS (hm)
AKM=2.88824-(1.08375*BETAF)-(2.2631*BETAF**2.)
HM=AKM*(VT**2./(2.*G))
DP=DP/1E5
C*****************************************************************
C OUTPUT FILE STARTS NOW
C*****************************************************************
WRITE(3,1)
1 FORMAT (//1H0,5X,'THIN PLATE ORIFICE DESIGN FOR PUMP INLET W'
1'ATER FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT'/6X,66(1H-))
WRITE(3,2)
2 FORMAT (//1H0,3X,'IMPORTANT REMARKS'/4X,17(1H-)/)
WRITE(3,3)
3 FORMAT (3X,'-DESIGN IS FOR D:1/2 d TAPS: PIPE-WALL'
1' TAPS AT d UPSTREAM')
WRITE(3,4)
4 FORMAT (3X, ' AND 1/2D DOWN STREAM'/)
WRITE(3,5)
5 FORMAT (3X,'-BETA (d/D) RANGES SHOULD BE BETWEEN 0.2 -0.8 '//
13X,'-ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 12.5 mm')
WRITE(3,6)
6 FORMAT (//1H0,3X,'DESIGN RESULTS'/4X,14(1H-)/)
WRITE(3,7) AMDOT,DP,ARN,CD,E,VT,V1,HT,BETAF,ALPHA2,HM
7 FORMAT (2X,'DESIGN FLOW RATE',9X,'(MDOT)',13X,'='2X,F12.3,
!2X,'kg/sec'/2X,'DESIGN PRESSURE DROP',5X,'(DP)',15X,'='2X,F12.3,
!2X,'BAR'/2X,'RENOLDS NUMBER',11X,'(RE)',15X,'='2X,F12.3,
!/2X,'DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT',4X,'(CD)',15X,'='2X,F9.4/
!2X,'VELOCITY OF APPROACH FACTOR',17X,'='2X,F9.4/
!2X,'THROAT VELOCITY',10X,'(VT)',15X,'='2X,F9.3,
 !2X,'m/sec'/2X,'FLOW ARVERAGE VELOCITY',3X,'(VA)',15X,'='2X,F9.3,
!2X,'m/sec'/2X,'THROAT HEAD',33X,'='2X,F9.3,2X,'m'/
!2X,'BETA RATIO OF THE METER (B=d/D)',12X,'=',F9.3/
!2X,'ALPHA',39X,'='2X,F9.4/2X,'NON-RECOVERABLE HEAD LOSS',
!19X,'='2X,F9.3,2X,'m'/)
WRITE(3,8)
8 FORMAT (//1H0,3X,'METER DIMENSIONS'/4X,16(1H-)/)
write(3,9) D0,D1,ANG,TE,TP
9 FORMAT (2X,'ORIFICE DIAMETER',12X,'(d)',15X,'='2X,F9.3,
!2X,'mm'/2X,'PIPE DIAMETER',15X,'(D)',15X,'='2X,F9.3,2X,'mm'/
!2X,'BEVEL ANGLE',35X,'='2X,F9.1,2X,'deg'/
!2X,'ORIFICE EDGE THICKNESS',24X,'='2X,F9.3,2X,'mm'/
!2X,'PLATE THICKNESS',31X,'='2X,F9.3,'mm')
STOP
END

Appendix 2- Thin plate orifice meter design point program input data for 50 Kpa pressure drop

3.141592654 !PIE
20.0 !DESIRED RANGE OF FLOW RATE (KG/sec)
1000. !FLUID DENSITY (kg/sec)
76.2 !PIPE INSIDE DIAMETER (mm)
50.0 !DESIRED PRESSURE DROP (KPA)
1.02E-06 !FLUID KINEMATIC VISCOSITY (m/sec2)
9.81 !GRAVITIONAL ACCELERATION (m/sec2)

Appendix 3- Thin plate orifice meter design point program output results for 50 Kpa pressure drop

0 THIN PLATE ORIFICE DESIGN FOR PUMP INLET WATER FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
------------------------------------------------------------------

0 IMPORTANT REMARKS
-----------------

-DESIGN IS FOR D:1/2 d TAPS: PIPE-WALL TAPS AT d UPSTREAM

AND 1/2D DOWN STREAM

-BETA (d/D) RANGES SHOULD BE BETWEEN 0.2 -0.8

-ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 12.5 mm

0 DESIGN RESULTS
--------------
 DESIGN FLOW RATE (MDOT) = 20.000 kg/sec
DESIGN PRESSURE DROP (DP) = .500 BAR
RENOLDS NUMBER (RE) = 327631.000
DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT (CD) = .6089
VELOCITY OF APPROACH FACTOR = 1.2250
THROAT VELOCITY (VT) = 7.593 m/sec
FLOW ARVERAGE VELOCITY (VA) = 4.386 m/sec
THROAT HEAD = 2.938 m
BETA RATIO OF THE METER (B=d/D) = .760
NON-RECOVERABLE HEAD LOSS = 2.226 m

0 METER DIMENSIONS
----------------

ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) = 57.912 mm

PIPE DIAMETER (D) = 76.200 mm
BEVEL ANGLE = 45.0 deg
ORIFICE EDGE THICKNESS = 1.524 mm
PLATE THICKNESS = 3.810mm

Appendix 4- Thin plate orifice meter design point program input data for 75 Kpa pressure drop

3.141592654 !PIE
20.0 !DESIRED RANGE OF FLOW RATE (KG/sec)
1000. !FLUID DENSITY (kg/sec)
76.2 !PIPE INSIDE DIAMETER (mm)
75.0 !DESIRED PRESSURE DROP (KPA)
1.02E-06 !FLUID KINEMATIC VISCOSITY (m/sec2)
9.81 !GRAVITIONAL ACCELERATION (m/sec2)

Appendix 5- Thin plate orifice meter design point program output results for pressure drop of 75 Kpa

0 THIN PLATE ORIFICE DESIGN FOR PUMP INLET WATER FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
------------------------------------------------------------------

0 IMPORTANT REMARKS
-----------------

-DESIGN IS FOR D:1/2 d TAPS: PIPE-WALL TAPS AT d UPSTREAM

AND 1/2D DOWN STREAM

-BETA (d/D) RANGES SHOULD BE BETWEEN 0.2 -0.8

-ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 12.5 mm

0 DESIGN RESULTS
--------------

DESIGN FLOW RATE (MDOT) = 20.000 kg/sec

DESIGN PRESSURE DROP (DP) = .750 BAR
RENOLDS NUMBER (RE) = 327631.000
DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT (CD) = .6097
VELOCITY OF APPROACH FACTOR = 1.1472
THROAT VELOCITY (VT) = 8.950 m/sec
FLOW ARVERAGE VELOCITY (VA) = 4.386 m/sec
THROAT HEAD = 4.083 m
BETA RATIO OF THE METER (B=d/D) = .700
NON-RECOVERABLE HEAD LOSS = 4.167 m

0 METER DIMENSIONS
----------------

ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) = 53.340 mm

PIPE DIAMETER (D) = 76.200 mm
BEVEL ANGLE = 45.0 deg
ORIFICE EDGE THICKNESS = 1.524 mm
PLATE THICKNESS = 3.810mm

Appendix 6- Thin plate orifice meter design program design point input data for 100 Kpa pressure drop

3.141592654 !PIE
20.0 !DESIRED RANGE OF FLOW RATE (KG/sec)
1000. !FLUID DENSITY (kg/sec)
76.2 !PIPE INSIDE DIAMETER (mm)
100. !DESIRED PRESSURE DROP (KPA)
1.02E-06 !FLUID KINEMATIC VISCOSITY (m/sec2)
9.81 !GRAVITIONAL ACCELERATION (m/sec2)

Appendix 7- Thin plate orifice meter design point program output results for pressure drop of 100 Kpa

0 THIN PLATE ORIFICE DESIGN FOR PUMP INLET WATER FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
------------------------------------------------------------------

0 IMPORTANT REMARKS
-----------------

-DESIGN IS FOR D:1/2 d TAPS: PIPE-WALL TAPS AT d UPSTREAM

AND 1/2D DOWN STREAM

-BETA (d/D) RANGES SHOULD BE BETWEEN 0.2 -0.8

 -ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 12.5 mm

0 DESIGN RESULTS
--------------

DESIGN FLOW RATE (MDOT) = 20.000 kg/sec

DESIGN PRESSURE DROP (DP) = 1.000 BAR
RENOLDS NUMBER (RE) = 327631.000
DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT (CD) = .6093
VELOCITY OF APPROACH FACTOR = 1.1109
THROAT VELOCITY (VT) = 10.068 m/sec
FLOW ARVERAGE VELOCITY (VA) = 4.386 m/sec
THROAT HEAD = 5.166 m
BETA RATIO OF THE METER (B=d/D) = .660
NON-RECOVERABLE HEAD LOSS = 6.133 m

0 METER DIMENSIONS
----------------

ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) = 50.292 mm

PIPE DIAMETER (D) = 76.200 mm
BEVEL ANGLE = 45.0 deg
ORIFICE EDGE THICKNESS = 1.524 mm
PLATE THICKNESS = 3.810mm

Appendix 8- Thin plate orifice meter off-design point program input data for β=0.7,
mass flow rate=5 Kg/sec

3.141592654 !PIE
5.0 !DESIRED RANGE OF FLOW RATE (KG/sec)
1000. !FLUID DENSITY (kg/sec)
76.2 !PIPE INSIDE DIAMETER (mm)
3.4 !DESIRED PRESSURE DROP (KPA)
1.02E-06 !FLUID KINEMATIC VISCOSITY (m/sec2)
9.81 !GRAVITIONAL ACCELERATION (m/sec2)
Appendix 9- Thin plate orifice meter off-design point program output results for β=0.7,
mass flow rate=5 Kg/sec

0 THIN PLATE ORIFICE DESIGN FOR PUMP INLET WATER FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
------------------------------------------------------------------

0 IMPORTANT REMARKS
-----------------

-DESIGN IS FOR D:1/2 d TAPS: PIPE-WALL TAPS AT d UPSTREAM

AND 1/2D DOWN STREAM

-BETA (d/D) RANGES SHOULD BE BETWEEN 0.2 -0.8

-ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 12.5 mm

0 DESIGN RESULTS
--------------

DESIGN FLOW RATE (MDOT) = 5.000 kg/sec

DESIGN PRESSURE DROP (DP) = .034 BAR
RENOLDS NUMBER (RE) = 81907.740
DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT (CD) = .6147
VELOCITY OF APPROACH FACTOR = 1.1472
THROAT VELOCITY (VT) = 2.238 m/sec
FLOW ARVERAGE VELOCITY (VA) = 1.096 m/sec
THROAT HEAD = .255 m
BETA RATIO OF THE METER (B=d/D) = .700
NON-RECOVERABLE HEAD LOSS = .260 m

0 METER DIMENSIONS
----------------

ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) = 53.340 mm

PIPE DIAMETER (D) = 76.200 mm
BEVEL ANGLE = 45.0 deg
ORIFICE EDGE THICKNESS = 1.524 mm
PLATE THICKNESS = 3.810mm
Appendix 10- Thin plate orifice meter off-design point program input data for β=0.7,
mass flow rate=10 Kg/sec

3.141592654 !PIE
10.0 !DESIRED RANGE OF FLOW RATE (KG/sec)
1000. !FLUID DENSITY (kg/sec)
76.2 !PIPE INSIDE DIAMETER (mm)
17. !DESIRED PRESSURE DROP (KPA)
1.02E-06 !FLUID KINEMATIC VISCOSITY (m/sec2)
9.81 !GRAVITIONAL ACCELERATION (m/sec2)

Appendix 11- Thin plate orifice meter off-design point program output results for β=0.7,
mass flow rate=10 Kg/sec

0 THIN PLATE ORIFICE DESIGN FOR PUMP INLET WATER FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
------------------------------------------------------------------

0 IMPORTANT REMARKS
-----------------

-DESIGN IS FOR D:1/2 d TAPS: PIPE-WALL TAPS AT d UPSTREAM

AND 1/2D DOWN STREAM

-BETA (d/D) RANGES SHOULD BE BETWEEN 0.2 -0.8

-ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 12.5 mm

0 DESIGN RESULTS
--------------

DESIGN FLOW RATE (MDOT) = 10.000 kg/sec

DESIGN PRESSURE DROP (DP) = .170 BAR
RENOLDS NUMBER (RE) = 163815.500
DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT (CD) = .6116
VELOCITY OF APPROACH FACTOR = 1.1472
THROAT VELOCITY (VT) = 4.475 m/sec
FLOW ARVERAGE VELOCITY (VA) = 2.193 m/sec
THROAT HEAD = 1.021 m
BETA RATIO OF THE METER (B=d/D) = .700
NON-RECOVERABLE HEAD LOSS = 1.042 m

0 METER DIMENSIONS
----------------

ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) = 53.340 mm

PIPE DIAMETER (D) = 76.200 mm
BEVEL ANGLE = 45.0 deg
ORIFICE EDGE THICKNESS = 1.524 mm
PLATE THICKNESS = 3.810mm
 Appendix 12- Thin plate orifice meter off-design point program input data for β=0.7,
mass flow rate=30 Kg/sec

3.141592654 !PIE
30.0 !DESIRED RANGE OF FLOW RATE (KG/sec)
1000. !FLUID DENSITY (kg/sec)
76.2 !PIPE INSIDE DIAMETER (mm)
180. !DESIRED PRESSURE DROP (KPA)
1.02E-06 !FLUID KINEMATIC VISCOSITY (m/sec2)
9.81 !GRAVITIONAL ACCELERATION (m/sec2)

Appendix 13- Thin plate orifice meter off-design point program output results for β=0.7,
mass flow rate=30 Kg/sec

0 THIN PLATE ORIFICE DESIGN FOR PUMP INLET WATER FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
------------------------------------------------------------------

0 IMPORTANT REMARKS
-----------------

-DESIGN IS FOR D:1/2 d TAPS: PIPE-WALL TAPS AT d UPSTREAM

AND 1/2D DOWN STREAM

-BETA (d/D) RANGES SHOULD BE BETWEEN 0.2 -0.8

-ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 12.5 mm

0 DESIGN RESULTS
--------------

DESIGN FLOW RATE (MDOT) = 30.000 kg/sec

DESIGN PRESSURE DROP (DP) = 1.800 BAR
RENOLDS NUMBER (RE) = 491446.500
DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT (CD) = .6090
VELOCITY OF APPROACH FACTOR = 1.1472
THROAT VELOCITY (VT) = 13.425 m/sec
FLOW ARVERAGE VELOCITY (VA) = 6.578 m/sec
THROAT HEAD = 9.187 m
BETA RATIO OF THE METER (B=d/D) = .700
NON-RECOVERABLE HEAD LOSS = 9.377 m

0 METER DIMENSIONS
----------------

ORIFICE DIAMETER (d) = 53.340 mm

PIPE DIAMETER (D) = 76.200 mm
BEVEL ANGLE = 45.0 deg
ORIFICE EDGE THICKNESS = 1.524 mm
PLATE THICKNESS = 3.810mm

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